Fair Trade Tourism South Africa: A Pragmatic

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Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and- ... Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) is a certification that has similar ambitions ... sustainability and poverty relief in South Africa post apartheid. ... goal to enhance black participation in decision-making and reduce poverty in post-apart-.
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Fair Trade Tourism South Africa: A Pragmatic Poverty Reduction Mechanism? Karla Boluk

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Dalarna University, Borlänge, Sweden Version of record first published: 20 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: Karla Boluk (2011): Fair Trade Tourism South Africa: A Pragmatic Poverty Reduction Mechanism?, Tourism Planning & Development, 8:3, 237-251 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2011.591152

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Tourism Planning & Development Vol. 8, No. 3, 237– 251, August 2011

Fair Trade Tourism South Africa: A Pragmatic Poverty Reduction Mechanism? KARLA BOLUK

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Dalarna University, Borla¨nge, Sweden

ABSTRACT Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) is a certification that has similar ambitions to the pro-poor tourism approach. accordingly it has been implemented as a way of contributing to sustainability and poverty relief in South Africa post apartheid. The aim of this paper is to 1) critically review and establish a clear understanding of FTTSA from a theoretical perspective and 2) explore practically from the producers perspective whether FTTSA has created value for impoverished black communities along the Eastern Cape. The research question that guides this aim is: Can FTTSA be a mechanism to reduce poverty in South Africa? The study uses a case study approach, as well as in-depth interviews with the owners/managers and casual conversations with the local people. Three FTTSA certified businesses were investigated during two phases of fieldwork along the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The results recognize that FTTSA businesses are indeed prioritizing the needs of the poor in three identifiable ways: including the poor in tourism decision-making, creating employment opportunities and stimulating entrepreneurship and providing skilful opportunities.

Introduction Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) is a certification and non-governmental organization (NGO) primarily concerned with promoting sustainable tourism development. FTTSA emerged partly based on discussions carried out by an international advocacy group Tourism Concern. In addition the government acknowledged that tourism was an opportunity to increase participation in the formerly segregated country, and a stimulus to create employment opportunities and thereby progress in South Africa’s new democracy. The emergence of FTTSA demonstrates a practical shift towards good governance and implementing Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT) strategies. Businesses that achieve the FTTSA certification reflect a commitment to fair trade principles and represent the interests of the public promoting equal opportunities and encouraging various stakeholder involvement. Ultimately the goal of FTTSA is to facilitate improved development outcomes within the context of tourism by encouraging democracy and rewarding those businesses that are contributing to positive transformation in South Africa. The necessary criteria that tourism businesses must demonstrate to achieve the

Correspondence Address: Karla Boluk, Department of Human Geography, Dalarna University, Borla¨nge, Sweden. Email: [email protected] ISSN 2156-8316 Print; ISSN 2156-8324 Online/11/030237–15 # 2011 Taylor & Francis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2011.591152

238 K. Boluk FTTSA certification includes fair wages and working conditions, fair purchasing, fair operations, equitable distribution of benefits and respect for human rights, culture and the environment (FTTSA, 2008a). Thus FTTSA is concerned in creating benefits for all those involved in the process of producing and delivering the tourism product. This paper investigates the FTTSA certification and it explores whether it has met its goal to enhance black participation in decision-making and reduce poverty in post-apartheid South Africa. The aim of this paper is to 1) critically review and establish a clearer understanding of FTTSA from a theoretical perspective and 2) explore practically from the producers perspective if FTTSA has created value for impoverished black communities along the Eastern Cape. The research question that guides this aim is: Can FTTSA be a mechanism to reduce poverty in South Africa?

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Literature Review Tourism, over the last few decades, has been quintessentially received as an agent of economic development and modernization (Kadt, 1979; Brown and Hall, 2008) especially for developing countries also referred to as the “Majority World” (Shaw and Newholm, 2002, p. 174 – 79; Higgins-Desbiolles, 2006, p. 1202). Such participation in tourism has been significant for countries which have experienced limited economic options due to poor communications, low commodity prices and a lack of modern manufacturing base (Brown and Hall, 2008). Effectively, the promotion of tourism has been identified as a key strategy that can lead to economic upliftment, community development and poverty relief. Such pledges have come across as an effective mechanism that signifies how development can provide assistance to struggling communities and countries in the Majority World. Thus tourism has become a palpable alternative industry which is at times perceived as a solution—or conversely a quick fix—and has provided an opportunity for potential economic stimulation. Such diverse participation within the tourism industry has led to the growing discussions regarding the negative impacts tourism has created (e.g. Pizam, 1978; Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Ap, 1990; Orams, 2002;Andereck et al., 2005). Specifically there has been an expansive body of literature investigating the environmental impacts of tourism (e.g. Kavallinis and Pizam, 1994; Briassoulis, 2000; Mbaiwa, 2002; Nawijn et al., 2008) and the sociocultural impacts of topical issues such as sex tourism (e.g. Oppermann, 1998). Accordingly, researchers have commonly drawn awareness to the consequences that tourism sometimes has in creating benefits for host communities, and ultimately questioning the fairness (Handszuh, 2008). As such, questions are raised, like who does tourism benefit? Also, is tourism a sustainable option for impoverished communities in the Majority World? Such queries raise concerns regarding how a better process can be established, lending responsibility to key stakeholders so that those involved benefit. A number of approaches have emerged recommending a progressive form of tourism such as “alternative tourism” (Krippendorf, 1991); “responsible tourism” (Wheeler, 1991; Wright, 2006); “sustainable tourism” (e.g. Eagles et al., 2002); “eco-tourism” (Fennell, 1999); “ethical tourism” (Tribe, 2002; Butcher, 2003; Fennell, 2006) “just tourism” (Hultsman, 1995); and “PPT” (e.g. Scheyvens, 1999, 2002, 2007; Ashley et al., 2001). Such advancements provide an opportunity for stakeholders to choose specifically how they would like to participate in the industry, as a way to mitigate some of their impacts. Furthermore such approaches demonstrate a movement towards good governance thus providing opportunities for diverse contributions from governments, NGOs, academics, tourism operators, host communities and tourists. Diverse involvement has provided a way to respond in the climate of “new tourism” (Poon, 1993; 2003).

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Alternative forms of tourism demonstrate progress towards a new pedagogy in the tourism industry, due to the focus on creating benefits for host communities and the shift towards good governance which encourages and values the participation of many stakeholders. A downside to some of the approaches mentioned above is that they are at times perceived as ambiguous because they rely on participation yet lack clearly identified limitations which may prevent their successful implementation. Specifically, the main challenge with tourism approaches is that they lack specific criteria as a way to ensure that they adhere to a set of standards (Honey, 2008, p. 384) which is maintained by many certification systems. The general process for granting a certification to a business or product requires a third party who will provide assurance to the consumer that a specific product or service adheres to the requirements. Such schemes often provide plans of action for future improvements (Font, 2002). Sometimes certification systems request that their results become public but this is not always followed through by certified businesses (Font, 2002). Several challenges face certification systems for example there is a sentiment among some critics (e.g. Worthen, 1999) that certification is unnecessary. Moreover, the credibility and competency of evaluators propose a challenge given their level of preparedness (Worthen, 1999). Worthen (1999) suggests that too many evaluators are inadequately prepared. Another challenge with certification is that the regulatory requirements are demanding, which makes achieving the certification difficult and expensive (Bhat, 2009). Furthermore, intrinsic motivations may propel certification attainment such as an opportunity to enhance a business’s professional development profile and/or opportunity for positive marketing. The paper will now move on to discuss the emergence of FTT and the FTTSA certification in both theory and praxis. FTT and FTTSA FTT is embedded in the fair trade movement, similarly concerned with addressing the imbalances in trade. It is primarily focused on the extent to which the application of fair trade in regard to trading partnerships, consumer awareness, and certification, can inform tourism development at tourism destinations, as well as overseas (Evans and Cleverdon, 2000; Kalisch, 2001; Pluss, 2003). Ultimately FTT provides a better deal for tourism producers and service providers in the Majority World (Cleverdon and Kalisch, 2000). The concept of FTT has been referred to—by a limited number of researchers—either as a natural progression (Wheat, 1999) or an urgent call (Carbone, 2005) in both tourism theory and praxis. The fair trade notion has emerged as a way to readdress the sustainability and inequality issues that exist within the tourism industry. For example, Wheat (1999, p. 3) begins to question “if we can have fair trade commodities [e.g., coffee and bananas] can we have fair trade tourism?” Furthermore, Carbone (2005, p. 561) describes the urgency in protecting host countries and communities participating in tourism from government, big business, and environmental exploitation. Thus “employing fair trade practices” is a way to guarantee living wages for employees. Although few researchers have written on FTT, cross-pollination between fair trade products and FTT is beginning to take place. For example, a coffee tour programme was developed in 2008 in a small community in Mexico with the intention of “providing tourists with a socially and environmentally sensitive tour of the coffee farms and communities involved in fair trade” (Chesworth, 2010, p. 172). The Tanzanian government in East Africa has been working with several coffee farmer communities to implement a “sustainable form of coffee-related tourism” (Goodwin and Boekhold, 2010, p. 181). The Fair

240 K. Boluk Tourism Project in Tanzania has subsequently created locally owned and managed coffee tours which return sizeable benefits to individuals, families and their communities. In 1999/2000 a NGO known as Tourism Concern facilitated an international network in order to discuss the potential application of fair trade principles to the context of tourism (Kalisch, 2001). The outcome of the international network facilitated by Tourism Concern was a working definition of FTT.

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Fair trade in tourism is a key aspect of sustainable tourism. It aims to maximize the benefits from tourism for local destination stakeholders through mutually beneficial and equitable partnerships between national and international tourism stakeholders in the destination. It also supports the rights of indigenous host communities, whether involved in tourism or not, to participate as equal stakeholders and beneficiaries in the tourism development process (Kalisch, 2001, p. 11; Beddoe, 2004; Grosspietsch, 2005, p. 4; Tourism Concern, 2009).

Effectively, FTT is a civil society partnership, with a corporate ethical code of conduct and trade partnership, and a fair trade product that is monitored and certified. Tourism Concern’s deliberation over their initial definition of FTT was informed by “southern perspectives” based on experiences of international development in countries where poverty and inequality are a result of dynamic power relations (Tourism Concern, 2009). As a consequence Tourism Concern had several countries in mind for potential FTT implementation including India, Brazil, Gambia, Uganda, Namibia and South Africa. Five areas were recognized by Tourism Concern (2009) regarding where change is necessary in order to achieve greater equality for participating communities including international trade agreements, tourism industry (including transnational corporations and independent investors), destination community stakeholders, consumer behaviour, and destination government policies. Moreover, Tourism Concern (2009) identified the need to prioritize several beneficiaries in host communities who: . have not previously had a voice in the tourism decision-making process; . are economically and socially disadvantaged or discriminated against; . are ready to engage with the national/international market yet need the necessary technical and organizational support; . are employed in the formal and informal tourism sector. The analysis and discussion of this paper will measure the above priorities stipulated by Tourism Concern with the three FTTSA businesses studied. Although Tourism Concern has continued FTT dialogue, they are still awaiting funding which has hindered their progress and efficient FTT implementation (Stroma Cole, Chair of Tourism Concern, personal communication 25 June 2009). To date only one country, South Africa, has created an independent certification for fair trade in tourism. Initially, in South Africa, the application of fair trade practices was investigated from the perspective of agriculture, as black South African farmers had been notoriously disadvantaged in agricultural trade (FTTSA, 2009). Feasibility research was undertaken in the mid 1990s to investigate the potential for South African producers to enter the fair trade system (FTTSA, 2008c). The Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO) then certified South African cooperative farms and commercial farms referring to certified products with a Fairtrade South Africa (FTSA) label. As a consequence, South Africa is currently the world’s largest exporter of Fairtrade certified products (FTSA, 2009). Subsequent to the introduction of FTSA products a government document, known as the Tourism White Paper (RSA, 1996), addressed tourism in South Africa as a “missed opportunity”. It further stated that had the historical context been different, the country would host

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a thriving tourism industry. The White Paper on the Development and Promotion of Tourism (RSA, 1996) is the core of South Africa’s new tourism policy. It identifies tourism as a priority for national economic development and a major stimulus for achieving the objectives of the government’s macro-economic strategy (Rogerson, 2004). The White Paper promoted a way forward highlighting the need for community participation in tourism, in direct response to the economic dilemmas of the poorest areas and ultimately the pursuit of Local Economic Development (LED) (RSA, 1998), and “pro-poor” strategies (RSA, 2000). The concept of PPT was recognized in the Tourism White Paper as a way to develop responsible tourism. Poverty alleviation is the core focus of PPT as it “requires mechanisms to unlock opportunities for the poor at all levels and scales of operation” (PPT, 2002, p. 1). The Tourism White Paper (RSA, 1996) argues that, if pursued responsibly, tourism has the potential to positively improve the quality of life of all South Africans. Key principles embodied in the White Paper include the encouragement of community participation and the sustainable management of resources. Applying the principles of fair trade in the context of tourism has the potential to maintain a pro-poor focus, while also ensuring sustainable tourism business practices based on the criteria necessary to achieve such certification. Furthermore, a focus on fair trade in the context of tourism may facilitate opportunities for growing communities in urban, as well as rural areas throughout South Africa. Based on the success of FTSA as applied to agricultural commodities, the recognition of tourism in South Africa as a “missed opportunity” and decisive action demonstrated by a few stakeholders, an NGO established a certification recognizing FTT in South Africa. In 2002 South Africa launched its trademark certification known as FTTSA. The goal of FTTSA is to promote equitable and sustainable tourism development through “awareness raising, capacity-building, advocacy and the world’s first tourism fair trade certification programme” (FTTSA, 2008b, p. 2). The long-term vision of FTTSA is for “a just, participatory and sustainable tourism industry” providing meaningful benefits for both hosts and guests (Seif, 2001, p. 5). Figure 1 summarizes the national (on the left side) and international (on the right side) dialogue that stimulated the development of FTTSA. Good Governance The national and international dialogue that took place leading up to the implementation of the FTTSA certification demonstrates a form of good governance. Shared responsibility

Figure 1. The emergence of FTTSA

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242 K. Boluk and diverse stakeholder involvement was recognized by the dialogue stimulated by the South African government, an NGO Tourism Concern and local farming communities that benefited from the FTSA certification. In this way FTTSA represents a sustainable tourism certification based on the contributions of various stakeholders and their collective goal to address poverty issues. Good governance often requires improvements in aspects of the public sector implying “changes in the political organization, the representation of interests, and processes for public debate and policy decision-making (Grindle, 2004, p. 526). Focusing on a few critical elements of good governance can lead to improved development outcomes such as strengthened democracy, enhanced accountability, reduced corruption, greater government credibility, improved citizen – state relations and political stability and peace (McNeil and Malena, 2010). In the context of the Majority World, government leadership is often questionable due to a lack of experience in politics (Grindle, 2004). Accordingly the governance agenda is increasingly demanding in countries that are poor, disorganized and vulnerable to political disruption. Thus, developing and implementing good governance and prioritizing needs can be overwhelming. The good governance agenda is focused on universal human rights, sustainable development, empowerment of the poor, and participatory development (Grindle, 2004). Specifically in Africa where underdevelopment, disempowerment and a lack of transparency are prominent a shift towards shared decision-making is imperative. The implementation of good governance in Africa may face several limitations in relation to security, conflict, poverty and disease. Exacerbated poverty has made it difficult to accelerate sustainable economic growth and development (Mkwezalamba and Chinyama, 2007). Accordingly, political instability has led to inequitable distribution of and the inefficient use of natural resources, human rights violations and a lack of democracy (Mkwezalamba and Chinyama, 2007). Weak capacity and low levels of foreign investment have limited economic reforms that could positively impact poverty and sustainability. Furthermore diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria are rife, which demonstrate social challenges (Mkwezalamba and Chinyama, 2007). The paper will now move on to discuss the FTTSA certification in regard to specific implementation challenges and a description of the criteria and principles. FTTSA Certification As discussed earlier, certification systems come with some challenges. The two biggest challenges associated with the FTTSA certification is the initial application process due to firstly the amount of paper work and secondly the associated costs. There are assessment costs which come at an expense of 2750 Rand/day and the applicant is responsible for paying 70% of the travel costs of the assessor (FTTSA, 2010). Also, there is an annual user fee which is calculated on a sliding scale and dependent on the size of the business (FTTSA, 2010). Although the assessment costs are provided at a discount by about 1000 Rand and FTTSA pays 30% (FTTSA, 2010) of the assessor’s travel costs, the cost of the certification may be a deterrent for interested applicants. A specific set of social, economic and environmental standards have been created for South African products to be assessed and eventually certified (FTTSA, 2008). The certification is based on quantifiable criteria regarding labour standards, e.g. salaries, the treatment of people and appropriate vacation time, skill development, local hiring and procurement opportunities for families and communities as a consequence of tourism businesses, HIV/AIDS support which may support testing, counselling and/or awareness raising. employment equity and ownership is also significant given South Africa’s

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Table 1. The six principles of FTTSA. Source: FTTSA Annual Report 2007/2008: 2 – 3. FTTSA Principle 1. Fair share 2. Democracy 3. Respect

4. Reliability

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5. Transparency

6. Sustainability

Description All participants should receive a reasonable share of income in direct proportion to their communities. All participants should have the right and opportunity to participate in decisions that concern them. Both the host and visitor should respect human rights, culture and the environment by providing: safe working conditions; protection of young workers; promotion of gender equality; understanding and tolerance of socio-cultural norms; conservation of nature and natural resources and HIV/Aids awareness raising and prevention. Services delivered to tourists should be reliable and consistent and basic safety and security should be guaranteed to visitors and host communities. Tourism businesses should establish mechanisms of accountability including: ownership of tourism businesses must be clearly defined; employees and other participants should be able to access information that concerns them and sharing profits, benefits and losses must be transparent. Tourism businesses should strive to be sustainable. This includes: increased knowledge through capacity building; responsible use of resources; education of economic leakage through local purchasing and employment and support to historically disadvantaged entrepreneurs.

progress post-apartheid and Black Economic Empowerment goals; environmental conservation practices such as reducing/recycling water and paper, using organic cleaning products and promoting sustainable tourism (FTTSA, 2010). Table 1 illustrates the fundamental principles that FTTSA abides by. FTTSA specifically focuses on the certification of black-owned (13%) or communityowned (40%) businesses (Seif, 2009, p. 3). The total FTTSA workforce includes 1,977 staff of which 80% are black (Seif, 2009, p. 3). FTTSA is thus contributing to an enabling environment for community-based tourism and other types of tourism that explicitly seek to alleviate extreme poverty and inequality in South Africa. The FTTSA certification affords mainstream tourism businesses with an incentive for PPT. In addition, the certification provides credibility and improved access to niche markets contributing to the viability and sustainability of tourism businesses. This directly benefits a number of stakeholders such as: employees, owners, suppliers and communities (FTTSA, 2008b). Figure 2 illustrates the three-stage process necessary in order for South African businesses to be granted the FTTSA certification. FTTSA has certified over fifty businesses throughout the country (Seif, 2009). Certified projects include the accommodation sector such as: backpackers, bed and breakfasts, safari lodges and hotels, as well as excursions including: safaris, bike tours, township tours, hiking, shark cage diving, and eco adventures. South Africa is currently the only country to adopt a FTT certification but it has been perceived as a viable option for other countries in Africa. FTTSA is currently providing assistance to Madagascar and Mozambique to help them develop their own FTT certification (FTTSA, 2008a, 2009). Namibia, Swaziland and Lesotho are also considering the potential application for their tourism sectors (FTTSA, 2008a). There are a limited number of academic papers focused on FTT (e.g. Goodwin and Roe, 2001; Kalisch, 2001; Mvula, 2001; Chesworth, 2010; Goodwin and Boekhold, 2010) and few focused on FTTSA (e.g. Evans and Cleverdon, 2000; Kalisch, 2001; Beddoe, 2004; Grosspietsch, 2005; Mahony, 2007; Seif and Spenceley, 2007) despite its significant

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244 K. Boluk

Figure 2. Steps involved in achieving FTTSA certification

contribution to sustainability practices and PPT strategies for the tourism industry. This paper has clearly outlined the meaning of FTT and its significance in the context of South Africa. Moreover, it has identified how PPT strategies are common to the FTTSA certification; ultimately demonstrating that in theory FTTSA is a mechanism that prioritizes the poor. However, how does such theory relate to practice? The paper will now move on to describe how the investigation was carried out and then explore the value that FTTSA has created for three impoverished communities located along the Eastern Cape, South Africa.

Methodology Semi-structured interviews were conducted with owners and managers of three FTTSA businesses. The research took place along the Eastern Cape (or Transkei) which has been notoriously recognized as being cut off from the rest of South Africa during the years of apartheid (1948 –1994). As a consequence the Eastern Cape is home to many oppressed black South Africans. The researcher visited one FTTSA certified township tour company (Calabash Tours), and two geographically isolated backpacker hostels (Bulungula and Coffee Shack). Prolonged exposure to informants and the research environment enhances the credibility of the findings. Such prolonged exposure contributes to the confirmability of this study because it allowed an opportunity to look for a variety of explanations regarding the phenomena being studied. This was achieved by two phases of data collection in South Africa, spending several weeks at each business, as well as observation, note taking and follow-up interviews via email, in addition to time spent exploring and reviewing transcripts and looking for alternative meanings. Table 2 illustrates pertinent information regarding when each of the businesses studied was FTTSA certified, the percentage of white and black/community ownership, the capacity of the businesses, and the number of people (specifically black) that are directly employed from each of the tourism businesses.

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Table 2. FTTSA site and informant details

Business

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Calabash Tours Bulungula Lodge Coffee Shack

Year FTTSA Certified

Informant (White)

Position/ Ownership

2004

Paul

Owner 80%

2003

Dave

Owner 60%

2007

David

Owner 70%

Community Trust (Black)

Capacity Accommodation/ Client

Number of Employees (Black)

20% Calabash Trust 40% Nqileni Village Trust 30% Tshezi Village Trust

32

6 (5)

40

45 (44)

60

35 (33)

Analysis and Discussion The results of the interviews conducted with the managers and owners of the three FTTSA certified businesses—as well as time spent in the communities and casual conversations had with local employees—recognized that the FTTSA businesses are indeed prioritizing the needs of the poor in three identifiable ways: 1. Including the poor in tourism decision-making; 2. Creating employment opportunities and stimulating entrepreneurship; 3. Providing skilful opportunities. The initial priority identified by the FTTSA businesses was the inclusion of the poor in tourism decision-making. Recognizing and listening to the voices that were not previously heard in the tourism process was a key aspect raised by Tourism Concern. In order to achieve greater equality. FTTSA businesses have included the voices of the poor in tourism through the development of community trusts. This form of shared decisionmaking recognizes the economically and socially disadvantaged groups that were once discriminated against during apartheid. Encouraging black involvement and participation in tourism-related decision-making has created an empowering environment; especially because the black people in these three communities had no prior tourism experience. Hence, such participation is an opportunity for black community members to learn about the tourism industry with the advantage of receiving organizational support. Such efforts are closely aligned with the FTTSA criteria promoting fair operations and the FTTSA principle that advocates democracy. The community trusts among the three FTTSA businesses serve similar purposes. In addition to providing an opportunity for local people to voice their opinions about tourism developments, they are also responsible for making fiscal decisions, specifically in regard to how their share of the business (Table 2) should be reinvested into their communities. Consequently the trusts have created a variety of social programmes focused on the needs of their communities. The programmes implemented illustrate how the communities have prioritized children by emphasizing the importance placed on education, as well as the general health of their communities. For example the Nqileni Village Trust at Bulungula Lodge has focused its interests in four essential categories: 1. Education, with the hope to facilitate access to quality education and improved life opportunities;

246 K. Boluk

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2. Health and nutrition, to improve the health status of the people in Nqileni and surrounding villages; 3. Basic services, to ensure access to clean water and sanitation facilities; 4. Sustainable livelihoods, to decrease levels of poverty in the Nqileni village through strengthening and diversification of the local economy. Dave (Bulungula Lodge) specifically described that the Trust “has been supporting the rehabilitation of a school that was destroyed by a mud slide.” It was also clear that the community was encouraging the development of vegetable gardens and a seedling nursery which provided access to fresh produce for the community and the lodge visitors. The goal of the Nqileni Community Trust was to pragmatically develop interventions to address poverty issues in their community. The Calabash Trust was initiated in 1999 three years after the Township Tour Company began. The idea was prompted by a tourist who was interested in making a donation to the community but had concerns regarding how her donation would directly reach the community. The aim of the Trust as Paul describes is “to make tourism work for the disadvantaged communities within Port Elizabeth where thousands of children live below the poverty line.” Nearly 70% of the population in Port Elizabeth live in extreme poverty. Calabash Trust is supported by two overseas investors—Summerstrand Hotel and Siya Sebenza—as well as contributions made by visitors. Calabash Trust assists many schools, pre-schools and youth projects around Port Elizabeth. Specifically, the Trust supports a number of programmes including a nutritional programme, pre-school support and advancement programme, skills development programme, micro-enterprise programme, and internal learning programme. Such programmes ensure that the children are provided with meals while attending school, uniforms, and educational supplies such as books. Furthermore, such efforts promote skill development. Paul encouraged the idea that “everyone at the grass roots level is involved to identify the needs here in the community.” Remarks like these illustrate not only the level of involvement that is encouraged from disadvantaged populations, but also the amount of responsibility that all community members have to ensure that their communities operate sustainably. David described how the Coffee Shack is “interested in getting more and more involved with the community” thereby providing further opportunities to collaborate with the community and improve their living conditions. The Tshezi Village Trust has been focused on two specific social initiatives. The first has enabled a number of exceptional high school students in the community to access scholarships with support from the Rotary Club. Despite the fact that education is free in South Africa, David argued that this initiative is significant because “the idea is that it gives them a slightly better level of education, going to a good school in Umtata.” Such an initiative has provided students with uniforms, books, transportation and access to a school in the closest city to their village. The Tshezi Village Trust has also established the Pato School Project which has the ambition of rebuilding a school and furnishing it. The creation of community trusts in the three sites investigated demonstrates how FTTSA businesses are effectively including the poor in tourism-related decisionmaking. Furthermore, the implementation of such trusts have provided the necessary funds for significant social, nutrition and education programmes that did not previously exist. These programmes contribute to PPT strategies. The other ways the three FTTSA businesses demonstrated that they prioritized the interests of the poor was through creating employment, stimulating entrepreneurship and providing skilful opportunities.

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FTTSA businesses have created employment opportunities where employment options have not previously existed. Creating employment is closely related to the fair share and sustainability principles of FTTSA and a significant priority underscored by Tourism Concern in regard to achieving greater equality. Calabash Tours for example has three FTTSA certified businesses including a “Real City Tour”, “Shebeen Tour” and “Volunteer Programme”. Paul’s company employs six core guides and creates potential benefits for the surrounding areas. Paul emphasized this when he said:

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We have always tried to employ staff that have been either unemployed or underemployed and then we put them through training. For example to be a tour guide you have to have a certificate.

Paul also highlighted Calabash’s efforts to train their employees in “in-house training” when he stated: “our staff are computer literate and they have had some training on personal finance issues like running budgets.” In addition to Paul’s specific interests in hiring and training his staff he also described a unique incentive to include two of his top guides in the ownership of Calabash. For example, We made the decision to include some of our staff in the ownership of the company and so we started to involve them in management decisions and making them a part of running the business. (Paul, Calabash Tours)

The integration of black ownership of the company provides a chance for previously disadvantaged members of South African society to participate in meaningful levels of decision-making. The motivation for Paul to share the ownership of Calabash was underscored when he recognized the contributions of his staff. Paul put it this way: You know in this business you are only as good as your guides, so we have recognized this and we took into consideration a level of sweat equity in which two of our core guides could buy into the business. . .they had already made a contribution so the price that they were offered was maybe lower than somebody else who just wanted to buy for a commercial basis.

In the case of Bulungula, the lodge directly employs 45 members of the Nqileni community. Moreover the existence of the lodge has created substantial financial benefits for another 33 families, thus illustrating the overlap between FTTSA and PPT. Since the lodge began in 2003 many individuals in the community have been motivated to establish their own tourism businesses as a way to support themselves and their families. Dave encouraged entrepreneurial activity by ensuring that community entrepreneurs would receive 100% of the profits derived from their businesses. Although black people in the community had no prior work experience or tourism experience, a number of businesses emerged due to the technical and organizational support Dave provided to the community. Tourism businesses initiated by the community include horseback riding, canoeing, and fishing. Furthermore, a few women in the community operate a business they have called “Women Power” providing visitors with an insight into a typical day in the life of a woman in the village. Another business that was established in the middle of the village is a solar powered restaurant that makes Xhosa food. The significant impact on creating jobs in the village was recognized by Dave when he said: We encourage the community to own and operate their own businesses. That is real empowerment in this world, just simply being employed doesn’t always provide empowerment. No matter how well you clean that toilet you are not really going to get promoted to management because you can’t read or write. Whereas, if you have your own business and you do a great horse trip and everyone loves it, you then get more business, and you make more money, so there is a return on that harder work. That is empowerment.

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248 K. Boluk Dave highlights the significance of self-employment when he says that “simply being employed” is not enough. Rather he tries to challenge his community to be innovative in their job development and demonstrate accountability so that they can ultimately empower themselves. Supporting micro enterprises was a crucial aspect also marked by the efforts of Coffee Shack. David encouraged his staff to start their own businesses and provided the organizational and technical support. At the time of the interview he was helping a woman to start up and operate her own laundry business. David also emphasized the focus on training when he said “those that cannot read and write have the opportunity to go to ABEAT [Adult Basic Education and Training]. It’s good for them and they enjoy it so it’s a good opportunity.” David also implied that such capabilities may provide further career options for employees within the business and also potentially beyond when he said: “this creates a career path for people within the business and we need to keep up-skilling people. . .there is a very serious lack of skills within the community.” The significance of such training expressed by David demonstrated a personal concern for providing opportunities for his community so that they can empower themselves. The above discussions demonstrate that the three FTTSA business owners interviewed in this study were concerned with making a sustainable contribution to their black communities. Such concerns stemmed from the opportunities they received during the years of apartheid at the expense of blacks. To this extent, the informants’ actions and behaviours verified how the three businesses facilitated black community empowerment and poverty relief by: . including the poor in tourism decision-making, . creating employment opportunities and stimulating entrepreneurship/micro-enterprise development and . providing skilful opportunities. Although the three businesses were established by white South Africans in the infancy of the country’s transformation post-apartheid (Calabash in 1999; Bulungula Lodge in 2003, Coffee Shack in 2004), the informants mentioned that they would like such businesses to be their personal legacy and contribution to transformation based on the benefits they received. Thus, they anticipated that eventually the businesses that they developed would be self-sufficient and completely owned and operated by their black communities. Conclusion This paper sought to answer a question: Can FTTSA be a mechanism to reduce poverty in South Africa? The above discussions have demonstrated the significant role that tourism can have in empowering poor communities. Initially the paper described from a theoretical perspective the meaning of FTT and the potential value that the FTTSA certification can create. Specifically describing various stakeholder involvement in the process of FTTSA has demonstrated a shift towards good governance. The paper then moved on to examine from a practical perspective, if and how the FTTSA certification has positively impacted the lives of the three poor communities along the Eastern Cape. Ultimately the paper recognized that the FTTSA businesses investigated prioritized those who have not previously had a voice, were discriminated against during apartheid, and were capable of engaging with a national and international market yet required appropriate support. Thus the three FTTSA businesses prioritize the needs of the poor by initiating businesses

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in impoverished communities thereby creating employment opportunities that did not previously exist, developing community trusts as a way to include the poor in tourism decision-making, stimulating entrepreneurial activity as a way to empower local people and provide programmes to build on their skills. Moreover, it was established that the three businesses were developed with the hope that the communities would eventually become self-sufficient and responsible for the ownership and operation of the businesses. This study has investigated the value of the FTTSA certification from a national perspective in terms of implementing tourism in a sustainable way in South Africa and progressing post-apartheid in its new democracy. In this way, it traced the development of the FTTSA certification emerging from “unsustainable” behaviours on a national level (apartheid) and international level (tourism impacts), thus demonstrating its global significance. Furthermore, the paper demonstrated how the proactive discourses which place the poor first such as PPT—emergent respectively by NGOs and academics—are noteworthy in the FTTSA certification, both in theory and practice. It can be said that the inclusion of black communities in tourism-related decision-making and community ownership/entrepreneurship has created a level of empowerment and perhaps motivation to establish alternative ways in which their communities and businesses can flourish. From a community development perspective, FTTSA provides a good example of how tourism businesses have placed the poor first by promoting local participation and involvement and emphasizing local ownership. FTTSA businesses have facilitated improved standards of living in rural communities. Seemingly, the biggest challenge faced by FTTSA and specifically these three businesses is the white/black divide in ownership. Although the three businesses studied have shared ownership it is believed that until the black communities are completely in control of such businesses a tension will likely remain, given the historical legacy in South Africa. Perhaps a longitudinal study tracking the changes in ownership of FTTSA businesses is needed. Such a study would be able to further verify the contribution of FTTSA’s commitment to sustainability and poverty relief. Future research could also focus specifically on the black community’s impressions of FTTSA and their perceptions of how FTTSA is contributing to poverty relief and sustainability.

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