Final Rep ort January 2008

Final Report January 2008

Making lifelong learning possible

A study of the situation and qualification of trainers in Europe

Vol. 2 Country Reports The study is being supported by the European Commission

Table of Contents Country Reports – Introduction and Reflections..................................................... 3 Country Report AUSTRIA ...................................................................................... 9 Country Report LIECHTENSTEIN........................................................................ 31 Country Report BULGARIA.................................................................................. 41 Country Report CYPRUS..................................................................................... 47 Country Report CZECH REPUBLIC..................................................................... 57 Country Report DENMARK.................................................................................. 73 Country Report ESTONIA .................................................................................... 83 Country Report FINLAND .................................................................................... 95 Country Report GERMANY................................................................................ 119 Country Report GREECE................................................................................... 139 Country Report HUNGARY................................................................................ 159 Country Report ICELAND .................................................................................. 173 Country Report IRELAND .................................................................................. 177 Country Report ITALY........................................................................................ 185 Country Report LATVIA ..................................................................................... 197 Country Report LITHUANIA ............................................................................... 201 Country Report MALTA...................................................................................... 205 Country Report NORWAY.................................................................................. 211 Country Report POLAND ................................................................................... 217 Country Report PORTUGAL .............................................................................. 243 Country Report ROMANIA ................................................................................. 251 Country Report SLOVAKIA ................................................................................ 271 Country Report SWEDEN .................................................................................. 275 Country Report TURKEY ................................................................................... 277 Country Report UNITED KINGDOM (England and Scotland) ............................ 295

January 2008

Country Reports – Introduction and Reflections Roland Tutschner & Simone Kirpal ITB, University of Bremen, Germany The country reports present the third pillar of the EUROTRAINER study apart from the semistructured interviews with national experts and the small-scale survey involving 280 questionnaires. Compiled and elaborated by the project partners, the country reports are in the first place based on secondary analysis, but also include results from the qualitative interviews. The outcomes of the survey typically do not form part of the national-level analysis since the sample sizes by country were too small. Thus, the survey was in the first place interpreted in an international comparative perspective, aggregating the responses on a European level. The country reports make reference to the national education and vocational education and training systems, structures of vocational initial and further training and the situation of trainers in the respective country, among other aspects. Within the framework of the study, this national-level analysis was conceptualised to fulfil three objectives: first to serve as background material to support the interpretation of the empirical data generated; second to give a structured overview of the situation and work of trainers in relation to the existing VET system in the different countries; and third to highlight national specificities, innovative trends and research gaps in relation to the study’s context. In order to achieve comparability of the national-level presentation of information, all country reports are more or less organised along the following six dimensions, which according to Greinert describe the principle functions any system of VET needs to fulfil1: 1. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? 2. Economy: How is the work and training of trainers financed? 3. Selection and allocation: How are trainers selected and how are the human resources allocated? 4. Qualification: How are trainers qualified? 5. Integration and recognition: How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises and society? 6. Innovation/future perspectives: Are there any innovations in the work and training of trainers? In this volume we can present 26 country reports in their final version. With the exception of Liechtenstein, which is presented next to the Austrian report due to the similarities of the two countries, the country reports are presented in alphabetical order. The reports of Spain and the BENELUX countries are still pending. From those 26 reports we have selected twelve for a summary in form of a table to facilitate a national comparative perspective of some countries in terms of similarities and differences when looking at key dimensions relevant for the situation of in-company trainers in Europe. This comparative perspective is presented in Volume I in Chapter 8.2. 1

Greinert, Wolf-Dietrich: Das duale System der Berufsbildung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Stuttgart, 1995.

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EAC09/06/Lot1 EUROTRAINER – COUNTRY REPORTS

When looking at the national-level analysis the first obvious finding is that the quality and availability of secondary and empirical material on the vocational training systems and situation of in-company trainers is very diverse so that for some countries key questions remain unanswered. The major gaps concern the area of CVET and lifelong learning, but also statistical data on the numbers of trainers and their employment status. Also information about trainers’ work profiles is not available in many countries. Overall the area of trainers is largely under-researched and not statistically documented. Particularly for the East and South European transition countries (like Poland, the Czech Republic, the Baltic States and Bulgaria) information on these aspects are scarce. This can be partly explained by the transition process under development as concerns the political and economic situation in these countries, which also affects the systems of initial and further vocational education and training as new and sustainable structures and institutions are partly not yet restored. Apart from lack of relevant background material, another difficulty that the study was confronted with was to group the 30 countries the study covered according to basic characteristics of their VET systems. Such a grouping was pursued first to better structure the overview of the different country traditions and problems in the area of trainers in companies, and second to facilitate the statistical analysis of the questionnaire. While finally this exercise did not serve the purpose of grouping countries, looking at basic characteristics of country’s VET systems was considered very useful in order to get an overview of similarities and differences of the VET systems in Europe. Concretely, the categories the project consortium considered included whether the national VET system has an established IVET or CVET tradition (or both), is rather school or company based (or both), and whether the national IVET and CVET components are rather regulated or unregulated or both (i.e. partly regulated and partly unregulated). According to an assessment by the project partners as concerns the organisation of basic vocational education and training (IVET), three different types can be distinguished, namely school-based, company-based and mixed systems. The presented overview below reveals that based on this assessment IVET in most countries is either school-based or based on a mixed system. School based thereby also includes the vocational training in vocational training institutions or centres that can be publicly or privately run and that are not vocational schools in a narrow sense (such as in Portugal and Turkey). Only the German and Liechtenstein IVET systems were clearly categorised as being company based.

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January 2008

Overview of selected national IVET traditions and structures (appraisal of partners) School based

Austria Belgium Czech Rep. Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Poland Portugal Spain Netherlands Turkey UK/Ireland

Company based

Mixed System

X X X X X X X

Basically regulated

Partly regulated/ partly unregulat.

X X X X X X

X X

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

The varying types of VET systems are closely linked to the various types of incompany trainers that can be found in Europe. In countries where IVET is predominantly school based (like in Finland, France and Poland) in-company trainers are typically referred to as ‘instructors’, ‘practical instructors’ or ‘practical vocational training instructors’. This indicates that in school-based systems the role of the trainer in a company rather is to make trainees and students familiar with work practice and the company environment by providing some form of guidance. By contrast, the trainer in company-based systems or dual training arrangements much more instructs and prepares the trainees according to clearly defined training programmes and curricula. Thus, in school-based systems the full-time trainer is rather the exception as the instructor function is typically performed alongside the regular skilled worker tasks. In Austria and Germany, the full-time trainer is an established job profile and employee category typically to be found in large companies. Whether in these countries the in-company trainer assumes training functions on a full-time or part-time basis largely depends on the size of the company. It was argued that the heterogeneity of trainer types makes it difficult to speak of trainers in enterprises as one employee category and to address them as a group. While, on the one hand, this is true and was recognised by the design of the study in addressing the issue of varieties of trainer types across Europe and in the different countries by means of national-level analyses, the survey, on the other hand, also indicates that issues concerning the work, qualification, competence profile, status and recognition of trainers in enterprises may to some degree equally be relevant to all kinds of in-company trainers. One of those issues that affect all trainers was their lower recognition in comparison to VET teachers, a 5


phenomenon that could be observed in all the 30 countries the study covered. However, in terms of status and recognition of trainers in society and at the company level we also found major variations. While the social status of in-company trainers in most European countries is rather modest, particularly in comparison to the status and recognition of VET teachers, it is important to note that trainers are particularly disadvantages in countries where the vocational route generally is of low prestige. Trends towards the professionalisation of in-company trainers on the basis of standardised qualifications and certificates and the establishment of an occupational profile and employee category of trainers is particularly to be found in VET systems with an established tradition of dual training. In school-based systems the professionalisation of trainers in enterprises is not a major issue except for trainers working in large and multinational companies. Despite those differences the basic vocational training seems to be regulated in most countries (‘basically regulated’). Only Finland, Portugal and the Baltic states classified their IVET systems as being partly regulated and partly unregulated. Another similarity between most countries is that a clear distinction between IVET and CVET is not always possible as both areas partly overlap. In the Anglo-Saxon countries a distinction between the two kinds of vocational training is not possible as the basic vocational training typically takes place in settings that are characteristic for CVET in other national contexts. By contrast, in countries with a dual training tradition CVET typically is organised completely differently from IVET and presents its own field with specialised CVET institutions. In the majority of countries, however, the transition between IVET and CVET is rather gradual or continuous, also in terms of institutional arrangements in that training institutions typically cover both areas. When looking at the area of continuing vocational education and training (CVET) we find that CVET in almost all countries is predominantly unregulated, taking place both in school-based as well as company-based contexts. Interestingly, some more regulation and standardisation in the area of CVET can be found in countries, where the IVET tradition is weak and the CVET area is more established such as in the UK/Ireland cluster, the BENELUX countries and France. What is also interesting is that many countries that commonly would not be expected to have a strong element of IVET in their national VET system were categorised as having a strong tradition in IVET (such as Italy, Portugal or Belgium). Notably, a strong IVET component can often be found in the East European transition countries due to the tradition of established skilled workers status of employees.

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January 2008 Overview of selected national CVET traditions and structures (appraisal of partners) School based

Austria Belgium Czech Rep. Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Iceland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Netherlands UK/Ireland

Company based

Mixed system

X X X

Regulated

Unregulated

Partly reg./ unregul.

X X

IVET tradition

X X

X X X X X X X X X X X

X X

X X X

X X X X X X

X

X X X X X X X X

X X

X

Both

X X

X

X

CVET Tradition

X

X X X X

X X X

X X

X X X

X X

X X

To conclude our reflections we would like to point to one general problem of international comparative studies that also is of relevance when reading and interpreting the presented country reports. Notably, not always was the guiding structure to organise the reports (as presented above) taken up by the partners as intended. While, on the one hand, the guiding structure was being applied in order to make the results better comparable, we also find that partners describe and address issues in a different way and under different sections. This hints to the influence of the different national backgrounds and contexts of the partners when presenting the material on trainers that they gathered. One example is that ‘IVET’, ‘CVET’ or ‘VET policy’ may mean something else or may address different areas in the respective national contexts. While international studies typically assume a consensus of terminology, concepts and understanding one has to keep in mind that similar terms may be interpreted differently from a given national perspective or tradition, a common issue all international studies are challenged to deal with. Overall we can present national-level information on trainers that so far have not been available, filling some gaps of materials in the area of trainers in enterprises and beyond. In particular, we value that new insight could be gained through including findings from the interviews with national experts into the country reports. Concurrently, we were also able to identify existing gaps and areas that require more support and review. In addition, the reference sections of the national reports that some of the partners compiled present a valuable inventory of existing studies and literature in the field.

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January 2008

Country Report AUSTRIA Sabine Archan & Bettina Lehner Institut für Berufsbildung (ibw), Austria 1. Background and Country Context National economy The economy of Austria is shaped by large numbers of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Almost half of all employees work in these company categories. With the expansion of the tertiary sector since the 1990s, the development of the Austrian economy is comparable to the developments of other European countries. Austria’s gross domestic product clearly reflects this change as two thirds of the GDP account for the tertiary sector. In an international comparative perspective, Austria’s productivity and economic performance in general is relatively well developed. The per capita gross domestic product was EUR 30,200 in 2006 and thus above the EU-27 average of EUR 23,600. In 2007 the per capita GDP was expected to rise to EUR 31,400. Unemployment is a very important issue throughout the European Union. Compared to other EU Member States, the number of employed people between 15 and 64 in Austria reveals a positive picture. According to EUROSTAT, Austria’s employment rate amounted to 70.2 per cent in 2006, the EU-27 average being 64.3 per cent. Consequently, the unemployment rate of 4.8 per cent in 2006 is relatively low compared to the EU-27 average of 7.9 per cent. Overall, unemployment seems to be a minor issue, especially when considering seasonal employment differences. Despite increasing youth unemployment (in 2006, a share of 9.1 per cent of the population aged between 15 and 24 were unemployed) the percentage for Austria is relatively low compared to the majority of European countries as well as to the EU27 average, which totals 45.6 per cent. Economic benchmarks are, of course, strongly connected to national and international policy making. The competitiveness and status of a country within the European Union is highly influenced by political decisions, among others also by educational policy. General political context Since 1920 Austria is a parliamentary democratic republic. It is composed of nine provinces (Bundeslaender) and has a population of 8,032,926, which has grown steadily over the last 20 years despite declining birth rates – a fact which is primarily due to higher immigration since 1989 when the borders to Eastern Europe were opened. Austria’s federal capital is Vienna with about 1.6 million inhabitants. Austria is characterised by a strong federalist structure. Legislative and executive powers at the national and provincial levels are strictly separated. This principle of ‘separation of powers’ also applies to policy making in the field of vocational education and training (VET). In terms of the different areas of economic and social policy, the cooperative partnership between the social partners plays a very important role. The Austrian social partners are the employers’ associations and the employees’ organisations. Cooperation between the social partners has a long tradition, with the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber, the Chamber of Agriculture and the Federation of Austrian Industry on the employers’ side. On the workers’ side, the Chamber of Labour and the Austrian Trade Union Federation are involved as social partners. The main target of this cooperative partnership is to balance conflicting interests through substantive compromising between the different parties (social partners and government). The social partnership system has a pow9


erful influence on political decisions. This is possible due to close institutional and/or personal connections to political parties and the government but also through participation in numerous committees, advisory boards and commissions. The social partners work together on various issues including decisions in the field of VET. Especially in the development process of dual vocational training, which boasts a strong tradition, the social partners are important actors. At the level of the enterprise social partners are involved in the following activities: − Provision of information on vocational guidance and counselling; − Encouraging cooperation between VET institutions and the business community; − Launching initiatives to establish new apprenticeship programmes or reorganise existing ones. Vocational education and training (VET) in Austria General compulsory schooling lasts nine years and, upon completion of this period, young people can choose their education pathway from among a large variety of possibilities. Besides schools providing general education, there are schools offering vocational education and training. Basically, two different ways of VET can be distinguished. Students having completed their compulsory schooling may start an apprenticeship training within the framework of the dual training system or continue their education within a school-based VET programme, which includes secondary VET schools and the advanced-level secondary VET colleges.2 IVET in companies: In Austria, in-house IVET refers to dual vocational training, which plays an important role in the Austrian economy and can be regarded as a key feature of the Austrian education system. One evidence of the importance of dual vocational training (ISCED 3B) in Austria is the high percentage of adolescents who choose this educational pathway. This is indicated by various statistical data provided by the Federal Economic Chamber. After having finished the lower secondary level, more than 40 per cent of school-leavers at the age of 15 take up an apprenticeship despite the strong tendency towards higher education paths, including upper secondary level, VET colleges and schools. Enterprise IVET refers to the company-based part of the dual vocational training. Apprenticeship training in Austria comprises training in a company and part-time vocational schools. On average, apprentices spend about 80 per cent of their training period in the company and 20 per cent at a vocational school. The respective IVET trainer is responsible for imparting the relevant professional skills and competences. Apprentices can be trained in private companies or in public institutions on the basis of an apprenticeship contract with the training company. This contract refers to a specific ‘trade’ (i.e. occupation) based on a separate decree issued by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour. CVET in companies: The main differences between IVET and CVET refer to an individual’s previous education and/or training level as well as age. Most people pursuing a CVET programme are over the age of 20. Thus CVET is another stage in the education process, usually after having completed an initial training. The various types of CVET in Austria can be distinguished as follows: − Publicly promoted CVET for all; − CVET as an instrument of active labour market policies; 2

The following information focuses on the presentation of initial (IVET) and continuing vocational education and training (CVET) in enterprises. Vocational education and training in schools will only be referred to when relevant to training in companies. The main emphasis will be placed on the enterprise-based part of apprenticeship training. For further interest please refer to the “Thematic Overview” of “The Austrian VET System” published by Cedefop (Tritscher-Archan 2007).

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January 2008

− −

CVET as an initiative of individuals; and CVET as an initiative of enterprises and the social partners.

Although CVET in general has a long tradition and can be dated back to the 19th century, CVET in companies seems to be the oldest form reflecting learning at the workplace. Companies in Austria do not only have a long tradition of CVET, but are important places encouraging adult learning. Large companies in particular provide in-house programmes and courses and potentially also at supplier firms and parent companies. In line with new trends of learning informal learning plays an ever important role in corporate CVET programmes. Firms try to enhance peer learning and the exchange of experiences among colleagues by implementing and organising informal activities. Smaller businesses usually do not have a separate CVET training unit but make use of the services of existing specialised CVET provider institutions by temporarily employing external CVET trainers. Alternatively, learning at the workplace is one of the main characteristics of CVET in small companies. In-company CVET is mostly implemented by CVET trainers who are employed by the company or by CVET institutions. This is particularly true for large companies. In terms of financing, the division of costs between employees and employers is common practice. Whereas the employee typically dedicates its private time, course fees are usually borne by the employer. VET policy in Austria As VET and especially IVET have a high priority in Austria, one of the main objectives of the national education policy is to further develop training structures and course contents in order to maintain the acceptance of VET on the labour market. Besides several strategies in the area of higher VET education at the post-secondary and tertiary levels, there are also new approaches to support dual training and CVET. The most important ones can be described as follows: −

Further differentiation Apprenticeships are available in various economic fields but also in new areas such as information technologies as well as new types of companies within the service sector. Thus the range of apprenticeship programmes has become more differentiated and extended in recent years in order to consider market changes as well as different levels of prior learning. The introduction of new apprenticeships also opens up new occupational fields for IVET trainers or, for others, the possibility to take up a career as a trainer in a new occupation. The apprentices’ various levels of ability are taken into account by integrative vocational training (Integrative Berufsausbildung – IBA). Since 2003 apprentices with disabilities or learning weaknesses have the possibility to obtain partial qualifications or to extend the duration of their training.

−

Promotion of lifelong learning Austria has established a group of experts to elaborate a proposal for the implementation of a comprehensive lifelong learning strategy. In the course of the Lisbon strategy it was decided that the European benchmark for lifelong learning participation by adults between the ages of 25 and 64 on average should be at least 12.5 per cent. According to EUROSTAT, Austria remained below this figure until 2005 when it exceeded the benchmark with a percentage of 12.9 and further increased to 13.1 per cent in 2006. Hence Austria finds itself above the European average of the EU-27 of 9.6 per cent as well as above the European benchmark.

Regarding these figures there is an important aspect to take into account. A high lifelong learning participation rate presupposes that companies are disposed to make high investments in CVET. The increasing lifelong learning rate in Austria is, of course, due to a 11


stronger commitment of companies in CVET. However, in order to sustain this positive development in the future investments in lifelong learning must be enhanced further. Although according to CVTS II (Second Continuing Vocational Training Survey) in 1999, a share of 72 per cent of Austrian enterprises carried out CVET activities (and this value was above the EU-15 average), an increase of 33 per cent would be necessary in order to get into the area of the countries topping the list such as Denmark with 96 per cent.

2. Organisation Organisation of IVET training in companies In all aspects, IVET in Austria is organised according to clear legal regulations. The training contents, formal qualification of trainers and examination requirements, for example, all have their legal definitions and regulations. Besides legal regulations the Vocational Training Act (BAG) is the most important law concerning the dual vocational training. The BAG is the legal framework for enterprise-based apprenticeship training whereas other training regulations contain the job profile and a kind of curriculum for in-company training. The BAG and the training regulations are both issued by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour. In the elaboration and development of the training regulations, which are the basis for the dual training programmes in companies, the actors involved include subject-specific departments of the Federal Economic Chamber, specialised research institutes (e.g. Institute for Research on Qualifications and Training of the Austrian Economy, ibw), the Regional Advisory Board on Apprenticeship/Federal Advisory Board on Apprenticeship and social partner institutions. Table 1: Overview of institutions involved in the enterprise-based part of apprenticeship training:

Institution

Responsibilities −

Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour (BMWA)

− − −

Organise company-based part of dual vocational training; Issue Vocational Training Act; Publish official list of apprenticeships; Release training and examination regulations.

−

The Educational Policy Department represents the political interests; it coordinates the regional economic chambers in the provinces

Federal Advisory Board on Apprenticeship

−

Presents proposals for new apprenticeships (expert reports are presented to the Ministry of Economics)

Regional Advisory Board on Apprenticeship

−

Elaborates proposals for new developments in apprenticeship training

−

Administrative work in the area of apprenticeship training; Assess the aptitude of training enterprises; Manage registration of apprenticeship contracts and organise final apprenticeship examinations

Federal Economic Chamber (WKO)

Apprenticeship offices (Lehrlingsstellen)

− −

CVET provider institutions of the social partners (WIFI, bfi)

−

Organise continuing vocational training and the training of IVET trainers

Organisation of CVET training in companies CVET in enterprises is understood as the sum total of different education measures financed and organised by the company. Thereby, in-house and external activities can be distin-

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January 2008

guished. According to the second Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS 2) in 1999 the Austrian companies’ CVET participation rate was 31 per cent. In Austria, the IVET system has a long tradition. More than 40 per cent of the working population have completed a dual vocational training pathway. Starting an apprenticeship at the age of 15 also implies learning a trade at an early stage and gathering much practical work experiences. Since international comparisons of unemployment rates, export quotas and GDPs per capita present a rather favourite picture for Austria it can be assumed that the Austrian IVET system and high share of apprenticeship training have a positive impact on the economic development and can thus be considered successful. Based on the long tradition of dual vocational training the position of IVET is more strongly and better developed than that of CVET. A national study has drawn the conclusion that countries without a similar classical IVET system are obliged to focus more on CVET as an alternative. In Austria, the social partners have established their own CVET institutions, which are open to all people. Since most SMEs neither have their own CVET programmes nor in-house CVET trainers their employees often take part in courses organised by these CVET institutions. In-company CVET, by contrast, is often offered by large companies which have a specialised human resources department or similar units. Company-based CVET is not regulated except for some specific qualifications such as the master craftsperson certificate. The legal basis of CVET in Austria is limited to the Adult Education Promotion Act (Erwachsenenbildungsförderungsgesetz) issued in 1973. It specifies the conditions for support and permissible support methods regarding adult education. Furthermore, the Act established the basis for an in-service training institution for teaching staff in the area of adult education. This establishment, the Federal Institute for Adult Education (bifeb), is under the authority of the Federal Ministry of Education. The bifeb is currently concerned with enhancing the professionalisation of CVET trainers and implementing a specialised CVET Academy (see also section 7 ‘Innovation’). While CVET has no clear organisation, the organisation of the work and training of IVET trainers is highly standardised across Austria. Furthermore there is more than one legal basis which sets the overall framework for IVET training. For CVET, a broad range of literature and statistical data does not give a clear picture of the situation of CVET trainers in companies. This also concerns the EUROTRAINER study since the research is carried out on a general level of CVET. The obtained results are not detailed enough to draw conclusions about particular areas and issues. Although there exists data on CVET organised by companies, only very little information can be found about the different forms of CVET (external or internal). Little is known about enterprise-based CVET carried out by trainers who are employed by the same company and even less is known about the trainers themselves.

3. Economy Financing of IVET training in companies In Austria, the school-based part of dual vocational training is publicly financed. The enterprise-based part of IVET is financed by the companies themselves as well as through state subsidies. To support companies that offer training and as an incentive for training apprentices, several subsidies have been introduced. Some examples are listed below: – Since 2002: Companies that offer training programmes may claim an annual apprenticeship premium of EUR 1,000 for each apprentice through tax return. The premium covers the average wage costs for the time when the apprentice has to attend the vocational school.

13


–

–

Since 2005: Enterprises that employ additional apprentices, i.e. more apprentices in the current year than in the year before, receive a premium for duration of three years for each additional apprentice. The premium is paid monthly and reaches between 100 and 400 Euros per apprentice. The employer’s and the apprentice’s health-insurance contributions are waived in the first and second year of dual vocational training.

The costs for the training of IVET trainers are usually borne by the trainers themselves, especially in small companies like one-person businesses. In larger companies, skilled workers who want to become an IVET trainer for apprentices may be supported financially by management. In any case there is no legal regulation determining that the individual costs for training must be borne by the employing company. However, there are different forms of subsidies, partly for the target group of IVET trainers, partly for employees in general. Some of them are limited to certain regions. Outstanding examples for current IVET trainer subsidies are: – Subsidy for IVET trainers working in Vienna: The costs for the trainer’s course are subsidised up to a maximum amount of EUR 250 per trainer plus the costs for the trainer’s examination up to EUR 100. For CVET courses, 50 per cent of the course fees but a maximum of EUR 250 per training company are paid. – Fit for Job – subsidy for CVET courses of IVET trainers: 50 per cent the course fees but a maximum of EUR 200 per year and trainer are paid by the Economic Chamber of Tirol for courses in certain fields (personality, leadership, coaching, conflict management, motivation, communication, training plans, quality management etc.). Costs for trainer courses currently range from EUR 260 to 460 with the exact amount depending on the region where the course is attended. The examination fee for the trainer exam which can be passed instead of the trainer course amounted to EUR 84 in 2007. To date there has not been any research in Austria on cost-benefits-analyses of IVET and the training of IVET trainers on a national level. Training of IVET trainers in terms of costs proves to be very cost effective as fees for trainer courses and trainer exams are very low. There is no data about the income of trainers because there is no collective agreement for IVET trainers in general. As most IVET trainers are skilled workers, salaries and wages are usually based on the collective contracts that regulate the respective occupational area. The formal trainer qualification means an additional qualification for the employee and therefore generally leads to a salary increase. However, no information exists that specifies how much more money is paid on average. As amounts of pay increases are determined by management and the basic salary or wage of the underlying contracts the income of trainers is absolutely unknown. Financing CVET training in companies Current and future policy priorities for funding of VET are focusing, among other things, on enhancing CVET opportunities and respectively the CVET supply for people in employment. Thus the aim is to motivate and encourage employees to participate in CVET, i.e. in engaging in lifelong learning activites. As companies providing CVET for their employees primarily pursue economic purposes, financial aspects of CVET play an important role when making CVET decisions. CVET is either publicly funded or financed by companies. Public funding is a commitment of the federal government to support educational institutions working on a non-profit basis. – Since 2000 a special training tax allowance (Bildungsfreibetrag) can be claimed by Austrian employers for investments in training. The federal tax law is the basis for regulations of this incentive. In the beginning, the allowance for external training amounted to 9 per cent of the expenses. Since 2003 the incentive has been increased to 20 per cent now including also internal training measures. Companies are allowed to deduct the actual 14

January 2008

–

cost of training as a business expense form their taxable income as well as an additional ‘virtual expense’ of 20 per cent. As a result, the tax base is reduced by 120 per cent of the actual expense. Enterprises which do not make enough profit to be able to benefit from the training tax allowance may alternatively claim a training premium (Bildungsprämie) of 6 per cent of the actual expenses. The premium can be deducted from the tax liability or paid out by the firm.

According to the Second Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS 2) carried out in 1999, the national costs for CVET accounted to 1.3 per cent of the total labour costs. Compared to other European countries like Denmark or the United Kingdom, this value is rather low although the study did not include the smallest businesses, employees in the public sector nor the entire agricultural sector. Concerning the financing of CVET trainers, a national study gives a rough cost estimation for the internal training personnel of companies of about EUR 271m. As CVET in companies may refer to training provided by trainers employed by the enterprise or training carried out by external trainers, separate statistical data would be needed in order to make clear statements. Unfortunately different information sources concerning CVET in companies include both external and internal CVET, i.e. statistics for company-based CVET in general but little or no data for the various types of CVET.

4. Selection and Allocation Selection and allocation of IVET trainers in companies Based on data from 2007, there were about 116,000 registered apprentices in Austria in 39,398 training companies. Most of the apprenticeship contracts (47.9 per cent) were in the craft and manufacturing sector, followed by the commerce and trade sector with 15.1 and the industrial sector with 12.2 per cent. The following table gives an overview of the current number of apprentices broken down by the nine Austrian regions. It also indicates changes in comparison to 2006.

15

EAC09/06/Lot1 EUROTRAINER – COUNTRY REPORTS Table 2: Statistics of apprentices as of June 2007 (data from the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber)

Region

30.06.2007

30.06.2006

Change

Burgenland

2,728

2,658

+ 2,6 %

Carinthia

8,504

8,258

+ 3,0 %

Lower Austria

17,517

16,900

+ 3,7 %

Upper Austria

24,468

23,662

+ 3,4 %

Salzburg

9,771

9,363

+ 4,4 %

Styria

17,100

16,664

+ 2,6 %

Tirol

12,826

12,445

+ 3,1 %

Vorarlberg

7,261

6,928

+ 4,8 %

Vienna

15,900

15,189

+ 4,7 %

TOTAL

116,075

112,067

+ 3,6 %

Although there exist exact figures of numbers of apprentices and companies that train apprentices, statistical data on IVET trainers are not available but can only be estimated on the basis of legal regulations that regulate the ratio between the number of apprentices and trainers within a company. There must be at least one trainer per training company and, if the number of apprentices increases the number of trainers must be raised accordingly. According to the numbers of companies that take apprentices and the legal provisions the number of IVET trainers can be estimated to reach 40,000 to 45,000. Traditionally, most apprentices are trained in the crafts and manufacturing sector as well as in the commerce sector. Consequently, the majority of IVET trainers are also employed in those sectors. The most popular apprenticeships (“top 10”) include the retail trade services, motor vehicle engineering and electrical installations engineering. Table 3: Most popular apprenticeships in Austria Female apprentices Sector Retail trade services Hairdresser and wigmaker (stylist) Office assistant Restaurant specialist Gastronomy expert Cook Hotel- and restaurant-trade commercial assistant Administration assistant

Number

Male apprentices Sector

Number

10,305 5,476

Motor vehicle engineering Electrical installations engineering

6,996 4,987

5,262 2,216 1,853 1,779 1,252

Retail trade services Machine engineering technology Joinery Cook Bricklayer

4,385 4,100 3,937 3,899 3,197

920

Plumbing and air-conditioning technician specialising in heating fitting/gas and water fitting Metal industry technician specialising in metal engineering Painter Total “Top 10” Total apprenticeships (male)

2,927

Pharmaceutical-trade assistant

909

Florist Total “Top 10” Total apprenticeships (female)

801 30,773 42,103

Source: Austrian Federal Economic Chamber, Apprenticeship statistics 2006

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2,791 2,147 39,366 83,858

January 2008

IVET trainers dispose of a formal qualification which can be acquired in a trainer’s course or by passing the trainer examination (see above). Usually IVET trainers are skilled workers before acquiring the formal trainer qualification. In terms of recruitment the EUROTRAINER study as well as some secondary literature indicate that companies select their trainers internally out of the existing pool of employees regardless of the size of the company. Selection and allocation of CVET trainers in companies The provision of CVET usually depends on the company size. Thus larger companies tend to offer more CVET opportunities to their employees than smaller enterprises. The highest percentage of companies engaging in CVET can be found in the banking and insurance, telecommunications and the energy and water supply sector. These sectors comprise about 40 per cent of all companies and about 40 per cent of the overall CVET expenses. It can be assumed that also many trainers have specialised in these fields and are occupied in these areas. Most of the companies from those sectors operate with training centres, which are specialised in providing training, often also IVET. Those training centres dispose of a well developed training organisation and a high percentage of full-time trainers. According to the 1999 CVTS II survey, 11 per cent of companies with more than 20 employees had their own education centres. Although generally the principle of large companies providing more CVET than smaller businesses does apply overall, it is not true for every trade or sector. Certain trades such as the HoReCa, construction or textile industries overall have very little CVET. Whereas these sectors account for more than a quarter of all companies, they only account for some 6 per cent of CVET expenses. Furthermore, trades differ regarding the prerequisites and necessities for CVET activities. The employees’ qualification level, the type of work organisation, the level of applied technologies and the pace of innovation are very diverse. As the CVET structures and conditions vary from company to company, also the working conditions of CVET trainers as well as their qualification are extremely heterogeneous. Little is known about the number of trainers being employed by companies. According to the Second Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS 2), 9,600 people were full-time trainers and 10,000 worked as part-time trainers within a company. However, these numbers must be interpreted cautiously according to a national study which indicated some investigation difficulties. Currently it is not possible to give a precise number of employees in human resources development who are engaged in planning and executing CVET activities although it is known that there is a high number of professionals also outside the typical training institutions. The recruitment of CVET trainers in companies is also more difficult to assess than the recruitment of IVET trainers. For CVET trainers no dominant recruiting form does exist, i.e. they may be recruited internally as well as externally. This was also confirmed by the results of the EUROTRAINER survey.

5. Qualification Qualification of IVET trainers in companies The pre-service training of apprenticeship trainers is regulated by the Vocational Training Act. The Act stipulates that enterprises providing apprenticeship training must employ at least one responsible trainer. Usually this requirement is fulfilled through the person entitled to train (i.e. the company owner) but it can also be assigned to another employee with relevant professional skills and competences. The Vocational Training Act regulates the qualification of apprenticeship trainers in detail. A person who wants to become an apprenticeship trainer must have reached the age of 18 and must have proven his/her professional knowledge and skills in the relevant trade. A success17


ful final apprenticeship examination or successful completion of a VET school or college provide the relevant evidence. In addition, people who desire to train apprentices must pass a special trainer examination or alternatively attend a trainer course. The trainer examination takes place orally at the office of the master craftsperson examinations and assesses the required level of knowledge and skills for apprenticeship training as well as its practical application. At the end of the exam, a special training certificate is issued to the candidate. The exam comprises the following subjects: – specification of training objectives; – planning of the apprenticeship training; – preparation, implementation and monitoring of training; – behaviour towards the apprentice; and – the legal framework regulating vocational training (Vocational Training Act, laws governing the employment of children and young people, etc.). Alternatively to the trainer examination apprenticeship trainers can attend a forty-hour trainer course which is ideal for acquiring knowledge and skills in pedagogy and didactic methods. The course ends with a conversation about pedagogic, legal and methodical issues. Since 1997 the completion of the trainer examination has been equivalent to the successful completed trainer course. Furthermore, the trainer examination and trainer course can be substituted by certain other qualifications including: – master craftsperson examination (‘Meisterprüfung und Befähigungsprüfungen’) in certain occupational areas – entrepreneurial exam (Unternehmerprüfung) – public notary exam (‘Notariatsprüfung’) – financial auditor exam (‘Wirtschaftsprüfer’) – tax consultant exam and certified public accountant exam (‘Steuerberaterprüfung, Buchprüferprüfung’) – civil engineering exam (‘Ziviltechnikerprüfung’) – pharmacist exam (‘Apothekerprüfung’) – judgeship exam (‘Richteramtsprüfung’) – vocational school teacher exam – legal practitioner exam (‘Rechtsanwaltsprüfung’) Whereas the pre-service training of IVET trainers is legally regulated, the in-service training of apprenticeship trainers is not regulated by law and takes place on a voluntary basis. Institutions offering specialised courses are the VET provider institutions of the social partners (WIFI and bfi), the in-service teacher training college, and the centres for apprentice training and vocational training in agriculture and forestry. Regarding the acquisition of certificates, IVET trainers have the opportunity to attend special CVET courses which lead to a certification of their competence status (e.g. certified IVET trainer, graduated IVET trainer). At the moment specialised IVET trainer schools are being developed with the aim of establishing a uniform Austrian further training system for trainers (see also 7 ‘Innovation’). Qualification of CVET trainers in companies The Austrian companies are important actors in the organisation of CVET. According to the 1999 Second Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS 2), around 72 per cent of all Austrian production and service enterprises provided some type of CVET for their employees. It can be assumed that the percentage today is even higher. CVTS 2 also showed that 71 per cent of all enterprises make use of courses, whereas 27 per cent provide other forms of training. 64 per cent of the companies not organising any kinds of CVET activities defended their position with adequate skills and competences of their employees or a high workload which prevented them from participating in training. 18

January 2008

More than half of the course hours (56 per cent) were part of internal courses for which the companies are responsible in terms of the learning objectives, contents and organisation. These courses are partly carried out by the companies’ employees and partly by external trainers of training institutions. No exact data exist concerning the proportion of training carried out by external and internal trainers. Notably, holding and producer companies play a decisive role in the area of company-based CVET. They employ trainers which provide 25 per cent of the external course hours of their subsidiaries or client companies. In contrast to IVET, enterprise CVET is not regulated by law except for specific qualifications (e.g. the master craftsperson certificate). As CVET trainers in companies are not required to have any particular formal qualification (defined by law), it is up to the companies to assess the skills and competences of their trainers. CVET is therefore open to anyone with good subject-specific qualifications and relevant work experience. There are no common criteria for applicants of trainer positions. They must prove their ability in other ways. Primarily, applicants are expected to have specialised know-how. Languages, for example, are often taught by teachers of modern languages who have completed university or post-secondary college training. In the new technologies, classes are frequently organised by specialists with professional experience. Regarding pedagogical skills, there exist opportunities for trainers to attend courses in education and training methodology but there is no obligation to follow such training. As a result, in-service training of CVET trainers is not regulated either. During the last decade, several private and public institutions which offer training programmes for trainers were established. As a result, a growing number of companies select CVET trainers with a special certificate. As there are no training regulations or curricula in CVET, companies providing CVET are completely independent concerning the composition of their CVET offers as well as the selection of their CVET trainers. According to the 1999 CVTS II survey, 35 per cent of companies with more than 20 employees providing CVET disposed of a written education plan for company-based training and 11 per cent had their own education centre used for CVET. This also reflects the results of the EUROTRAINER study in that CVET trainers in companies primarily follow company-based training plans or management guidelines without having to consider any legal specifications.

6. Integration Integration of IVET trainers in companies IVET trainers usually have a wide range of social contacts. The EUROTRAINER study revealed which occupations, institutions and individuals characterise the IVET trainers’ social environment. Within the company, trainers prefer cooperating with employees working in the same or other company departments, with other trainers and with management. Outside the company, IVET trainers maintain contacts to several institutions, among others to the responsible Regional Economic Chamber which is an important contact point for legal and administrative issues. Interestingly, IVET trainers seem to have quite good and frequent contact with teachers of vocational schools but only very little contact with IVET trainers employed by other companies (e.g. of the same trade or sector). A national study conducted by the Institute for Research on Qualifications and Training of the Austrian Economy (ibw) also revealed that schools and enterprises in Austria cooperate quite well. That 90 per cent of the enterprises offering training approve of the subject-specific instruction given at vocational schools also is an important aspect of good cooperation. Furthermore, the study indicates that good relationships between vocational schools and companies – and between teachers and trainers respectively – are essential to achieve a high quality of training and the effective realisation of dual vocational training programmes. Thus, it can be concluded that well developed

19


interaction and cooperation structures of IVET trainers have a positive impact on the successfulness of vocational training. In order to enhance the interaction and exchange of IVET trainers form different companies “IVET trainer meetings” or “IVET trainer forums” have been established in some parts of the country. They provide a platform for IVET trainers where they can meet peers and colleagues, share experiences and learn in an informal way. Often meetings focus on a specific topic. The organisation of IVET trainer meetings is mostly initiated by the large public training institutions of the social partners (WIFI, bfi). These initiatives are welcomed and highly appreciated by trainers and call for the further development of similar networks of IVET trainers in Austria. Besides face-to-face meetings virtual platforms addressing IVET trainers in companies as the target group also have been implemented. A prominent example is the website www.ausbilder.at, which offers specialised information on various fields. Trainers have the possibility to look for trainer courses, legal information about apprenticeship training, innovative training methods as well as good-practice examples and much more. Concerning recognition, the majority of experts interviewed for the EUROTRAINER study assessed the work of IVET trainers and the trainer profession in general as being well recognised in Austria. The position of IVET trainers was rated as rather attractive and having a positive effect on the status of the employed trainers. Despite this positive assessment the recognition of IVET trainers is not as high as the recognition of vocational school teachers and worse compared to teachers of higher education. The unemployment rate of IVET trainers is not known as no specific data is available. Unemployment in Austria overall amounted to 4.8 per cent in 2006. Considering the unemployment rates per educational pathways, it becomes clear that the highest rate refers to people having only completed compulsory schooling (around 10 per cent). People with a dual vocational training qualification (around 4 per cent) are relatively in line with those having completed a post-secondary (around 5 per cent) or tertiary level programme (around 3 per cent). This can be considered a further indicator for the success of the initial vocational education and training system in Austria, but also gives a rough idea of the unemployment rate of IVET trainers. As IVET trainers are mainly recruited internally as full-time skilled workers and the trainer tasks are primarily carried out in addition to the normal job, unemployment rates of trainers should be rather low. Furthermore, the formal trainer qualification is mostly acquired on demand, i.e. skilled workers who are already employed and become an IVET trainer usually respond to a current or future need monitored by management. Integration of CVET trainers in companies The continuing vocational training market is characterised by a very diverse structure including several sub-segments. The training performance and quality, the interests of the trainees, the requirements, among other aspects vary strongly even within a certain sub-group. This heterogeneous structure of CVET in companies has several implications for the integration of CVET trainers. One consequence of this diversity is that professionals cannot rely on the general acceptance of their competences within the same trade or sector. This implies that CVET trainers often depend on a very limited number of employers who recognise their skills and knowledge. As a result, individual investments in the further training of CVET trainers are not necessarily related to higher salaries. Concerning the contacts of CVET trainers in companies there are great differences compared to those of IVET trainers. Although CVET trainers also primarily cooperate with other employees of different departments of the company and management, they seem to have only little contact outside the company. A major reason may be that CVET trainers do not have similar contact points like IVET trainers. This is more or less due to the lack of legal regulations, which are controlled by specialised institutions. CVET trainers are also not represented by trade unions in the general political sense. In the last years, representative insti20

January 2008

tutions such as interest communities, associations and working groups for CVET trainers being employed by training institutions have been set up. CVET trainers employed by a company who carry out training tasks are represented by the trade union which is relevant for their profession, but not as trainers but as employees. Consequently not the interests regarding their work as trainers but their interests concerning general aspects as employees are taken into account. As far as recognition of the trainers’ work is concerned, the EUROTRAINER study as well as secondary literature indicates that the work of CVET trainers in companies is fairly recognised, which is partly due to the lack of legal regulations concerning the training of trainers. As a direct response to the poor status of CVET trainers, a CVET Academy has recently been set up in order to improve the recognition of CVET trainer competences (see further below for details).

7. Innovation Quality assurance of IVET training in companies Quality assurance of apprenticeship training is based on a mainly input- and criteria-oriented quality concept. Dual training can only be carried out in recognised occupations requiring formal training. In Austria, regulations in different relevant fields (curriculum, standards for companies to offer training, VET schools, trainers etc.) ensure that quality standards are maintained: 1. The training regulations are issued by the Ministry of Economics and determine the minimum standards of dual training (apprenticeship training). These regulations exist for all approximately 250 occupations in which apprenticeship training is possible. They regulate the title of the occupation, the duration of the apprenticeship training, skills requirements, relevant knowledge and competences standards as well as guidelines for teaching and training, duration of classroom instruction and criteria for examinations. The training regulations are coordinated with the framework curricula for vocational schools and adapted to changing economic demands. Adjustments and innovation of existing profiles are initiated by companies or representative bodies of employers and employees. 2. Companies and trainers have to meet certain standards in order to carry out apprenticeship training. Companies must prove that they are suited for providing training and IVET trainers must have acquired a formal qualification. The apprenticeship offices at the different regional economic chambers are the institutions which control these requirements. Enterprises must prove that they are able to cover all areas of the relevant occupational profiles. If they are unable to do so they must cooperate with another company or partner institution to fill the gaps. Trainers must have the relevant occupational qualification as well as pedagogical skills (see 5. Qualification). 3. Apprentices complete their dual vocational training by passing the final apprenticeship examination. At the same time apprentices acquire the status of skilled workers and sometimes the final apprenticeship examination entitles them to practice a regulated trade without any further certificates. The examination is a very important evaluation tool as high examination standards in the different vocational fields assure professional quality, also for the work of IVET trainers. The apprenticeship examination comprises a theoretical and a practical part according to the examination regulation and takes place outside the company. The apprenticeship offices of the economic chambers are in charge of organising the exams, i.e. they provide suitable rooms and locations, examiners and standardised examination material. Acting as the coordinating

21


institutions the apprenticeship offices follow the framework regulations of the Vocational Training Act and the relevant training regulations of the occupations. Quality assurance in IVET training is not only monitored through formally implemented criteria but also through informal activities of the involved training actors, i.e. companies and vocational schools. A national study carried out by the Institute for Research on Qualifications and Training of the Austrian Economy (ibw) has shown that good relationships between companies and vocational schools are very important and crucial for the quality of training. Concerning apprenticeship training one of the most interesting results is the fact that 90 per cent of the Austrian companies offering training are content with the subject-specific instruction provided by part-time vocational schools. The above-mentioned aspects of the Austrian quality management system in apprenticeship training have proven to be effective and have exited for many years. In more recent years they have been further developed by: – IVET trainer schools: IVET trainer courses are offered by public training institutions like WIFI and bfi. In the future, it is planned to reorganise the training of IVET trainers and establish so called “IVET trainer schools” (Ausbilderakademien). Currently, the on-going process of establishing IVET trainer schools, which are most often integrated as special units in the existing public training institutions (WIFI) throughout Austria, is developing slowly but continuously. Trainer courses and exams will then be organised and offered by these schools. The total number of schools as well as the training contents and structure have not yet been decided. – Standardised further training for IVET trainers: The implementation of specialised IVET trainer schools also aims at developing a uniform standardised training system throughout Austria which integrates all existing training programmes including common certificates. This initiative is led by the Federal Economic Chamber and is regarded as an important step towards the professionalisation of IVET trainers. The concept of an integrated training concept pursues the following targets. - Continuing support for IVET trainers; - Public promotion of the training profession and its definition; - Enhancing the motivation of IVET trainers for further and continuing training; - Higher qualification levels of IVET trainers considering personal and social competences; - State-level certificates for IVET trainers in Austria; - Enhanced quality of apprenticeship training; - Improvement of the image of apprenticeship training; - Official and public acknowledgement of highly committed IVET trainers (as a supplement to the State certificate for excellent training enterprises). Austria is a country where the IVET system enjoys a long tradition. This is particularly true for dual vocational training, which partly takes place in the company and partly in vocational schools. Apprenticeship training in companies also has a long tradition and consequently companies dispose of much training experience and know-how. In order to make this knowhow visible, a specialised competition for companies offering training was introduced by the Institute for Research on Qualifications and Training of the Austrian Economy in 2000 with the aim to provide an opportunity for training companies to show their achievements. Since 2000 the competition was held six times and will be continued regularly also in the future. Being a national competition, winners are honoured in the course of a ceremony. Based on this company competition, several good-practice examples could be gathered one of which is described below:

22

January 2008

An Austrian company famous for its dual vocational training is voestalpine STAHL DONAWITZ GMBH & CO KG (http://www.voestalpine.com). The company has some 1,200 employees, of which 125 are apprentices. voestalpine offers a wide range of apprenticeship training programmes ranging from bookkeeping, office assistant, chemical laboratory engineering, electrical industrial engineering, industry office assistant, store logistics, machine engineering technology, mechatronics, production technician, forwarding trader, machining operator to welder and materials tester. voestalpine STAHL DONAWITZ is part of the rail system division of the voest group, which employs 7,000 staff being one of the top suppliers of the European automobile and domestic appliances industry. In all subsidiaries as well as in Donawitz tradition is strongly connected with innovation. This principle is also true for apprenticeship training and the training of IVET trainers. Trainers attend special courses at the academic level or at the new VET trainer schools, because CVET and the further development of IVET trainers play an important role in the corporate philosophy. Innovation in CVET training in companies Although Austria has already reached the European benchmark of 12.5 per cent for participation in lifelong learning, further development in the area of CVET in companies is indispensable. This can be seen from several indicators (European benchmarks) and international comparisons. – The participation rate, i.e. participants in CVET in relation to employees of companies, ranges between 30 and 40 per cent, remaining relatively low in Austria compared with the majority of the EU-25. – The used time (in hours) for CVET activities in relation to 1,000 working hours is a further indicator of lifelong learning participation. Concerning this benchmark Austria is placed at the very end of the international ranking with a ratio of 5:1,000. In the progress report concerning the Lisbon goals five hours or less is classified as ‘not satisfying’. – The cost indicator which measures the relation of CVET expenses and total labour costs was with 1.3 per cent for Austria in 1999 below the European average. The figures for these indicators point towards a relative need for further improvement. To reach a top position within the European Union, those figures must be more than doubled. But other aspects are also important. In terms of professionalisation, the Austrian system has to cope with a vast array of information deficits causing disorientation. The need for professionalisation is a prerequisite for a functioning market and a high CVET participation rate. The Federal Institute for Adult Education (bifeb) is concerned with encouraging the professionalisation of CVET trainers as well as with implementing and establishing a specialised CVET Academy. The institution has been operating since February 2007 and is hence a very young project. It was developed in the course of a project funded by the European Social Fund (ESF). The actors involved in the process include universities, training institutions, the Federal Institute for Adult Education and the Association of Austrian Adult Education Centres as the leading institution. Being the first one in Austria, the CVET Academy is organised on the basis of a partnership concept. It is concerned with the certification and recognition of competences of adult trainers according to clearly defined standards. The certification follows a two-level structure including two types of exams. There is the possibility of acquiring the status of a “certified adult trainer” (Zertifizierter Erwachsenenbildner) and/or becoming a “graduated adult trainers” (Diplomierter Erwachsenenbildner). Both certifications issued by the CVET Academy follow European standards and assure a high level of quality of adult training and the professionalisation of trainers. Applicants who want to acquire a certified level must have completed some kind of vocational education and training (e.g. apprenticeship training or post-secondary vocational 23


school) and have proven practical training experience. Before starting an education programme at the CVET Academy, the fulfilment of requirements is examined and the applicant’s qualification level assessed. Based on this assessment, additional necessary competences are defined. Sources Cedefop, eKnowVet Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/21/33919144.pdf, access: April 13 2007 Archan, Sabine et al. (2005): Training VET Teachers and Trainers. Cedefop Theme 6. http://www.abfaustria.at/docs/abf per cent20InfoDoc per cent204-2004.pdf, access: April 13 2007 Archan, Sabine (2006): Thematic Overview of the Austrian VET System. Cedefop. http://www.ibw.at/html/infos/oebild/pdf/Thematic per cent20Overview per cent20on per cent20the per cent20Austrian per cent20VET per cent20System.pdf, access: April 13 2007 Jessica Blings, Michael Gessler (Eds.): Quality Development and Quality Assurance with Labour Market Reference for the Vocational Education and Training System in the Metal Sector, Results of the European Leonardo Project QualiVET Mayr, Thomas and Schneeberger, Arthur: Berufliche Weiterbildung in Österreich und im Europäischen Vergleich, ibw-Schriftenreihe Nr. 126, 2004 http://www.bmwa.gv.at/NR/rdonlyres/CD462FA2A0C0-49C4-9FE1-5DF1795F498C/0/StudieWeiterbildung2004.pdf, access: June 27 2007 Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur (bmbwk) (Hrsg.): Optimierung der Kooperation Berufsschule – Lehrbetrieb, Erhebungen und Analysen zu pädagogischen Aspekten der Verbesserung der Qualität in der Berufsbildung http://www.qibb.at/fileadmin/content/downloads/Studie_21_1.pdf, access: June 30 2007 Training in Europe – Lifelong Learning in Enterprises. http://www.trainingineurope.com/netautor/napro4/appl/na_professional/parse.php?id=2500 per cent2C per cent2C10589 per cent2C, access: July 3 2007 Zwischen Lebenslangem Lernen, Qualitätsdebatte und Werkvertrag. http://www.abif.at/deutsch/download/Files/AMSreport53K.pdf, access: July 3 2007 Betriebliche Weiterbildung in Österreich und Europa. http://www.trainingineurope.com/mmedia/2007.06.27/1182942099.pdf, access: July 3 2007 Der Markt betrieblicher Weiterbildung 2004-2006, Flauten, Brisen, Ströme. http://www.trainingineurope.com/mmedia/2007.06.27/1182946725.pdf, access: July 3 2007 Europäische Benchmarks für die allgemeine und berufliche Bildung. http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/de/cha/c11064.htm, access July 6 2007 Diverse statistical data, access: July 6 2007. http://wko.at/statistik/eu/eu.htm Second Continuing Vocational Training Survey 1999. http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bildung_und_kultur/erwachsenenbildung_weiterbildung_l ebenslanges_lernen/betriebliche_weiterbildung/index.html, access: July 6 2007 OECD: Economic Survey on Austria 2007. http://www.oecd.org/document/24/0,3343,en_2649_201185_38909400_1_1_1_1,00.html, access: July 10 2007

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AUSTRIA: Summary of semi-structured interviews with experts Introduction -

What is your role/function/relationship to the work and training of trainers?

Interview 1

Referee of the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber in the area of dual vocational training

Interview 2

Decision maker in the area of dual vocational training

Interview 3

I`m working at the interface of the economy and the social partner institutions. Thus I know both the situation of the trainers themselves and the policy level where important decisions concerning the training of trainers are being made.

Interview 4

Member of different expert groups of trainers which work for the development of the dual training of apprentices.

Identify major issues / key challenges in a national perspective -

Can you identify 3 major issues or big challenges that in-company trainers in your country face at the moment? Issue 1

Issue 2

Issue 3

Educational expansion and the demographic development: Teenagers do not meet the expectations and do not correspond to the increasing qualification requirements. There is a lack of basic skills and competences. Not only subject-specific but also social competences are lacking. Attitudes do not correspond with the expectations of the companies. Due to the crisis of apprenticeship positions teenagers often cannot choose their dream job, thus IVET-trainers in companies have to cope with unmotivated apprentices.

Changing of culture and values: Integration is difficult to realise; schools do not prepare their pupils anymore (teachers resign from their responsibility for education – e.g. disciplinary measures are being rejected); IVET-trainers in companies have to manage a lot of social problems.

Pseudo-moral pressure due to the crisis of apprenticeship positions; counter pressure of the management (rationalisation).

Interview 2

Socio-economic change: IVETtrainers have to transmit this change to the youth. For carrying out this task highly developed social competences are required of IVET-trainers.

Professionalism and its traditions are decreasing, especially because of the expansion of the tertiary sector. As a result long work experience in one job is not attractive anymore.

Certain issues concerning lack of basic qualifications (writing, reading, calculating) have been neglected during school education. These deficits must be balanced by IVET-trainers.

Interview 3

The continuing learning of trainers

Quality of training of trainers

Interview 1

- the demand of further trainings is constantly rising

IVET-trainers are often in the situation to defend the training of apprentices. They are forced to convince the management of the profitability of dual vocational training.

In the year 2000 the formal requirements for the trainer profession changed. Until then passing an official trainers examination was the only possibility to becoming a trainer. Now trainers may choose between a trainers’ course and a trainer examination. This has lead to a less strict formal qualification, because the trainer exam originally took place in front of a commission, whereas the trainer course 25

EAC09/06/Lot1 EUROTRAINER – COUNTRY REPORTS ends with a conversation conducted by the trainer of the course. Interview 4

Trainers have to bring in line their professional qualification with the expectations of the company and outstanding persons. Thus continuing learning gains more importance and has become indispensable.

Trainers must first of all be educators before enhancing their training professional skills. The pedagogical knowledge in-company trainers usually have is not sufficient. A lot of time is needed for the education of apprentices as well as for “teaching” basic knowledge (like writing, reading). Also cultural problems appear more often as a lot of migrants choose the dual training than continuing a full-time school education.

Discuss in a national perspective common issues that may be of relevance across Europe Staff shortages of trainers and remedies: How do you see the problem of staff shortages of in-company trainers in your country and do you have any suggestion how this problem could be tackled? Interview 1

Pressure of rationalisation also concerns IVET-trainers.

Interview 2

The motivation to training teenagers is decreasing because of economic constrains. Companies do not train because of social responsibility and social commitment anymore. Thus staff shortages are found in some segments in the area of IVET trainers even if they are very little in general.

Interview 3

Especially industrial companies generally tend to reduce staff. Of course, also in-company trainers are affected by this strategy. Because there is a legal framework for how many trainers have to be employed for a certain number of apprentices, companies tend to fully exhaust this legal guidelines in order to save costs. Trainers of such companies who have become redundant usually change the job/enterprise, or go back to their original profession. The strategy of staff shortages has not been adopted by companies which share the point of view that qualified personnel is important for the future of the company. They usually see training and education of apprentices more as an investment than a cost factor. There is also a clear distinction between short and long term perspectives as staff shortages are mostly short-time decisions.

Interview 4

Staff shortages are on the agenda of a great percentage of big companies. Small enterprises are also concerned especially in terms of business closings. Of course also trainers are subject to staff shortages even if there are legal regulations due to which a certain amount of trainers is stipulated for a certain amount of apprentices. As companies (smaller or bigger ones) tend to reduce the number of apprentices also the number of trainers decreases. Fortunatel, IVET-trainer lay-offs are not very numerous.

Aging workforce – how is knowledge transferred to younger workers? Interview 3

Usually companies employ younger trainers. Two thirds of the in-company trainers are younger, one third is older than 45. There are several reasons for this fact: Younger trainers can cope more easily with the accelerated pace of innovation. Younger trainers are less expensive in terms of salaries.

Interview 4

Of course there are older and younger in-company trainers but the latter in comparison to the former have become extremely numerous. Where older trainers are still active (sometimes they additionally work as examiners), often out-of-date knowledge is passed on to apprentices, because they usually do not manage the integration of innovative know-how into their training methods.

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January 2008

Professionalisation of in-company trainers: Opportunities and motivation for continuing learning Interview 3

There are no legal obligations for continuing training. Trainers as far as they are young and open-minded usually motivate themselves to follow continuing learning activities.

Interview 4

Companies are usually very pleased if trainers follow continuing training. If the company has no separate CVET programme, trainers are often told to select further trainings on their own which must then be approved by management.

How do trainers cope with the accelerated pace of innovation? Interview 3

Quite easily because the majority of in-company trainers is young. Older trainers tend to have more problems.

Interview 4

Young trainers usually do not have big problems and as they are the majority of trainers, there is no reason for worries regarding this.

How are trainers being prepared to implement new learning methods? Interview 3

There is no such preparation during the formal training of trainers and from the company itself. This is only done in continuing training activities. The problem in companies is mainly the organisation of responsibilities. Often companies have different departments for personnel development, dual training and education and personnel organisation. The personnel development departments do not necessarily provide the dual training department with special support concerning the training of IVET-trainers because the often focus on the training of managers.

Interview 4

In-company trainers are not prepared for using new learning methods during their formal qualification period (e.g. trainer course). E-Learning for example has become quite important also in the dual training system, but trainers unfortunately are not qualified for using or implementing such tools (except trainers in the IT-sector). New learning methods are subject to continuing training.

How are they being prepared to manage the diversification of trainee groups? Interview 3

This is a special topic which is dealt with during continuing training courses.

Interview 4

Only in continuing training programmes.

How and to what extent are trainers organised in professional bodies/ associations? Interview 3

There are only voluntary associations. There are no large professional bodies.

Interview 4

Trainers are members of voluntary associations. In Austria there are no professional bodies with mandatory memberships.

How is the prior learning of trainers being accredited? Interview 3

The professional qualification is a formal criteria for the trainers profession which is accredited.

Interview 4

The professional qualification is accredited.

Status and attractiveness of the job Interview 3

In general the trainer profession is less recognised in the Austrian society than the profession of teachers. Status and attractiveness of the job strongly depend on the attitudes of the individual trainer. The trainer profession usually is attractive for people who enjoy working with teenagers. Those who are terrified by the idea of having to deal with young people normally do not choose this pro27

EAC09/06/Lot1 EUROTRAINER – COUNTRY REPORTS fession. Interview 4

The job is primarily attractive for people who wish to work with teenagers. This is first of all a question of personality. There are cases in which skilled workers are asked by management to take over responsibilities of a trainer’s job but generally speaking these cases seem to be exceptions. The status of in-company trainers in Austria is generally low, to be more precise, at least lower than the status of teachers in vocational schools and teachers in general. One reason for this may be the relatively bad image of the dual training system. The Austrian society in terms of status generally prefers (post)secondary school education.

Formal regulations / de-regulation Interview 3

Stronger formal regulations would enhance the quality of the qualifications of trainers but at the same time they would poison the motivation of companies for providing dual training.

Interview 4

In Austria the training of in-company trainers (IVET) is formally regulated. It is no question that for improving the quality of the trainer qualifications stronger formal regulations should be introduced. As a matter of fact private companies are against higher qualification needs because of higher costs

Are there any obstacles for in-company trainers Interview 3

No.

Interview 4

For becoming an IVET-trainer in a company there are no special obstacles. Candidates must have accomplished the age of 18 years and attend a trainer course or pass the trainer exam. A possible obstacle may be the job search as also a qualified trainer may not find a suited job.

Tendencies of professionalisation and consequences Interview 1

IVET-trainer colleges is an important keyword regarding professionalisation: Austria is elaborating a standardised training programme for IVET-trainers. The supply of continuing training is increasing because of the demographic development – companies will have to cope with a lack of applicants. Partly this is already the case. It can be assumed that this phenomenon will spread all over the country. Well trained IVET-trainers of course will have advantages in this new form of competition.

Interview 2

The development of technical methods and the outsourcing of production in general strongly effect the importance of continuing training for IVET-trainers – many job profiles are subject to rapid change. As a result also the qualification needs for IVET trainers are changing.

Interview 3

See above.

Interview 4

There is no legal job description of the trainer profession.

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Recognition: self-recognition / awareness of being a trainer Interview 3

If a trainer is highly motivated for his/her work, this will probably have positive effects on his/her self-esteem. Without any professional success a trainer probably will not carry out these tasks for too long. Concerning self-recognition there is a strong self-regulation.

Interview 4

Motivation normally leads to recognition, either self-recognition or recognition from others. Probably even both. Trainers who cannot meet the expectations usually do not stay very long in their job and rather return to their old position or even change the company.

Recognition of the training profession Interview 1

More structured offers of continuing training enhance overall recognition.

Recognition at the policy level to support trainers Interview 3

There is no direct support at the policy level. There are no competitions for trainers like there are for apprentices.

Interview 4

There are no competitions for trainers as there are for apprentices. Thus there is no direct support at the policy level.

Recognition of competences and experiences Interview 3

As far as informal competences and experiences are concerned the current developments regarding the recognition of informal qualifications are at the very beginning.

Recognition of career of trainers (how do people become trainers – what are the effects of becoming a trainer on the career? Different career models / pathsways) Interview 3

Trainers are mostly recruited internally (private enterprises). Public institutions have to make official announcements for a vacant trainer position. This is often only done to fulfil formal criteria. As far as career models are regarded, trainers do not follow fixed career paths. In general there are no requirements, no limitations and no obstacles for making a career. In bigger companies trainers have the possibility to become the head of trainers / head of training department.

Interview 4

IVET-Trainers in companies do not follow special career paths. They normally start as skilled workers and then attend a trainer course or pass the trainer examination for being able to work as an IVET trainer. Having the trainer certificate is an additional qualification but does not necessarily mean that they have better career opportunities. Of course there is the possibility to become the leader of the training section but as these positions are not very numerous only a few come to this position.

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Good practice examples Do you know of any initiatives or approaches that you would identify as a ‘good practice example’, maybe in relation how a company or a specific sector tries to account for the changing role and training needs of trainers? Interview 1

At this point I would like to refer to the Austrian competition for IVET-training companies which is named Fit For Future.

Interview 2

There are a lot of good practice examples but in order to name only a few especially the IVET trainer colleges or in the area of concrete companies the International Airport Vienna exercises very good training. But also a lot of small enterprises offer excellent dual vocational training.

Interview 3

VOEST alpine stahl in Linz (capital of Upper Austria): The dual training of apprentices is well organised and so is the training of trainers. Trainers follow special courses at the academic level and are trained in the context of the VET trainer college of a special training association.

Future trends -

How do you see the evolving role of trainers in enterprises? Discuss maybe those issues or some of them where this is of interest to the study

Interview 1

Educational expansion and demographic change, change in culture and attitudes, unemployment of teenagers, changes in management.

Interview 2

International benchmarking gains more and more importance; it has to be considered that not apples and oranges are being compared.

Interview 3

The pedagogic knowledge becomes more and more important for the practical work of in-company trainers. In former times they could rely on their authoritarian position and instruction methods. Since this education model obviously is no longer accepted, nor by pupils and neither by the parents, trainers suffer from firm resistance if they continue to follow the authoritarian model. Of course, there is a certain percentage of drop-out trainers who resign from their profession.* *Compared to teachers the percentage of trainers resigning from their job is lower because of the different situation concerning the employment status (contract, salary etc.)

Interview 4

Trainers face an insecure future as companies must react to demographic problems. Predictions say that the number of young people will decrease due to a constantly low birth rate. Nowadays enterprises yet get hundreds of applications for one job position and enjoy selecting from a wide range of candidates. If the prognosis of some experts is true, in five to ten years companies will find themselves competing for the best talented young people. The first impacts can already be seen: Some companies suffer from a lack of applicants even now. As a consequence IVET-trainers will face pressures from management. On the one hand trainers may be made redundant due to a lack of apprentices; on the other hand trainers must constantly improve their qualifications in order to meet the expectations of management. The management will enforce the target of highly qualified training for apprentices as they can easily change jobs and enterprise. Trainers are not simply responsible for the outcome and the training success anymore. In addition the effectiveness of their training methods will be assessed by setting up concrete training standards.

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January 2008

Country Report LIECHTENSTEIN Sabine Archan & Bettina Lehner Institut für Berufsbildung (ibw), Austria 1. Background and country context National economy Given its small size, Liechtenstein has a very diversificated economic structure with main focus on industrial production. Although financial services are important for the country's national economy, they are not dominant. Compared to other advanced economies in Europe, Liechtenstein is more industrially influenced and less service oriented. The industry and goods-producing sector are responsible for 42 percent of the national added value, while financial services contribute 28 percent and general services about 25 percent. The various enterprises themselves are generally very innovative, often highly specialised, have a strong international alignment and produce generally high quality goods. Employees in Liechtenstein are usually well trained and committed to service, quality and performance. Many industrial enterprises specialise in market niches, where they are very successful and sometimes even world leaders, e.g. Hilti AG in the sector of fastening systems for the construction industry, Ivoclar Vivadent Ltd. in dental products or Swarovski AG in producing facetted crystal stones. Other successful examples are Hilcona AG for food and convenience products, Unaxis Holding Inc. for production systems and services or Krupp Presta AG, which is a supplier for the automotive industry. The productivity of the Liechtenstein economy is above average of most industrial countries. More than 85 percent of the population are said to be in employment, but this extraordinarily high number is due to the large number of commuters to Liechtenstein from Switzerland and from Austria: Out of about 30,000 employees nearly half, that is more than 14,000 people are commuters. The 30,000 employees are employed by about 3,700 employers, which means that one employer employs statistically about eight people. As a result, the typical Liechtenstein enterprise is rather a SME than one of the well known large industrial enterprises. Educational system The general structure of Liechtenstein's educational and training system follows the pedagogical traditions of its German speaking neighbouring countries, whereas influence from Switzerland seems to be stronger than from Austria or Germany. According to Liechtenstein's constitution, the state is responsible for the education and supervises the entire educational and training system. In the school year 2005/2006 4,977 pupils were trained by 641 teachers in public schools in Liechtenstein. There were 58 nursery schools („Kindergärten“) with 770 children, 14 primary schools („Primärschulen“) with 2,159 pupils, 3 high schools („Oberschulen“) with 427 pupils, 5 secondary schools („Realschulen“) with 716 pupils, one grammar school („Gymnasium“) with 695 pupils and und one vocational high school („Berufsmittelschule“) with 138 pupils. The voluntary tenth year („freiwilliges 10. Schuljahr“) was attended by 72 pupils. The final maturity exam („Maturität“) can be obtained after 12 years of school and a vocational maturity exam („Berufsmatura“) can be obtained at a vocational high school „Berufsmittelschule“. A maturity exam is a prerequisite for an academic study

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(„Hochschulstudium“) in Liechtenstein or („Fachhochschulstudium“) at a Swiss university.

Austria

or

an

applied

study

Since 1992 when a new law on higher education became effective there have been four academic institutions in Liechtenstein. At Liechtenstein's university for applied studies, students can choose between architecture, business studies and informatics. In summer term 2005 there were 499 students thereof 105 from Liechtenstein. Else there are the university for humanities which offers the study branches psychology and neurological sciences, the Liechtenstein institute which focuses on Liechtenstein related research topics and an international academy for philosophy. Bilateral agreements with Switzerland and Austria guarantee free access for Liechtenstein's citizens to Austrian and Swiss universities. Regarding Germany, such an agreement exists only with the Eberhard-Karls-Universität in Tübingen. As a result, in the year 2004/05 the majority of the 580 students who were residents in Liechtenstein, attended either Swiss (368) or Austrian (165) universities whereas only 19 studied in Germany. IVET and CVET As the educational system in general, the structure of Liechtenstein's vocational education and training system is very similar to those in its German speaking neighbouring countries which are all based on the dual or trial system. Influences from Switzerland seem to be dominant, but also Austria and Germany have had and still have some influence on Liechtenstein's VET system. While many educational tasks in Switzerland are regulated within the regarding Kantons, vocational education is a federal competence. Swiss vocational education and training is regulated by a federal law on VET that came into force in 2004. The preparatory work involved in drafting the law gave a fresh impetus to Swiss vocational education. 200,000 apprentices, nearly 600 professional associations and approximately 25,000 graduates of higher vocational training schools per year are beneficiaries of a transparent vocational system now valid throughout Switzerland. The Swiss dual system is usually ranked largely positive, but experts nevertheless stress the need for constant reforms of the system and a closer monitoring of changes in the labour market. Innovations by OPET (Federal Office for Professional Education and Technology) in vocational education and training address this issue through legislation, but also through measures for increasing the number of apprenticeships available, further development of the professional baccalaureate, integration of professions in the health care, social work and arts sector, promotion of new types of education and training and by positioning vocational education and training in the international context. On a reduced scale, Liechtenstein VET is based on the same outlines as Swiss VET. Initial vocational education and training is also based on the dual, and respectively on the trial system. While „dual“ refers to in-company training combined with training in a specialised vocational school, the „trial“ system additionally comprises interplant courses, so called „Verbandskurse“, which teach basic practical working skills. Initial vocational education and training is therefore usually transmitted through vocational training in an enterprise and full time or part-time attendance of a vocational school. And sometimes the vocational education comprises also additional trainings, „Verbandskurse“, usually at the beginning of an apprenticeship. As in Switzerland, there is also the option of a more basic and short term vocational education in Liechtenstein, called „Anlehre“. An „Anlehre“ usually takes between one or two years only and is addressed to young people who would not be able to follow a normal apprenticeship for social, physical or mental reasons. This kind of education is usually in step with practical working conditions.

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For high performing apprentices on the contrary, there is the possibility of attending a „Berufsmittelschule“, a vocational high school. The final exam, „Berufsmatura“, a vocational maturity exam, offers various options of further study programmes up to the attendance of universities. Liechtenstein offers nearly 100 different vocational specialisations in form of apprenticeship training. Nevertheless the ten most chosen professions cover more than half of all apprenticeships (52 percent, or 413 of 790 apprenticeships in 2006). The most frequently chosen professions in 2006 were: salesman, computer scientist, electrician, car mechanic, constructing engineer, sanitary technician and car technician. The common characteristic of a profession certainly does not reflect their standard, value and status. But it can be seen as a hint regarding the demand for the profession. And of course some apprenticeships are much more specialised than others and therefore less common. It is obvious that all in all in Liechtenstein a lot more boys (526 in 2006) than girls (264 in 2006) choose vocational formation as their initial vocational education. The choice of professions seems to be more appealing to boys than to girls, although all professions are open to both male and female. Girls and women seem to choose more often an education in the social, pedagogic or health sector, which can apart from some exceptions (e.g. medical assistant or dental assistant) not be learnt in apprenticeship training. In order to attend vocational schools, Liechtenstein's apprentices often travel to Switzerland. All job descriptions, education and examination regulations apply to Liechtenstein accordingly. Basically all vocational apprenticeships that can be learnt in Austria, Switzerland, Germany and Liechtenstein are mutually acknowledged, provided that these professions can be learnt in all countries. In an even closer cooperation, Liechtenstein and Switzerland follow identical training guidelines and rules in the training of their apprentices. Only few apprenticeships show national differences regarding the concept of training and the duration of the apprenticeships. Teacher trainings of Liechtenstein teachers usually take place in Swiss training centres. Training programmes are not provided as part of general compulsory schooling and are only available for pupils aged 16 to 20 years. Admission to vocational training is only possible for pupils who have turned 16 and completed compulsory schooling. Initial vocational training lasts for between two and four years depending on the profession, and The proportion of practical training in the profession accounts for 60 to 80 percent of the training period. Attendance of a vocational school (“Berufsschule”) is compulsory. Companies can only train apprentices if they hold a training permit („Bildungsbewilligung“) issued by the Vocational Training Authority for the relevant profession. In the school year 2004/05 Liechtenstein's enterprises trained 1,076 apprentices, thereof 735 from Liechtenstein, 337 from Switzerland and four from Austria. In 2004 325 apprentices completed their apprenticeships in 74 different professions. 54 apprentices from Liechtenstein were trained in Swiss enterprises. 25 Apprentices completed their apprenticeship in Switzerland. Although grammar schools become more and more popular in Liechtenstein, out of 350 to 400 school graduates per year (about 70 -75 percent) start apprenticeship training. That means that nearly three quarters of the 15 year old population that finish school after nine years start an apprenticeship, which is normally three or four years long. About 700 companies offer a range of nearly 100 different professions in craft, industry, trade, service and administration. Currently some 1,000 apprenticeships are registered. Per year about 330 young professionals conclude their training by passing the final apprenticeship examination. Free career advice is offered by the vocational guidance centres and free training advice by the vocational training authority.

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Training programmes mostly are free of charge to trainees. The costs for vocational training are borne by the state and the training companies. The state pays the costs for vocational schools and examinations while the training company pays the apprentices a reasonable wage. The state bears the usual subsidy rate in Switzerland of 50 percent of the total cost of the mandatory one to two-week introductory courses. The respective training company bears the other 50 percent. There are several options of further education and training after an apprenticeship, according to the regarding apprenticeship. Many apprentices start an additional second apprenticeship subsequent to the first. Schools for continuous vocational training are looked after by the “Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung” (the Liechtenstein National Agency for Vocational Training and Counselling) but must be attended in Switzerland and Austria. Study places are guaranteed by bilateral agreements. The costs for initial vocational education and training in Liechtenstein amount to about 8 million CHF (13.3 million EUR), the costs for continuing vocational education amount to about CHF 2 millions (3.3 million EUR) per year. As a member of EEA, the European Economic Area, Liechtenstein takes part in the vocational educational programmes of the European Union. These are mainly exchange programmes for young skilled workers (MOJA), for learners (Xchange), students (FAMOUS) and trainers (CEDEFOP study visits).

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? 2.1) How is the training of trainers organised, how is it embedded in the general education system and in the further education system? Three different types of “Ausbilder” exist in the Liechtenstein VET system. There are incompany trainers, trainers in interplant courses and trainers in third learning places, like apprenticeship workshops. In Liechtenstein, a trainer in a company is typically involved in initial formative vocational training in a technical division or specialised area of a company. In-company trainers are usually called “Berufsbildner” (male) or “Berufsbildnerin” (female). As the number of trainers in vocational education and training in Liechtenstein is very limited, not much data is available on their situation. This report therefore widely follows the assessment of the central training institute, the so-called “Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung”, the Liechtenstein national agency for vocational training and counselling. The “Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung” can be accessed via internet at: http://www.llv.li/amtsstellen/llv-abb-home.htm. Further insights were gained through a survey which was conducted in the course of the Eurorainer project. Liechtenstein does not require a formal training of trainers, but trainers usually take part in a “Lehrmeisterkurs”, a train the trainer-course which can take place either in Liechtenstein, in Switzerland or Germany. Theses courses usually last one or two days and impart basic knowledge on training and pedagogical skills. 2.2) Which ways do exist to become a trainer and to further develop as a trainer? Curious enough, in Liechtenstein, the so called “Bildungsbewilligung”, the certificate to train apprentices, is issued to companies and not to individuals. But companies must name a “BerufsbildnerIn”, who holds at least a recognised certificate in the relevant profession he or she will train. Before the “Bildungsbewilligung is issued, the agency for vocational training and counselling visits the enterprise that wants to train apprentices. At this occasion the company obtains general information on the apprenticeship and its legal basis and 34

January 2008

objectives. The authorisation of firms that may train apprentices is regulated in a national law on vocational education, the so called “Berufsbildungsgesetz”. Different from Switzerland for example, Liechtenstein does not require a formal training in order to become a trainer in vocational education. But the Liechtenstein national agency for vocational training and counselling is well aware of the fact that the training of young people in their initial vocational education may be a very demanding and responsible task. Good vocational skills and experiences are therefore not considered to be enough for a trainer. To lead and guide young people also requires personal skills and soft skills as patience, empathy and also some pedagogical knowledge. Such skills are among others taught in so called „Lehrmeisterkursen“, train the trainer-courses which the Liechtenstein National Agency for Vocational Training and Counselling highly recommend. Lehrmeister-courses take one or two days only and future trainers might have to travel to Switzerland or Germany in order to attend these courses. Generally it is still rather untypical for trainers in enterprises to engage in continuing training to update their knowledge and skills related to their training activities. 2.3) Who is taking which decisions concerning the work and training of trainers? The “Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung”, the Liechtenstein national agency for vocational training and counselling is the main player in the vocational training sector in Liechtenstein. Holding the status of an official agency, the “Amt für Berufsbildung” is the controlling institution for initial vocational training during vocational apprenticeship. Its main tasks are to consult learners as well as the people who are responsible for education and training, to accredit apprenticeship contracts, to grant educational permits, the certificate to train apprentices, the so called “Bildungsbewilligungen” and to issue certificates on skills and grades and finally to finance initial vocational education and training as well as continuing vocational education and training. A national law on vocational education “Berufsbildungsgesetz” regulates the authorisation of firms that may train apprentices.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? 3.1) How is the training of trainers financed, who invests why into the training of trainers? The work of trainers is financed partly by the enterprises who employ in-company trainers and partly by the state of Liechtenstein, via the “Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung”, the Liechtenstein national agency for vocational training and counselling. 3.2) How much money is invested in the training of trainers (percentage/GDP(gross domestic product))? There is no direct data available. The costs for initial vocational education and training amount to about 8 million CHF (13.3 million EUR), the costs for continuing vocational education amount to about 2 million CHF (3.3 million EUR) per year. The GDP amounts to 4,279 million CHF (7,100 million EUR), but given the large number of commuters (more than 14,000 of 30,000 employees are commuters) it is not easy to draw conclusions from the GDP. 3.3) Who benefits from the work of trainers (average income of trainers, cost-benefit analyses per enterprise/sector/region/nation)? There is no data available, neither on the average income of trainers, nor on cost-benefit analysis. Some enterprises evaluate the quality of the education and training they provide, but usually not on a regular basis. Moreover, the focus of these evaluations is usually on the trainee and not on the trainer and they are generally output-focused.

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3.4) Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? There is no direct data available. Given the international orientation of the Liechtenstein industry and the variety of high quality goods that are produced by the Liechtenstein industry, it may be assumed that highly qualified employees play an important role in the success of Liechtenstein's enterprises.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? 4.1) How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/parttime; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? There are about 700 training companies in Liechtenstein, which employ all in all about 1,000 trainers. Full-time trainers seem to be the exception, they exist only in some of the largest companies. Trainers are normally working full-time in a company and training is more or less additional, part-time work for them. According to an interview partner of the Eurotrainer study trainers in enterprises usually dedicate 10 to 30 percent of their working time to training related activities. As the number of foreign workers is generally high in Liechtenstein, it may be assumed that there are also quite a lot of foreigners among the trainers in enterprises. 4.2) What are the prerequisites to become a trainer? In-company trainers in Liechtenstein typically hold a formal qualification certificate, although it is not a prerequisite, only strongly recommended. Further trainers in enterprises usually have completed an initial vocational training programme to acquire skilled worker status. Generally a trainer in a company is somebody who holds the job position of a trainer and was assigned as trainer by the management or his supervisors. To become a trainer in a company in Liechtenstein a person needs to have above all subjectspecific or technical competences as well as social competences and last but not least long work experience. The typical work tasks of a trainer in a company cover the assessment of skills and competencies of employees and trainees, the counselling and mentoring of trainees, the facilitation of a trainees' or employees' personal development and growth as well as the resolving of conflicts and the balance of different interests. Further tasks of trainers are the implementation of new training and teaching methods, the introduction of learning-supportive elements in the work environment and the establishment of contacts with other training institutions and schools. The most commonly applied training methods are class teaching, demonstration and imitation, task-oriented learning supported by guidelines and self-organised learning. 4.3) How are trainers recruited by enterprises? In-company trainers are usually internally recruited, that is among the existing employees of an enterprise. While larger industrial companies can usually afford to employ full-time trainers, SME in trades and craft usually cannot. Small enterprises and trades and therefore typically lack the necessary personal resources for high quality vocational training. The larger a company, the more professional its standards for trainers are. 4.4) In which main occupational areas trainers have specialised? There is no direct data available. But looking at Liechtenstein's successful industrial enterprises, it may be assumed that the market niches which the enterprises focus on will be at the same time the areas in which trainers have specialised.

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Such areas of specialisation would therefore be the fabrication of fastening systems for the construction industry (Hilti AG), the production of dental products (Ivoclar Vivadent Ltd.) production of facetted crystal stones (Swarovski AG), food and convenience products (Hilcona AG), production systems and services (Unaxis Holding Inc.) or supplies for the automotive industry (Krupp Presta AG). More generally spoken, trainers can be expected to have specialised in high technology products, metal, plastic and sanitary technology, as well as constructing and engineering. Looking at the most commonly chosen apprenticeships in Liechtenstein, a similar impression on the trainers' areas of specialisation can be obtained: After salesman the most frequently chosen apprenticeships in Liechtenstein are computer scientist, electrician, car mechanic, constructing engineer, sanitary technician and car technician. 4.5) Are there too many/not enough trainers in different sectors of the labour market? As trainers in enterprises are usually internally recruited there should be no real shortage as it should be easy enough to recruit the required number of trainers among the employees. But it may well be difficult in financial regards, especially for SMEs, to pay the necessary personal for high quality vocational in-company training.

5. How are trainers qualified? 5.1) Who determines the training contents for trainers and how are these contents found? Generally a trainer in a Liechtenstein company is somebody who holds the job position of a trainer and was assigned as trainer by the management or his supervisors. To become an incompany trainer a person needs to have above all subject-specific or technical competences as well as social competences and last but not least long work experience. In-company trainers in Liechtenstein typically also hold a formal qualification certificate, although it is not a prerequisite. Further trainers in enterprises usually have completed an initial vocational training programme to acquire skilled worker status. Training contents for trainers are usually determined within an enterprise, as also incompany trainers are usually internally recruited, that is among the existing employees of an enterprise. While larger industrial companies can usually afford to employ full-time trainers, SMEs in trades and craft usually can not. Small enterprises and trades therefore typically lack the necessary personal resources for high quality vocational training. The larger a company, the more professional its standards for trainers usually are. Training contents for trainers are widely determined by their work tasks. The typical work tasks of a trainer in a company cover the assessment of skills and competencies of employees and trainees, the counselling and mentoring of trainees, the facilitation of a trainees' or employees' personal development and growth as well as the resolving of conflicts and the balance of different interests. Further tasks of trainers are the implementation of new training and teaching methods, the introduction of learning-supportive elements in the work environment and the establishment of contacts with other training institutions and schools. The most commonly applied training methods are class teaching, demonstration and imitation, task-oriented learning supported by guidelines and self-organised learning. Moreover, the work of in-company trainers has to be in accordance with the regarding national job descriptions and regulations as provided by the national agency for vocational training and counselling. As a member to EEA, European Economic Area, Liechtenstein takes part in the vocational educational programmes of the European Union. Liechtenstein's trainers therefore regularly take part in CEDEFOP study visits. 37


5.2) Which institutions are incorporated in the training of trainers and how do they cooperate? The “Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung”, the Liechtenstein national agency for vocational training and counselling is the main coordinator of trainer trainings and also the main evaluator of in-company training and trainers. But evaluations usually focus on the apprentices, not on the trainers. Trainers use regularly educational reports (so called „Bildungsberichte“) as a measure of leading the apprentices. Every six months, at the occasion of the vocational school report, the trainer and the apprentice talk about the learner's progress, current situation and future targets. In this discussion they usually use a template provided by the “Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung”, the Liechtenstein national agency for vocational training and counselling. The usage of this standardised template makes it easier to compare the results with those of earlier evaluations. Trainer and apprentice have to sign these educational reports and hand in copies to the agency for vocational training and counselling. 5.3) How do trainers acquire competences (theoretical and practical knowledge, work experience)? Different from Switzerland, Liechtenstein does not require formal training in order to become a trainer in vocational education. In Liechtenstein there is no so called “BildungsObligatorium”, or “Lehrmeisterkurs-Obligatorium”, which means that future trainers (“BerufsbilderInnen”) are not obliged to attend special train the trainer-courses. But the Liechtenstein national agency for vocational training and counselling seems to be well aware of the fact that the training of young people in their initial vocational education may be a very demanding and responsible task. Good vocational skills and experiences are therefore not considered to be enough for a trainer. To lead and guide young people also requires personal skills and soft skills as patience, empathy and also some pedagogic and didactic skills and knowledge. Such skills are among others taught in so called „Lehrmeisterkursen“, train the trainer-courses, which the Liechtenstein National Agency for Vocational Training and Counselling highly recommend. These Lehrmeister-courses take one or two days only and partly future trainers have to travel to Switzerland in order to attend these courses. Generally it is still rather untypical for trainers in enterprises to engage in continuing training to update their knowledge and skills related to their training activities. Curious enough, in Liechtenstein, the so called “Bildungsbewilligung”, the certificate to train apprentices, is issued to companies and not to individuals. But companies must name a “ BerufsbildnerIn”, who holds at least a recognised certificate in the relevant profession he or she will train.

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? 6.1) Which functions of social integration are fulfilled through the work and training of trainers? Training related activities are generally well accepted and recognised. Assuming a training role in a company is rather attractive for employees, as it is usually combined with an improvement of status and salary. But there are no concrete measures or practices to raise the attractiveness of assuming a training role in a company nor to enhance the overall status of this role in Liechtenstein. 6.2) How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? 38

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According to the appraisal of the head of the national agency for vocational training and counselling, a training role in a company in Liechtenstein is recognised by the enterprise. Training related activities are said to have a positive impact not only on the status of the employee, but also on his salary. The key motivational factors for employees to assume the role of a trainer in an enterprise therefore are employer-related incentives such as higher pay, higher status, better career prospects, personal interest and qualifying aspects as the trainer role is usually broadening the range of skills. 6.3) Which is the unemployment-rate of trainers? There is no data available. But given the generally very low rate of 1.3 percent of unemployment in Liechtenstein, it may be assumed that also unemployment among trainers is far below the European average. The absolute number of workforce is 30,000, out of which less than 400 people are unemployed.

7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? 7.3) Which are weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers? Where is a need for reform? Qualifications and competencies of in-company trainers are never assessed, monitored or adjusted in Liechtenstein. Also up to now no methodological tools are in place to assess the qualifications and competencies of trainers in Liechtenstein's enterprises. Moreover, trainers in enterprises do generally not regularly engage in continuing training to update their knowledge and skills related to their training activities. This is mostly due to the fact, that there are no adequate training offers or that trainers typically do not have access to such offers as well as to the fact that trainers are not supported by their employers to participate in continuous learning. In the course of the Eurotrainer survey, an interview partner criticises the lack of a legal basis for trainer trainings and the lack of mandatory guidelines for continuous trainer trainings in Liechtenstein. Another problem seems to be that SMEs – as in most other European countries - often lack the necessary personal resources for high quality vocational incompany training. 7.4) Are there any ‘good practice examples’ at company or sectoral level? A good practice example is the “Juniorenfirma Vice Versa” set up by Hilti AG. The concept of this junior company is an enterprise entirely run by “juniors”, young apprentices in their third year of apprenticeship. The idea is that the juniors shall develop entrepreneurial thinking, skills and abilities through their work in the firm. The juniors operate very professional, and even via internet they can be visited at http://www.jufa.li/. A German press article about the junior firm at Hilti AG is available at: http://www.jufa.li/viceversa/Zeitungsartikel.pdf

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Country Report BULGARIA Vania Tividosheva D&D Group LTD, Bulgaria 1. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? In Bulgaria, the training of trainers as part of the general education system is provided by the National Centre for Pedagogical Support (NCPS). NCPS is affiliated to the Ministry of Education and Science, which has the responsibility to provide methodological and practical support to teachers and pedagogical advisors. Starting from 2005, NCPS organised training for more that 50.000 teachers all over the country through its 28 regional offices (NUTS II). Training programme implementation is funded by the Ministry of Education and Science as concerns VET schools teachers, and from Municipalities with respect to teachers from General and Comprehensive schools. As concerns the training of trainers, no particular regulation or legislation exist for trainers, who do not have a teacher qualification. In most the enterprises training functions are delegated to HRD managers or to workers with a proven experience, who then act as advisors or on-the-job-trainers. The forms of work-based training may vary significantly depending on the specific conditions and work environments. Large enterprises usually have their own systems for work-related training, standardised for all branches. This training system is implemented by specialised departments for human resources development, where the Human Resources Manager is a key player. In small and medium-sized companies, two basic models of training delivery are usually applied: -

Training organised by the employer him/herself, with the active participation of the heads of departments or experienced staff members as trainers; this form of organisation may be very effective when training new workers for a particular job or upon expansion of certain operations or technologies. In some cases this type of training is reduced to “on-thejob instruction” and is similar to informal (self-directed) training.

-

Training organised by a training institution. In this case the training institution assumes the role of an ‘in-company training department’ and organises the training in close interaction with the company managers.

Teacher qualifications can be acquired at a Higher Educational Institution after successfully having passed theoretical courses, practical exercises and examinations in pedagogy, physiology and methodology of training in particular subject. There are 3 levels of study relevant to HE system, namely – bachelor, master, and doctorate programmes for initial teachers training. In addition, there are specialized Universities that provide continuing teachers training for the up-grading of qualification level. There are five qualification levels, of which the ‘1’qualification is the highest. The Education system gives additional opportunities for acquiring teacher qualifications after a completed bachelor degree notwithstanding of the subject area. There are post-graduated studies departments at Universities who provide training for teacher qualifications. Trainees can obtain teachers qualification for teaching subjects relevant to their bachelor speciality. Concerning trainers in enterprises there are no particular requirements for becoming a trainer. In most cases these functions are implemented by HR managers, or HR Departments as well as by skilled workers who have the demonstrated work experience and act as mentors, or advisors to the rest of employees. 41


Overall, the work and training of trainers is determinate by the HR policy and in general development strategies that some enterprises apply. There are no particular frameworks or requirements to be followed. In the last few years, work-related training has entered a new stage as smaller companies as well as the public sector are realising the growing importance of training, first to facilitate the process of familiarising new employees with their work tasks and job rotation; and second to meet changes in the requirements of employee performance resulting from changes in technologies in the companies, ICT innovations or new production lines in particular.

2. Economy: How is the work and training of trainers financed? According to a continuing training survey conducted in 2005 under the ‘Phare’ programme and based on 2004 data, out of 53.060 enterprises, firms and organisations only 14.199 enterprises or 26.8 per cent organised some kind of training for their employees. This percentage varies considerably according to the size of the company and the number of staff: The highest percentage – 70 per cent – was reached by enterprises with more than 250 employees, while the micro enterprised showed the lowest percentage of 18.5 per cent. At the same time this type of training included only few courses focusing on instructions, job rotation and self-study. Only 14.2 per cent of the employees in the interviewed enterprises took part in training. Depending on the concrete circumstances, the financing of training of trainers can be taken over by the employer or be financed by external resources such as the still on-going Phare project or National Programmes after successful project application to the respective financing authority. In ‘Operational Programmes Human Resource Development and Competitiveness (20072013)’, which are the instruments for the implementation of the European Social Fund in Bulgaria there are several priorities and measures for supporting the training of trainers. However, the first call for projects under the ESF Programmes was done at the end of 2007 so that the evaluation process is still on-going. Until now no practical examples are available. In terms of investments in the training of trainers, no statistical data is available. The only data available is related to the overall percentage of expenses for education and training, which in 2006 was 4.9 per cent of Bulgarias GDP. Overall, the work and training of trainers – and work-related training in particular – are identified as opportunities to achieve better business results in the company since the mastering of tasks and better skills of employees lead to increased productivity and decreased work incidents. There is strong political support for raising awareness of the importance of training and training of trainers. Such a support is given in Strategical and Programme Documents which are under implementation such as the National Plan for Economic Development (2007-2013), National Strategy for Employment Promotion (2005-2010), National CVT Strategy (2005-2010), National Strategy for Development of SMEs (2007-2013), OP Human Resource Development (2007-2013), OP Competitiveness (2007-2013), OP Administrative Capacity (2007-2013).

3. Selection and Allocation No statistical data are available on how many people or employees are assuming training tasks in companies in Bulgaria. As concerns the prerequisites to becoming a trainer, teachers and trainers in the formal system are required to have a teacher qualification. The formal 42

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requirements are regulated by the Public Education Act and with Ordinance for its implementation. In compliance with those requirements teachers and trainers need to have at least a bachelor degree. However, this does not apply to trainers at enterprises. Thus, trainers in enterprises typically are practitioners with significant work experience and professional and personal competences. In addition, they need to have a minimum education level typically equivalent to completion of Upper Secondary Education (Gymnasia). Depending on the concrete parameters and standards of the enterprise, the trainers might be recruited with a particular job description for staff training programmes design and the delivering of training. This is the case for some big public companies such as the National Agency for Incomes, or some private companies like the Bulgarian telecommunication Company. Those companies operate their own specialised training departments. In SMEs, on-the-job training is usually provided by experienced workers and/or HR managers. Another practical option is sub-contracting a specialied training institution or a team of trainers on a civil contract basis for providing training relevant to the needs of the employer. Such trainings are part of non-formal continuing training of employees and usually continue for several days. In companies with existing HR and Training Departments trainers typically are specialists in the following areas: HR management, ICT and physiology. Depending on the branch and area of work, trainers might have a specialisation in a particular vocational or technical area. However, there is no statistical or survey data available.

4. Qualification: How are trainers qualified? Training programmes for trainers that are implemented in the formal educational system (Educational Institutions and Universities) are designed by the Universities or educational institutions in compliance with the requirements specified in the Public Education Act, and respectively successfully passed through programme accreditation done by the National Agency for Accreditation and Evaluation. In addition to Universities and other educational institutions, the Bulgarian Chamber of Crafts, Bulgarian Industrial Association and Bulgarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry have their own VET centres that provide training to representatives from different branches and sectors – upon request, or as part of the VET centres’ programme. After three semesters study in a bachelor programme that includes both theoretical and practical modules, students can obtain a teacher qualification. Second level is a master degree where programmes continue from 2-4 semesters depending on the bachelor programme completed (which is the entrance requirement for a master degree). Doctoral programmes continue 3 years. In addition, there are post-graduate study programmes that are short-term with the accent on the practical modules. Continuation usually is 2 semesters. The formal education system for acquiring a teacher or trainer qualification requires theoretical courses in didactics, physiology, methodology of training, vocational subject-specific courses relevant to the area of study. This is followed by theoretical examinationa and practical exercises, which cover at least 36 lessons in school and a final practical examination. The learning programmes are useful mainly in terms of practice-based learning as part of practical modules in the programmes. Work experience is also taken into consideration for acquisition of additional qualification, for example: after 4 years of work experience teachers can apply to study in a Department for further teacher qualification for the lowest further qualification level 5. After successfully passing the training programme and examinations, teachers acquire the qualification level 5 and after that can apply for higher qualification level. The trainers of trainers in most cases

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are University lectures with a proven experience in the respective field and a solid research and practical professional background. Training programmes at enterprises are designed by each individual company and strongly targeted to the specific needs or elaborated as task assignments to the sub-contractor for the delivering of training (in case of an external training provider, institution, team of trainers or individual trainer). Formal certificates have are very important for the formal system – Educational Institutions, Universities, Schools, Training Centres, VET training Centres. Thouse institutions are obliged to recruit trainers that have certificates and a formal qualification. In enterprises, formal qualifications and certificates have a medium or in some cases (SMEs) low level of importance. In entrprises, key competences and work performance that practitioners have demonstrated are most important.

5. Integration: How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises and society? The work of trainers is respected and recognised in enterprises and in the Bulgarian society as a high professional profile which requires knowledge and expertise. Notwithstanding the respective attitude towards trainers, in terms of financial aspects the training profession and position is not well paid. In terms of statistics on the employment status and unemployment rates of trainers no data is available.

6. Innovation In most cases quality, relevance and efficiency of trainers’ training is assessed by the trainees through feedback questionnaires. In addition, managers also evaluate the quality of training in terms of fulfilment of preliminary expectations and needs of the company. There is no introduced system for monitoring and evaluation of the training in companies to be applied at a more systemic level or on a regular and regulative basis. Research: There is a national report on “Teachers and Trainers” which has been prepared with financial support from the European Training Foundation in 2000. No research at a more regular basis has been conducted since this project-based survey. There is not particular research institution with the functions of observation and analysis of training of trainers’ process. A strength of the training of trainers might be the relatively high level of educational, professional and work experience requirements for trainers of trainers. A weakness is the lack of: modern flexible legislation that support career development as a trainer of trainers; the nonformal and informal ways of competence development are not recognised and validated. Also, there is no financial stimulus for employers who recruit trainers such as taxe reductions for trainers. Overall, modern methodological and financial support is lacking. Examples of ‘good practice’ The Training Department at the National Agency for Incomes provides regular training to all employees, which included training in ICT, team working skills, time management, communication skills and other skills specific to the scope of activities and training programmes. 44

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Bulgaria: Summary of expert interview 1. Introduction - What is your role/function/relationship to the work and training of trainers? As member of the Academic staff of Sofia University as lecturer in methodology of training, Methodology Department at Faculty of Slavic Studies, I am a trainer. 2. Identify major issues / key challenges in a national perspective - Can you identify 3 major issues or big challenges that in-company trainers in your country face at the moment? Lack of specialists in training of adults that use adult training methodology; most universities provide training in general pedagogy and methodology and do not apply specified methods for adults training. Lack of demand concerning the training of staff, trainers in particular in the sector of SMEs In general, the training of trainers and the regular up-dating of knowledge and competences is not regulated and stimulated in an appropriate way and to an appropriate extent. -

Discuss those issues or some of them where this is of interest to the study

The first needed change, in my opinion, is related to legislation amendments in terms of stimulating employers in investments in the training of staff. Another important further development that is needed is related to Higher education providers which shall offer more opportunities for specialists in adult training. Such programmes might be designed through active cooperation with enterprises while their needs are taken into account. Programmes could be prepared as bachelor, master or post graduate studies.

3. Discuss in a national perspective common issues that may be of relevance across Europe -

Staff shortages of trainers and remedies

In most cases, the training of staff, especially in soft competences, is provided by external trainers or companies that have such a profile. Concerning the transferring of experience from older to younger workers, this is an informal process – no legal requirements, frameworks or stimuli exist. The process depends on employers and managers’ approach and vision for work organisation. -

Professionalisation of in-company trainers

Legislation related to trainers needs further improvement. This is concluded in the analysis done in the Operational Programme Human Resource Development and is one of the priorities defined by the National Strategy for Continuing Vocational Training. Here teachers’ training and the training of trainers are prioritized. In practical terms the training of trainers has not been applied on a regular basis. Motivation is mainly personal for skills up-grading and, respectively, for career development. In such cases trainers pay themselves for continuing training or follow informal learning approaches, self-directed learning and autonomous learning. Big companies and public organizations organize training for trainers or HR staff.

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-

Recognition of trainer at different levels

Trainers have a good social status in enterprises and in society. In general, there is respect for this professional activity. At the policy level there is need for better understanding of the importance of the training profession thus some possible motivation could be generated through legislation stimulus – both to employers and education institutions that provide initial and continuing training.

4. Good practice examples -

Do you know of any initiatives or approaches that you would identify as a ‘good practice example’, maybe in relation how a company or a specific sectors tries to account for the changing role and training needs of trainers?

In the National Agency for Incomes there is a Training Department where trainers have full time agreements for providing regular training targeted to required competences. These trainings are part of HR strategy implemented in the Institution.

5. Future trends -

How do you see the evolving role of trainers in enterprises? Discuss maybe those issues or some of them where this is of interest to the study

The most important future step is related to legislation changes for example, tax concessions for employers that invest in training and appoint trainers, or give additional stimulus either financial, or carrier bettering for mentors and advisors at work place.

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January 2008

Country Report CYPRUS Vana Kanellopoulou Organisation for Vocational Education & Training – O.E.E.K, Greece 1. Background and Country Context The Cyprus LLL Strategy covers all levels and types of education and training, including i) formal, informal and non-formal learning; ii) pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary education including adult and continuing education and training; iii) school education, technical education and training, second chance school education, adult education and training; and iv) training that meets the needs of particular groups of the Cypriot society. Cyprus has included the EU benchmarks into its aims for improving the quality of its education system and its LLL strategies. Some of these EU benchmarks and measures for progress are: (a) The incidence of early school leavers – Cyprus does not agree with the European statistics concerning this particular benchmark and the Commission has already been officially informed. Through the special education programme which operates within the school system of Cyprus, more opportunities are offered to pupils in order to overcome their learning difficulties. General school programmes are complemented with - Involving school psychologists through special programmes and offering pupils with learning difficulties support to enhance their performance at school, improve their learning and prevent early withdrawal from the school system. - Operation of second chance schools in all main towns of Cyprus. These offer special opportunities to those who are considered early school leavers to re-enter the school system and proceed in order to acquire qualifications for higher education entry. - Offering a state allowance for tertiary education in order to encourage young people to enter tertiary education programmes. - Re-designing apprenticeship programmes in order to offer young people an alternative form of training, which can contribute to their personal development and at the same time meet the needs of the labour market. (b) The numbers of graduates from secondary and higher education, particularly of those who pursue a degree in mathematics, sciences and technology. The creation of the new Cyprus Technological University and Engineering School of the University of Cyprus will contribute to raising the numbers of graduates in the fields specified above Further, the establishment of new Universities in Cyprus (Technological and Open Universities), new faculties in the University of Cyprus and the establishment of private universities are also major contributions towards increasing the numbers of graduates of higher education programmes. (c) Increase the numbers of teachers participating in in-service training seminars. This includes the upgrading/restructuring of the Pedagogical Institute, which is the main provider of such seminars in Cyprus. The Pedagogical Institute aims at offering seminars directly addressed to teachers’ needs. They are typically close to their location and school based. The European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) has been introduced by the Pedagogical Institute so that the skills and knowledge acquired by teachers can be accredited. New compulsory and improved in-service training programmes for all teachers and a review based on a needs analysis are already offered. The creation of linkages and networks between the Pedagogical Institute and other educational institutions is also being supported. (d) Increase the participation of adults in lifelong learning programmes to support the up-grading of skills and competences of people at work, secure their employability and 47


meet the needs of the economy. This includes providing opportunities for training in basic skills and entrepreneurship for economically inactive adults to facilitate their (re-)entry into the labour market and reduce their risk of social exclusion as well as extending the scope of programmes offered by Adult Education Centres in order to enhance active citizenship, civic education, the development of vocational skills and basic languages and computer literacy. Vocational education and training (Epangelmatiki Ekpaidefsi kai Katartisi) includes all types of education and training that give people the qualifications needed to enter the labour market and to work in vocationally-based jobs. There is no formal or legal definition of VET in Cyprus. Therefore the boundaries between IVET and CVET are not legally defined. They were not even clearly identified prior to the establishment of the Cyprus ReferNet consortium and the production of relevant reports on these issues. Relevant reports in this context are ‘Initial Vocational Education and Training in Cyprus’ and ‘Continuing Vocational Education and Training in Cyprus’. In Cyprus, IVET is available in four levels: At the upper secondary level the main provider is the Upper Secondary Technical and Vocational Education STVE (Defterovathmia Techniki kai Epangelmatiki Ekpaidefsi, DTEE). STVE is also the provider for apprenticeship programmes (Systima Mathiteias). At the post secondary level there exist a variety of providers such as private colleges, private and public training institutions and enterprises. The Human Resource Development Authority, HRDA (Archi Anaptyxis Anthropinou Dynamikou, AnAD) plays an important role at this level, too as it approves and subsidises training programmes submitted by these providers. Finally, IVET is available at the tertiary level where public institutions of tertiary education are the main providers. CVET is well established in Cyprus. The dominant actor in the field is the HRDA as it approves and subsidises training programmes implemented by public and private institutions and enterprises. In publicly promoted CVET there is an overabundance of providers, both public (such as the STVE and other public training institutions) and private (including colleges, training institutions and enterprises). Public and private training institutions offer a variety of courses for adults including training programmes for the unemployed and other vulnerable groups. CVET initiated by enterprises or the social partners is provided by public and private training institutions and enterprises. Finally, the government through its public institutions assumes responsibility for the training and development of civil servants, police officers and sergeants, nurses and farmers.

2. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? The different types of VET teachers and trainers by type of occupation and place of work are described below. Also the distinction of teachers and trainers in IVET versus CVET is graphically depicted.

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The dominant actor in the field of vocational training and development is the Human Resource Development Authority (HRDA – Archi Anaptyxis Anthropinou Dynamikou, AnAD), which approves and subsidises training programmes implemented by public and private institutions. The HRDA is not a training provider as such, but its establishment and operations influence the development of the training market in Cyprus. Thus HRDA also affects, directly or indirectly, the development of trainers. HRDA is a semi-government organisation originally established under the provisions of Law 21 of 1974 under the name of Industrial Training Authority of Cyprus. Since November 1999 when the Human Development Law, No. 125(I) came into effect, it continued its operation under the name of Human Resource Development Authority. The Authority is under the government attached to the Minister of Labour and Social Insurance which is, by law, the ministry in charge. The HRDA is governed by a Board of Governors comprised of a total of 13 government, employer and trade union representatives. The HRDA is responsible for the promotion, gradual establishment and operation of a system of vocational qualifications. The Human Resource Development Law of 1999 (No 125 (I)/99) broadened the authority’s power and gave new impetus to establishing standards of vocational qualifications. More specifically, the new law authorises the HRDA to “set standards of vocational qualifications for any category or categories of persons employed, provide for the assessment and issue the relevant certificates of vocational qualifications”. In 2004, HRDA 49


launched a feasibility study and discussions continue to formulate and develop an outline and main parameters for a System of Vocational Qualifications to be gradually established in Cyprus. In November 2005, the Council of Ministers decided that the premises, machinery, equipment and instructors of the public institutions will be availble to support the the first phase of implementing the new system. In terms of differentiating between teachers and trainers in VET, the same types of both professional groups are applied in IVET as well as in CVET without any clear distinction between the two. Usually the term ‘teacher’ refers to educators at all levels of the formal education system (primary, secondary and tertiary) whereas ‘trainer’ refers to persons providing training in the framework of the Cypriot training system. A ‘teacher’ further is used to denote persons working mainly in the formal part of the VET system, more specifically in upper Scondary Technical and Vocational Education (STVE), public institutions of tertiary education and private colleges. A trainer, by contrast, works mainly in the non-formal part of the VET system, particularly in private and public training Institutions (such as Cyprus Productivity Centre or Cyprus Academy of Public Administration), enterprises, and initial and continuing training programmes provided by public training institutions including training for specific economic sectors and occupations (such as training for civil servants by the Cyprus Academy of Public Administration CAPA – ‘Kypriaki Akadimia Dimosias Dioikisis’, KADD). These programmes, with the exception of programmes for civil servants, may be submitted to the HRDA and if approved receive a subsidy. Like HDRA Cyprus TTnet is the network of national networks that allows key players and decision makers in the field of training of teachers and trainers to share practices, knowledge and expertise on key issues in the professional development of VET teachers and trainers.

3. Economy: How is the work and training of trainers financed? HRDA’s main source of income derives from the Human Resource Development levy paid by all companies in the private sector and semi-government organisations. Civil servants and the self-employed are excluded from the HRDA’s sphere of competence. All participants in the the Pre-service Training Programme, PTP (Programma Proypiresiakis Katartisis), who attend the working hours sessions of the programme, receive a monthly allowance of around €520 (£300), which can differ slightly depending on the distance the trainees have to travel in order to attend the programme. The salaries of teachers in STVE and in the public institutions of tertiary education are determined by salary scales as a consequence of long standing agreements between the trade unions and the government. The progression in these salary scales is effected in the form of annual increments and adjustments due to increases in the costs of living. In the case of teachers in private colleges and trainers in private training institutions and enterprises, salaries are negotiated on an individual basis.The annual gross salary of a civil servant (teacher and trainer) in IVET in 2005 was 21,242 Euros. This annual gross salary is the same for both teachers of general education subjects and of technological or workshop practice subjects, teachers in public institutions of tertiary education and to the trainers in public training institutions who hold a university degree relevant to the subject they teach. In the case of teachers of technological or workshop practice subjects there is a small number of teachers which was appointed before December 1978 with a diploma of the Higher Technical Institute of Cyprus, HTI (Anotero Technologiko Institouto, ATI) in a specialty related to the area they teach. These teachers are getting an annual gross salary of €13,923. Teachers in some public institutions of tertiary education and trainers in public training institutions who hold a tertiary non-university diploma relevant to the subject they teach receive 17.394 Euro annually. Trainers with this kind of qualifications can teach as long as they have 5 years work experience in their area of specialisation. There are also cases of teachers of 50

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technological or workshop practice subjects who get appointed with having just a diploma of HTI which is considered equivalent to the British technician level qualification (Higher National Diploma, HND) only when inspectors of the Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education request it. Additionally, a very small number of teachers of technical or workshop practice subjects, mainly of the specialties of shoemaking, goldsmithing and silversmithing, and fashion and dressmaking were appointed with post secondary education qualifications of between one and two years duration. These teachers are on a lower annual gross salary of €13,234. Both VET teachers and trainers play a significant role in the development of the IVET and CVET system as they are involved in the design of the curricula of programmes of their institutions based on their experience, regular contacts with enterprises and knowledge of relevant research. In the case of teachers there is more active involvement in the design of the curricula, new methods of pedagogy and the assessment of learners’ coursework. Trainers are mainly involved in the development of training activities to respond to the changing needs of the economy. Trainers in private training institutions and enterprises play a significant role in the development of training activities. In cooperation with the managers of the training institutions and the management of their enterprises respectively they plan the training activities and are involved in the identification of target groups, development of the curricula, selection of suitable training tools and the organisation of the programmes. In the case of programmes that will be submitted to the Human Resource Development Authority, HRDA (Archi Anaptyxis Anthropinou Dynamikou, AnAD) for approval and fincial subsidies, those have to conform with the annual thematic priorities for multicompany training programmes and to satisfy the requirements of the HRDA. The submitted programmes are required to be prepared in accordance with the HRDA´s specifications which entail providing information on specific items. These include: -

Title of the programme Duration, dates and timing of the programme Place of implementation Available places Aim of the programme Objectives of the programme Target groups Training tools and methods Assessment system Trainer’s curriculum vitae.

4. Selection and allocation: How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? All appointments to the public secondary education system are governed by article 28 of the Unified Education Legislation and administered by the Education Service Committee, ESC (Epitropi Ekpaideftikis Ypiresias, EEY), an independent body of authority appointed by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Cyprus. Following a request by the Ministry of Education and Culture, MoEC (Ypourgeio Paideias kai Politismou, YPP) the ESC appoints teachers to the public secondary education system from a selected list of candidates according to the rank of each applicant (there are individual rank lists for every particular specialisation of teachers required by Secondary Technical and Vocational Education, STVE). The ranking is determined on the basis of the following criteria: −

The year of submission of the application; 51


− − − − −

The year of acquisition of the basic qualification required for the specific position as stated in the scheme of service for the position; The grade of the basic qualification; Any additional qualifications acquired after completion of the basic qualification required for the particular position; Previous educational service; Completion of service in the National Guard (for male applicants only).

All candidates appointed to the STVE as teachers of technological and/or workshop practice subjects are required, in addition to the basic qualification stipulated by the scheme of service for the post, to provide evidence of two years of work experience in their area of specialisation unless they hold a masters degree either in their area of specialisation or in the field of education. It must be noted that this requirement does not apply to teachers of general education subjects in STVE. Recently a new teacher training procedure has come into effcect: The introduction of the Preservice Training Programme (PTP – Programma Proypiresiakis Katartisis), which has been made an obligatory requirement for all new appointments to the Educational Service since 2000. Until recently, teachers of public secondary education were recruited without the prerequisite of pedagogical training. However, recognising the role of teachers in the effort to upgrade the educational system of Cyprus and to improve the quality of teaching, the MoEC decided to bring into action an act on the initial training of teachers entering the public secondary education system. This act stipulates that all new appointees to public secondary education (general as well as technical and vocational secondary education) are required by law to have proof of successful completion of a teacher training programme, the Pre-service Training Programme. The Pedagogical Institute of Cyprus, PI (Paidagogiko Institouto, PI) undertakes the responsibility for organising and implementing the PTP in cooperation with the University of Cyprus, UCY (Panepistimio Kyprou, PK) and other universities abroad. In Upper Secondary Technical and Vocational Education (STVE), two different types of teachers are included. These are the teachers of general education subjects (kathigites mesis genikis ekpaidefsis) and the teachers of technological and/or workshop practice subjects (kathigites technologikon kai ergastiriakon mathimaton). These two types of teachers have the same pre-admission requirements apart from the two years of work experience the teachers of technological or workshop practice subjects must have in the area of their specialisation. The two years of work experience is a requirement unless they hold a masters degree either in their area of specialisation or in the field of education. Nevertheless, these two types of teachers belong to different trade unions and even have different names in the local language. Considering the work they do for the purposes of this report both types of educators are classified as teachers. STVE teachers teach different subjects at the Adult Education Centres (Epimorfotika Kentra). According to the statistics of 2003-2004, the number of people involved in VET as teachers or trainers is 1,448 (1,034 male and 414 female). In the case of teachers working exclusively in the afternoon and evening classes of technical schools (Ekpaideftika Programmata Apogevmatinon kai Vradinon Tmimaton Technikis Ekpaidefsis) the minimum requirement is to have an appropriate diploma in their subject area. Teachers in all public institutions of tertiary education, according to the job specifications, must hold either a diploma from a tertiary institution, usually the one in which they are teaching, or a degree relevant to the subject they will teach. Additionally,all public institutions ask for work experience as an entry requirement for teachers, the length of which varies according to the position. Only in two of these institutions, the Police Academy (Astynomiki Akadimia Kyprou) and the Nursing School (Nosileftiki Scholi), pre-service training is a requirement. Teachers in private colleges usually hold the same or higher qualifications corresponding to the subjects they teach. Previous work experience and pre-service training are usually not required although colleges will consider them as an advantage when hiring teachers. 52

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Trainers in the Cyprus Productivity Centre, CPC (Kentro Paragogikotitas, KEPA), according to job specifications, must hold either a diploma from a tertiary institution or a degree relevant to the subject they teach. Additionally, they must have work experience, the length of which varies according to the position. For private training institutions and enterprises no commonly set requirements for trainers exist, but each training institution or enterprise sets their standards. If a private training institution wihses to submit training programmes to be approved and subsidised by the HRDA, through HRDA’s initial training schemes, then their trainers need to conform to the HRDA criteria of educational background, work experience and teaching experience. Pre-service training of IVET trainers is mandatory only when they do not have any previous teaching experience. The initial and continuing training programmes provided by enterprises can be with or without the assistance of external training institutions. These programmes may be submitted to the HRDA and if approved receive a subsidy.

5. Qualification: How are trainers qualified? The Pedagogical Institute follows a common policy for the training of teachers in Cyprus. Through the Pedagogical Institute the Ministry of Education and Culture provides various opportunities for the teachers’ professional development. The Pedagogical Institute organizes a series of courses and seminars based on the needs identified annually by the Ministry of Education and Culture. These courses are either compulsory or optional. The compulsory courses comprise a pre-service training course for secondary school teachers and in-service training courses for newly appointed heads of secondary schools, deputy heads of secondary schools and deputy heads of primary schools. All these series of courses include sessions dealing with EU priority issues as, for example, new technologies in education, intercultural education and the European dimension in education and action research. Starting from the academic year 2007-2008 the pre-service training for secondary school teachers will be undertaken by the University of Cyprus in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and Culture in an effort to upgrade this training. The optional courses offered by the Cyprus Pedagogical Institute (CPI) are organised according to the teachers’ needs as identified by the CPI in cooperation with the departments of primary, secondary general and secondary technical/vocational education. They are held in the afternoon (after school hours) in selected centres around Cyprus or on a school premises. Another opportunity for in-service training for teachers is offered to them through the European Lifelong Learning Programme, which subsidizes their participation in training seminars in other European Countries. According to data provided by the Cyprus National Agency of the programme, there is great interest among teachers for participating in these seminars. The teachers of secondary education are obliged to attend seminars twice a year, which are organized by the inspectors of their subject. During these seminars the priorities of the particular year and the innovations that the Ministry of Education and Culture plans to implement are presented to the teachers. During the last two years, funds from the European Social Fund have been used for the training of teachers on the use of new technologies. So far, around 40 per cent of all teachers have been trained.There are also plans for training the teachers on the use of the new software that has been purchased by ESF money. The mission of the HRDA is to create the necessary prerequisites for the planned and systematic training and development of Cyprus’ human resources at all levels and in all sectors following the overall national socio-economic policies. HRDA’s role in the development of the training of trainers has been very important. Its main effects are:

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1. The HRDA accepts applications from public and private training institutions and enterprises, which propose both initial and continuing programmes. Public training institutions cater mostly for technology and craft programmes while private institutions cater mostly for business, management, IT and service-oriented programmes. In order for the HRDA to subsidise a training programme it has to examine whether programme and trainer comply with specific criteria set by the HRDA. Therefore, trainers have to conform with pre-set criteria concerning their educational and professional background. 2. The HRDA supports the modernisation of the training infrastructure of training institutions and enterprises including the training of trainers of both public and private training providers in order to be able to provide the approved training programmes more effectively by the use of modern training technologies. 3. In recognition of the immense significance and contribution of human resource development the HRDA has been organising training programmes for trainers, which were delivered by overseas collaborators, for the past few years. There are two types of training programmes: one can be attended by inexperienced trainers and others by experienced ones. Both programmes are on a voluntary basis and open to all trainers in Cyprus irrespective of the training sector in which they are involved. 4. One of the strategic objectives of the HRDA for the period 2004-2006 was to promote the review and gradual introduction of a system for the assessment and certification of training providers including trainers. The Pedagogical Institute (Paidagogiko Institouto, PI) of Cyprus issues for each trainee who completes the Pre-Service Training Programme (PTP) a certificate of accreditation. This certificate is issued only as proof of competence for appointment as teacher in Secondary Technical and Vocational Education (STVE; Mesi Techniki kai Epaggelmatiki Ekpaidefsi, MTEE) and must be submitted to the Education Service Committee,ESC (Epitropi Ekpaideftikis Ypiresias, EEY). In the case of the Nursing School (Nosileftiki Scholi) the assessment and quality monitoring of teachers is the same as for the STVE teachers. Concerning the Cyprus Police Academy (Astynomiki Akadimia Kyprou) the assessment and quality monitoring of teachers is the sole responsibility of the Cyprus Police Academy. In the rest of the public institutions of tertiary education, pre-service training of IVET teachers is not a requirement for teaching. In-service continuing training is being provided either in a voluntary or compulsory base to all types of IVET teachers: teachers in public upper Secondary Technical and Vocational Education, STVE (Defterovathmia Techniki kai Epangelmatiki Ekpaidefsi, DTEE), in public institutions of tertiary education and in private colleges. Continuing training for public upper STVE teachers consists of the following training programmes and developmental activities: − − −

Compulsory training of Deputy Headmasters and Headmasters of Technical and Vocational Education Schools; Continuing training and development programmes for teachers; Special developmental activity: Change agent teams;

Training of school Deputy Headmasters is mandatory for all new appointments to the post and lasts 100 hours. It is organised by the Pedagogical Institute for one day per week for 26 weeks. Training of school headmasters is also mandatory and takes place at the PI during the academic year following their promotion to the post. It lasts 60 hours and comprises 15 sessions of four hours each. In-service, continuing training of teachers in private colleges is common practice. It is voluntary in all private colleges and there is no incentive system to increase participation in attending continuing training programmes yet. A personal incentive to participate in such training 54

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programmes is the upgrading of knowledge and skills in order to conform to the requirements of their employers and to provide a more competitive product in a highly competitive market. The majority of in-service training programmes attended by the teachers in private colleges are related to the colleges’ areas of interest as well as to the teachers’ training needs. Private colleges participate in multinational exchange programmes for IVET teachers such as Leonardo da Vinci and Socrates-Erasmus.

6. Integration: How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? Teachers in upper secondary technical and vocational education Apart from being responsible for teaching their subject and ensuring the progression of their learners, teachers of public secondary education play a significant role in the system of technical and vocational training since, clustered by various groups, they are also responsible for carrying out the following tasks: −

− − − − −

Draw up the analytical programmes of the curricula and also the profiles of the graduates under the supervision of the respective inspector of each of the branches offered by Secondary Technical and Vocational Education. Write and/or revise school books. Develop audiovisual aids for the classroom. Develop and implement modern methods of teaching and learning. Assess their learners’ coursework and prepare and mark final exam papers. Participate in the planning of the annual budget for their specialty. Teachers also draw up the specifications of the equipment for their specialty and evaluate the tenders for the purchase of that equipment.

Finally, all teachers are responsible for providing their learners with a productive environment that encourages them to develop the ability to cooperate with other people, their creativity and self-confidence and the skills to help them deal successfully with the diverse roles they are expected to fulfil in life. Teachers in private colleges and public institutions of tertiary education are involved in the design of the curricula of programmes of their institutions based on their experience, regular contacts with enterprises and knowledge of relevant research. Trainers in the Cyprus Academy of Public Administration, CAPA (Kypriaki Akadimia Dimosias Dioikisis, KADD) and the Cyprus Productivity Centre, CPC (Kentro Paragogikotitas, KEPA) are involved in the design of the curricula of vocational training courses their organisation provides. This is done based on their experience and knowledge of relevant research. Trainers in private training institutions and enterprises have a significant part in the development of training activities. In cooperation with the managers of the training institutions and the management of their enterprises respectively, they plan the training activities the development of the curricula, select suitable training tools and organise training programmes.

7. Innovation: How innovative is the work and training of trainers? Quality monitoring The Pedagogical Institute is responsible for assessing teachers in public upper STVE. The insitute accredites and issues certificates for completing the Pre-Service Training Programme (PTP). This certificate is issued as proof of competence. A team of evaluators appointed by the Ruling Committee assesses the performance of the teachers when undergoing the programme. The assessment for the first two areas of study (General Pedagogy and 55


Specialty Didactics) consists of two parts: continuous assessment in the form of papers and reports and final examinations. Teaching Practice Experience (TPE – Scholiki Embiria) is evaluated based on the report of the trainees’ mentors and the report of the school committee, where trainees have had their TPE. The practical part carries 50 per cent of the final mark, while general pedagogy is allocated 28/100 and special didactics 22/100. Trainees are considered to have fulfilled the requirements of the programme and are issued a certificate provided that their final totalmark is at least 50 per cent of the possible total and the mark in each one of the three areas of study is not lower than 40 per cent of the possible maximum mark. The results for each trainee need to be validated by the Ruling Committee. The following bodies have been established in 2000 within the management structure of the PI in order to design, regulate, facilitate and monitor the implementation of the PTP: − The Executive Council (Ektelestiko Symvoulio), which is responsible for the evaluation and monitoring of the programme, advising the Ministry of Education and Culture, MoEC (Ypourgeio Paideias kai Politismou, YPP) on policy matters relating to the PTP and for approving and reforming the structure and contents of the PTP. The Executive Council is chaired by the Director of the PI and comprises members from the PI, the University of Cyprus (UCY – Panepistimio Kyprou), the two teachers’ trade unions, the Association of Secondary School Teachers of Cyprus (Organosi Ellinon Leitourgon Mesis Ekpaidefsis Kyprou, OELMEK) and the Association of Teachers of Technical Education in Cyprus (Organosi Leitourgon Technikis Ekpaidefsis Kyprou, OLTEK). − The Teaching Practice Coordinating Council (Symvoulio Syntonismou Praktikis Exaskisis) with members from the University of Cyprus, the PI, the Directorate of Secondary General Education (Diefthinsi Mesis Genikis Ekpaidefsis, DME), the Directorate of Secondary Technical and Vocational Education, Directorate of STVE (Diefthinsi Mesis Technikis kai Epaggelmatikis Ekpaidefsis, DMTEE) and the teachers’ trade unions. This council is responsible for the organisation, coordination and implementation of the trainees teaching practice. − The Ruling Committee (Epitropi Kriseos), which is responsible for the appointment of a team of evaluators for each specialty of trainees, the validation of the results of the evaluating teams, matters of attendance, absenteeism and leave of absence and the examination of objections to the results of evaluation. − The Joint Committee (Meikti Epitropi Paidagogikou Institoutou kai Panepistimiou Kyprou), which is responsible for the design and monitoring of the whole training programme and is chaired by the Director of the PI. It comprises two teams of academics, one from the PI and one from the UCY, and also one representative from the two teachers’ trade unions. Another important innovation is that of the establishment of a school committee at each school, which participates in the teaching practice experience of the trainees and is responsible for the selection and appointment of a mentor for each trainee. Teachers in public institutions of tertiary education In the case of the Nursing School (Nosileftiki Scholi) the assessment and quality monitoring of teachers is the same as for the STVE teachers. Concerning the Cyprus Police Academy (Astynomiki Akadimia Kyprou) the assessment and quality monitoring of teachers is the sole responsibility of the Cyprus Police Academy. In the rest of the public institutions of tertiary education, pre-service training of IVET teachers is not a requirement for teaching. The assessment and quality monitoring of CVET teachers in the public upper STVE (Defterovathmia Techniki kai Epangelmatiki Ekpaidefsi, DTEE) and in public institutions of tertiary education are exactly the same as those that apply to IVET teachers.

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Country Report CZECH REPUBLIC Sabine Archan & Bettina Lehner Institut für Berufsbildung (ibw), Austria 1. Background and country context National economy The Czech Republic underwent major transformation processes after 1989. Beside social changes also the economy changed which resulted in a decreasing agriculture and industry and a growing service sector. As well as in other European countries the structure of the national economy in the Czech Republic is shaped by large numbers of employees working in the service sector, although the proportion is not as high as in the EU-25. While the service sector is smaller than in other European states the proportion of industry and construction lies above the European average (EU-25). Economic productivity is developing quite well in the Czech Republic. Compared to the nine other candidate countries which accessed the European Union in 2004 the performance levels of the Czech economy are among the best. Only Slovenia and Cyprus are performing even better in terms of GDP per capita. Since 2000 the gross domestic product per capita in the Czech Republic has risen by 44 per cent. According to EUROSTAT the gross domestic product in 2006 was EUR 18,700 (EU-27 EUR 23,400) with expectations to increase by 7 per cent in 2007 against 4 per cent for the EU-27 average. In addition to the accelerating economic growth the employment situation also proves to be relatively good compared to other transition countries. Overall employment indicators according to EUROSTAT are nearly in line with the EU-27-average. For example, the employment rate of people aged between 15 and 64 years in 2006 accounted for 65.3 per cent compared to a 64.3 per cent average of the EU-27. Even the high youth unemployment rate of 17.5 per cent is in line with the EU-27 average of 17.4 per cent. General political context The Czech Republic came into existence in 1993 by the separation of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic. As a parliamentary democracy the Czech Republic is headed by the president. It is composed of 14 regions which are self-administrative units with a regional governor. The population of the Czech Republic was 10.2 million in 2003 and shows very similar demographic characteristics like most other European countries. After the change of the economic system in 1989 the birth rate started to decline while the proportion of older people increased. Those structural changes in population are of great importance on the current political agenda. Role of the social partnership Social partners in the Czech Republic are involved in vocational education and training on a voluntary basis which means that their participation is not legally regulated. At the national and regional level the social partners contribute to recommendations, government papers, legal regulations and cooperation between VET schools. As the activities of the social partners in the CR are manifold they are also involved in collective bargaining. Furthermore, social partners are represented in so called ‘field groups’ which cover all occupations and aim to foster synergies between the VET and the labour market. The new School Act prescribes that the social partners are represented in the examination board of final examinations in vocational certificate programmes. At company level social partners cooperate with schools and companies which employ graduates (e.g. implementation of new technologies in schools) or plan and implement training in companies (collective agreements). At the sectoral 57


level the social partners participate in developing the general frameworks for CVET. In contrast to national and regional issues where the social partners only assume advisory functions, they are decision makers at the sectoral and company level. The Czech education system in brief Compulsory education starts at the age of six and lasts for nine years until the age of 15. After finishing compulsory school initial vocational education and training of mostly three or four years can be started. Besides general secondary schools various types of vocational schools exist in the Czech Republic. Especially secondary technical schools (STS) and secondary vocational schools (SVS) offer education in general subjects as well as in vocational subjects and practical training. These school types can be completed by passing the secondary school leaving exam (maturita) which provides general access to Higher Education. Apprenticeship training as specified in the European Union does not exist in the CR. In line with the focus of the EUROTRAINER study the following sections explore further to role of secondary technical and secondary vocational schools for IVET training. IVET in companies IVET training at the workplace does not refer to apprenticeship training, which is not established as an educational pathway. Vocational education that is roughly comparable with apprenticeship training is related to the two- or three-year-programmes of secondary vocational schools (SVS). These programmes can be distinguished as follows: – Two- or three year programmes provide a vocational qualification on the ISCED 3Clevel which leads to perform manual work and similar occupations. In 2003 38 per cent of all secondary school-leavers were graduates of these programmes. Concerning the proportion of general subjects, vocational subjects and practical training the ratio for threeyear-programmes is 30-35 per cent for general subjects, 20-30 per cent on vocational subjects and 35-45 per cent on practical training. Pupils of this programme may be practically trained in special training facilities or workshops, but also in companies by the IVET trainers who are called instructors. Instructors are employed by a company but have no pedagogical assignments. They provide practical training which means that they encourage the work experience of the trainees by integrating them in the day-to-day working process. According to a country report for the CR only 35 per cent of SVS-students complete their practical training in a real workplace. The training is based on a contract between the company, the VET school and the instructor as the contractual parties. In the contract the three parties agree upon their rights and duties concerning the provision of the practical training. The instructors are recruited by the company and are separately paid for their work. They have no particular professional background and do not follow a professional role. Currently, the Czech Republic is concerned with the renewal of the two- or three year programme of SVS due to growing demands on the labour market for skilled workers. The new system, which presumably will be introduced in 2009, shall foster the integration of private companies with a stronger focus on practical training. It is expected to be targeted at about 300,000 young people. –

–

The four-year programme finishes with the ‘maturita’ examination (ISCED 3A level) and entitles for access to Higher Education (e.g. universities). In 2003 about 5.4 per cent of all school-leavers at secondary schools have chosen this programme. One- or two-year programmes (ISCED 2C) are targeted towards pupils who have completed compulsory schooling but have special learning needs or for those who have finished remedial or auxiliary programmes in basic school. The percentage of young people having completed this programme accounted for less than 1 per cent in 2003.

In addition to the SVS programmes, secondary technical schools (STS) offer a four-year education programme which is completed with a secondary school leaving exam. Pupils are 58

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prepared for higher education as well as for mid-level technical, business and similar jobs. In 2003 about 35.6 per cent of all secondary school leavers completed this programme. Regarding the proportions of general and vocational subjects most of the time is devoted to vocational subjects (55 per cent). During the education programme students have to follow work placements which last on average six to eight weeks and support young people to gain practical work experience and establish contacts with employers. The programme is completed with a school leaving exam (maturita certificate) which is usually well accepted by employers. The percentage of pupils following work placements (92 per cent) is significantly higher than in secondary vocational schools (35 per cent). In summary, IVET in the Czech Republic mainly takes place in schools and not in companies. Thus also trainers very rarely work in the IVET context. This area is unchangingly dominated by teachers, whereas CVET is the main segment for trainers. CVET in companies The training of employees in enterprises is a new professional area which only has developed over the last 15 years. Compulsory training of employees in specific occupations has a longer tradition and is also legally regulated. Due to the economic transformation training activities decreased in the early 1990s. Companies were either restructured or went bankrupt. In the years after 1994 training activities increased again and the situation gradually improved with the inflow of foreign capital which also encouraged investments in human resources development. CVET trainers train adult trainees in companies or training institutions in all contexts of nonformal learning. Organisations, companies, training centres, cultural centres and schools are only a few of the various wide-ranging places where CVET trainers perform their job. In the Czech Republic several categories of CVET trainers can be found: – Trainers – entrepreneurs: They are self-employed running their own business. They perform part-time or full-time training activities and work on the basis of a trade certificate (trade licence). – Trainers – employees: These are CVET trainers who train either in companies or in educational institutions thus providing in-company training outside the company. – Managers and experts: They carry out training tasks either in addition to their profession or as an auxiliary service, i.e. as a part-time job. Frequently managers and experts work in enterprises which organise training activities for employees in the company. – Trainers – volunteers: They are employed by non-profit organisations and carry out useful public activities on a voluntary basis. Both instructors and CVET trainers are affected by the national VET policy and international trends. The implementation of strategies for the development of VET (IVET and CVET) may have significant effects on the work of trainers. VET policy in the Czech Republic According to the National Programme of Development of Education System and the following Long-Term Plan of Education and Development of Education System in 2002 new priorities, strategies and policies for the development of VET have been elaborated and are being implemented. In addition, several other documents are concerned with enhancing and improving continuing vocational training such as: – The National Employment Action Plans (NEAPs); – The National Action Plan for Social Inclusion for 2004-2006; – The National Programme concerned with Preparation for Population Ageing for 20032007; – State Information and Communication Policy – e-Cesko 2006. 59


Based on these documents several strategies are developed in order to enhance the development of CVET. On the practical side, the implementation often only slowly progresses. Reforms concern: – Reform of curricula – Developing key competences (e.g. ICT, language skills, communication skills) has become a major requirement in education and training. In order to respond to the demands of the labour market a curricula reform has been started. – Reform of final vocational examinations – New standards for final examinations leading to a vocational certificate (ISCED 3C) will be established. The development of standardised examination contents and implementation of evaluation standards are crucial points in this reform. The new final exams will be tested on a pilot basis by the end of 2008. – Lifelong Learning – Continuing vocational training has increased substantially during the 1990s and after 2000. Despite growing CVET activities in the last years the CR has not yet reached the CVET participation rate of 12.5 per cent stipulated by the European Union. According to EUROSTAT in 2006 only 5.6 per cent of the population aged between 25 and 64 years participated in continuing training activities within the last four weeks before the survey. Since CVET is not properly regulated by law, proposals are being prepared for realising an act on CVET. Implementation of lifelong learning and recognition of non-formal and informal learning is enhanced through the development of methods and instruments for verification and recognition of informally acquired competences. Major strategies to foster the position and qualification of VET trainers are defined in the “Strategy of Human Resources Development for the Czech Republic” (Prague, 2003) which includes the following aspects: – Standardised certification of tutors, educational programmes and institutions to enhance the quality of adult training and guarantee minimum competences and skills levels. – Support trainers in the e-learning process which includes the development of new ICT programmes and effective teaching methods in order to facilitate further training and selfdirected learning of trainers.

2. Organisation Through the socio-economic change after 1989 state-led regulation gradually ceased and market mechanisms based on the supply of and demand for education began to predominate. This change also affected the role of trainers. Due to the transformation international and market-oriented educational institutions were set up and profit and non-profit organisations appeared on the domestic market. However, since 1990 legislation has not changed significantly and there is still a lack of legal regulations in many aspects. Retraining is regulated by parts of the Employment Act and legal definitions and guidelines for in-company training are found in the Labour Code, but no law regulates the role and position of trainers in adult training and the system of training. Organisation of IVET training in companies The practical training for pupils attending secondary vocational schools takes place in companies. Instructors are employees of a company who provide practical training based on a contract between the school, company and instructor. Requirements for becoming an instructor are not legally defined. As there is no tradition of apprenticeship training IVET trainers in companies typically have completed a particular school level and have a formal qualification. As the education level of instructors may vary strongly the qualification of trainers in companies mainly depend on their schooling background and practical experience. Since also the pedagogical training of instructors is not regulated by law the quality of their pedagogical 60

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competences vary and for large part depend on individual ambitions and commitment apart from company guidelines. Pedagogical courses are provided by schools and are accredited by the MoEYS. Organisation of CVET training in companies Except for specific training of employees in certain occupations or industries CVET generally is not regulated by law. In healthcare, energy, public administration, transport and interior and defence training is legally regulated. These regulations are binding for all employees. Ministerial training institutes carry out training and assume several training functions such as the development of study plans and the organisation of courses. The training institutes within the administrative areas of certain ministries provide specialised trainings for employees. The organisation of these training units varies from ministry to ministry. Concerning access requirements mostly there are no prior education certificates requested except for some specific professions or the training of staff within the administration of ministries. Companies typically decide upon the training of their employees. Most training activities are outsourced and organised by external training institutions; only very little training is provided by company-owned training facilities. These are designed to meet the company`s training needs and to fulfil legal requirements and company guidelines. Certificates acquired in the framework of in-company training are only recognised by the respective company. Since 1996 the social partners, especially the Confederation of Industry of the CR, the Economic Chamber of the CR and the Czech-Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions have been involved in CVET issues. Their activities aim at changing financial aspects of training in order to encourage enterprises to provide more training for their employees and to become more involved in IVET and the school-system. However, the role of the social partners is limited as they are not real decision makers but rather active players in the consultation process. As far as consultative functions are concerned also the Government Council for Human Resources Development which was set up in 2003 plays an important role. This body assumes initiation and coordination tasks in HRD. In 2004 a draft act on CVET was elaborated and followed by some concrete propositions. At the moment there is no clear information about the present status of this initiative. The legal regulations that currently affect CVET in companies are: - Labour Code - Act on employment - Decree on retraining of job seekers and employees - Act on investment incentives - Act on pedagogical staff - Act on technical standards - Act on state expert supervision - Act on the conditions concerning the acquisition and recognition of professional and specialised competences to perform the occupation of physician, dentist and pharmacist - Act on trades

3. Economy Financing of IVET training in companies Secondary vocational and technical schools which offer practical training in companies are mainly publicly financed. The largest proportion of the financing is borne by the regions which are responsible for the administration of the majority of secondary and higher professional schools as well. Decentralisation of public administration was introduced in 2001 and, ac61


cording to this reform, responsibilities for secondary and higher vocational schools were delegated to the regions. Public expenditure on education increased by 10 per cent between 1997 and 2002. Expenditures on secondary vocational education rose by 1.6 per cent compared to 27 per cent for tertiary education. Existing data on the financing of IVET training, i.e. practical training in companies is very vague. The Thematic Overview of CEDEFOP states that IVET trainers are remunerated for their work. However, no data can be found on whether there are incentives for companies arranging work placements for students, pupils are paid for their work at the company or if enterprises receive supported financed by the state budget. Financing of CVET training in companies Continuing vocational training in enterprises is not funded publicly but by the employer. Provided that the training meets the company’s needs, the employer finances the training activities of employees by covering the necessary fees and granting the employee paid leave. The employer may also agree on a co-funding scheme with the employee. It can be assumed that financing of training of CVET trainers in companies follows similar rules although there is no precise information. No regulations exist to stipulate the level of expenditures for continuing training except in the case of mandatory training requirements for employees in certain professions. No nationwide financial incentives or benefits encourage employers to support the continuing training of their employees. However, it is planned to provide some financial support for enterprises in the future. At the moment companies may subsume their training costs under their deductible costs or receive a contribution from the labour office for organising the retraining of their employees. These present investment incentives are targeted at large investors who are granted a subsidy for training or retraining of employees (at most 35 per cent of their training costs). Small investors may receive a similar subsidy of a maximum of EUR 1,000 per employee participating in training or retraining activities if those support the creation of new jobs in regions with high unemployment rates. There is no data about how much money is allocated for the training of trainers. Although financial incentives for training are underdeveloped in the CR, the Second Vocational Training Survey (CVTS 2) shows that high costs for continuing vocational training activities do not keep companies from providing CVET for their employees. According to a survey in 2002 that focused on training in companies over 70 per cent of 248 companies organised training for their employees and 40 per cent offered financial support even if the training activity was outside the scope required by the employer. CVTS 2 also showed that in 1999 the overall budget Czech companies allocated to the training of employees accounted for 1.9 per cent of the total labour costs (the EU-15 average being 2.3 per cent). These percentages only include direct training costs. Looking at different branches the largest budget was recorded for the electricity, gas and water sector (5.8 per cent). This is partly due to the fact that in this sector companies have to follow compulsory CVET activities as legal regulations require training for certain professional groups. The lowest budget was found in mining, woodworking and furniture manufacturing, textile and leather. The smallest companies spent the least resources whereas the largest share referred to medium-sized companies. Differences were noted also in terms of company ownership in that foreign-owned enterprises spent more money on training than Czech companies.

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4. Selection and allocation of trainers Selection and allocation of IVET trainers in companies Instructors train students of secondary vocational schools in companies. They are employed by the company. Instructor is not a profession but a training role. The recruitment of instructors is done by the employing company according to company guidelines and the cooperation between vocational school and the company. Schools often make use of informal procedures to look for suitable instructors. In the school year 2003/04 there were 5,720 instructors in the Czech Republic. No data is available on their age, gender, distribution across different sectors and whether this number meets or does not meet the current demand. Also for CVET trainers this information is not available. As the pre-service training of instructors is not formally regulated the instructor cannot be regarded as a profession, but is rather a role taken on by a worker in a company who has a contract with a school. The qualification needed to carry out this role is not defined or specified. Instructors optionally may attend pedagogical courses provided by some schools but these activities are neither assessed nor documented. The structure and content of these courses comprises basic pedagogical and psychological skills and knowledge. Overall, the instructor may be a person who has completed a vocational qualification. Although the possibilities for the recognition of non-formally and informally acquired competences have been improved they are still not used very much by instructors. Selection and allocation of CVET trainers in companies No characteristic pattern or structure predominates as concerns the recruitment of employees, managers and experts as CVET trainers in companies. The results of the EUROTRAINER study show that they may be recruited either internally or externally. CVET trainers in companies are usually employees of a company who assume training functions. According to the EUROTRAINER target group and the classification of CVET trainers found in several existing papers CVET trainers in companies either are employees, managers or experts who take on training functions. Mostly they are full-time employees who carry out training tasks part-time. This means that CVET trainers perform a certain job and in addition they are in charge of training employees. Similarly to the instructors no formal qualification and professional standards exist for CVET trainers in companies. Thus companies define their own requirements which may differ significantly from enterprise to enterprise. Only CVET trainers who are self-employed need a trade certificate as a formal requirement for carrying out training tasks. Similar to the instructors CVET trainers often have acquired a school leaving certificate and a vocational qualification. Since there are no legal and uniform regulations for the qualification of CVET trainers, informal learning plays an important role. The Czech Republic is currently concerned with enhancing the possibilities for the recognition of non-formal and informal learning outcomes (see 7. Innovation). CVET activities of Czech enterprises – results of CVTS 2 According to CVTS 2 in 1999 (Second Continuing Vocational Training Survey) 67 per cent of 31,529 Czech enterprises provided some kind of CVET activities for their employees referring to various forms of training at the workplace or another place. Compared to the other nine candidate countries which entered the European Union in 2004 the CR had highest percentage. Companies not providing training to their employees stated that the skills of their employees were sufficient. Only 14 per cent of all companies not supporting training stated that the high training costs were the main reason.

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Big differences can be noted among the different sectors. The electricity, gas and water industry (90 per cent), manufacturing transport vehicles (87.9 per cent), finance and insurance (85.6 per cent), post and telecommunications (81.3 per cent) recorded the largest proportions of companies providing CVET. Companies with little CVET activities where found in catering and accommodation (45.8 per cent), woodwork, furniture manufacturing and the waste industry (50.9 per cent), retail and consumer goods repairs (57.2 per cent) and the textile, clothing and leather industry (59.4 per cent). Those sectoral differences are due to different intensities of innovation, varying levels of financial support for training and diverse proportions of mandatory and non-mandatory training according to special regulations. Like in many other European countries larger companies are more engaged in providing CVET to their employees than smaller enterprises. Concerning the forms of training 61 per cent of the Czech companies provided in-service-training via training courses, while 59 per cent used other forms (e.g. on-the-job training, job rotation, self-learning). External courses (94 per cent) are far more often used than internal courses (37 per cent). In terms of cost the CR spent 1.13 per cent of the total labour costs on training of employees. Training expenditures were especially high in the electricity, gas and water industry as well as in the finance and insurance sector.

5. Qualification Qualification of IVET trainers in companies There are no legal regulations for the pedagogical training of instructors, i.e. their qualification level is not defined by law. However, a non-regulation of the qualification does not imply that no qualification is needed. The selection of instructors depends on the agreement between the relevant vocational school and the company. Schools usually use informal procedures to recruit practical instructors. Although legal qualification standards mostly no not apply instructors have the opportunity to acquire the necessary trainer skills and competences by attending short courses. These are forty-hour courses which focus on psychological and pedagogical issues. The courses are provided by schools and the contents are approved by the Ministry of Education, Youths and Sports (MoEYS). Whereas for CVET there are two specialised institutions which train, assess and accredit the qualifications of CVET trainers, there are no equivalent institutions for instructors. The only quality monitoring mechanism is through VET teachers of vocational schools who have signed a practical training contract with the enterprises. Instructors are obliged by the employing company to follow continuing training activities. However, this obligation only refers to their subject-specific qualification but not to their training tasks. Thus, instructors have to update their professional skills and competences but enhancing their pedagogical and didactic knowledge is only on a voluntary basis. As formal qualification standards do not exist, the development of opportunities for the recognition of non-formal and informal learning becomes increasingly important for instructors. Qualification of CVET trainers in companies Similar to IVET also CVET in companies does not relate to specific regulations, although the area of CVET trainers can be regarded as partly defined by law through the Trade Act. However, since legislative regulations for trainers are largely underdeveloped also the training of trainers in CVET is not consistently required.

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Although CVET trainers belong to the group of non-regulated professions which are not required to possess specific qualification levels, some basic requirements must still be fulfilled. CVET trainers mostly are expected to have completed higher levels of education and have some practical experience in adult education. Unfortunately there is no data available on the concrete structure of these requirements which are mostly defined by the companies. Continuing training and professional development of CVET trainers is determined by the framework of the educational market. In-service-training for CVET trainers is offered by several institutions. How much continuing training is pursued depends on the individual trainer and on his/her commitment to learning and updating of knowledge. Various programmes aim to enhance CVET trainers’ vocational and training skills and competences. An institution which offers such training programmes for CVET trainers is the Association of Adult Education Institutions (AIVD). They train trainers in subjects like socio-economic and psychological basics of adult education, methodology, assessment, new technology, and presentation and communication. Other training courses offer coaching or supervision or rhetoric and presentation techniques. In the Czech Republic knowledge and skills acquired in CVET generally are not evaluated or certified within an integrated system. Participants of CVET courses usually receive a course attendance certificate some of which are recognised (e.g. formal IVET qualifications acquired within CVET, compulsory CVET in certain professions). The certification of CVET trainers is under constant development. Currently, CVET trainers have the opportunity to acquire a certificate which certifies their training qualifications. Two special institutions issue these certificates: the Association of Adult Education Providers (AIVD) offers trainer courses combining regular with distant learning and training. Regarding management trainers the Association of Management Trainers and Consultants (ATKM) is the relevant training institution.

6. Integration Social recognition of IVET and CVET trainers in companies According to the EUROTRAINER study results the recognition of the work of both IVET and CVET trainers in society is rather modest. This may be due to the lack of qualification and professional standards. The work of trainers probably would be better socially recognised if there were suited legal definitions and regulations. Both IVET and CVET trainers do not have to comply with standardised requirements in order to become a trainer. Furthermore, the further training of trainers is as unregulated as pre-service training. Certificates that are acquired within CVET, i.e. outside the formal school system, are not recognised. No transparent national system of qualifications can facilitate the recognition knowledge, skills and competences acquired via informal learning. The CR is aiming to improve this situation by identifying the characteristics of appropriate basic education as well as the requirements of vocational education. The Integrated System of Typical Working Positions (ISTP) contains information about occupations, which is used as a basis for the creation of a national system of qualifications. Further developments will also include information about CVET, creating linkages between IVET and CVET and establishing an integrated qualifications system. (see also 7. Innovation). At the moment, only the following educational outcomes are recognised at national level: – The outputs of formal IVET and IVET qualifications acquired within the framework of adult training provided by schools; – The outputs of ‘normative’ education as professional updates or prerequisites for certain activities (e.g. driving licence, welding licence, judicial licence); – The outputs of accredited retraining courses for jobseekers.

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Social integration of IVET and CVET trainers in companies The EUROTRAINER survey identified two main groups of cooperation partners relevant for trainers. Trainers hold close contact with other trainers in the company as well as with management. Particularly instructors who train students cooperate with teachers of vocational schools. There seem to be no contacts to social partners, trade unions, labour offices or economic chambers. Unemployment rates of trainers are not statistically monitored. As both IVET and CVET trainers in companies carry out training functions in addition to their normal job, unemployment probably does not depend on the trainer status but on specific sectors with high or little unemployment and other general economic trends. Thus general unemployment trends also affect the group of VET trainers.

7. Innovation Research on trainers in companies is largely underdeveloped in the Czech Republic. This topic is only touched by more general projects like lifelong learning studies or new VET system approaches. Therefore mainly overall aspects that affect VET trainers are pointed out in the following data collection. In recent years – especially since the accession to the European Union in 2004 – the Czech Republic has increased VET development activities in order to enhance competitiveness and the quality of the national VET system. Thus innovative activities strongly refer to the enhancement of quality standards. Innovative organisations and networks Innovation strongly depends on the actors involved. Apart from several ministries in the CR vocational education and training is determined by specialised research and development institutes. The most important ones are listed below. –

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National Institute of Technical and Vocational Education – NUOV NUOV is concerned with research in VET on the secondary and higher level, development of curricula and labour market analysis. Furthermore the institute is establishing a National Qualifications System (National Register of Qualifications) in order to realise transparency of qualifications and to assure quality in education. National Training Fund (NTF) The key tasks of the NTF include the preparation of drafts, strategies and analytical documents for reforms in the area of human resources development. NTF deals with a wide range of themes and projects among which lifelong learning plays an important role. National Observatory of Employment and Training The National Observatory of Employment and Training was set up by the European Training Foundation (ETF) in Turin as an analytical section of the NTF which carries out research and development work in the area of human resources development, CVET etc. Since 2004 the National Observatory has been the coordinator of the National Consortium of the ReferNetwork.

At the moment the Czech Republic is implementing the Human Resources Development Strategy. The establishment of national and international networks is one of the measures towards the implementation of an HRD strategy and a milestone with crucial impact on continuing vocational education and training. The CR has set up a successful cooperation system which included cooperation partners like the National Observatory of Employment and Training, the Research Centre for Competitiveness of the Czech Economy and CEDEFOP 66

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(European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training). Since June 2004 the Czech Republic is part of the European international expert network ReferNet and disseminates CEDEFOP publications to the National Consortium of ReferNet. Quality assurance of IVET training in companies There are no institutions which assess or award the work of instructors, i.e. the assessment of instructors has no formal framework but is informally carried out by the contracting vocational schools. As instructors are employed by a company and cooperate with secondary vocational schools for the training period an informal quality monitoring system has been established. Most schools monitor efficiency and quality of instructors by VET teachers at these schools. Unfortunately there is no further documentation about these activities. The renewal of the national apprenticeship training system (referring to the two- or three year programmes of secondary vocational schools) has become a major concern due to growing demands at the labour market. The new system shall foster the integration of private companies which should ensure more practical training. It will be introduced presumably in 2009 and affect 300,000 young people. In addition, the attractiveness of IVET training shall also be improved. The status of IVET is low partly because of the ineffective cooperation between vocational schools and enterprises in assessing VET outcomes. Students only partly become acquainted with the real working environment. Overall IVET is only adjusted slowly to emerging labour market demands. As schools are not obliged to organise work placements approximately 65 per cent of students in vocational programmes do not complete their practical training in a company, but practical training often takes place in facilities that are part of the school. The situation is somewhat better in secondary technical schools. They are more active in arranging work placements for their students and 92 per cent of students undergo practical training in a company. Nevertheless, work placements are often too short given the fact that 29 per cent of students spend at most three weeks in a company. The new legislation may provide a more favourable framework for enhancing practical training in companies. Employers’ evaluation of the skills of school leavers in the study MEDIAN – NOZV from 2002 has shown that individuals with vocational qualification without final school leaving exam (maturita) have deficits in the following competence areas: - Language competences - Computer skills - Willingness to work overtime and flexible working hours - Reliability and accuracy - Honesty - Integrity and loyalty. These results may be a good starting point for improvements not only for teaching in schools but also for practical training in companies and the training of instructors. Quality assurance of CVET training in companies In the Czech Republic there are no common criteria for the evaluation of CVET trainers and thus quality assessment mainly follows internal standards of training institutions and companies. The developments during the last decade have lead to the set up of several accreditation and evaluation institutions to establish a quality monitoring system. Although the focus lies on the accreditation of training institutions and their trainers, the opportunity for quality evaluation is open also to CVET trainers employed by companies. In the course of reforming the public administration extensive educational programmes are being implemented for different group of clerks. Trainers in public administration are being 67


assessed according to the following criteria: highest attained education, practical experience in the last 10 years and trainers’ certifications. The EUROTRAINER study also revealed some trends in evaluation and quality assurance of VET training. Typical instruments that companies apply for the evaluation of VET training are feedback reports, interviews with supervisors and cost-efficiency analysis. Furthermore, employees’ satisfaction, reliability and validity of training contents are regarded as indicators for successful VET training. Innovative R&D projects in VET According to the ERO National Research Report 2006 and several other documents no research is available that particularly focuses on trainers in companies. However, the topic is sometimes addressed in various existing projects. As trainers are influenced by general changes of the vocational education and training system selected projects are listed below to provide an overview about present VET research in the CR. –

Towards a Lifelong Learning Society in Europe: The Contribution of the Education System – LLL 2010 In 2005 NTF joined a five-year international research project focusing on adult education within the system of lifelong learning. The project aims at analysing existing policies, approaches and tensions in lifelong learning of adults in various European countries.

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Central European Initiative (CEI) The CEI was founded in 1989 as a regional forum of 17 countries with the focus on cooperation and its development among EU member states and countries which are in the process of becoming a member of the European Union. The forum currently comprises 18 working groups, one of which is engaged in HRD and CVET.

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ReferNet In the framework of the European “ReferNet Czech Republic” national and international publications are disseminated (see http://www.refernet.cz/publications.htm). Train SME – Innovative Vocational Training Approaches in Small and Micro Enterprises The project’s target is to improve VET-systems in small and micro enterprises through the provision of innovative and simple instruments for identifying training needs. The CR is a partner in this project (see www.trainsme.net). Recognition of informal and non-formal learning The Czech Republic is concerned with developing a validation system for non-formal and informal learning outcomes. As the trainer qualification is not formally regulated in the CR validation of informaly and non-formally acquired competences plays an important role also for IVET and CVET trainers. Implementation of lifelong learning and recognition of non-formal and informal learning LLL is enhanced through the development of useful methods and instruments for verification and recognition of informally acquired competences. Analysing and forecasting labour market qualification needs Human resources development and CVET analysis Research is carried out in these fields in order to improve the quality of human resources, enhancing institutional and systematic conditions in CVET in terms of quality assurance, recognition of learning outcomes etc. National System of Qualifications Qualification and evaluation standards are important quality measures which are expressed by a set of required competences and criteria and means for the evaluation of particular qualifications. The Czech Republic aims at enhancing these standards by encouraging the general recognition of qualifications. Therefore concrete operational programmes funded by the European Social Fund (ESF), which include precise action plans for the implementation of suitable recognition instruments, have been launched.

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The Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2004-2006 aims at establishing a National System of Qualifications by March 2008 on the basis of the Act on Recognition of Qualifications issued in March 2006. The law stipulates the elaboration of a National Register of Qualifications which serves as a register of recognised qualifications providing definitions of occupations and qualification requirements. The system is to be developed by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs elaborating definitions of occupations and by the Ministry of Education, Youths and Sports focussing on defining qualification requirements. The register will comprise the following data on complete qualifications (IVET): Extract of the Act on Verification and Recognition of Further Education Results: a) the name and number (‘the code’) of a complete qualification; b) determination of the profession or professions which the relevant complete qualification relates to; c) in the event of a complete qualification broken down into partial qualifications, the list of all partial qualifications the attainment of which is a precondition for attaining the complete qualification … d) evidence or a combination of evidence confirming attainment of the relevant complete qualification. The definitions shall be worked out in cooperation with sectoral councils and representatives of employers. Ministries will award the authorisations in their sectors and assess the definitions of the qualifications while individuals are entitled to organise exams and award certificates. The main coordination of the project and the final approval of the qualifications is taken over by the Ministry of Education, Youths and Sports (MoEYS). The register shall be maintained and published by the National Institute of Technical and Vocational Education (NUOV) and include besides complete qualifications also partial qualifications (LLL) in order to meet the demands of the labour market. The National Register of Qualifications considers IVET as well as CVET. IVET qualifications relate to complete qualifications whereas partial qualifications concern continuing training and lifelong learning. Complete qualifications correspond to a particular education and the ability to perform a specific occupation. Partial qualifications refer to the ability to perform specific activities in the labour market. Extract of the Act on Verification and Recognition of Further Education Results: … c) complete qualifications shall mean professional qualifications of a natural person to duly perform all work activities pertaining to a relevant profession; d) partial qualifications shall mean professional qualifications of a natural person to duly perform a certain work activity or a set of work activities in a relevant profession or in two or more professions respectively, in the scope defined in a qualification standard; Good practice examples of VET in companies 1. A good practice example for IVET training is Skoda Auto, a company of the automobile industry or Trinecké ocelárny steelworks. The enterprise holds close contacts with vocational schools and assure high training quality. 2. The training institutes within the administrative areas of certain ministries provide specialised trainings for their employees. The organisation of these training units varies from ministry to ministry. The public administration institutes offer mandatory training courses for civil servants and training for officers in regional and local administrative bodies at central level. The Pedagogical Centre Prague which belongs to the Ministry of Education, Youths and Sports provides training for pedagogical staff especially at basic and secondary school level. Furthermore there are training centres specialised for training in energy, transport, etc. 69


Sources: Cedefop, eKnowVet Focus on Vocational Education and Training in the Czech Republic http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/etv/publication/download/panorama/2207_en.pdf, access: April 19 2007 http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/4341, access: July 13 2007 http://www.bibb.de/en/wlk8624.htm, access: July 13 2007 http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/Cinfo/Cinfo12004/C14Z5EN.html Human Resources in the Czech Republic, 2003 http://www.nvf.cz/observatory/publications.htm, access: July 16 2007 http://educationsystems-international.dipf.de/bi_browse_e.html?language=9, access: July 16 2007 Continuing training of employees in Czech enterprises http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2005/05/CZ0505NU03.htm, access: July 19th 2007 Act on Pedagogical Staff http://www.msmt.cz/uploads/soubory/zakony/zakon563upraveno.doc, access: July 20 2007 Act on the Recognition of Further Training Results http://www.msmt.cz/uploads/Law_No._179_2006_English_version.doc, access: July 20 2007 System of Recognition of Learning Outcomes (National Qualification System) http://www.msmt.cz/uploads/National_System_of_Qualifications_EC.ppt#262,7,System of Recognition of Qualifications - CR, access: July 20 2007 ERO National Research Report 2006 http://www.refernet.cz/dokumenty/enrr_2006_draft.doc, access: July 21 2007 VET teachers and trainers http://www.refernet.cz/dokumenty/training_teachers.pdf, access: July 21 2007 Country Report Czech Republic http://www.refernet.org.uk/documents/Country_Report_Czech_Rep.pdf, access: July 22 2007 Czech Republic reforming apprenticeship training to EU standards http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/4341, access: July 23 2007 Cedefopinfo No. 1/2004, Progressing from a sound base, private funding helps state reform http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/Cinfo/Cinfo12004/C14Z5EN.html, access: July 23 2007 A European Inventory on validation of non-formal and informal learning, Czech Republic http://www.ecotec.com/europeaninventory/publications/inventory/chapters/euro_inv_czechrepublic .pdf, access: July 24 2007 Refernet Czech Republic, Publication list http://www.refernet.cz/publications.htm, access: July 24 2007 Financing Vocational Education and Training in the EU new member states and candidate countries – Recent trends and challenges http://www.etf.europa.eu/pubmgmt.nsf/(getAttachment)/3AD39E01E3BA762AC125712A0064D1B B/$File/NOTE6MNPHG.pdf, access: July 24 2007

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CZECH REPUBLIC: Expert Interview Expert 1: Key role in the TTnet network in the Czech Republic

1. Identify major issues / key challenges in a national perspective Can you identify 3 major issues or big challenges that in-company trainers in your country face at the moment? −

Improving the position of educational staff as a socio-professional group through improving the professionalization of their work;

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Establishment of an assessment or quality monitoring system;

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Extension of the used work methods.

2. Common issues that may be of relevance across Europe in a national perspective −

Staff shortages of trainers and remedies We have no signals of staff shortages, but we know that a lot of in-company trainers are not fully qualified. But in CR there are no defined qualification requirements and education programmes for the in-company trainers do not exist.

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Aging workforce – how is knowledge transferred to younger workers? I don’t know.

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Professionalisation of in-company trainers - Opportunities and motivation for continuing learning. It is up to the company, the solutions of the motivation are varied.

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How do trainers cope with the accelerated pace of innovation? There is not done any research in CR.

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How are trainers being prepared to implement new learning methods? There is not done any research in CR.

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How are they being prepared to manage the diversification of trainee groups? There is not done any research in CR.

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How and to what extent are trainers organised in professional bodies/associations? The association exists (Association of Management Trainers and Consultants, web: http://www.atkm.cz/n/), but I have no information about the number of the participants of this association.

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How is the prior learning of trainers being accredited? In the CR a system of the accreditation of prior learning does not yet exist. The new Act on Verification and Recognition of Further Education Results and on the Amendment to Some Other Acts (the Act on the Recognition of Further Education Results) No. 179/2006 will come into force on 1st August 2007.

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Status and attractiveness of the job According to my opinion the job is attractive and it is at the level of middle management.

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Formal regulations / de-regulation 71


Do not exist. −

Recognition - self-recognition / awareness of being a trainer I do not know.

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Recognition at the policy level (to support trainers) In the CR different projects are financed from EU funds and from CR state budget. For example: Pomáháme lidem učit se - Rozvoj pokročilých dovedností trenérů a konzultantů managementu a personálu, zvláště ve strojírenské a stavební výrobě, se zaměřením na malé a střední podniky. (We help people to learn); Pomáháme trenérům a konzultantům učit se - Rozvoj pokročilých dovedností trenérů a konzultantů managementu a personálu, zvláště se zaměřením na malé a střední podniky MSK (We help trainers and consultants to learn); INTERNÍ TRENÉŘI - klíč k úspěchu malé firmy (In-company trainers – the key to the success of the small firm); web: http://www.aivd.cz/show.php?page=1 INOVAČNÍ CENTRUM PRO ROZVOJ DALŠÍHO PROFESNÍHO VZDĚLÁVÁNÍ (Innovation centre for the development of the further professional education); web: http://www.aivd.cz/show.php?page=2

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Recognition of competences and experiences It is only done on the employer’s level.

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Career of trainers (how do people become trainers – what are the effects of becoming a trainer on the career? Different career models / paths/ ways A lot of these people have humanity tertiary education, but the pathways are individual.

3 Good practice examples Do you know of any initiatives or approaches that you would identify as a ‘good practice example’, maybe in relation how a company or a specific sector tries to account for the changing role and training needs of trainers? I do not know, this area is not mapped in the CR.

4 Future trends How do you see the evolving role of trainers in enterprises? Discuss maybe those issues or some of them where this is of interest to the study In practice, training of groups is becoming less common while training is more and more individualised. The need for training of the management, caring and service sector professions and people who work with the clients is increasing.

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Country Report DENMARK Martti Majuri & Kristiina Volmari HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Finland 1. Background and Country Context Denmark is divided into 14 counties and 275 municipalities, but a current reform aims at reducing the number of municipalities and 5 regions have replaced the formerly existing 14 counties. The state and municipalities are responsible for levying taxes and providing social services and health care. The state takes overall responsibility for the framework and provision of education. The regions must elaborate visions for education and training in their own geographical area, whereas the municipalities are in charge of providing vocational education and training within the framework set by the government. Municipalities and regions are expected to cooperate in this field. Social partners exert influence on VET in Denmark via trade committees and paying their share of the costs of training employees to become skilled workers. The social partners play an important and formalised role in VET in Denmark. VET legislation specifically mentions that the social partners should be involved in the process, and their role is both an advisory and a decision making one. The central government provides the overall framework for VET in Denmark. The Ministry of Education formulates – in dialogue with the social partners and various councils and committees set up by the Ministry – the legal basis for the provision of VET, VET institutions, financial aspects regarding VET, teachers’ competences, admission requirements, quality assurance, etc. IVET is totally financed by the state whereas CVET is financed by the state and by the users, i.e. mainly companies. The costs for apprenticeships are covered by the companies. Approximately 80 per cent of a youth cohort complete a recognised vocational qualification (compared to approximately 60 per cent in the early 1980s). Approximately 13 per cent leave the education system without any kind of qualification and will neither have acquired a competency for further studies nor a vocational qualification. 7.5 per cent leave only with a school leaving certificate at general upper secondary level. According to Cedefop statistics, in recent years the figures have not been very positive. (http://www.uvm.dk/statistik/erhverv/praktik/index.htm?menuid=55101575) The quality of in-company training has become a major issue in Denmark. Trade committees play an important role in the Danish system. They are also responsible for in-company training. Trade committees consist of both representatives of companies and representatives of employer organisations and unions (50/50). There are trade committees for all the trades in Denmark. The system costs quite a lot. There are about 60 to 70 trade committees for different branches and occupational profiles (such as painters, electricians, etc.). Currently, a trend can be observed that trade committees merge sector wide such as in the construction sector. Sometimes this can be a difficult process. Some trade committees are very active and contribute to improving the quality work and training, but others are rather conservative and limit their activities to follow the existing rules. It is very difficult to get people from companies to work in trade committees because the task is mostly part-time and done in addition to an employee’s regular work. Although the trade committees have secretaries to take care of the daily tasks such as permission for educating, organising the final tests, mediation in conflicts etc. active participation involves considerable extra work for employees. The national trade committees appoint local trade committees to support and advice the vocational school boards regarding in-company training.

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In-company training in Denmark has a strong linkage to the dual vocational training system. Good integration should be achieved by linking the learning in vocational schools and the learning in companies. Practice and theory should be connected better and become integrated. As a consequence, the traditional system is currently undergoing some change as cooperation between vocational schools and companies is not very effective. However, both actors are gradually coming closer to each other and the companies understand the benefits deriving from linking school-based training and practical training. It is also considered an important aspect for attracting better qualified students. Initial vocational education and training After completing compulsory education, 95 per cent of a cohort continue in either general or vocational upper secondary education (approximately 55 per cent of an age cohort), or in other vocational training programmes (approximately 30 per cent of an age cohort). General and vocational upper secondary education last three years and give access to studies at tertiary level. Vocational training lasts between two and four years and qualifies students for either entering the labour market as skilled workers or for specific short cycle higher education programmes at vocational colleges. Vocational education and training is based on the dual training principle, i.e. school-based education and training alternating with training in a company. In Denmark, VET only exists as apprenticeship training. VET programmes give direct access to nation-wide recognised occupations at the labour market and are based on a dual training. In some cases schools have to offer school-based training when students are not able to find an apprenticeship place in a company. Also there are some educational pathways where students have to get their incompany training in other countries. The main programme for vocational specialisations (currently there exist 96 vocational profiles) starts with an on-the-job training placement. Before being allowed to start the main programme the student must have an apprenticeship contract with a training company (or with a college if no company offers the selected training). Before the main programme starts the students usually attend a basic programme in a vocational college attached to the sector of the future profession. In 2007 there were 7 sector programmes, but from 2008 onwards there will be 12 sector programmes as entrance programmes. The students learn about sector specific issues and general subjects such as mathematics, language, social science etc., but with a particular focus towards the needs of the sector specific technical subjects. Besides entering a VET programme through the basic programme, trainees may also start directly in a company with which they have an apprenticeship contract. In this case, they start the practical training in the company and then alternate between school and in-company training for the remaining training period. Trainees, who start directly in a company, receive a salary for the entire training period, including during the time they spend at the college. Trainees who start at school receive a state grant until they have concluded an apprenticeship contract and begin their in-company training after having completed the basic programme at school. Most students choose to start their education in a college before concluding an apprenticeship contract, and many companies prefer that students have gone through a school-based programme. They assume that the students are more mature for the in-company training afterwards. The programmes provide young people with professional, personal and general qualifications that are in demand on the labour market. If students do not have a contract with a company during this period, the colleges support the students with guidance and their connections to the local labour marked and companies. When the young people graduate from the voca-

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tional programme, they are able to fulfil specific jobs in different trades but have only limited access to education programmes at higher level. A number of schemes exist for young people who are not clear in their educational/occupational choice, have learning disabilities or social and personal problems. They can, for example, enrol in a course at a production school or in a basic vocational training programme (Erhvervsgrunduddannelse - EGU). The latter is an individualised course aiming at enabling the young people to enter either the ordinary VET system or the labour market. Continuing vocational education and training In Denmark, the public sector plays a major role in the provision of continuing vocational education and training as well as general adult education. However, in the last 10 to 20 years private provision of continuing and adult education and training has grown. This includes courses provided by consultancy firms, private course providers and internal HRM departments. The main type of CVET in Denmark is, however, the adult vocational training (CVT) programmes offered by labour market training centres and vocational colleges. These programmes are important provisions for achieving policy objective of enhancing lifelong learning and contributing to the creation a flexible labour market. Employees are given the opportunity to increase their skills and competencies regularly by following a CVT programme. Providers of the programmes such as labour market training centres (Arbejdsmarkedsuddannelsescentre - AMU) and vocational colleges are locally based. Programme success depends on close cooperation between local enterprises and training institutions, and that programmes are adapted to local conditions. When a course is recommended by the trade committees’ CVET board and recognised by the Ministry of Education, employers can get refunded part of the cost for the course. In 2000, a reform was adopted which created stronger coherence within adult education and continuing training by providing a new framework of lifelong learning opportunities for adults and giving the social partners greater responsibility in terms of prioritising and organising CVT programmes. The reform was followed by a focus on closer dialogue between management, staff and training institutions and on the concept that training should be integrated with learning at the workplace. It also focused on individuals with a low level of educational attainment and the provision of training to provide these people with competencies similar to skilled workers. Overall, the CVT programmes have three aims: 1. To maintain and improve vocational skills in accordance with labour market needs and technological development; 2. To solve restructuring and adaptation problems on the labour market in the short term; 3. To contribute to a general uplift in qualifications on the labour market in the medium and longer term. In addition, programmes are developed and organised for low skilled and skilled workers, technicians and the like. This includes both employed and unemployed people and there are special training offers to groups at risk of becoming marginalised on the labour market. For instance, this may include the long-term unemployed, refugees and immigrants.

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2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? For in-company trainers, there are no formal training requirements. Traditionally, companies are used to manage themselves and to avoid rules and regulations. However, in recent years there has been an increasing interest in in-company training and trainer skills. There are many reasons for this. First of all, there is an increased interest in apprenticeships and learning in communities of practice. In-company training constitutes 2/3 to 3/4 of a Danish IVET programme and, consequently, it is important to ensure the quality of training, not only through the final journeyman’s test but also constantly during the overall training period. Second, the drop-out rates of IVET programmes have increased, not only during the schoolbased part of training, but also during the in-company training period. A number of studies have confirmed that drop-out is partly due to a clash of expectations between the trainees and the employers. Third, the new tools (personal education plan and logbook) aim at creating greater coherence in IVET with new demands on companies and trainers. The trainers are expected to use the new tools while at the same time in-company training is made more visible. These methods stipulate that trainees describe their training periods and what they have learned during in-company training. This requires increased coordination between school and company. As a consequence, a number of trade committees have initiated training courses for trainers – with varying degrees of success. One barrier is that Danish industry is dominated by SMEs and often they do not have the resources to train their trainers. So training of trainers is still a trend to be monitored. Another motivation for the new awareness of in-company training is the increased focus on quality. Denmark is in a good economic situation with a very low degree of unemployment (about 3.2 per cent). If companies want to attract apprentices and new employees they have to work on their quality management of education and training. Regarding the in-service training of trainers a number of technical and commercial colleges offer short coaching technique courses for in-company trainers who need specific training to develop their skills. The focus of these courses lies on developing the trainers’ pedagogical skills (much in line with the skills being developed at the postgraduate educational training course for VET teachers). Furthermore, trainers typically lack basic knowledge of the VET system in general and know only little about the many reforms and changes initiated during the past years. Surveys show that companies are – when being contacted – interested in tools to improve their training. Overall, companies increasingly recognise the need for qualifying their trainers and see that this would be in the interest of both enterprises and trainees. The trainee can learn better from a well-trained trainer and would thus become a more valuable employee for the enterprise. However, the training of trainers is an issue which can only be dealt with by the social partners as they are responsible for in-company training. According to the expert interviews the general feeling in Denmark is that there is a need to start to train the trainers more systematically. There has been a large pilot project together with DEL (vocational teacher education institution) and some trade committees to arrange a standard trainer course in 2006 with the aim to standardising the trainer training across different sectors. This has lead to many trade committees discussing this same issue. There are new initiatives from trade committees to foster to integration of trainer courses into the AMU system. That means that the vocational colleges’ CVET department would be able to offer trainer courses in the future. As an outcome of the project, a TrænerGuide as a web-tool is under construction in different sectors. The trainer guides are developed for different occupational fields and are an offer to the companies and to organisations for working on the further development of the system. The TrænerGuides could form some kind of basis for establishing the system. In the

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TrænerGuide there is a description of what it means to be a trainer. Best practises are described and simple training tools can be downloaded. On the issue of the training of trainers, several questions arise. The first question is “who will train the trainers?” The most common way of thinking is to involve technical colleges. They have departments for further education and would have the administrative capacities to offer trainer courses. Another question addresses the competences of trainers and how and if the trainers have to be examined: are the teachers really able to teach trainers, and if not, should they be educated first? The vocational schools have the right to organise education for trainers and they also get financial support for that. There is also financial support for the companies for the training their trainers. Small companies, however, are unwilling to participate in the training courses. They underline a lack of time and do not see their first responsibility in providing training and thus do not see the need for formal learning. But they have an interest in receiving advice and tools. That means tools like the TrænerGuide and in-company guidance of trainers might be a way to also qualify trainers of SMEs in the future. Another aspect is that a lot of o trades are not very theoretically oriented. The companies also need better facilities, e.g. material for the training of trainers, like simulations and practice-oriented e-learning material, not only theoretical textbooks. Especially e-learning with very practical simulations and tools could be good alternatives. In conclusion, more practical training for trainers is needed. But the question is: how should it be done and what are the key competences that trainers need? If it comes to the worst, a not very professional college teacher may spoil the whole training and motivation of the trainers. The EUROTRAINER interviews with experts emphasise that the people who train the trainers must have a good connection to the work practice in companies and should also be vocationally well updated.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? Industry evidently supports the continuing training of their employees. The companies also pay the salaries for the apprentices. The training of trainers can be financially supported if vocational colleges are able to adapt AMU-based courses. In 2007 there were three courses under development each of which was of one day duration: ‘education planning’, ‘cultural understanding’ and ‘coaching’. These courses are partly recognised and established and partly under development in the Ministry of Education.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? Trainer issues are the responsibility of the enterprises. Usually trainers are skilled workers or workers with a long work experience within their respective professional field. Most of the trainers train apprentices as an integrated part of their daily work. Only big companies have full-time trainers and well-structured education plans. SMEs usually let the training follow the company’s daily production schemes.

5. How are trainers qualified? Cf above point 2. In general, there is little knowledge about the situation and qualification trainers. Some large companies have education and training departments that offer incompany training courses to their employees. In these departments, a number of teachers and trainers can be found. However, the requirements to their skills and their profiles depend on the company and its specific training needs. 77


According to the EUROTRAINER study companies are now becoming more open to the professionalisation of trainers. They think if they improve their in-company training system, they will get a better and more motivated labour force, apprentices and better professionals. Danish companies are eager to get guidance and ask for tools to monitor their training and the quality of the training they provide. Although the companies stress that they do not like too much bureaucracy. Quality assurance in vocational education has become a major issue of concern. The discussion is now on the differences and advantages of quality control versus quality assurance. Control and assurance are felt to be almost the same. Companies generally favour a quality system that could be voluntary for the companies.

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? In Denmark, most trainers are part-time trainers. Full-time trainers are only to be found in some of the largest companies. Training can be considered an unrecognised task, which means that the training is integrated into the employees’ job and forms an integral part of their work. The downside of this high level of integration is that it implies a lack of awareness of the potentials and needs of training – also the additional skills needs that the training function requires. The employers usually have an idea about the quality of their training and the performance of their trainers. They know who of their skilled workers is a good trainer. Trainers for their part often appreciate assuming additional responsibility by being in charge of providing training for an apprentice. Although there are no official rewards for performing training activities some big companies have discovered that trainers have a great potential for taking on a leader position later on.

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7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? Danish trainers are used to integrate training into their job tasks. This makes the training being practice-oriented and efficient. In companies that offer good training apprentices are trained to get a high degree of responsibility and this is one of the main targets of the Danish VET system. Many companies treat their trainees as ‘ordinary employees’ with a low power distance within the organisation. However, there is also a considerable lack of knowledge about how to provide high quality and effective training. Trainers often lack support through adequate training methods, knowledge about educational planning in SME’s, feed back methods, conflict solving tools, etc. Overall, great differences exist between different branches and sectors and some sectors might be more innovative than others. Big companies and global players have much greater potentials and financial resources to invest in the empowerment of their trainers and the development of their training systems. Here we can find best practise examples like Bestseller A/S (textile and commerce), Møbeltransport Danmark (transportation) and Grundfos A/S (industrial production). Companies that can be considered good practice examples stand out with their close cooperation with vocational colleges as their partners. Also small companies may be very active in the local school board by participating in the local trade committee, for example. An example of a nation-wide system aiming towards close cooperation between vocational school and the company is the digital tool “Elevplan”, which provides individual education plans for each student giving access for reading and writing to the company trainer, vocational teacher and student at the same time.

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DENMARK: Summary of expert interviews Issues and challenges 1. Develop a consistent approach towards in-company training The trade committees, which exist for all trades in Denmark (currently between 60 and 70 trades overall) play a key role in the Danish system and are responsible for the training in companies. They consist of representatives from companies, employer organisations and unions. Trade committees organise tests, develop curricula and negotiate agreements for the apprenticeship programme, among other aspects. The system of trade committees faces challenges of instabilities and inconsistencies as to how they enact their responsibilities. Some are very active and contribute to improving the quality of training, while others are not very active. Representatives from companies are mostly underrepresented as working for the trade committees is part-time in addition to their regular work tasks. 2. Quality assurance and monitoring While the trade committees have been promoting the professionalisation of trainers and have tried to establish some standards and mandatory minimum requirements, companies are rather reluctant to engage in a more systematic approach of quality monitoring. They prefer a decentralised and voluntary approach while at the same time they also seek guidance and tools. However, most companies are reluctant to accept strict legislation and standard solutions. The need for establishing forms of quality assurance and monitoring have also been emphasised by the government, which has produced a future report. Thus, quality monitoring is also a political issue. 3. Introduce standards for the training of trainers Several initiatives promote a more systematic approach towards the training of trainers. For example, in 2006 some trade committees arranged standardised courses in cooperation with different sectors for the training of trainers. The aim is to also involve the further education system and to promote training tools and methods such as the ‘TrænerGuide’, a tested guide of 9 modules, which address all main issues of becoming a trainer. However, a main remaining challenge is to find the right people and institutions to train the trainers. One possibility is to involve technical colleges, which have departments for further education and also the administrative resources to offer trainer courses. But are teachers able to teach the trainers? The trainers of the trainers need to have a good connection to the actual work practice and also need to be vocationally well updated. So far the vocational schools are in charge of arranging training for trainers and they are financially supported for that. Some form of quality monitoring also needs to be introduced for the teachers who train the trainers. Companies also receive financial support to train their trainers. Another issue is that formal training courses do not reach out to SMEs, mainly because trainers are predominantly practically oriented. They do not see themselves as trainers and are thus not oriented towards formal learning to enhance their competences as a trainer. In fact, they do not regard training as a separate part of their job, but it is totally integrated. Another issue is that companies cannot work well with theoretical tools (such as textbooks), but need different methods, e-learning and practical simulation tools for example. 4. Increase the appreciation of apprenticeship programmes 5. Increase the commitment of companies Companies need to engage more to recognise and define training as an important area of their business and regard it as a strategic part of their recruitment policy. However, there is a dilemma, because in Denmark there are not enough young people. While on the one hand the staff shortage is a good situation for the development of apprenticeship training, it raises the issue of not having enough trainers to train the apprentices on the other hand. Some companies also need forms of financial support. Another obstacle for companies to engage in training is that it may involve a lot of bureaucracy and paper work since most training is school based. 80

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6. Strengthen the self-awareness of trainers There are no associations for trainers or other forms of professional representation which could lobby for the trainers’ interests.

Examples of ‘good practice’ Rene Moller, Company Møbeltransport Danmark, Islevdalvej 110, 2610 Rødovre (suburb of Copenhagen), which has its own training centre.

Future trends 1. The increasing amount of immigrants and an increasing number of people coming from different cultural backgrounds will cause many challenges also for trainers. 2. For trainers the challenge is that the targets of the education system are quite broad – so the students need quite broad opportunities in Denmark and not such a narrow specialist education like in Germany, for example. However there is also a growing need for specialists, which means that there is also a growing need for trainers who have specialist knowledge in addition to being able to train students. Trainers often do not have the specialist vocational skills and this is sometimes difficult to admit for the companies. Equipping trainers with the right set of skills is one big challenge for the future.

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Country Report ESTONIA Krista Loogma & Helle Noorväli Institute of Educational Research, Tallinn University, Estonia 1. Introduction Vocational education and training under the Soviet system formed part of a centralised planned economy and was closely connected to employment system. During the transition period the Soviet VET system was completely reformed so that today the Estonian VET system is primarily school based. As a result of the introduction of liberal market economy most developments in VET such as developments concerning the quality of training, curricula development, HRD in VET, school’s technical and pedagogical resources, partnership with enterprises, practical training, etc.) have become very diverse, inducing great variations between schools, secotrs, company approaches and administration. There are also big differences among institutions, regions, sectors and types of companies (i.e. large companies versus SMEs) in arranging, supervising, monitoring and assessing the practical training provided. Overall, the work of trainers in enterprises is poorly regulated. As a part of the qualification system basic vocational standards for adult educators have been established. Adult educators, including trainers in enterprises, can apply for adult educator qualification and pass a qualification examination. However, this acquisition of qualification is voluntary for the trainers. As concerns initial training, the work of trainers in enterprises is not regulated at all.

2. Organisation: How is the training of trainers organised, how is it embedded in the general and further education system? Workplace supervisors of vocational students (vocational trainer – ettevõtte praktikajuhendaja) supervise students during their work placement. A period of practical training in a company is an obligatory part of the IVET curricula. The workplace supervisors’ task is to provide students with practical skills and theoretical knowledge at the workplace in a real work situation. They help students to adapt to working life and provide feedback to the VET provider on students’ performance. A training system for trainers in companies does not exist. The training of trainers in enterprises is not systematically embedded in the formal education framework. Some VET schools closely cooperate with trainers in companies and also arrange training courses for them. However, lack of awareness of the trainer role may prevent trainers from making use of such training opportunities. Most trainers do not recognise themselves as trainers even if they are assigned as supervisor for VET students. Already from their self-understanding those trainers are completely separated from the VET system knowing nothing about curricula requirements, for example (Hiieväli et al, 2006, Leisalu, 2006). Great differences between SMEs and large enterprises in terms of the quality of training they provide also exist. Large companies often have their own training centres with internally established standards and/or rules for trainers. As part of the further qualification system trainers working in enterprises can apply for becoming accredited as adult educator at three different levels. However, this certificate may have rather personal meaning in the context of the lifelong learning of trainers than contributing towards career development or status enhancement of the trainer. 83


As part of European Social Funds supported activities the Estonian Employers` Confederation supports and implements a project to foster apprenticeship training in Estonia. The aim of the project is to support curricula development and the training of trainers in companies. By 2007, about 400 trainers have gone through the training course established by the project, which are geared towards promoting and enhancing the psychological and pedagogical competences of trainers. (http://www.ettk.ee/et/varia/opipoiss). How can one become a trainer and develop as a trainer? Besides adult educator qualification standards there is no legally established standards for trainers that would recognise their professional development. At the same time, to become a trainer in most cases is not restricted and open for people with or without the qualification certificate of adult educator. The ways to become a trainer in enterprises can be very different depending on the specific economic sector, field of economic activity, size of the company and vocational specialisation, among other aspects. The process for appointing trainers for VET students in enterprises is rather occasional. As a rule, trainers for VET student should be skilled workers, specialists or managers. Only a small proportion of trainers has a pedagogical preparation and/or has followed a training on supervising and mentoring students in a practical work context (about 17 per cent) (Hiieväli et al, 2006). Who is taking decisions concerning the work and training of trainers? Almost all matters concerning work and training of trainers in enterprises are decided by the employer or management. Thus the further qualification or professional development of trainers depends on the companies’ initiative and awareness to induce some form of improvement. In some cases, networks and good cooperation between vocational schools and enterprises support the training of in enterprises to become more familiar with VET curricula and competent in the supervision and mentoring of students.

3. Economy How is the training of trainers financed, who invests into the training of trainers and why? Financing of the training of trainers in initial VET is different from CVET in enterprises. There is no common finance system of trainers in IVET. In many cases trainers in enterprises work in the trainer role next to their everyday duties without recognition and getting additional benefits. How much money is invested in the training of trainers (percentage/GDP)? No data available Who benefits from the work of trainers (average income of trainers, cost-benefit analyses per enterprise/sector/region/nation)? No data available Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? In the contexts of the social partnership and VET strategies issues addressing the situation of trainers in companies has been recognised as being very important. At the same time the issue is poorly analysed and systematically discussed. Some research centres (IER of Tallinn University, Centre for Policy Analyse “Praxis”) have carried selective analyses and research projects on trainers. In the context of improving company’s innovative capacity the role of trainers has not yet been given much attention.

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4. Selection and Allocation of Trainers How many people are working as trainers? No data is available on the numbers of trainers. As the field is not regulated and not statistics are available it is not even possible to estimate some figures. Many trainers work do not ‘officially’ work as trainer and are not recognised as such. What are the prerequisites to become a trainer? No particular prerequisites to become a trainer are being defined. Becoming a trainer depends on the circumstances and emerging needs of the company. As a rule, enterprises try to find and assign people whose skills profile is suitable for supporting the students’ practical learning. The positions trainers occupy in enterprises vary considerably by sector or economic field. Trainers working in enterprises can be employed as skilled workers, specialists, managers (mid-level or high-level) or HRD specialists. How are trainers recruited by enterprises? In the context of IVET to comply with offering training and fulfil the relevant training duties enterprises typically select and appoint some of their employees who may be considered most suitable to fulfil the trainers’ duties as part of their everyday work. In which main occupational areas have trainers specialised? Generally, there is no data available. One can expect that trainers have different levels of qualification in their respective vocational area of expertise (for example, IT specialists train IT students, qualified skilled workers train apprentices, etc). Some research indicates that for example in the health care sector nurses monitoring and supporting students’ practice in hospitals have to be qualified nurses (Ümarik at al, 2006). Are there too many/not enough trainers in different sectors of the labour market? No data / evidences available.

5. Qualification The activities, obligations and liability of and qualification requirements for workplace supervisors are not regulated by national legislation. Also the qualification requirements for workplace trainers are not regulated and most of the employees and workers who assume training functions have no specific pedagogical training. Who determines the training contents for trainers? The content of the training for trainers are partly developed and defined by schools cooperating with enterprises in IVET. In addition, the content of trainers’ continuing learning activities can also be determined in the framework of specifically targeted projects such as those under the European Social Fund or ‘Phare’. Some results of a questionnaire about training needs of trainers in service occupations are further available. Those results indicate that trainers in enterprises in particular recognise training needs in the following skills areas: communication skills, pedagogical skills, mentoring and team-working (Hiieväli et al, 2006). Which institutions are involved in the training of trainers and how do they co-operate? The major actors are: universities, employers’ organisations and VET institutions. They cooperate mainly in the context of specific programmes or projects (Phare, ESF) or under special agreements. In most cases the organisation and individuals responsible for implementing the training of trainers are representatives of teaching professions such as qualified adult educators or VET teachers. How do trainers acquire competences and theoretical and practical knowledge? 85


Trainers acquire their competences and knowledge mainly by learning while working and also from their work experience. About 17 per cent of trainers have passed some kind of continuing learning courses and have pedagogical preparation and/or undergone training for supervising or mentoring students for their work practice. Those training courses are partly leading to obtaining certificates, confirming that the trainers have passed the training course in specific subjects and equivalent to a certain amount of credit points. In most cases, if trainers have participated in training courses they appreciate the learning and find that the training was very useful and supporting them in their training job (Hiieväli et al, 2006). Still, since those courses are not a qualification requirements for trainers the certificates are generally not very important for working as a trainer. They may rather be important for trainers in terms of their personal career development.

6. Integration The work of trainers of IVET students in enterprises is poorly recognised in Estonian society as this position is not explicitly defined and manifested. Trainers in CVET are somewhat in a slightly better position as their position and qualification requirements form part of the Estonian qualification system with the formally recognised qualification of adult educator.

7. Innovation How is the quality and efficiency of the training that trainers provide being assessed? Generally, the quality of trainers’ work, at least in IVET and as concerns apprentices training, is not formally assessed. Some schools have introduced feedback systems to get information from students and apprentices to assess trainers’ work and how they perform. Generally, only very limited researches about trainers’ work is available in Estonia. Some research has been carried out by Hiieväli, Loogma, Karu-Veskioja, Kaikkonen, which covers areas like: the educational and professional background of trainers; duties and tasks of the trainers’ position; recognition of trainers; and training needs of trainers. The aim of the Leonardo da Vinci project QUAL-PRAXIS was to investigate innovative approaches of assessment of practical training (see also Ümarik et al, 2006). Weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers The conclusions of a seminar that took place in Tallinn in November 1998 and involved social partner representatives from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, are still relevant: 1. Enterprises that are interested and able to ensure quality practical training should be registered and licensed; 2. To improve the organisation of practical training requirements must be set with regard to the achievements and competencies to be acquired during the practical training period (http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/skills/hrdr/init/est_01.htm#34). In the strategy and development plan for the Estonian Vocational Education and Training System 2005–2008 the need for evaluation of enterprises as places of practice is pointed out. From the IVET students trainers’ viewpoint one of the basic problems of the training job is the poor recognition of trainers’ work in enterprises. The poor payment of the trainers and lack of incentives and benefits also are major issues of concern.

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8. Examples of good practice As compared to most other areas of IVET the organisation of practical nurse training and training in the health care sector in general is much more regulated than in most other occupational areas. In many respects the practice-oriented assessment model elaborated and practiced for nurse training can be regarded as a ‘good practice’ example in Estonia, also in terms of cooperation between medical schools and hospitals and the training of mentors working in hospitals that is organised and supported by schools.

References Development plan for the Estonian Vocational Education and Training System 2005–2008. Ministry of Education and Research. Tartu 2005. Ulvi Kõrgemaa. 2006. Õenduse üliõpilaste õppepraktika juhtimine. Magistritöö. Tallinn: TLÜ kasvatusteaduste teaduskond. Kristel Leisalu. 2007. Praktikal õppimine Eesti info- ja kommunikatsioonitehnoloogia organisatsioonides. Magistritöö. Tallinn: TLÜ kasvatusteaduste teaduskond. Riin Hiieväli, Krista Loogma, Yvelin Karu-Veskioja, Erki Kaikkonen. 2006. Kutseõpetajate karjääriteed ja koolitusvajadus. Uuringu aruanne. TLÜ Haridusuuringute Instituut. http://www.ekk.edu.ee/index2.html Ümarik, M, Loogma, K, Joons, S. 2006. Assessment of practical training in VET as communication between schools, workplaces and trainees: Problems related to those communication acts. In: Quality and Practice in Assessment. New approaches in Work-Related Assessment. Institute for Educational Research, University of Jyväskylä, pp 121-154.

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ESTONIA: Summary of expert interviews Focus: trainers/supervisors of IVET students in enterprises during their practical training 1. Introduction What is your role/function/relationship to the work and training of trainers? Researcher: I am more of a researcher. Government official: If ministry workers would set requirements for training and start dealing systematically with workplace trainers, I should, to some extent, start working on that as well. I would be a part of the process. Teacher: Relationship has mostly been based on practical training. Our students attend practical training that is divided into four periods. Before the training starts we make a contract specifying the name of the company trainer, ideas and expectations regarding the training and the obligations of both parties. We have certain partners we can count on. We also have a lot that needs developing. Since students are free to choose their training location, there are many cases where trainers do not always know the potentials, capability and motivation of students. We cannot even be sure that students are at all learning something. Students should choose a work placement recommended by schools where the quality is known.

2. Identify major issues / key challenges in a national perspective Can you identify 3 major issues or big challenges that in-company trainers in your country face at the moment? -

The unidentified status of trainers: Many company trainers do not realise that there professional role is changing as they assume training functions and a key role as a trainers. They do not identify with their role and just do it in addition to performing many other work tasks. That practical training in general is poorly regulated and a lot of participants do not understand its role further contributes to the trainers’ role remaining largely unidentified.

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Overall, trainers and training need to receive more attention. In some schools, trainers are gathered and get trained, but some schools do not even explain curriculum based goals of practical training to them. By contrast, everyone practically involved in practical training will acknowledge the role of trainer. Trainers assume a very important role and a lot depends on their performance. The outcome and quality of practical training also depends on them.

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The payment structure for trainers: They often train people besides their regular work and do not get any extra pay or other benefits.

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Attractiveness of the trainer position means that people want to become trainers. In order to achieve this management needs to become aware that training is important and that trainers need to be encouraged and motivated. On the one hand, the motivation of trainers and attractiveness of the training job could be enhanced through a national system of incentives and the recognition of their work and skills. On the other hand, schools can more systematically provide training for trainers and make the trainer position more attractive through that. Schools could also encourage better communication between school and companies.

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Enhancing the quality of training and the status of trainers. Trainers need to be motivated so that their job makes sense to them. Most trainers would probably participate voluntarily in training if available to raise the quality of their work. However, in order to achieve this, trainers need to become aware of their training function and their work needs to be acknowledged. In order to increase trainers’ self-awareness of their role, they need to feel that they are doing something valuable and get recognition for that.

In Estonia, all those issues need to be addressed and receive more attention. Very few studies are currently under way to address this matter. Those studies are also rather narrowly targeted and should include many more fields. Most importantly, it needs to be addressed and better understood what the consequences of these problems are: the impact on the economy, education and innovation potentials of enterprises. Practical training in companies is not monitored and nobody has an overview of what is going on and its positive and negative impacts. Because of the labour market situation, quantitatively participation in practical training generally is not a problem. In the tourism sector, for example, there is great demand for trainees, because of lack of workforce. Overall, companies have become more interested and motivated to offer training. But where there is great shortage of workforce trainees are often considered to fill the gap and that is what their training is all about.

3. Discuss in a national perspective common issues that may be of relevance across Europe –

IVET is school based: Compared to Estonia apprenticeship training is much more established in most other European countries. Vocational skills and knowledge are gained at the workplace and trainers have a more significant role. In Estonia, most work-related learning is school-based and skills and competences are predominantly gained in school. Only special skills are gained at the workplace. Also with regards to the formalisation of training the Estonian case is different from most European countries. Some similarities exist between the situation of Estonian trainers and trainers in Denmark, Germany and England.

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Qualification and competences of trainers: In terms of staff shortages sometimes it is difficult for companies to find adequately qualified trainers. There might potentially be more trainers or employees willing to assume training functions if the circumstances were different. One can assume that most employees who are assigned as trainers are professionals in their respective vocational field (maybe with the exception if a HR manager is assigned as trainer). Typically, trainers are skilled workers working in production, for example, with a considerable amount of professional knowledge and experience. Nevertheless, these trainers lack pedagogical skills and do not know how to pass on their professional knowledge to young trainees and colleagues. Since most vocational training is school based, the focus of such courses lies on gaining and developing social skills, not practical skills. Unless skilled workers are ‘naturally born’ teachers, they do not have very good social skills.

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Aging workforce: Guiding and training elderly employees can be identified as a key challenge. Practical training has mostly been reviewed and addressed in the context of initial vocational training and formal education. In fact, this issue is much broader since everyone needs further training at some stage of his/her working life. The issue of how to train older employees is not being addressed in Estonia. While demographic changes of an aging full-time trainer workforce may be an issue in some European countries, aging problems with trainers in Estonia do not prevail as trainers only assume training functions occasionally on a part-time basis. Furthermore, it can be assumed that employees are keener to become mentors as they are getting older. They develop an inner motivation to pass on their knowledge, skills and experiences to 89


younger people. Vocational schools often employ older and experiences workers, who can no longer work as hard. This could also become a model for training inside companies. However, elderly trainers need to be supported in this role and up-dated to be able to also pass on modern technology, knowledge and skills. Older employees often are not familiar with recent developments in their field and may teach things that are out-of-date. They should also be supported with proper materials and methods. Support mechanisms need to be established at the national level and through better targeted training courses. –

Professionalization of in-company trainers /Enhancing opportunities and motivation for continuing learning Professionalization means two things: first, the development of competences and second the development of a professional self-understanding and definition. In Estonia trainers are not supported in their position in the company, the performance of their work tasks and their learning opportunities and opportunities for continuing professional development. Many trainers do not even realise that they are trainers, which limits their motivation and performance potentials. In order to become a professional trainer in the Estonian context, a trainer would have to move away from his/her vocational specialisation and production to vocational education and become a teacher. This is different to countries where the main way of learning is apprenticeship based. Trainers in these countries can become professional trainers and remain with the company, while in Estonia they would need to move to a vocational school. Teachers have a professional identity. This required move presents quite an obstacle as most skilled workers strongly identify with their vocational expertise. One other obstacle is salary as salaries in companies are much higher than for school teachers. Apprenticeship pilot projects in Estonia have shown that many trainers do not want to go back to school to study, but prefer to engage in short training courses which only take a few days. Overall, trainers have only very few possibilities for continuing learning, most learning happens randomly. Considering the Estonian labour market situation with increasing work intensification and stress the professionalization of trainers becomes difficult and complicated. Steps towards professionalisation largely depend on support from the companies and as well at the national level. Large companies at least have some resources to foster the professionalisation of their trainers. Another major obstacle to professionalisation is the lack of a common basis such as common knowledge and experience. All trainers are from different fields with different experiences. This prevents trainers from organising themselves professionally. Consideration has been given to the advantages and disadvantages of establishing the status of professional trainers for trainers in companies. There have been concerns that the professional trainer position would induce a gap between trainers and workers and their respective their skills, knowledge and working life. It was felt that this would create a similar gap like the one between teachers and company workers and that this may overall have a negative impact on the quality of training provide.

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How do trainers cope with the accelerated pace of innovation? Since trainers are company workers they are mostly able to cope with new technologies. However, a significant proportion of trainers also mostly deals with personnel issues and thus do not know that much about technology. On the other hand large parts of Estonian economy and companies are not highly innovative and often use old technology. Thus, we have no reason to worry about trainers coping with new technologies as the technologies used in Estonia are pretty much yesterdays news.

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How are trainers being prepared to implement new learning methods? Since trainers are not pedagogically prepared, it would be a real asset if they were familiar with some basic teaching methods. Overall, they do not apply new learning methods, because they are not pedagogically prepared for training and have no knowledge about learning methods, be they old or new. In most cases, company trainers simply give their

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support to learners, often under quite stressful working conditions. In any case, the field of learning methods requires further research. –

How are trainers being prepared to manage the diversification of trainee groups? There is no systematic preparation for this. Trainers with preparation can only be found in schools, not in companies. In Estonian apprenticeship programmes no one really finds out what the student is like. It is possible that through communication between the school trainers and the company trainer information about the students are shared.

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How and to what extent are trainers organized in professional bodies/ associations? Trainers in Estonia are not professionally organised, not even most vocational teachers although a professional association for them has recently been established. Company trainers are a very diverse and heterogeneous group which may prevent them from getting organised professionally.

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How is the prior learning of trainers being accredited? The prior learning of trainers is not formalised. However, their former work and learning experiences are taken into account by the company when selecting and appointing trainers. Companies don not just make anyone a trainer. In most cases trainers have at least professional experience. Documents and certificates are not important. The companies know their employees, their strengths and weaknesses and most importantly, who is interested in becoming a trainer. However, it also depends on the field and sector. In regulated vocational fields and possibly bigger companies formal documents that prove vocational skills are required. Larger companies would not assign the training job to someone who lacks education, knowledge and training. In tourism, by contrast, it is complete informal and anybody who is available at the moment can be appointed as a trainer.

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Status and attractiveness of the job: The EUROTRAINER study showed that the trainer position has no status and is not attractive. Only among peers do colleagues show respect towards trainers. Thus, everything depends on what being a trainer means to a person. A trainer’s job may be attractive if it gives personal meaning and a chance to develop personally. For example, somebody may enjoy working with young people and get satisfaction from it, but this is rare. Maybe someone who enjoys working with young people gets satisfaction from it, but this is rare. In certain retail chains being a trainer may give one a chance for career development. The career aspect is more important in big companies. Maybe someone who enjoys working with young people gets satisfaction from it, but this is rare.

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Formal regulation / de-regulation The trainer job is not regulated. In terms of companies offering training, the only regulation is that practical training needs to be supervised so officially there needs to be a company trainer. Practical training is more regulated in schools. For example, practical training in schools needs to be assessed and the company trainer is part of that process. There are no demands to the work itself. There are more regulations for the practical training itself, but not for the trainer. However, some regulations are being initiated at the moment. For example, it is planed to gather trainers together and talk about training and ask students whether they are satisfied with the practical training they receive and what the weaknesses are. Some assessment will be based on a questionnaire.

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Recognition: self-recognition / awareness of being a trainer A minority of trainers may have some kind of internal motivation to becoming a trainer – they have a mission and are interested in assuming training tasks. They recognise that they have a responsible role. Most trainers, however, see training as an additional task that needs to be done. They do not value it, but regard it as just another part of their everyday work and do not see anything special in it. In large companies the key role of train-

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ing is somewhat better recognised supporting that the trainers become aware of their role. –

Recognition: at the policy level (to support trainers) The EUROTRAINER revealed that most trainers do not have the training responsibilities in their job description as part of their work tasks. This means that there are no formal guidelines. Also at the national level there is no recognition.

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Career of trainers (how do people become trainers/ different career pathways) Nobody goes to work and becomes a trainer to develop their career. In Estonia, being a trainer does not necessarily mean that you have better career chances. In terms of career development there are many different models and backgrounds how trainers become trainers. Different patterns exist in small and large companies. A person who is responsible for personnel in a small company trains everybody and this is one model. The other model is trainers who are more like vocational teachers who have some pedagogical and social skills as well. Particularly in bigger companies skilled people are wanted. It is not a formal requirement, but it is good for the company’s reputation. Beginners do not become trainers. Overall, people become trainers because of their professional level, communication skills and teaching experience. Supervisors notice when a person is not only good in what they do, but is also a good teacher, probably capable of teaching trainees. If a person is ready to teach then this is a clear message to the supervisor. The worker needs to be open, a good employee and with professional skills.


Do you know of any initiatives or approaches that you would identify as a ‘good practice example’? “I have four years experience in the IT sector and I have not seen any company that deals with trainers systematically. However, most companies were open and gave positive feedback about the idea of addressing training more systematically.” “Car service companies that want to have a professional and positive work environment in the future cooperate systematically with schools and also provide material support.” “People, who have been trainees, will make good trainers. In small hotels typically the manager takes care of the trainees himself. This is also a motivation for the trainees. If the practical training experience is positive, trainees usually stay and work in the same company for a longer period of time.”

5. Future trends How do you see the evolving role of trainers in enterprises? The trainers’ role would become more important if they got more training. Management somewhat acknowledges the training efforts and this has a positive impact. Companies will probably pay more attention to training because there is a lack of workforce everywhere. The workforce shortage will make employers realise that training is important. Trainees are future employees who are trained at their workplace and thus familiar with the corporate philosophy. Companies will need to hire people who come there for training. They will be more responsible. At the national level, certificates to acknowledge skills, competences and responsibility would also enhance the trainer role. Some support may be induced through European educational policies and the Lisbon strategy, which recognise the key role of in-company trainers. 92

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If we consider that practical training forms one quarter of the curriculum, much more research on training is needed. For the Estonian case, most principals of vocational schools do not manage the school (or practical training) strategically, but mostly under economic aspects. Much research still needs to be done on this matter.

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Country Report FINLAND Martti Majuri & Kristiina Volmari HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Finland 1. Background and Country Context In education and training executive powers exist at different levels of government, central, regional and local. Central government is represented by ministries and central administrative agencies that report directly to the appropriate ministry. The National Board of Education is one such agency reporting to the Ministry of Education. Ongoing changes will see these administrative units transformed into expert agencies. Regional government is divided according to 6 provinces. The trend since the 1980s has been towards decentralisation. In education and training, most of the decision-making power is at the local level. At national level the most important decisions taken refer to time allocations in education, core curricula and qualification requirements. These are at a general level and thus local curricula are prepared on the basis of core curricula. According to Finnish law, the aim of VET in Finland is to raise the level of vocational skills and competences of the population; develop the world of work and respond to its skilling needs; and promote employment. Since 1989 there have been important changes in vocational education and training. First, on-the-job training was introduced in Finnish vocational upper Secondary education. The goals of on-the-job training are defined at the regional level together with students, teachers and in-company trainers. The goals have to follow also the regional school curricula. These curricula, in turn, must follow the national core curricula. Second, skill demonstrations were introduced in 2006 into vocational upper secondary education. This means that during the regular 3-year vocational upper secondary education the students have to perform 3 to 5 skill demonstrations, which are assessed together with the student him/herself, teachers and trainers. As a result of these two innovations, training has become a challenge in Finland, particularly as concerns the cooperation between companies and vocational schools, or vocational upper secondary schools more specifically. According to different research and a national evaluation of on-the-job learning, those two initiatives have been successful and important. The students are more motivated and all parties involved also think that they learn effectively during their on-the-job training periods. The students’ experiences from the practice communities have been mainly positive, although they have found some shortcomings in guidance. Most of the students appreciate the trainers and assess that their coaching skills are good. Learning at school and on-the-job have become better integrated but with some considerable differentiations between schools, vocational areas and regions. The biggest challenge is to increase the connectivity between onthe-job training and learning at the vocational schools. In some segments this linkage already works well such as in the social and health care sector. Often, this requires changes in the management of schools and the teachers’ work and very good cooperation between schools and workplaces in the region.

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Students 93

Frekvenssi

100 80

63

63

60 40 20

12

14

1

2

0 3

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5

25. Trainer was able to coach me well (Source: Eerola, T, & Majuri, M. 2006)

The system of students’ workplace learning also has had positive effects on the learning of the working communities. Major developmental challenges for educational organisations include: i) making management clearer; ii) increasing team working; iii) enhancing cooperation and openness in general; and iv) making use of external support in development work. Development efforts are also needed to collect data and share experiences of good practise. In many areas the idea of regional cooperation is strongly supported at the management level, but at the shop-floor level it has been usually taken longer to develop. Also, teachers’ commitment vary (Tynjälä & al. 2005; Eerola & Majuri 2006; Majuri 2007). Another effect have been increasing numbers of applicants to vocational training programmes in the last few years: from 58,212 in 2003 to 63,850 applicants in 2006 to vocational upper secondary schools. The national core curricula for different fields will be renewed in the near future. One main focus will be on evaluating the on-the-job learning and the quality of it. This will also lead to foster the trainers’ role. One objective in the future will be to define and recognise the trainers’ role in the vocational education and training process. The recommendation of the labour market and national organisations to increase the cooperation between vocational education and working life has proven to be very useful. Another objective is to further develop the training system in higher education. Some pilot projects have been addressing this issue and supported the development of the training of trainers in higher education.

2. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? In Finland, there are no formal qualification requirements for trainers. The Finnish education system has not officially recognised the trainer function. In apprenticeship training, the apprentices work in enterprises under the guidance of a senior, experienced worker or foreman, but their theoretical instruction takes place in VET institutions and is provided by qualified teachers. Trainers in an enterprise who are responsible for students in vocational upper secondary education and training during their compulsory 6-month on-the-job learning period likewise are experienced foremen and skilled workers. They frequently have a vocational qualification, but no pedagogical qualifications. Vocational teachers, by contrast, are experts in their own vocational field and teaching. They participate in planning the on-the-job training and assess the learning and training process, at the same time marketing the institution’s know-how. Employees at workplaces are in turn 96

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experts in their own vocational field and in the company’s business. Vocational competence and expertise grow out of cooperation between these two groups. The institution has to inform employers about their responsibility for occupational health and safety issues. Above all, the institution must make sure that students are aware of the basics of occupational safety prior to starting on-the-job training. Especially in the Vocational Upper Secondary Education the school plays an important role by guiding and developing the on-the-job training. The school ensures the quality of the training by means of continuing cooperation with workplaces. The school can be active in several ways, e.g. by -

Setting up permanent cooperation links with companies and helping to establish and maintain good on-the-job training practices; Participating in regional development initiatives; Developing and promoting supervision and assessment practices; Ensuring that teachers have sufficient work experience and access to continuing education; Training and preparing on-the-job instructors; Keeping contacts and communication with the social partners; Monitoring national and regional businesses to be aware of changes in educational needs.

The workplace, instructors and supervisors Prior to starting a period of on-the-job training, the employer and the educational institution must collaborate and ensure that the student has been adequately prepared for the work in question, including knowing about to follow instructions on labour protection. During the training, the employer is responsible for students’ occupational safety in accordance with the law and other regulations applicable to employees even if the student does not have an employment contract with the employer. The company appoints an on-the-job instructor, who will participate in instructor training courses. The instructor’s duties and use of time shall be agreed upon at the workplace to ensure a good planning and time allocation for student supervision. On-the-job instructors guide students’ performance of learning assignments, answer students' questions and give feedback on their performance and the tasks carried out. Giving feedback is considered one of their most important tasks. Pedagogical skills, openness and well developed team working skills are therefore important. Instructors are expected to constantly improve their supervision skills. The educational administration has been able to offer courses for instructors. As a supervisor, the instructor familiarises the student with: – the company’s production and business processes; – work assignments, supervising their performance; – occupational safety regulations. As a trainer and adviser, the instructor – plans the training periods and organises the work to promote learning, together with others involved; – provides expert supervision and opportunities to observe the course of work processes; – gives support and feedback; – promotes an atmosphere of good learning and team working in the workplace; – promotes opportunities for on-the-job training in the company.

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The assessment of on-the-job learning should preferably be based on a variety of methods, such as: – work demonstrations and assignments; – documentation, reports and possibly tests; – project results; – portfolios; – assessment by peers; – skills demonstration and a final project. Teachers and on-the-job instructors are responsible for assessment. All parties concerned should be aware of the objectives and principles of student assessment, including – Why an assessment is carried out; – Who makes the assessment; – When an assessment is carried out; – What is being assessed; – How an assessment is being made; – How those participating in the assessment are guided. Typically, the skills demonstrations are included in the on-the-job training. From August 2006 onwards skills demonstrations were incorporated into all qualifications completed in upper secondary VET as a way to improve and assure the quality of training. Students need to show how well they have achieved the objectives of their vocational studies and that they have acquired the vocational skills required at the labour market. Skills demonstrations run throughout the entire period of education and training and are being organised in cooperation with workplaces. One major objective is that they are being organised as close as possible to a realistic work situation. For some years workplace instructors have been able to participate in courses worth 3 European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) points, which are based on core curricula approved by the Finnish National Board of Education. During the ESF-period 2000-2006 almost 25,000 workplace instructors underwent training (i.e. every year about 4,000 start in vocational upper secondary education). There is still a need to educate more trainers and the variation between different sectors and regions is sometimes considerable. A good situation both in qualitative and quantitative terms seems to be in the health and service sector as well as in large companies. A special challenge is to train trainers in small companies (SMEs). The guidelines consist of four main areas including: – Vocational education and the cooperation between companies and vocational schools; – Student based coaching (‘opiskelijalähtöinen oppiminen’); – Implementing the on-the-job training and skills demonstrations; – Assessment of the students. According to the EUROTRAINER expert interviews the above guidelines will be updated in the near future. Then the applicability of the guidelines for the training of trainers working at other levels and forms of education (polytechnics and adult education, for example) will also be considered. At the moment the guidelines focus on issues and problems within vocational upper secondary education and training. So far the guidelines have worked well and they have been considered flexible enough. The different education providers have offered continuing education for the trainers on various topics such as training ethnic minorities, e-learning and students with learning difficulties. However, during the last two years the most important topic for the continuing training of 98

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trainers has been the implementation of skills demonstrations. Overall, the continuing education for trainers has not been very systematic. The education providers are responsible for arranging the training of trainers in their own region. Since 1998, different models for different branches, companies and regions have been developed in hundreds of projects. Very often the most active teachers have been the trainers of trainers. In many projects there has been training also for these trainers of trainers. The training of trainers has been arranged for example – in companies for all trainers from one company; – in the vocational schools either for different branches at once or only for one branch; – as consultation projects in companies before, during and after students’ on-the-job training period so that the teachers can coach the trainer on training and assess the student (good experiences in small companies). – as web-based courses. The training of trainers is one way of networking within the region or even nationally. For example for vocational education, adult and higher education it is mandatory by law to participate in developing local businesses. A very important aspect of this networking is that all participants learn from each other, also the institutions and teachers when active in these processes. In the most effective examples the training of trainers has had additional positive effects on the development of the workplace; instruction skills, work safety and the work culture, for example. At the regional level, some big challenges remain. The education providers are responsible for arranging the training of trainers, but the organisation and management of the training of trainers as well as on-the-job training varies considerably. It would be an asset if teachers actively participated as a trainer and participant in the training of trainers in order to ensure that the needs of the schools and workplaces are met. In some cases it has been difficult to get enough teachers to participate in these processes. There should be some kind of education and support for education providers, school management and trainers’ trainers. Especially from the smallest companies it is very difficult to get trainers to traditional courses. There have been very successful projects, where the teachers train the trainers at the workplace. In the most promising example cases these consultation projects were connected to the coaching and skills demonstration during students’ on-the-job training. Some projects have developed e-materials to support these processes. Sometimes there have been socalled network meetings with the nearest companies so that trainers could share their experiences and learn from each other.

3. Economy: How is the work and training of trainers financed? Training that companies provide is usually financed by the companies themselves. In most cases, there are no full-time trainers in the companies, but part-time trainers are ordinary employees who receive a normal salary. The training activities are just one part of the employees’ work. In some fields, e.g. health care, the institutions have to pay the employer for the students’ on-the-job-learning period, but this is an exception. In Finland, the training of trainers has been financed by ESF funds during 2000-2006. According to the expert interviews the establishing and continuation of the training of trainers is one of the biggest issues after the ESF-period 2000-2006. The big challenge is to set up a structure and programmes for the next ESF period. During the former ESF period some regional models have been developed, which were very cost-effective and worked well without relying on any extra funding. It is expected that some ESF funding will still be available dur99


ing the next ESF period to support the training of trainers. Quite many education providers have already developed a system of training of trainers without external funding as a regular part of the school management.

4. Selection and Allocation: How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? The selection and recruitment of trainers and allocation of human resources is done by the companies. Most trainers are part-time trainers; full-time trainers are the exception. In most cases the trainers are motivated to carry out their training tasks, only that they feel that they would need more time for the training activities. Employees also expressed that they would expect to be rewarded and get some extra pay for performing training activities. The overall quality the training and preparedness of trainers seem to be good, especially from the students’ point of view. Students give positive ratings stating that trainers managed well in their tasks. In big companies there may even be more qualified trainers than needed at a given point in time. They have assigned persons who are only responsible for training in their company. In SME’s that is not possible.

5. Qualification: How are trainers qualified? (cf. above point 2) Most of the continuing learning of Finnish trainers is self-initiated and voluntary and trainers themselves engage in up-dating their skills and competences. According to the EUROTRAINER expert interviews it is not possible in Finland to regulate the in-company training very strictly, because this may incur a decrease in the number of training places. A flexible system based on guidelines and recommendations that gives the education providers many opportunities to develop the training of trainers is probably more effective and suitable for Finland than a strictly formalised system. The main advantage of developing a more formalised system may be that the obtained certificates of the trainer education would be recognised and enhance the mobility of trainers. For example, when a trainer applies to teacher education or applies at a new company the formal recognition may make such moves easier. Some form of recognised certification thus would enhance trainers’ mobility. As the official guidelines for the training of trainers will be updated the trainer competences will be described at a more common level, taking into account the needs of adult education in terms of a qualification-based system.

6. Integration: How are trainers integrated in enterprises/ society? No research data is available on this issue. Whether the trainer job is attractive very much depends on the company and the conditions in a particular work environment. Trainers generally like their job and feel that the training they are providing is important. They like to train others and share the knowledge and continuity of their work. Overall, the status of the trainers’ work benefits from a rather high appreciation of their work and the role of training by students, teachers, colleagues and HR management in companies. The trainers’ work could receive more public attention and be more mentioned and valued in the media, for example (Tynjälä & co 2005, Eerola & Majuri 2006).

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7. Innovation Finnish trainers usually integrate training into their overall job tasks. This makes training to be close to praxis, which contributes towards its effectiveness. The trainers are free to choose the training methods they apply depending on the learning needs, the sector and the company requirements. The targets for the training are negotiated together with trainees and the vocational teachers so that they can be achieved at the company level. The targets must also follow the school curricula and the core curricula developed by the National Board of Education. If a skills demonstration period forms part of the training period, this must also be considered, because the objectives are derived from the national core materials and the negotiations between teacher, student and trainer. Finnish trainers certainly need to be supported with new tools and ideas for innovative training, coaching, feedback and assessment, especially for engaging young people in the learning process. There are still many trainers, who have not been trained and may work quite traditionally, applying principally methods which are based on their own experiences. However, differences exist between branches and sectors and some sectors are more innovative than others. Big companies and global players in particular have much more resources to invest into empowering their trainers and the further development of their training programmes.

Sources eKnowVet Cedefop. www. trainingvillage.gr Eurybase. Eurydice. www.eurydice.org VET teachers and trainers in Finland. Minsitry of http://www.minedu.fi/OPM/Julkaisut/2006/VET_Teachers_and_Trainers_in_Finland.html?lang=fi& extra_locale=enEducation 2006 Eurotrainer, expert – interviews Eerola, T. & Majuri, M. 2006. The challenges and opportunities of working life cooperation – a study on the forms and functionality of the working life cooperation in vocational upper secondary education and training]. Tuomas Eerola & Martti Majuri. Helsinki : Finnish National Board of Education, 2006 Majuri, M. 2007. They wouldn’t like to do anything else – Training of trainers, research report. National Board of Education. Tynjälä, P., Virtanen, A. and Valkonen, S. 2005. Student’s workplace learning in Central Finland. “Skilled Central Finland” Research Report. University of Jyväskylä, Institute for Educational Research. Researh report 23.

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FINLAND – Summary of expert interviews 1. Introduction Interviewee 1: I have been leading some project where we have been training trainers. I have also been head of the board of a national evaluation project that evaluated on the job training in whole of Finland. Formerly, I was a principle in a vocational secondary level school when on the job learning was introduced to the Finnish VET system. Interviewee 2: Project manager for ESF programmes on trainers Interviewee 3: Government official at the Ministry of Education

2. Identify major issues / key challenges in a national perspective 1. In Finland the trainer issue concerns mainly the question of cooperation between work practice and vocational education such as - The amount of on the job training, which has been increasing and is expected to increase even more in future; - The national core curriculum for different fields, which are going to be renewed in the nearest future; one main focus is evaluating the on-the-job learning and its quality. This will most likely also foster the trainer role in the future. - In the future the target should be that the trainers and their training activities naturally form part of vocational education and the work places; - The recommendations of the labour and other central organisations to increase the cooperation between vocational education and working life have been very useful; - The training of trainers is a one way for networking in the region or in some cases even nationally; the learning aspect; all the participants of network activities is very important, also for the schools and teachers when they are active in those processes; - In the most positive cases the training of trainers has had many side effects on developing the workplace; skills, work safety and work culture. - Different models are needed to train trainers, depending on the sector, region and the size of the companies; - Education providers have quite an autonomous position in the Finnish education system despite the fact that they have to follow the core curriculum made by the National Board of Education. They also have to be able to arrange the education for trainers. 2. Establishing the trainers’ training system and to solve the funding problems for the future: - The training of trainers has been funded mainly by ESF money. A rough estimation is that 90 per cent of all trainers have been trained by ESF funds in regional and sectoral projects; - Mostly the trainers’ training has followed the guidelines established by the National Board of Education. Those guidelines have worked well but they must be updated as some trainers have trainees from all levels of vocational education. - Various models have been developed and 25.000 trainers have been trained. However, there is still a need to educate more trainers and the variation between different sectors and regions is sometimes very big; 102

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The funding and development of the training of trainers after the ESF period is a big challenge. It should become part of the regular vocational education system arranged by vocational upper secondary education providers in their own regions; More trainers are needed in the future and this should also be an issue for employers, i.e. how companies will establish and operate the training on their own. The trainers’ training has to be established as an on-going system, particularly in the light of demographic developments and mobility as a significant number of trainers may retire or change their job position or workplace. We have educated quite a big amount of trainers and their medium-age is very high. The majority of trainers that have been trained are older than 45 yeas. Funding remains a major issue of concern as there are no exact figures available about the actual costs of training. Major questions are: who will pay the funding what will the role companies be? Establishing the trainers training also requires support from school managers as it concerns the organisation of the work of teachers.

3. The quality of training - There exist great differences in terms of the quality of training: In the social and health care sectors, for example, the situation is rather good since those sectors have the longest tradition of collaboration between vocational schools and workplaces. They have trained trainers actively and also most of the teachers cooperate with trainers regularly before, during and after the students on-the job training. In the technical sectors, by contrast, we find the worst situation despite the fact that there are examples of good practises though in many regions. For example some metal and building industries have companies that have trained their trainers themselves and tried to get vocational teachers to their courses, too. - In the future, more systematic and encouraging quality management systems are going to be developed. Overall, the quality of training and the training of trainers also dependents on the teachers’ ability to cooperate, educate trainers and their active role in developing the on-the-job learning; - to reach the quality-requirements also the heads of the schools have to develop the strategic and pedagogic management of the schools; teachers work should be organised so that they are able to cooperate and educate also the trainers and the to keep their teachers’ expertise in touch with the development; the teachers “ working life skills “ have to be so good that the school learning and workplace learning have be connected - Small and medium-sized enterprises need special attention for many reasons. Most students go to small companies for their on-the-job training. However, it is easier for big companies to train their trainers and most small companies think that large companies in the region and nationally govern the educational policy; the teachers and education providers so that large enterprises should somewhat take care of the small enterprises; - There is some danger that all the skills and know-how that appears in the companies is not made available to the schools. - The regional networking is an important aspect of quality management. When developing the training and trainers’ training it should be based on the cooperation between vocational schools and companies. For some trades or sectors also national networks may be a good solution for developing the training system. In some cases work safety issues and the development of e-learning environments have been a result of cooperation and new quality requirements; - In some sectors there is now a competition between different companies about which companies recruits the most qualified trainees. While competitive aspects have a positive impact on enhancing the quality of training, large companies are advantaged against SMEs. 103


4. Motivation of trainees: A considerable number of students is not willing to study and hard to motivate. Those present a big challenge to trainers. Also, high rates of drop-outs an issue of concern.

3. Future Trends -

-

-

Demographic developments: Finland is encountering staff shortages, for example in the health care sector. Professionalisation: In Finland we cannot regulate the in-company training very strictly, otherwise there will be a lack of training places. In most of the fields the trainers themselves like to update their skills. The major challenge for the future will be the funding of the training of the trainers. Many teachers say that they do not have enough time for the cooperation. It is very difficult to teach trainers new learning methods. Usually trainers teach like they have been taught. In very short courses it is impossible to change this traditional orientation of trainers as concerns their training methods. Many trainers revert to their own experiences from the time when they were schooling. A long process and major innovation is needed to change this attitude. This requires not only more intensive courses, but also some research that analyses own work attitudes and developing it in different methods, including experimental methods and evaluating the coaching process. The training of trainers should also involve some practical periods with students. Trainers are mainly prepared to train students individually, not in groups. Trainers are not professionally organised. This has a negative impact on their recognition and status. Some guidelines have been established by the National Board of Education. However, the legal framework only to a little extent specifies the role and profile of trainers. Some more formal regulation would be good, if but not too much in order to keep some flexibility. The main objective should be to keep the motivation of trainers high and not focus too much on their competences. Trainers should not be tested and evaluated, but be inspired by good ideas and be taught new ways of working and training. They should be motivated to work with young people. Some kind of self-evaluation is good and very useful, but formal tests should be avoided.

4. Good practice examples There are some good practice examples of methods used in the Vammala region. Some companies start to engage from basic comprehensive schools and then go further in vocational uppers secondary school, considering the students as their future workforce. They also allow and encourage the students to go further to universities. The training those companies provide is considered a lifelong partnership and even the bosses are involved in that kind of cooperation. It all started with a cooperation between a principal and a human resources manager of a company.

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Country Report FRANCE Françoise Dax Boyer CENTRE INFFO, France

1. Background and Country Context In France, various types of teachers and trainers correspond to the various streams and systems. The recruitment, training and career paths of trainers differ according to the relevant activity. As a first step and with a view to greater clarity, the terminology applicable to the French context will be explained. In initial vocational education - The teacher (or lecturer) is an educator who works in the formal education system, i.e. the school (primary and secondary school) and at the university regardless of the level of teaching concerned. - The apprentice master is an employee responsible for the training of young apprentices (typically holding an apprenticeship contract) in a company. - The tutor works within a company assuming different kinds of training tasks (professionalisation contract). The apprentice master and tutor are company employees who are principally professionals chosen by the employer for their skills and understanding of the organisation. They are responsible for training and integrating young people into the company. The apprentice master (when required) and tutor (for work placements) may be responsible for young people pursuing initial training by following courses in the company or following continuing worklinked training programmes. They are responsible for facilitating the pedagogical training objectives set for the particular diploma and match those with adequate working situations in order to facilitate the achievement of the respective diploma. They also evaluate the skills of the young people and work together with the teachers in training centres responsible for the training of the young people there. In continuing training - The trainer is a professional implementing vocational training in the company and, in general, at the private training market. More precisely, he/she engages in adult education. Other players are also involved in the training process such as consultants, training managers in a company, tutors within a company (professionalisation period) and other facilitators. Their status is not covered by any particular regulations, but is primarily a question of private negotiations. Continuing training with all its facets involves a variety of players for whom training is not always the principal activity. In CVET; admission to training functions and professions is more flexible than for initial training. In conclusion, the term ‘trainer’ in the French context is a generic term for anyone involved in continuing training. It does not refer, however, to a uniform category. In fact, there are different profiles of trainers in the company. These include: a) The training manager for strategic and management functions •

The company training manager, typically the Director of Human Resources (DHR), defines and organises the training of employees according to the company’s requirements by applying a specific training plan. The training manager follows policy, strategies and organisational guidelines relevant to the company’s training programme and is also 105


involved in the administrative management of training for young job entrants, arranging work placements and linkages with the training centre. Apart from the design and evaluation the training, training managers is rarely directly involved in the training process. In large companies the training manager works closely with the DHR for organising the training. He/she studies the training requirements and design and organises the necessary resources and/or training courses from the beginning to the end. b) Training leaders and coordinators for the provision and coordination of training •

Trainers, training leaders and coordinators directly provide training for the clients and coordinate the different training teams. The trainer operates in the field of continuing training. He/she trains young people and adults in the company. Trainers who predominantly assume training functions need to be distinguished from occasional trainers, who work part-time in the company. Many of the occasional trainers in companies work according to the expertise they can provide as specialists. In France, more than one million people are estimated to be involved in the training process as occasional trainers compared to around 30,000 people for whom training is their main occupation.

2. Organisation How is the training of trainers and tutors organised? Adult education is intended to be fundamentally different from the traditional educational model. As a consequence, those involved in continuing training fulfil a range of diverse functions. Each company defines and organises the training of trainers according to the company’s requirements and needs following an annual training plan. Depending on the size of the company, the pedagogical committee also considers handling policy, strategy and organisational aspects of the company’s training programme. There is little to distinguish between initial and continuing training of tutors and master of apprentices in businesses since they are typically appointed as tutors without having undergone any particular training. A 40-hour training programme is funded either by the state or by professional organisations. However, it is left to the companies to let their tutors make of this programme or not. Which are the ways to become a trainer? As stated by Bernard Liétard (CNAM), for CVET in France there are no particular requirements to becoming a trainer. It is ‘free entrance’, provided that the person can deliver the expected content in the expected ways. This means that trainers are recruited according to their ability to deliver the training objectives they are in charge of. The recruitment as trainer, thus, depends on the individual skills profile and the professional curriculum vitae. Generally, becoming a trainer is based on mutual agreement rather then being a competitive process. The great variation in the existing types of trainers and individuals involved in training activities should not hide the fact that the trainer can only operate within two status: salaried or self-employed. Many people working in a company may also act, inside or outside their own company, as occasional trainers according to the expertise they derive from their job. More than 30,000 people are estimated to be involved in such processes. Who decides upon the work and training of trainers?

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In large companies the Director of Human Resources (DHR) assesses the training needs and organises the training of trainers according to the company’s requirements and based on an annual training plan. The training manager following handling policy, strategy and organisational aspects of the company’s training programme is also involved in the administrative management of training. In SMEs the boss also manages the training programme for his/her employees and hires or appoints training consultants, considering their competences and skills as well as the company’s needs.

3. Economy In France, continuing vocational training is strongly anchored in negotiations between the social partners and the public authorities. The social partners are concerned about the future of jobs and skills needs, particularly against the expected decrease of the active workforce population, low economic growth and the latent economic crisis. The training of trainers and employees is currently undergoing a significant reform process, characterised by a national Inter-professional Agreement signed in September 2003. Lead by the Minister for Employment, this agreement was followed by a law in May 2004 which addresses the in-service training of employees How is the training of trainers financed? The training of trainers is either financed by the company or by means of mediation of an OPCA (financial collector organism), or it is individually financed. For tutors the training can be financed by the OPCA, which invested 7 millions Euros in training in 2005. Source : Projet de loi de finances pour 2007 : annexe formation professionnelle http://www.minefi.gouv.fr/performance/cout_politique/loi_finances/2007/jaunes/formation_profes sionnelle.pdf

Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? Since the new law was enacted in May 2004, the social partners have been mobilised to ensure that training is accessible to a larger number of employees, allowing them to increase their skills and have those skills recognised. This law applies to training provision funded by the company during or outside of working hours and associated with: − Adaptation to the workstation, − Changes to jobs or keeping employees in work, − Development of skills.

4. Selection and Allocation of Human Resources There are no national regulations governing the status of trainers or other training professionals. The large majority of trainers are private contractors, working full- or part-time. They are selected on the basis of their qualifications and/or skills and professional experience in a particular sector. Shared trust between in-company trainers and employers also plays an important role.

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Status of full time trainers Large French companies have their own vocational training departments that run training for the company’s various sites and skills areas. For example, EDF and Gaz de France have a vocational training department consisting of 1.100 trainers. Those departments typically have a training director, training managers, training designers and trainers. In addition, large companies also work with training consultancy organisations, professional bodies and training centres of ‘Grandes Ecoles’ with whom they develop partnerships for realising training. Status of occasional trainers and ‘vacataires’ Company trainers are nevertheless generally employees who do not have a specific internal status as a trainer, but who are employed as managers or technical staff working in the company’s technical areas of expertise. The company trainer provides teaching in association with the company’s training department, leading training courses and evaluating the pedagogical quality of the training provided. The employed trainer can be employed under different employment contracts including: − − − −

Open employment contract (Contrat à Durée Indéterminée): this is the common law employment contract. Fixed-term employment contract (Contrat à Durée Déterminée): agreed for a limited period of time. Occasional open employment contract is used for working and non-working periods to alternate. The freelance trainer working in the continuing professional training sector. The trainer has to be registered and gets a ‘preliminary declaration of activity number’. This is an easy formality consisting of a declaration to the regional prefecture and on a form together with the relevant extract from the criminal records bureau.

Any training service provided requires the signature of a service level agreement, establishing the mutual undertakings of the signatory parties. When the training is completed the provider submits an invoice, including all necessary references. Every year, the freelance trainer reports on his/her work to the regional prefecture’s office, completing a pedagogical and financial report. Possessing the preliminary declaration of activity number, essential to continuing in business, is dependent on compliance with this formality. Prerequisites and recruitment As concerns access to the trainer function in the framework of continuing training in the company, no course of formal training is required. The trainer is selected according to the company’s needs and his/her competences. The recognition and the accreditation of the qualifications of the trainer raise, in the majority of the cases, through accreditation by the Ministry for National Education, operative by means of contest or homologation. This system of accreditation covers only the field of continuing vocational training depending on the State or the local authorities. Thus the AFPA, under supervision of the Employment and Ministry of Labour, developed a national title of ‘Professional Trainer of Adults’ by means of introducing the Validation of the Assets of the Experiment (VAE) in 2001. Trainers’ main occupational areas Generally, the trainers’ responsibilities and functions include: − Teach one or more subjects (preparing content, leading and evaluating) Programmes of continuing training are more flexible than for initial training and the trainer often must adapt the content of the teaching programme to the requirements of the company, adapt the technology used for teaching aids and distance learning and also transform the pedagogical approach; 108

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− − − −

Co-ordinate the work of the various trainers; Support trainees looking for work to find a practical course and a job after the training period; Monitor and guide the young people who are being trained in the company (in terms of relations with tutors, evaluation of the completed work); Provide administrative support (check the job situation of the trainee 3 to 9 months after training).

Those tasks are not always well-defined. In some small companies, one person may combine several functions. However, the central function of the trainer is still focused on pedagogical engineering. Are there too many or not enough trainers in different sectors? No assessment has been undertaken so far.

5. Qualification Who determines the training contents for the training of trainers? Each company defines and organises the training of trainers according to the company’s requirements and needs, following an annual training plan. Depending on the size of the company, the pedagogical committee considers handling policy, strategy and organisational aspects for the company’s training programme. It also depends on the strategy and habits of each company which institutions are involved in the training of trainers. Some companies cooperate with government-owned and government-assisted training organisations such as − GRETA: training centres located in vocational secondary schools, under the aegis of the Ministry of Education; − AFPA (National Adult Training Association) under the responsibility of the Ministry of Employment, − Chambers of Agriculture, Chambers of Commerce and Industry, Guild Chambers, Agricultural training and promotion centres, under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture. These public organisations represent 5 per cent of all training providers. They cover 20 per cent of the total turnover and 13 per cent of trainees. Other companies prefer to work with non-profit making organisations which represent 30 per cent of all training providers. Those cover 37 per cent of the total turnover and 34 per cent of the trainees. Most companies collaborate with private organisations, which represent 34 per cent of all training providers, covering 39 per cent of the total turnover and 42 per cent of trainees. Officially, more than 45,000 registered training organisations share a competitive training market while in fact only 9,100 of them are really operating on the market. Source : Projet de loi de finances pour 2007 : annexe formation professionnelle http://www.minefi.gouv.fr/performance/cout_politique/loi_finances/2007/jaunes/formation_profes sionnelle.pdf

How do trainers and tutors acquire their training competences? It is difficult to obtain a national overview of the continuing training available for trainers. Most continuing training available is supplemented by training courses arranged at company level 109


to ensure the adaptation or development of trainers’ skills according to the company needs. In order to specify this information, it would be necessary to obtain information directly from the companies. The European Social Fund supported several programmes for the training of trainers in France. Regional prefects and regional councils can apply for ESF money. In most cases, the programme is incorporated into transverse operations (economic development for example). However, although the ESF may provide co-financing, it is scarcely significant in terms of impacting on the training for trainers. Some trainers have acquired competences and diplomas in IVET (universities, CNAM, grandes écoles) and others follow new paths in CVET in a similar way (same kinds of diplomas). Generally, trainers are recognised according to their vocational competences and skills. Nevertheless, French trainer qualifications are not internationally recognised. As concerns the tutors, those are company employees who are principally professionals chosen by the employer for their skills and understanding of the organisation. There is little to distinguish between initial training and continuing training for tutors and masters of apprentices in the workplace insofar as they are often appointed as tutors without any prior training. A 40-hour training programme is funded either by the state or by professional bodies, but it is left to the initiative of training centres.

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Which kinds of certificates or qualifications can be obtained? Répartition des diplômes et titres préparant aux métiers de la formation, par pôle thématique – avril 2006 Diplômes Total pôles

Formations générales en Sciences de l’Education

Formations à dominante pédagogique et didactique

Formations généralistes « Métiers de la Formation »

Formation à Formations dominante centrées sur insertion / la gestion de accompagla formation nement / orientation

Formations spécialisées dans le multimédia et la FOAD

Formations à dominante psychopédagogique et cognitive

Licence

39

27

3

8

1

0

0

0

Licence Prof. Maîtrise

12

0

2

2

6

1

1

0

6

5

1

0

0

0

0

0

Master Recherche

41

25

11

1

0

2

0

2

Master Professionnel

82

2

24

16

13

14

7

6

IUP titre 1 d’Ingénie ur Maître

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

Doctorat

7

6

0

1

0

0

0

0

DHEPS

5

0

1

3

1

0

0

0

DU ou 125 titres homologué s

3

60

14

29

10

8

1

Total

68

102

46

50

27

16

9

318

Fichier source ci-dessus

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Répartition des formations suivant leur spécialité

Formations spécialisées dans le multimédia et la FOA D 5% Formations centrées sur la gestion de la f ormation 8%

Formations à dominante psycho-pédagogique et cognitive 3% Formations générales en Sciences de l’Education 21%

Formation à dominante insertion / accompagnement / orientation 16%

Formations généralistes « Métiers de la Formation » 14%

Formations à dominante pédagogique et didactique 33%

6. Integration Which functions of social integration are fulfilled? The trainers in French companies have more and more diversified functions. Polyvalence is increasingly required. They often work in teams. For these reasons, those involved in continuing training fulfil a range of diverse functions such as: − Training needs assessment; − Teaching one or more subjects, preparing content, training, face-to-face or distant learning, evaluation and development of educational resources. These are traditional tasks of the trainer or training animator, or to a lesser extent that of resource centre animators for individualised training systems. − Organise and maintain the relationship between training centres and the workplace. This is mainly a task of the training co-ordinators. − Management of training: building-up a training programme, building partnerships, arranging the financial engineering, co-ordinating the work of the various trainers, providing administrative support. These functions are carried out by co-ordinators and training centre training managers responsible for the training within the company as training manager in company (GARF network).

Emergence of new profiles in companies Some large companies have created their own training centres where they apply various ICT methods such as on-line training, e-learning, establishing virtual centres, video conferencing and numeric campus. With these methods companies support new ways of working and learning, establishing also new trainer and skills profiles: we may meet web coaches, web trainers, e-tutors, etc.

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Source: www.nettrainers.org/fr

‘Net-Trainers’ is an Online Distance Learning Course which aims to equip tutors/trainers with the skills to teach online using online technologies. Learn ONLINE and become a CERTIFIED NET-TRAINER! (Developed and delivered by key members of the award-winning LeTTOL team, in partnership with online learning experts across Europe). Net-Trainer is a European term to describe the job of the online or e-tutor. This person develops or adapts learning so that it can be delivered using internet technologies, establishes effective and ethical processes to ensure learners are supported throughout the course, provides individual learners with supportive and constructive feedback, and manages online group interactions. The Net-Trainers course has been developed by a partnership of nine European countries. Experts in online and e-learning have worked together to develop a common job profile, training framework and learning objectives. The course is delivered by nine different countries. The course contents are written to recognise the educational context and culture of each participating country (England, France, Germany, Denmark, Italy, Spain, Poland, Bulgaria and the Czech Republic). Job Profile If you are a teacher, lecturer, trainer, materials developer, or an academic or technical manager who wants a thorough grounding in how to develop and deliver online or blended learning courses then Net-Trainers is for you: corporate trainers and independent trainers (industry, banking, insurance, private training centres ...), teachers in the field of vocational training of young people and adults (school, universities, further and continuing education), trainers in adult education, covering the fields of training, career advice and/or vocational integration (community centres, government programmes...). What is a Net-Trainer? The course aims to train and qualify Online and Blended Learning Trainers. The trained trainers will be able to develop, establish, manage and deliver on-line and blended training. There are three main phases in the Net-Trainer’s work which structure the duration of the course: pre-course, on-course and post-course. Prior to the course the Net-Trainer welcomes potential learners (employees, students, job seekers, lifelong learners) and provides appropriate information through group meetings and individual interviews which take place face-to-face or via ICT. In order to assess the learners’ personal and professional situation, the Net-Trainer analyses the students’ expectations and needs, evaluates their educational and professional knowledge and suggests a learning solution. Then, in collaboration with the learner, s/he can draw up an individual learning plan. This contract includes course content, guidance, evaluation and validation. During the course the trainer suggests different learning methods, which will have been previously defined during the course design and set up. These methods respond to a predicted learning progression and make use of technical means and appropriate resources. Throughout the teaching input, the Net-Trainer uses, implements and updates tools, materials and equipment linked to the learning content and course evolution.

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How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises? The work of trainers and above all of tutors is recognised in some large international companies as for example Air France, Disneyland, Banques Populaires and Veolia. They get recognition in the company from their peers.

7. Innovation According to Anne de Blignières-Légeraud, expert in CEDEFOP, innovation in training is the “production, assimilation or exploitation of training products or practices through a multidimensional partnership process, which offers improvements or successful responses/solutions – going beyond usual practice – to specific problems/needs in their (spatial and temporal) context and can be transferred to other contexts”. This relates to the many different aspects of innovation in training, some of which are obvious such as technical and technological change, and some of which are more complex and hidden such as the social values of the ethics of companies. In any case, innovation remains a shining paradox, much prized by teacher researchers, directors, managers, trainers and policy makers.

How is the quality and efficiency of trainers’ training assessed? In large companies, the Director for human resources (DHR) realises the assessment of the training of trainers according to the company’s needs. In SMEs typically the boss would do a similar assessment. Is there any kind of research of the work and training of trainers in your country? In France, we have one base in CNAM, which is the ERO base. Which are the weaknesses and strengths? The new approach of competences is very interesting, because it is linked to recognition. Nevertheless, the spread of communication networks is the most recent phenomenon. Gradually, with the increasing power of technical equipment in private homes and at work, and the spread of broadband, the internet replaces transcends traditional boundaries of space and time in communication between enterprises and private users. New technologies induce new ways of working and learning, including the creation of networks for mutual exchange of ideas between experts and specialists in vocational training, the expansion of European projects to create new on-line training tools and contents and the use of the Internet as an innovative resource Are there any Good Practice examples at company level? − −

Air France (Charte de l’alternance…) Site Air France Banque de France (e Tutorat ; e Formation avec le logiciel Tutor manager d’X-PER Team).

In 2002, a request was addressed to the Department of Training and Skills (DFC) of the Banque de France to train staff in a new human resources management programme. This tool was to replace a number of methods and training procedures used in a variety of environments by introducing a single new integrated system. The programme, called SAP, today covers almost all human resource management functions, using individual electronic files. SAP is expected to be used every day by a large number of people dealing with relations between staff and their employers. Overall, the project is the outcome of a continual process

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of job computerisation which has been taking place over the last ten years, significantly transforming the overall context in which HR and its secretariats work. In 2002, discussion focused on meeting this need. The project was seen as an opportunity to test in a pertinent and appropriate way a mixed training scheme which combined the advantages of e-learning with those of face-to-face training. The training was regarded as a longterm investment. The public in question consisted of secretarial staff and front-line clerical and management staff in central services and the branch network. The training was split into three topics: −

Topic 1 (lasting between 6 and 10 hours over one month) comprised an integration stage in the form of group meetings for a maximum of 10 people lasting 1 hour and 30 minutes, followed by an e-learning stage with support and feed-back from individual telephone conversation.

−

Topic 2 (lasting between 6 and 10 hours over one month) comprised an integration stage using audio conferencing, and a fortnight of independent work with a mid-point group audio conference. The final feed-back at the end of topic 2 was done by individual interview.

−

Topic 3 (face-to-face, lasting three days) addressed more complex issues. (112) SAP-RH (système d’application progiciel): ERP-type software for standardised

Evaluation: towards the development of e-learning Overall, the outcome of this training was positive. The group dynamic brought about by the face-to-face and audio conferences was greatly welcomed. The groups formed came from the same region and had the opportunity to meet before for work-related reasons. This lead to greater cohesion among the groups. The formal signing of a tripartite contract between learner, line managers and tutor made it plain that everyone was involved in a common training project. This scheme was crucial for pursuing a credible and realistic process of educational development in relation to e-learning. The project was also a turning point in the adoption by facilitators of a mixed approach (face-to-face and tutored). The project strengthened the need to develop multimedia content with its own appropriate features, including flexibility, sociability, the opportunity to change the order of sequences, some freedom of movement for the learner and a clear and obvious pedagogical progression within an overall vision of the progress intended. Finally, the operation confirmed the importance of communication between all those involved (learners, tutors, line managers. • • •

AUVICOM (espace tuteur en ligne) ; FORMAPAP (Cap Tutorat) ; Disneyland Ressorts Paris (VA)

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FRANCE: Summary of expert interviews 1. Introduction What is your role/function/relationship to the work and training of trainers? I work for a big company setting up mechanisms for the training of its trainers. 2. Identify major issues / key challenges in a national perspective Can you identify 3 major issues or big challenges those in-companies trainers in your country face at the moment? −

Companies do not invest enough in training.

−

The profession is insufficiently recognized and pay scales are relatively low.

−

Trainers have little time and few technical means to train themselves.

Training of trainers: It seems to me that due to the rapid evolution of new technologies the training of trainers has become a real problem. New possibilities must be imagined certainly using tools of autonomous learning and e-learning. The behaviour of the trainer will equally evolve towards the role of a coach, helping and supporting the learners as they more and more autonomously use e-learning tools. 3. Discuss in a national perspective common issues that may be of relevance across Europe Staff shortages of trainers and training methods This problem is difficult to solve as most companies have to solve their problems in the short term (production first). A lot of them think up ways of de-locating the production under pressing conditions, professional training is not a priority. Aging workforce - how is knowledge transferred to younger workers this may become a new issues particularly relevant for training. In a lot of big companies the training of new staff is now done by using a rotation system, one part taking place in training centre while other parts take place in the company. In this case the company training is provided by tutors who have generally very good professional skills but less good pedagogical skills. In this situation the companies need to make an effort to develop tools and devices to help the tutors to improve their pedagogical skills and aptitudes. Professionalisation of in-company trainers −

Without a doubt we need to imagine new ways to show appreciation of the work of trainers (diploma, bonus, careers prospects).

−

Things change from one company to another however in general, I have the impression that the rapid technological evolution is a bit beyond most trainers’ capacities.

−

Yet again I’m under the impression that most trainers do not engage to make use of the new pedagogical possibilities available as companies do not give trainers the means to innovate, except for some very big companies.

−

If the solution is to proceed with a tutor then the best solution is a team. The tutorial team enriched by its different skills would be able to share the tasks efficiently.

−

Tutors are selected from people with a proved experience in the professional sector, being trained to the learners.

−

There is no immediate statute as it is more a mission than a profession.

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−

A great number of big companies have adopted tutorale as a way of transferring professional know how (the tutor is then given the title of trainer).

Recognition − −

The fact of being appointed as a tutor is in itself a form of recognition. In some companies being a tutor does not automatically mean to become a manager, but to become a manager you must have become a tutor first.

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Country Report GERMANY Anke Bahl3 Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB), Germany 1. Background and Country Context Initial vocational education and training (IVET) – the Dual System Vocational education and training in Germany continues the tradition of medieval guild training, as it was practised all over Europe. In contrast to other countries, however, this model combining practical and theoretical learning was later also adapted by industry in the 19th century / early 20th century. Structured on-the-job training was provided in workshops and was complemented by general education and occupation-related theory in vocational schools. In the course of the 20th century, practices across different industrial sectors were brought together into a modern VET system and were codified in the Vocational Training Act (1969, recently revised in 2005). Based on this Act, initial training is to date specified by training regulations, ensuring that uniform standards of training are met throughout the Federal Republic of Germany. Tailoring vocational training to specific and recognised skilled occupations (“Berufsprinzip”) is the conceptual basis. Under the dual system, state-run part-time vocational schools on the one hand, and companies (public and private) on the other hand, share a joint educational responsibility. Trainees / apprentices spend one or two days a week in a vocational school and three or four days in the company. The company-based part of vocational training in the dual system covers about 30 hours a week. This can imply on-the-job training in smaller firms or training in workshops/departments as well as on- the-job training in large enterprises. The main features of the German dual system are: − A comprehensive large scale VET system as a combination of school education and company-based training at the workplace. − A high percentage of young people joining the system (59.5 per cent of an age cohort in 2003). − A huge variety of recognised training occupations in IVET (343 vocational specialisations in 2006). − On average a 3 to 3 ½ year period of training leading to a state-wide standardised certificate, which is issued by the competent bodies (mostly by the chambers of industry and commerce and by the chambers of handicrafts) on the basis of a final examination. − An action-oriented pedagogical approach towards developing a holistic occupational competence (from general to specific, not modular). − A system mainly financed by employers (with trainees being paid). − Cooperation between employers and trade unions at various levels.

3

This report was compiled from various sources. Many passages were adopted from the thematic overwiews provided by ReferNet, Cedefop's network of nationally-based consortia (http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Information_resources/NationalVet/Thematic/) and complemented by new data. Thanks go to Philipp Ulmer and Peter Olbertz (BIBB) for their support for chapter 5 (qualification).

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Apprenticeship training The dual system of IVET pursued by the majority of young school leavers is a training system where the company/inter-company vocational training facility and the respective specialised vocational school (part-time vocational school, vocational training centre, or companyowned vocational training school) cooperate on the basis of officially regulated training and school curricula. About 1/3 of the traineeship is spent in school. As a general principle no formal access requirements are required for individuals to enter the dual system although a large number of young people with an intermediate-level or upper secondary school leaving certificate opt to enter a dual training programme. The average age of trainees is 17. Since each occupation has different requirement levels and/or a different prestige, occupations with high requirements typically attract and enrol young people with higher education certificates. IVET in the dual system usually takes 2 to 3.5 years. The duration of training depends on the requirements and regulations of the particular occupational specialisation pursued. Vocational training in the dual system is based on the ‘Berufsprinzip’ according to which formal training and qualifications should be oriented towards the work required. As a complement to basic qualifications, specialisation is permitted, but it must be linked to an occupational context. Vocational training should prepare people for further learning. For this reason, important components include promoting a willingness to learn and fostering personality development. To work in the knowledge society, people must be able to plan, carry out and check their work independently. Vocational training within the dual system should be oriented to this aim. Additional qualifications (in addition to regular training) can support this aim and lead to further training. The dual system’s central aim is to promote employability in a changing work environment that is shaped both by technical development and the people who work in it. For this reason, state-accredited occupations requiring formal training, and federal regulations on examinations for further training, are designed in co-operation with the social partners. Young people in the dual system have employee status based on their training contract with which they enter into with the company, enterprise or civil service. This apprenticeship contract has the character of an employment contract: the trainee receives agreed remuneration depending on the occupational area of specialisation and the collective wage agreement. Despite their status as trainees, these young people often bear a very high responsibility in the company compared to their peers following the higher education route since they are responsible for expensive and valuable equipment and have to fulfil demanding work tasks on their own account, although under supervision. The dual system exists in all industry sectors. This means, in theory, that every young person has access to the desired course of training. However, since the supply of training places does not usually meet the demand, freedom of choice is not always possible in practice (especially in underdeveloped regions and/or for disadvantaged young people). Many young people who cannot find a training placement after leaving school therefore start attending a full-time vocational school. Training regulations In-company training takes place according to the requirements of the training regulations (‘Ausbildungsordnungen’) and is under the jurisdiction of the Federal State. School courses are carried out according to the basic curriculum (‘Rahmenlehrpläne’) at part-time vocational schools. The basic curricula are developed jointly in a coordinated procedure by federal and ‘Länder’ authorities with the agreement of employers and unions on the basis of the training regulations. The training regulations determine the occupational profile, the duration of the training to acquire skilled worker status (ranging from 2 to 3.5 years), the standards of an 120

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intermediate examination (in the 2nd year) and the standards of the final examination. Overall, they also define the skills and learning goals to be achieved. While some of those learning goals apply to all occupations, others are only relevant for certain areas or groups of occupations. There are also learning goals which address tasks specific to a narrowly-defined occupational area. Companies can also impart competence, skills, and proficiencies not prescribed in the training regulation, but which are considered indispensable for working in the company. Notably, The training regulations do not prescribe the methods to be used to impart the learning goals as long as trainees are able to do qualified work. This includes, in particular, autonomous planning, execution and controlling. Company training workshops in IVET Technical developments make training contents increasingly complex, particularly in the field of industrial training. Training for different vocational areas has to be imparted across a variety of different production processes. For this purpose, medium-sized and large enterprises have developed special training workshops. For those firms that are too small to operate their own facilities, training workshops above single firm level have been established by the Chambers and professional associations. However, such facilities are no substitute for, but only a supplement to training on the job. Training workshops that are located and organised separately from the company workplace exist above all in the trade and crafts sector and technical areas of large industrial enterprises. Occasionally, special company training facilities for training can also be found in commercial areas in form of training offices or training firms. Instruction for trainees in company-based training classrooms is sometimes also provided (13 per cent of the enterprises)4. However, the quantitative significance of training in company training workshops is relatively small: overall, apprentices / trainees spend on average only 3 per cent of in-company training time in training workshops. The reason for this low proportion of training time is that only 3 per cent of all enterprises carry out training periods in company training workshops of their own. Since these are generally rather large enterprises, the proportion of the trainees who are trained part of the time in a company-based training workshop is somewhat higher, reaching about 8 per cent. Continuing Vocational Education and Training (CVET) In Germany, the field of CVET is of great importance and considered to be the fourth pillar of the educational system – next to general education and vocational schools as the first pillar, institutions of in-company basic training as the second pillar and post-secondary technical colleges and universities as the third pillar. Unlike the other three, CVET is characterised by - pluralism of providers; - a marketplace character; - comparatively minimal degree of state regulation, the state playing a subsidiary role at the most; - voluntary participation; and - multi-functionality. The most important legal stipulations regarding CVET can be found at the national level specified in the Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz – BBiG) and the third book of the Social Code (Sozialgesetzbuch III – SGB III), which has replaced the former Employment Promotion Act (Arbeitsförderungsgesetz – AFG). At the federal state level the Adult Education Act and the Educational Leave Act are also relevant. In addition to these central legal provisions other legal arrangements referring to CVET include the Distance Learning Protec4

See Beicht, Ursula; Walden, Günter; Herget, Hermann: Costs and Benefits of In-Company Vocational Education and Training in Germany. Bonn: Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung 2004, p. 28.

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tion Act (Fernunterrichtsschutzgesetz – FernUSG) and the University Guidelines Act (Hochschulrahmengesetz – HRG), the school laws of the Federal States regulating technical schools, the university acts of the states and a large number of collective agreements. Definitions of CVET Formal CVET embraces all organised activities of CVET providers, especially courses and seminars. Traditionally, a distinction is drawn between vocational and non-vocational CVET. Delimiting these two categories is a difficult matter since different criteria such as the topic and theme of the event, its purpose, interests of the participants etc. can be used to define each of them. In the case of CVET a distinction is drawn between in-company CVET (i.e. continuing vocational education that is initiated and usually financed by companies) and extra-company CVET. Non-vocational continuing education is generally taken to include continuing general, political and cultural education. The Federal States partly apply other classifications or supplementary terms. Often the terms ‘continuing general education’ and ‘continuing non-vocational education’ are used as synonyms. Finally, not only can the content aspect – vocational or non-vocational – be used to describe the principles underlying organised CVET but also it’s funding model and the type of sponsor. A differentiation according to the feature ‘financing/support’ of CVET leads to the following types: a) Publicly supported CVET including - Continuing vocational education and training supported by the European Union via the European Social Fund; - Continuing vocational and non-vocational education and training supported by the federal government, e. g. in the form of pilot projects and upgrading training (grants for master craftsmen, the so-called ‘Meisterbafög’); - Continuing non-vocational and vocational education and training supported by the federal states, as regulated in the CVET legislation of the states; - Institutional support provided by the municipalities. b) CVET supported by organisations and bodies under private or public law, which is funded through membership or compulsory fees, including for example - Continuing vocational education and training supported by the Federal Employment Services under AFG/SGB III; - Continuing (predominantly vocational) education and training supported or financed by associations, chambers and the social partners. c) CVET financed by enterprises. d) Continuing non-vocational and vocational education and training privately financed by individuals. This list illustrates the diverse ways of funding CVET. In practice, such a differentiation by source of funding is not always unequivocal since mixed financing is frequent. It is therefore reasonable to speak of core funding. CVET financed by enterprises In Germany, the term in-company continuing vocational education and training usually refers to CVET at the initiative of the company. It does not matter whether it actually takes place in the company or outside of it. Traditionally this definition also meant that the company pays for the provision and that the training takes place during regular working hours. Recently more responsibility is assumed by individuals themselves both in terms of financing participation in continuing training and dedicating personal time. Employees tend to more often fi-

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nance their CVET and also CVET increasingly takes place outside of the regular working hours (Weiß 2003, p. 10).5 The definition of what exactly counts as CVET also plays a central role when calculating the percentage of employees taking part in in-company training. The main question in this regard is whether the term CVET should be restricted to courses and seminars in the traditional sense or whether it should also include non-formal and/or informal forms which we could combine under the term ‘job-accompanying’ CVET. Generally, CVET can be considered not to be a key responsibility of the companies. Incompany CVET usually serves as a remedy to skills deficiencies that exist or are developing. For this reason it mainly belongs to the field of adaptation training. But companies also carry out internal or external upgrading training, as well as CVET leading to vocational certificates. Public funding is the exception rather than the rule. When company based, participation is usually restricted to employees of the company. Many large enterprises have CVET departments, some also have their own institutions for CVET. The results of a recent survey of further training activities by the Institute of the German Economy in Cologne (IW Survey 2005) show that 84 per cent of all companies surveyed engage in offering such forms of training (see Table 1 below). In 2004, average expenditure per employee amounted to 1.072 Euros of which one third was direct and two thirds were indirect costs. Compared to previous surveys the direct costs have slightly decreased while the indirect costs have increased, in particular for external training courses and learning on the job. Extrapolation of the results indicates that in 2004 German companies spent a total of 26.4 billion Euros on further training. The surveyed firms expect that the need for further training will grow over the next years and employees will need to develop more self-initiative to enhance and assure their employability.6 Forms of in-company CVET Participation in CVET forms – activity shares by companies in per cent 1992

1995

1998

2001

2004

Learning on the job (Self-regulated) learning using media Internal courses Information events External courses Retraining measures

92.2 84.0 55.9 75.2 59.9 8.5

91.4 87.0 57.6 75.8 58.8 6.4

95.7 95.5 79.0 95.1 88.5 19.3

92.9 86.9 75.6 91.8 84.3 12.7

81.7 79.4 63.9 75.7 68.8 9.8

Total of in-company CVET

97.2

97.6

99.7

97.1

84.4

Sources: Weiß 2003; Werner 2006

Previous surveys conducted by the Institute of the German Economy (IW, Köln) differentiate the numbers of participants by internal courses, information events, external courses and retraining measures. On evaluating these categories it is apparent that the share of internal courses is generally rather high: It has risen from 43 per cent in 1992 to a peak value of 76 per cent in 1998 and then fell to 64 per cent in 2004. Equally there was a rise in the number of information events and external courses between 1998 and 2004. This development can be interpreted as a tendency towards externalising in-company continuing vocational education and training.

5

Weiß, Reinhold: Betriebliche Weiterbildung 2001 – Ergebnisse einer IW-Erhebung. In: IW-Trends 1/2003 [http://www.iwkoeln.de/data/pdf/content/trends01-03-2.pdf]. 6 Werner, Dirk: Trends und Kosten der betrieblichen Weiterbildung – Ergebnisse der IW-Weiterbildungserhe-bung 2005. In: IW-Trends 1/2006 [http://www.iwkoeln.de/data/pdf/content/trends01_06_2.pdf].

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Type of engagement in CVET per employees Staff participation in CVET – Participation cases per 100 employees* 1992

1995

1998

2001

2004

Internal courses Information events External courses Retraining measures

42.8 12.3 11.0 0.5

52.7 12.2 10.3 0.2

75.9 13.8 9.9 0.4

66.5 16.5 14.9 0.8

64.3 30.5 26.6 1.1

Total

66.6

75.4

100.0

98.7

122.5

Sources: Weiß 2003; Werner 2006 * Note: Learning in the work situation and self-regulated learning using media were not statistically assessed by the companies.

Time spent for participation in in-company CVET The IW study also provides information about how much time employees spent on CVET for the year 2001. The survey shows that taking the average of all respondents each employee attended 13.6 hours of CVET (these figures were not part of the survey in 2004). This is a pronounced drop of six hours compared to the previous survey of 1998. Differentiating according to the type of course we find that in particular the volume of internal courses dropped considerably between 1992 and 2001, namely by 4.8 hours. Apparently, internal courses in particular are subject to cutbacks in times of business difficulty. Learning in the work situation and self-regulated learning using media were not included in the survey. Time intensity of CVET -Hours of attendance per employee per year 1992

1995

1998

2001

Internal courses External courses Information events Retraining measures

12.9 4.9 1.0 1.0

7.7 4.9 1.0 0.4

13.6 4.7 0.9 0.8

8.1 4.6 0.7 0.2

Total

19.8

14.0

20.0

13.6 Source: Weiß 2003

The hours of CVET per participant can be taken as an indicator of the duration of a training scheme. As expected, retraining schemes accounted for the greatest amount of time at 490 hours per participant. The information events, on the other hand, were short-time measures accounting for slightly more than four hours per participant. The Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS3) established the figure of 30 hours on average per German participant in 20057. The extent of participation differed widely between different industries: the number of hours per participant was highest in telecommunications as well as the insurance and banking sector (≥ 50 hours); manufacturing held an intermediate place with 29 hours; wholesale and automobile trade 24-29 hours and, at the lower end, vehicle construction and food industry with 19 hours. Foci of in-company CVET The IW study also examined the focal topics of in-company CVET and summarised them in four major groups (see following table). According to these findings the ‘trade, scientific and technical, designing themes" category dominated by 34 per cent in 2001, being slightly smaller than in 1992. Topics related to business administration remained relatively stable during the period reviewed at about 30 per cent. The same was true for information and communications technology, which dropped slightly from a peak value of 24 per cent in 1998 7 Dritte Europäische Erhebung über die berufliche Weiterbildung in Unternehmen (CVTS3). Ausgewählte Tabellen. Statistisches Bundesamt 2007, Table 3.1 ”Zeitaufwand für Lehrveranstaltungen” (p.12)

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to 21 per cent in 2001. This indicates certain saturation with CVET in this thematic area. All in all we can say that there were no major shifts in the focal areas during the said period. Foci of company-based CVET in per cent of the total volume 1992

1995

1998

2001

2004

Technology, science, design Business administration ICT Cross subject themes

36.2 29.5 18.9 15.4

37.8 29.0 19.2 14.0

32.6 30.7 23.6 13.1

33.8 29.8 20.9 15.5

35.1 29.6 20.4 14.8

Total

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

99.9

Sources: Weiß 2003; Werner 2006

2. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? In Germany at least three different types of in-company trainers can be distinguished. Two of them are primarily involved in initial VET and one type is primarily involved in continuing VET. While company-based initial training within the German dual system is rather clearly defined, the trainer as a profile can hardly be conceptualised. We rather can speak of a function than of a defined occupational job or group. Trainers in the first place see themselves as a specialist in their particular occupational domain, who takes on an additional educational task. Trainer type 1: Most of the initial training of apprentices is carried out by skilled workers, journeymen or foremen. As part-time trainers they engage in training as a parttime activity directly at the workplace. Only some of them have received some kind of preparatory training or are formally qualified for this activity. Trainer type 2: Full-time trainers in IVET are primarily found in the industrial manufacturing sector (and other companies with more than 200 employees). They usually have an advanced qualification as master craftsman. Depending on the sector and size of the company full-time trainers often work in separate training workshops set up for this purpose. In large companies training managers are responsible for the whole process of steering the basic training in different occupational fields. Those are less involved in actually carrying out the training. Any company offering training and giving a contract to a trainee has at least one employee who is the designated responsible trainer (‘Ausbilder’) with the proven aptitude to take over this task. In small enterprises this may be the owner him- or herself. In 2005, altogether 755,262 persons were officially registered by the chambers as designated trainer and contact person of the company. It is estimated that about seven times as many employees are actually involved in IVET activities (corresponding to trainer type 1: part-time trainers).8 Trainer type 3: Trainers in CVET usually work with their target group on a much more selective basis. Whereas the trainers involved in IVET provide a very comprehensive training and lay the foundation for young peoples’ skills development in a complex occupational field, trainers in CVET focus on the acquisition of narrowly-defined technical and/or soft skills according to the needs of the regular employees. Similar to the situation of full-time trainers only larger companies can afford their own training department and CVET training staff, who tend to be in charge of training activities and other organisational and administrative tasks. SMEs hire self-employed or other external trainers. 8

Dritte Europäische Erhebung über die berufliche Weiterbildung in Unternehmen (CVTS3). Ausgewählte Tabellen. Statistisches Bundesamt 2007, Table 3.1 ”Zeitaufwand für Lehrveranstaltungen” (p.12).

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3. Economy: How is the Work and Training of Trainers Financed? Who invests in the training of trainers? In most cases trainers themselves finance courses to obtain a formal qualification certificate. For skilled workers (mostly trainer type 1) the ‘Trainer Aptitude Regulation Certificate’ (AEVO, see below) is an incentive to raise trainers’ market value within the company. Obtaining such a certificate may demonstrate trainers’ willingness to widen their horizon and to broaden their responsibilities. Leadership skills in particular will be relevant for other positions in the hierarchy and training apprentices is still (although less than in the past) considered an important stepping stone into this dimension. Depending on the company’s tradition of having established dual training programmes, employers sometimes finance the participation of their employees in such a preparatory course of 120 hours. Other companies may invest in training of trainers below this level in order to qualify their staff for more general educational purposes when instructing young people at the workplace. For journeymen and other skilled workers, who want to become master craftsman or foreman, the AEVO certificate forms a standard part of the diploma (part IV) and they finance this qualification themselves. Also, type 3 trainers (in CVET) finance their education themselves. There are no regulated requirements to be able to work as a trainer. Various trainer certificates are offered on the market. Some trainers invest in their qualification, others don’t. Sometimes the companies support their employees also financially. How much money is invested in the training of trainers? No figures are available about how much money is invested in this field. Representative data exist, however, about the staff costs of in-company IVET trainers (and to a limited extent also of CVET trainers) procured by German enterprises. The personnel costs for IVET trainers were assessed by a BIBB survey. Those costs are always related to the amount of money (€) spent per trainee/apprentice in the year 2000. The personnel costs of IVET trainers cover wage and salary costs including employee benefit costs (statutory and standard contributions and fringe benefits) of all persons involved in training in the enterprise. The study by Beicht/Walden/Herget (2004)9 about the overall costs of in-company VET in Germany determined the proportion of personnel costs through looking at the time spent on training. A differentiation between two main trainer types in IVET was made. Whereas the central task of full-time trainers (trainer type 2) is to carry out training, the part-time trainers (trainer type 1) only perform training tasks temporarily in addition to their regular work tasks in the framework of the production of company goods or services. The part-time trainers can belong to a wide range of personnel groups, i.e. they may be executives, sales specialists, specialises in a technical or commercial field, or semi-skilled or unskilled workers. Moreover, in some enterprises external trainers are also employed temporarily for special training.

9

Beicht, Ursula; Walden, Günter; Herget, Hermann: Costs and Benefits of In-Company Vocational Education and Training in Germany. Bonn: Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung 2004.

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Figure: Cost elements of in-company initial vocational education and training (source: Beicht/Walden/Herget 2004)

Costs for IVET training personnel vary widely between the different fields of training. They are by far the highest in the liberal professions, mainly because this is the field of training where the amount of time expended by trainers on each trainee / apprentice is the greatest. Another reason is that management personnel, and very often the firm owners themselves, participate in such kinds of training to a greater extent than in all the other fields. In addition, the salaries of the management personnel or firm owners doing the training are substantially higher in the liberal professions than in any other field. For example, salaries are on average 26 per cent above the corresponding salaries (including fringe costs) in manufacturing and commerce. In the crafts and in agriculture, although the participation of company owners or management personnel in training is also relatively high, this does not affect total trainer costs to the same extent because the salaries of the management personnel are lower by comparison: 35 per cent lower in the crafts and 38 per cent lower in agriculture than in the liberal professions. The lowest training personnel costs overall are found in the public service. Here the overall time expended by trainers per trainee is the lowest, 43 per cent lower, for instance, than in the liberal professions. The main reason for this is probably that in the public service a trainer usually trains a larger group of trainees/apprentices, whereas in the liberal professions the trainer usually trains one individual trainee/apprentice only. In addition, in the public service the training is done mainly by skilled workers and only rarely by management personnel. This also has a substantial effect on the costs. Moreover, the different wage and salary levels in the fields of training of skilled workers who engage in training also influence the trainer costs. They are considerably higher in manufacturing and commerce, for example, than in the crafts and in agriculture sector.

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The staff costs for internal CVET training personnel in 2005 were assessed by the CVTS3. On average they amounted to 9.3 per cent of the total costs per course in companies offering internal courses to their employees. The average costs per employee and course were € 651, and per actual participant and course € 1,697.10 Who benefits from the work of trainers? In principle the following three types of benefits for the enterprise form initial training can be distinguished: a) Benefits deriving from having trainees/apprentices During the training a benefit for the enterprises is produced by those being trained, because returns are generated through productive work. b) Benefits deriving from recruiting former trainees as skilled workers upon completion of the basic training When companies hire the same apprentices they trained they benefit because the skills imparted during the three year training period partly reflect company specific requirements and a corporate profile. Training benefit arises for the company only to the extent that it is cheaper for the company to offer training than to recruit skilled workers from the external labour market. Existing performance differences between company-trained and externally recruited skilled workers can be reflected in a multitude of effects that are of considerable economic significance for the company. In-company training is also likely to lead to greater identification with the aims of an enterprise and favour adaptation to the specific corporate culture. c) Supply benefit Some benefits derive from merely being involved in training as a company such as - Strengthening of the company’s position on the external labour market; - Positive influence on the image of the enterprise in public and among potential customers and business partners; 10

Dritte Europäische Erhebung über die berufliche Weiterbildung in Unternehmen (CVTS3). Ausgewählte Tabellen. Statistisches Bundesamt 2007, Table 4 ”Kosten für Lehrveranstaltungen” (p.16-17).

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-

Positive effect on the quality of work within the enterprise (dealing with questions of IVET can lead to increased professionalisation in CVET); Constant influx of younger skilled workers (institutionalised rejuvenation of the enterprise).

4. Selection and Allocation: How are Trainers Recruited and How are Human Resources Allocated? In 2005, 755,262 employees were officially registered as IVET trainers (“Ausbilder”) in Germany. About 30 per cent of them were female with a sharp contrast between the old and the new federal states (25.3 per cent in the old German federal states versus 41.4 per cent in the new states). It is estimated that approximately seven times as many persons of both sexes (about 5,300,000) work as part-time trainers. However, no official figures for CVET trainers exist. In 2002, twelve of the various existing trainer organisations joined to a common umbrella group (DVWO). They represent at least around 12.000 members.11 Trainers in adult education are among them, too. How big the percentage of CVET trainers in companies is has not been assessed. How are trainers recruited by enterprises? Whereas IVET trainers are usually recruited within the company as part of their occupational career, the recruitment of CVET trainers differs rather widely. Some are recruited from the company’s own workforce (i.e. master craftsmen with a particular expertise in a technical field), others are recruited externally. Companies report that it is increasingly difficult to recruit adequately prepared staff for the training tasks, particularly for IVET. The situation of CVET trainers is difficult to judge since there is no data available. In which main occupational areas do trainers specialise? AEVO-Trainer examinations passed according to training areas 2000-2005 in per cent IVET area Industry and Commerce Skilled Crafts Public Service Agriculture Home Economics

2000 76.6 17.4 4.5 1.3 0.2

2001 76.4 18.0 4.1 1.3 0.2

2002 73.7 21.2 3.2 1.3 0.2

2003 70.9 24.1 3.3 1.3 0.2

2004 69.6 26.8 2.2 1.3 0.1

2005 69.3 25.1 3.7 1.6 0.2

Source: BMBF: Berufsbildungsbericht 2007, chapter 4.1.8, table 4.1.8/2

5. Qualification Qualification of IVET trainers The pre-service training of in-company training staff in IVET is regulated by the federal law. In accordance with the legal regulations of the Vocational Training Act (§§ 28-30) the trainers have to be personally suited and professionally equipped to train young people at the workplace. -

11

Personally suited is usually any legal citizen, who does not have a criminal record. The chamber will ask for a recent clearance certificate from the police. This can be applied for at the local citizen’s registration office. The person should be allowed to interact with chil-

Richter, Renate: Trainer - ein Berufsbild bekommt Konturen. In: Graf, Jürgen [Hrsg.]: Seminare 2007. Das Jahrbuch der Management-Weiterbildung. Bonn: ManagerSeminare 2007, pp. 83-89, p. 84. [http://www.dvwo.de/presse/070125_seminare2007.pdf].

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dren and youngsters and should not have offended repeatedly or massively against the Vocational Training Act or the regulations enacted on the basis of this law. -

Professionally equipped is a person who passed a final vocational examination in a field corresponding to a vocational training area and who has certain work experience in the respective field. This also applies to comparable school and final school examinations at a German University. The professional aptitude also comprises skills and knowledge in vocational and working methodology.

Apart from the qualification as skilled worker passing the examination as defined in the Trainer Aptitude Regulation (AEVO, § 2) or an examination for a master craftsman's diploma is also required. Trainers in craftsman businesses must be master craftsmen. Outside the crafts sector any AEVO qualified trainer can be accepted. To obtain the AEVO certificate courses of 120 hours are recommended and offered by the respective chambers. However, participation in these courses as a means of preparing for the trainer aptitude examination is not compulsory. The trainer examination includes the following professional and work-related areas: - Basic knowledge of vocational training (e.g. objectives of vocational training, characteristics of the dual system, tasks, status and responsibility of in-company trainers); - Legislative framework (e.g. labour protection, work safety); - Training issues specific to young people (how to tailor vocational training programmes to the needs of young people, young people’s typical behaviour, youth and health issues); - Planning and implementing training courses, including didactical presentation of contents and methodological issues. The final examination consists of a written paper and a practical examination. In the written part, which takes 3 hours, the candidate has to elaborate case-based tasks in several of the named subject areas. The practical part (30 minutes) consists of a presentation or practical execution of a training unit and an oral examination. Every candidate is awarded a certificate detailing whether he/she has acquired the necessary pedagogical knowledge of professional and work-related issues. In 2003, the Trainer Aptitude Regulation (AEVO) has been suspended for five years with the aim to increase the incentives for companies to offer more training placements. One implication is that companies no longer have to proof that their trainers have a certificate in accordance with the Trainer Aptitude Regulation. Thus, trainers in companies no longer need to pass the examination, but there is no exemption from the qualification which is documented by the examination. The responsibility of the chambers in terms of monitoring the quality of in-company training in IVET remains in force. Qualification of CVET trainers The job of CVET trainers is not registered as a standardised occupational profile. There are no specific training models that characterise pre-service training for CVET. The few university courses offered differ considerably. Most of them are more related to management functions in adult education than to specific training tasks in the company. Most trainers have an academic degree in their specific domain of technical knowledge (university or university of applied sciences) and possess one or more trainer certificates, which can be obtained through various trainers’ associations or education providers. Commonly CVET trainers (including external trainers hired for particular seminars or courses) hold one or more of the following formal qualifications: - University degree in educational sciences with specialisation in adult education; - Training certificate of a well reputed private Train-the-Trainer-Institute;

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Training certificate of a training institute operated by the social partners or by an adult education centre; - Qualifications of varying scope, level and focus. Who determines and regulates the training contents for trainers? After the first legal regulation for IVET trainers was enacted in 1972 (AEVO), the corresponding subject framework structured the qualification of the trainers. This subject framework was oriented towards the fields ‘basic questions of vocational education and training’; ‘planning and implementation’; ‘young people in the education process’; and the ‘legal basis of vocational training’. During the mid-nineties the training of IVET trainers was developed further. The working conditions of the trainers and their role had changed due to technological and organisational innovation and new and reorganised training professions. In order to impart complex contexts of work processes to the apprentices the classical methods were no longer sufficient. There were higher demands on the didactical-methodological and communicative aspects of training in addition to the professional qualification. -

All players involved in VET work together when it comes to planning and preparing new occupational profiles and revising the various regulations. These players belong to four main groups: - Companies and chambers (employers); - Trade unions (employees); - The German Länder (federal states); and - The national government. Facilitated by the BIBB, the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, these actors developed a new subject framework that was no longer primarily skills and knowledge based, but more action oriented with the aim to point out typical authentic work situations and to offer corresponding exemplary solutions and action strategies. The Trainer Aptitude Regulation was first amended in 1998 for the commercial sectors and then its scope was extended to public services, domestic science and home economics and agriculture in 1999. To date this regulation determines that IVET trainers must furnish proof of knowledge in the following seven subject/action fields if they want to train young people: 1. Setting the foundations (12 hours); 2. Planning the training (16 hours); 3. Recruiting apprentices (14 hours); 4. Training at the workplace (32 hours); 5. Promoting learning processes (18 hours); 6. Moderating groups of apprentices (16 hours); 7. Completing the training (12 hours). The final examination consists of a written and a practical part. In the written part, caserelated tasks from several action fields have to be tackled. The practical part consists of either a presentation or the practical performance of a training unity. As a preparation, the future trainers attend relevant courses which are oriented towards the subject framework (usually 120 hours in total). The Chambers of Industry and Commerce and the Chambers of Skilled Crafts make their mark on the quality of basic and further vocational education and training through defining standard examination criteria and procedures and by assigning experienced voluntary examiners. One of the most important tasks of the chambers is to advise companies that offer training on possible related problems. Issues they are concerned with include the structure of the training, the use of training aids and educational, psychological and legal questions. At the same time the chambers also advice trainees and apprentices. Any employer wishing to offer trainee placements must fulfil certain requirements regarding the company’s suitability: the company must be able to offer facilities, production programmes and services to train 131


people. In addition, the employer and the trainers involved must have specific personal with the required vocational and trainer qualifications. The chambers will assess companies’ suitability before a training programme can be started and also during the training programmes on a continuing basis. This is done on the basis of a vocational training register kept by the chambers, which keeps a record of all vocational training contracts. The task of looking after and supervising training matters is assigned to the training counsellors of each chamber. Pre-service training is being provided by courses offered by the chambers as well as a few other educational institutions. Courses are offered by various CVET institutions on the market, including the trade unions. The AEVO certificate, however, can only be obtained via an examination at a chamber. Responsibility for the examination of in-company trainers in IVET lies with the competent bodies (chambers of industry and commerce, chambers of skilled crafts, chambers of agriculture). These institutions are responsible for adopting examination regulations and setting up examining boards to conduct aptitude examinations for trainers. In terms of continuing training, there are no obligations for IVET trainers. In particular, owners of small craft enterprises and their staff may not have the resources, time and energy to engage in continuing training. There are, however, great numbers of in-service and continuous training offers for trainers. - Big companies: In Germany the infrastructure for initial vocational training is commonly used also for continuing and personnel training including trainers. Enterprises have established personnel development and training units, separate educational institutions and training rooms as well as their own trainers and teachers units. - Small and medium size companies: Trainers in SMEs have the opportunity to take part in (further) training courses organised by the chambers, professional or branch organisations and/or other training institutions. In the field of e-learning further training of trainers is also being developed. Quite a few remarkable initiatives supported by various organisations can be found in Germany. Information on such e-learning opportunities are available on web-sites that are specifically targeted to address IVET trainers. Examples are www.foraus.de and www.ausbilder.net. In addition - The Central office for further training in the craft trades sector (Zentralstelle für Weiterbildung im Handwerk – ZWH) has started to offer e-learning to a network of 35 local chambers of craft trades. - The Association of German electrical and information technology trades (Zentralverband der Deutschen Elektro- und Informationstechnischen Handwerke – ZVEH) has brought together three training colleges under the umbrella of ELKONET. - The German association of industry and commerce (Deutscher Industrie- und Handelskammertag – DIHK) with 82 local chambers of industry and commerce has established online courses. How do trainers acquire knowledge, skills and competences? For the acquisition of pedagogical competence the chambers and other educational institutions offer different types of courses. Essentially, theses courses are attendance courses, distance learning courses and learning offers with a mixture of attendance and self-directed learning. Through the courses theoretical and practical knowledge is imparted. The fact that the trainer has to have passed a final examination in a subject area already ensures that the trainer possesses the necessary vocational knowledge and experience. In addition to the formal qualification on the basis of the Trainer Aptitude Regulation and other continuing training courses forms of in-company cooperation between the officially designated training staff (trainer type 2) and those who train the apprentices as skilled workers (trainer type 1) also exist. Furthermore, continuing training is stipulated through the external cooperation between the vocational advisers and careers information centres of the Federal 132

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Agency for Labour, educational guides, members of examination boards, the examination office of the chambers, the school supervisory offices, headmasters and vocational school teachers. The certificate of qualification according to the Trainer Aptitude Regulation was until 2003, apart from exceptions, an indispensable prerequisite to prove the vocational aptitude of IVET trainers. The vocational qualification, the professional experience of several years and the acquisition of educational skills, knowledge and competences as well as informal qualification are considered to be a guarantee for the training staff’s comprehensive professional ability to act. Whether the obligation to furnish proof of a qualification certificate (AEVO) continues to be suspended or will be reintroduced shall be decided in 2008. Currently there seems to be a strong tendency to reinstall it but to amend the curriculum first. The training contents need to be adjusted to the changing challenges that trainers in the workplace face today. How important is a formal qualification/ certificate for the trainers? The successful participants of the course get a certificate on the passed Trainer Aptitude Regulation examination. Usually the course length is 120 hours. This basic qualification is valid indefinitely. As mentioned above, until recently the AEVO qualification was a formal requirement to become an IVET trainer and a prerequisite for companies that offer apprenticeship training in order to prove that their training staff was adequately prepared. The fact that an enterprise is only allowed to take on and train apprentices if the trainer is personally and professionally eligible shows the importance the formal qualification of trainers (§§27,28,29,30 BBiG). For CVET, different continuing training courses are being offered on a large scale and a great variety of certificates corresponding to the AEVO can be obtained. Those are also valid indefinitely. Overall, for CVET trainers the situation is much more diverse. There is a huge variety of certificates instead of a standardised one and often they are not obligatory. No regulations concerning in-service training and continuing training for CVET trainers exist. However, a small survey on pre-service and further Training of CVET staff (IB Training Centre Berlin) indicated that the vast majority of the training staff had undergone further training.

FURTHER TRAINING

95 per cent of CVET training staff pursued further training in three main areas: - Training for the specific occupational field of training - Training methods and didactics - Computer software

What kinds of qualifications do the trainers of trainers have? The qualifications of the trainers of trainers vary a lot as no standardised regulation exists. Principally, the trainers of trainers need an educational qualification such as the AEVO qualification for example. Overall, the trainers have very different backgrounds: they are either teachers at post-secondary technical colleges, universities, vocational schools or specialists in regional enterprises. Many trainers have a master craftsman Diploma and possess long work experience as in-company trainers. Others work as freelance trainers.

6. Social Integration: How are Trainers Recognised and how are they Integrated into Enterprises / Society Which functions of social integration are fulfilled through the work and training of trainers? IVET trainers in particular have a very important function in helping the trainees to develop a professional identity, an occupational profile and some level of identification with the com133


pany. In small enterprises in particular the trainer is an important role model for the future generation of employees. CVET trainers are important agents in helping adults to learn again and to continuously update their knowledge, skills and competences, i.e. to cope with the demands of a rapidly changing work environment. How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? In spite of the important role IVET trainers play within the dual system, their image and reputation has suffered during the last decade. This development is in closely linked to the economic development and technological change. The general trend to assess everything according to cost-benefit considerations and the weak demand structure in many companies has put a lot of pressure on the training departments. Since it is easier to express in numbers what the costs of training might be than its benefits many companies have reduced their training activities in order to save costs. Less junior staff is needed too. Overall, there is an increasing gap between the numbers of young people looking for an apprenticeship placement and the placements actually offered by the crafts, commerce and industry sectors. The image of CVET trainers has never been bad, but has somewhat risen lately. Due to the economic crisis many self-employed trainers have not survived the past years and for the better this has ‘cleared the market’ in the eyes of many professional trainers. Some deplore that their profile still has not been recognised as an officially regulated profession with a protected title. In Germany, anyone can call him- or herself a “trainer”. Since being a trainer is not officially registered as a profession no data is available in terms of the unemployment rates of trainers. However, the question of unemployment is barely applicable to the majority of trainers in enterprises anyway since they are primarily employed as skilled workers/clerks and only temporarily take over educational tasks.

7. Innovation Assessment of quality and efficiency of trainer’s training in IVET In IVET, there is no systematic continuous assessment of the trainers’ performance, although the training counsellors of the chambers may in certain cases exercise that function. Despite an amendment of the Trainer Aptitude Regulation (AEVO) in 1998, putting in place a new methodological approach (action orientation) and a completely new curriculum structure for the training of trainers tackling initial training issues in a more holistic and process-oriented way, the quality and efficiency of trainers’ training has not been generally assessed. On the contrary: due to the decrease of apprenticeship placements the government decided that the requirement for companies to have at least one trainer with the AEVO certificate turned out to be a hindrance for some companies. In 2003, the ministry in charge suspended the regulation for the following five years until 2008). Trainers still need to be qualified, but without any formal certificate. The BIBB has conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of the suspension in terms of the numbers of apprenticeship placements offered. The results indicate that the temporary suspension of the Trainer Aptitude Regulation (AEVO) has actually led to more enterprises offering in-house vocational training and more training places. The increase, however, was less than expected. At the same time there are indications that the revised AEVO, which was passed on 3 May 2003, has a negative impact on the quality of the training provided. A majority of enterprises expressed that the AEVO makes a contribution to ensuring that training personnel has at least a minimum level of qualification, which contributes towards enhancing the overall quality of vocational training. Assessment of quality and efficiency of trainer’s training in CVET In Germany, no formal regulations concerning the assessment and monitoring of CVET training staff exist. There are, however, activities at the levels of training providers and federal 134

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government to introduce mechanisms of quality monitoring. In recent years, CVET providers also have increased their efforts in the field of quality management. Their activities consider forms of self-evaluation as well as standardised systems such as ‘ISO 9000 ff’ or that of the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM). To ensure the transparency and quality of continuing education and training the German government strives to establish a national certification system for continuing vocational training schemes that is being funded under labour promotion law. Other areas under way are part of the programme on ‘Skill development as a learning culture’. They include the profiling of qualifications in continuing vocational education and of training staff and the registration and utilisation in practice of existing exemplary tools for measuring and certifying skills and competences (including, for example, a comprehensive lists of an individual’s skills, on-line and multimedia tools to record skills and profiling strategies). In addition, the German government examines whether the planned development towards a more modular CVET system and certification in the field of quality assurance will require amendments to the Upgrading Training Assistance Act. Research about the work and training of trainers Very little empirical research has tackled the issue of innovations in the training of trainers in IVET or CVET during the past ten years. Funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), a first survey was launched in 2005 to explore the professional and social situation of adult education trainers.12 These are primarily free-lance trainers whose work conditions and salaries are rather poor. No survey has actually tried to sketch the situation of VET trainers in and outside companies yet. The BIBB has begun to explore the situation of IVET trainers in enterprises in particular and will launch a research project in 2008 on this topic. Weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers In the area of IVET the focus during the past years has been very much placed on quantity instead of quality issues of training at the workplace. This is about to change and the relevant bodies start thinking about measures to improve the qualification of trainers. Most likely the curriculum for the training of IVET trainers will be revised soon. With regard to CVET, German enterprises in comparison to other European countries do not invest sufficiently in training. Whereas many neighbouring countries increase their expenditures in this are German enterprises have cut them down. These were at least the results of the CVTS2.13 The data of the CVTS3 is just about to be evaluated accordingly. Are there any ‘good practice’ examples at the company or sectoral level? Initiated by the German IVET trainer association (BDBA) and supported by the European Social Funds, a vocational training institute (GAB) together with the Munich chamber of industry and commerce, BIBB and other partners have developed and are currently assessing a continuing vocational training course of approximatley 500 hours for full-time IVET trainers14 Other chambers have started to adapt and offer the training scheme, too and there is a formal process on the federal level to approve it as a nationally accepted continuing training regulation (‘Berufspädagoge’). Once this regulation is in place, the profile of these VET trainers will be regarded as a continuing training occupation, which means it will be recognised as a professional profile in the educational sector.

12

Erhebung zur beruflichen und sozialen Lage von Lehrenden in Weiterbildungseinrichtungen. BMBF 2005. [http://www.bmbf.de/pub/berufliche_und_soziale_lage_von_lehrenden_in_weiterbildungseinrichtungen.pdf] 13 Grünewald, Uwe; Moraal, Dick; Schönfeld, Gudrun [Eds.]: Betriebliche Weiterbildung in Deutschland und Europa. Bielefeld: Bertelsmann 2003. 14 See http://www.ausbilder-weiterbildung.de for further information.

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GERMANY: Summary of expert interviews Issues 1. Recruitment and integration of apprentices has become a major issue for nearly all trainers involved in IVET regardless of the sector and size of the company. Companies are increasingly competing for apprentices with full-time vocational programmes and often find that young potential apprentices do not bring with them the required basic knowledge and skills when leaving the general education system, particularly in terms of basic communication skills. 2. The importance and value of training is decreasing as more emphasis is put on cost-benefit analysis with companies being affected by globalisation. Training in most companies is increasingly seen as a cost factor. As a consequence, trainers and training activities in the company are subject to rationalisation. Overall, the time dedicated to training is rationalised while training increasingly is becoming more complex, also requiring more intensive organisation. Rationalisation of training also has a negative impact on the work and recognition of trainers and puts trainers under pressure. 3. Legitimisation of training within the company: Internal marketing of training: trainers need to lobby for training and internal recognition (mainly in large companies against other competing domains in the company). There is the notion that trainers need to legitimise their training activities. 4. Underdeveloped skills in project management – project-oriented types of tasks related to trainees and training activities are increasing, particularly for trainers in large companies where the numbers of trainees is high. This makes knowledge and skills for project management become more important. 5. Continuing learning of trainers: Trainers do not exhaust the possibilities available to up-date their skills. They only show motivation where trainers themselves feel that they lack competences. Continuing learning is highly based on self-initiative and lacks support from the companies. Companies partly economise on training and do not always support (financially) their trainers’ engagement in continuing learning. Part-time trainers in particular often lack more systematic knowledge on training and learning processes. However, continuing learning is particularly needed to generate innovation in learning. This is not recognised by the companies. 6. Lack of skills standards: The lack of a defined professional profile of trainers leads to lack of standards in terms of skills requirements. 7. Lack of quality monitoring for the performance of trainers and the training of trainers. 8. Trainers lack pedagogical and language skills.

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Discussion -

Overall: differentiation is needed between full-time trainers (in large companies) and trainers who perform also other (predominantly technical) tasks (mainly in SMEs). The second group assumes training function alongside other tasks and may only be engaged in training for a certain period of time (they may then fully go back into production), whereas the work of the first trainer type consists solely in providing training.

-

There is great demand for the training of trainers in terms of so-called ‘soft skills’.

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The continuing learning of trainers is higher and more valued where training is more formalised.

-

Trainers are disadvantaged against VET teachers in terms of policy and research. Trainers do not have a lobby at the policy level. There is hardly any research conducted on the situation of trainers and no empirical data is available.

-

‘Trainer’ is not a profession, but describes a functional role within the company. This role and its status are generally highly recognised within the company. It can be stated that the position, ‘title’ and official recognition of being trainer are attractive. Often managers would like to be certified as ‘trainer’ although they do not want to and often cannot assume training responsibilities.

-

Assuming a trainer position does not mean making a career within the organisation. In fact, career patterns seem to be disconnected from the trainer role rather than suggesting some kind of linear development. That the trainer role supports career development has been decreasing.

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In Germany, the recruitment of motivated trainers is not an issue.

-

Trainers should be more involved in decision making processes that concern the organisational development.

Examples of ‘good practice’ -

Some companies provide outstanding high quality training to profiling their image. Within such a strategy training and the role of trainers are at the heard of the company’s strategy. Examples in Germany are: Aldi, IKEA, McDonalds.

Future trends 1. Secondary processes such as quality monitoring and assurance, project management, cooperation with different company departments or with external training management institutions are gaining significance against didactical components. The re-orientation towards work processes also increases the amount of management functions trainers are expected to assume. Trainers are not qualified and prepared to realise and deal with those new tasks. Those secondary processes are better supported and developed where companies operate with full-time trainers and the training is more formalised. Where training is not much formalised those secondary processes are not supported and trainers feel over-challenged. 2. The role and image of the trainer has changed: While formerly the trainers was recognised as an authority, who ‘knows everything’ the trainer has become more of a ‘learning coach or facilitator’. To which degree the notion of trainer as a learning facilitator can develop highly depends on the internal structure of the company and the levels of hierar137


chies: flat hierarchies support the role of the trainer as a facilitator, whereas marked internal hierarchies convey the more traditional role of the trainer. 3. As the numbers of apprentices are decreasing, the number of full-time trainers will also decrease. Concurrently will the number of part-time trainers, that is, workers who integrate training functions into their job to various degrees, increase. While formerly there were some companies who trained many, the tendency will be that there are many companies who train few people. Those will rely more on inter-company cooperation for training. This also affects the work of trainers. 4. Trainers will increasingly need to fund their own continuing learning. 5. The decreasing number of skilled workers and overall qualification of the workforce combined with lifelong learning policies will increase the importance and recognition of training personnel in the mid and longer term.

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Country Report GREECE Vana Kanellopoulou Organisation for Vocational Education & Training – O.E.E.K, Greece 1. Background and country context The establishment of a comprehensive lifelong learning strategy is a major policy priority in Greece. In fact, the development and implementation of a national LLL strategy aiming at the enhancement of the quality of education, improvement of employability, flexible reskilling and prevention of social inclusion are focal points of both national educational policy and active employment strategy. The implementation of this strategy is now monitored by the new Law on the ‘Systemisation of Lifelong Learning’ (L. 3369/2005), which constitutes a major legal and political reform as it establishes (for the first time) an integrated and viable ‘LLL network’. The law aims at improving the overall situation by developing relevant national and international experience in lifelong learning. Following a systematic consultation with the social partners and other interest groups the law was ratified on 6 July 2005. It establishes a new, comprehensive institutional framework which has already been incorporated in the broader governmental strategy concerning human resource development and investing in human capital since it intends to systematize the existing educational and vocational frameworks and secure the multidimensional provision of learning opportunities for all over the life course. In this context there is ample scope for synergies with stakeholders. This enactment of the law has further enabled the successful coordination of relevant bodies/agencies. The most recent actions / measures are the following: − The creation and activation of the National LLL Committee, which is chaired by the Secretary General of the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs (YPEPTH) and made up of representatives, policy makers and experts from all Ministries and organisations that are directly involved in both the strategic planning and the implementation of LLL policies along with representatives of various stakeholders, trade unions and the members from the HEIs. − The establishment of Lifelong Learning Institutes in HEIs and in institutions and structures of the social partners. The established institutional framework is continually updated to meet rising needs and challenges, and is supported by the Adult Education General Secretariat (including the Institute for the Continuous Education of Adults / IDEKE), the Greek Manpower Employment Organisation / OAED), the Organisation for Vocational Education and Training / OEEK, the Central Union of Municipalities and Communities of Greece / KEDKE, the Greek Association for Community Development and Self-Governance / EETAA (the latter two cosupervising the Centres for the Creative Occupation of Children / KDAP), the Hellenic Open University, the Adult Education and Training Centre “Euclid”, the Tripartite Consulting Committees at the level of the Regions, the Centre for Adult Distance Education and Training and, finally, the National System for Linking Vocational Education and Training with Employment / ESSEEKA. In relation to the private sector, the Federation of Greek Industries / SEV, the Athens Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Foundation for Economic and Industrial Research (IOVE) and the Greek Business Management Association (EEDE), et. al., contribute in various ways to the consolidation of a coherent LLL platform (PRAXIS Network, ALBA graduate degrees, etc.). The provisions of this legislation will complement and generate synergy with those of the legislation on the National System for Linking Vocational Education and Training with Employment (ΕSSΕΕΚΑ) - Law 3191/2003. The purpose of the above mentioned reform that copes with the issue of partnership and effective governance of the created LLL framework is 139


to systematise and update the existing platforms for education and training so that knowledge and learning can be accessible during a person’s working life and entire life span. The above mentioned active synergy has also created a framework for the planning and coordination of a national policy for VET and its actual interrelation with employment. Furthermore, ESSEEKA distinguishes among six separate sub-systems and links them: 1. Needs in skills assessment regarding the labour market; 2. Technical vocational education (at secondary level); 3. Initial vocational training; 4. Continuing vocational training; 5. Accreditation of vocational training and qualifications (including issues such as learning outcomes and NQF), and 6. Counselling and vocational guidance. Eighteen months of implementation have already changed the context and multiplied the chances for achieving the targets, combined with supplementary measures expanding the aforementioned strategy to every domain of the educational system (i.e. the expansion of the compulsory education to 10 years instead of 9 so far). Due to the fragmented institutional framework and regulation system in Greece, initial education, pre-service and in-service training for teachers and trainers in VET are provided through a variety of programmes and by various actors. In spite of the fact that teachers’ training is considered to be a priority for the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labor, which are both involved in VET, a standardized system based on a consistent regulatory framework, procedures and actions, evaluation and accreditation criteria has not yet been completely established. Initial vocational education is provided in technical vocational schools (Technika Epagelmatika Ekpaideftiria, TEE, Epaggelmatika Lykeia, EPAL, from September 2006) and throguh apprenticeship programmes TEE (TEE Mathiteias), which operate within the framework of upper secondary education. The teaching personnel in these institutions are called teachers. Initial vocational training is further provided in vocational training institutes (Institouta Epangelmatikis Katartisis, IEK), which operate within the framework of post-secondary vocational training. The teaching personnel in these establishments are called teachers/trainers. Continuing Vocational Education and Training is provided in: Vocational Training Centres (Kentra Epangelmatikis Katartisis, KEK), Education Centres for Adult Education (Kentra Ekpaidefsis Enilikon, KEE); the Centre for Distance Lifelong Education and Training of Adults (Kentro dia viou Ekpaidefsis kai Epimorphosis Enilikon, KEEENAP and at Prefectural Committees for Adult Education (Nomarchiakes Epitropes Laikis Epimorfosis, NELE). Policy priorities and policy tools in each domain A policy priority is the constant needs and skills assessment and a flexible model for validation and recognition of non-formal and informal learning (including the accreditation of knowledge, skills and vocational qualifications of trainees) that enhances credit transfer and qualification portability and contributes to the development of a ‘learning habitus’ throughout life. In order to achieve such a target, Greece has established the National System for Linking Vocational Education and Training with Employment (ESSEEKA), while using at its best the relevant know-how provided by the National Accreditation Centre (EKEPIS) and the data concerning the needs/trends of the labour market provided by the Employment Observatory Research-Informatics S.A. (PAEP). Greece is aware of the fact that recognising prior learning was rather limited within the framework of the formal education system, which focused on knowledge acquired during a given period of study in recognised institutions of higher education. Therefore, measures in 140

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order to recognise non-formal and informal learning are currently being promoted, mostly based on experiences from relevant pilot projects under the European Leonardo da Vinci Programme. Also, one of the basic premises of a system of recognising prior learning is to make the ‘translation’ of experiential knowledge possible, i.e. transform informal learning into academic credits according to the Credit Transfer and Accumulation System that has been established. Within this framework, the formal education system, including higher education, has been classified according to the 8 levels of the European Qualifications Framework, at least with regard to knowledge (one of the EQFs parameters). The EQF’s translating mechanism will allow for the recognition of each level of knowledge as regards the corresponding levels of skills and competences, thus making possible the recognition of all forms of prior learning. Projects on IEK training of trainers and measures seeking to guarantee the upgrading of trainers’ quality: − The expansion of ICT across the education and training system and the realization of targeted programmes, such as the “Programme on Adults Training in the Acquisition of Basic Skills in New Technologies – Heron” (coordinated by IDEKE), combined with the enhancement of e-learning platforms. − The active involvement of the major social actors and stakeholders (see 1.4.1.). − The increase of learning opportunities, via the expansion of LLL providers (as described above). − Improving the Quality of Teachers and Trainers and developing skills for the Knowledge Society, within an open learning environment. − Establishment of new Agencies which increase LLL accessibility and/ or enabling teachers and trainers to actively contribute to the promotion of LLL. On these grounds, the Distance Learning Centre for Adult Lifelong Education & Training has been established in September 2006. The Centre for Lifelong Education & Training Studies and the Centre for Adult Trainers’ Training is ready to commence operation. − The actual implementation of EU guidelines and prerogatives, plus the steady participation in every aspect of the European LLL policy (i.e. Greece chose to participate in the Education & Training 2010 cluster on “Access and Social inclusion in lifelong learning” and the cluster on ‘Key competences’). − The best use of resources: In the framework of the CSFs, the Ministry’s of Education Operational Programme for Education and Initial Vocational Training (EPEAEK) operates in parallel with important actions of an institutional nature in the area of human resource development (National Action Plan for Employment, the National Action Plan for Social Inclusion) in order to develop and contribute to the fulfillment of the abovementioned priorities of the national LLL strategy. − The Ministry of Education has been appointed as the National Authority for the European LLL Programme (2007-2013), a fact which signals the increased capacity of the Ministry as the national coordinator of the LLL strategy. The work done in the last two years has led to formulating the strategic goals of the Operational Programme on Education LLL (2007-2013).

2. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? The training arrangements for teachers and trainers are regulated by the same bodies that are officially responsible for the regulation of VET systems. The Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs (Ypourgeio Ethinikis Paideias kai Thriskevmaton, YPEPTH) and the Pedagogical Institute (Paidagogiko Institouto, PI) which is the scientific body of YPEPTH, regulate the provision of Initial Vocational Education in TEE as well as the training and other managerial and scientific issues. 141


Institutions responsible foor teachers in IVET (EPAL, Apprenticeship EPAL) include − Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs (Ypourgeio Ethinikis Paideias kai Thriskevmaton, YPEPTH) − Ministry of Development (Ypourgeio Anaptyxis) − Ministry of Health and Welfare (Ypourgeio Ygeias kai Koinonikis Allilengyis, YYKA) − Ministry of Rural Development and Food (Ypourgeio Agrotikis Anaptixis kai Trofimon) − Tourism Education and Training Organisation (Organismos Touristikis Ekpaidefsis kai Katartisis, OTEK) − Manpower Employment Organisation (Organismos Apascholiseos Ergatikou Dynamikou, OAED) For teachers/trainers in Initial Vocational Training structures (IEK): − Organisation for Vocational Education and Training (Organismos Epangelmatikis Ekpaidefsis kai Katartisis, OEEK) − Manpower Employment Organisation (Organismos Apascholiseos Ergatikou Dynamikou, OAED) − Tourism Education and Training Organisation (Organismos Touristikis Ekpaidefsis kai Katartisis, OTEK) − National Centre for Immediate Help (Ethniko Kentro Amesis Voithias, EKAB) For trainers in Continuing Vocational Education and Training structures (IEK): − Ministry of Employment and Social Protection (Ypourgeio Apascholisis kai Koinonikis Prostasias, YPAKP). − General Secretariat for Adult Education (Geniki Grammateia Ekpaidefsis Enilikon, GGEE) The systems are totally centralised at the levels of vocational education and initial vocational education and training. VET teachers and trainers are active by participating in their trade unions and associations that aim at influencing the policy making bodies and the educational authorities. Particularly for vocational education related issues, teachers/trainers have established the Technology Teachers Association to handle VET policy and professional development issues in order to improve their status and advance the quality of vocational technical education in Greece. Regarding the private sector enterprises, the size of the enterprise and the facilities that the enterprise have are the determinants for meeting the training needs of the managers and employees. Some of the large-scale enterprises meet this need with “human resources” and “training” units that are established within the enterprise. The decision makers are mostly top-level managers and training directors appointed by the managers. Managers in enterprises have the primary responsibility for assigning qualified and sufficient number of training staff for the training fields in the enterprises. In upper secondary apprenticeship training it is the responsibility of vocational school directors to provide that the vocational trainings in the enterprises are done by qualified trainers. Initial Vocational Education - EPAL Teachers recruited in TEE to teach the vocational/technical subjects should have completed, either the post-graduate programmes or the pre-service pedagogical training programmes offered by A.S.PAI.T.E. Post compulsory, secondary Vocational Education (TEE) teachers -general knowledge and vocational/technical subject teachers- are recruited through the ASEP (Higher Personnel Selection Council - Anotato Simvoulio Epilogis Prosopikou) competition. ASEP is an Independent Body –independent of any governmental or state control– under the predictions of 142

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the Constitution Law of the Republic of Greece. ASEP was founded by the Law 2190/1994 and has the responsibility of the civil servants recruitment. In particular, ASEP is responsible of initiating the national (written) examinations for teachers’ recruitment in the public school education sector. Initial Vocational Training - IEK Teachers and trainers in public IEK are recruited according to the needs and objectives of the training programs and curricula implemented by the training institutes. The Director of local IEK is authorized by the President of OEEK to publish a Call for tender addressed to candidate teachers and trainers. The required qualifications and skills are explicitly described in the particular Call for tender and those, who meet the requirements, are included in the lists of candidate teachers/trainers classified per subject and/or specialization. The final selection of teachers is held by a committee officially consisted of a representative of the central administration OEEK, the Director of the vocational training institute and the Assistant Director. The Committee is supplemented by an employee to fulfill the duties of the Secretary. The selection Committee examines the profile of applicants (application form, CV, certificates, training experience, etc.) in order to judge for those suitable and efficient to perform the training tasks. The lists of candidates are released before the commencement of the training semesters (the training period is divided in semesters) and are valid for six months. The training models implemented at ASPAITE aim at providing both subject-based (specilisation) and pedagogical qualifications to candidate TEE teachers. Teachers of vocational/technical subjects obtain primarily qualifications dedicated to their chosen subject (e.g. electronic engineering, civil and construction engineering, etc.). The diplomas issued in the aforementioned subject areas qualify the graduates for teaching in the corresponding discipline in TEE. Additional training is offered to provide students with pedagogical/teaching skills and competences. The Teaching Practice Sessions implemented at A.S.PAI.TE, as part of the pedagogical training programme, constitute a basic graduation prerequisite for the School. Pre-service, pedagogical training courses (two-semester courses) are also provided for candidate teachers (AEI, TEI graduates) with no pedagogical background. The training model combines theoretical subjects (e.g. pedagogical psychology, didactics of specialisation courses, etc.) with teaching practice sessions [see attachment]. Compulsory and/or optional in-service training courses for teachers/trainers in secondary Vocational Education (TEE) is provided by the Regional Training Centres. The courses are mainly optional for in-service teachers. The duration of the courses is approximately 40 hours and the context covers a variety of subjects like didactic, psychology, and physics, using computers etc. All training activities are supervised by the Organization of Teachers’ Training (OEPEK) that has been operating since 2002 as a legal entity of public law supervised by the Ministry of Education. OEPEK is authorised to design the curricula for teachers training and define the standards for the certification of teaching and pedagogy skills. Further education and in-service training courses are also provided ad hoc by other agencies such as Universities (Faculties of Education), regional centres, accredited schools, etc. Successful completion of in-service training and further education programmes is considered an additional qualification for teachers in the public education system. Training certifications 143


provided by accredited organisations support teachers' promotion and status improvement, i.e. teachers with advanced qualifications may undertake administrative, managerial responsibilities and duties, the role of school consultants, and participate in policy planning and consultancy bodies. Further education courses are implemented by the Higher School of Pedagogical and Technological Education (ASPAITE) addressed to in-service teachers in technical vocational schools (TEE). Further Education or “specialization” programmes: Pedagogy and Didactics of General Technology Consultancy and Guidance The curricula of initial education and pre-service training of VE teachers are defined by the Higher Education Institutes (AEI, TEI) and ASPAITE according to the foundation law, the goals and learning objectives of each institute and the current needs and requirements of the IVET sectors. The authorised bodies design the content and curricula, introduce changes and adaptations to update obsolete topics and methodologies. The curricula are subject to approval by the Ministry of Education. Teachers' associations are not involved in curricula design; however, cirricula are often subject to teachers' criticism which attempt to influence the decisions of the authorised bodies and the Ministry of Education. The curricula aim at preparing candidate teachers for specific subject areas and specialisations. Particularly in ASPAITE, -the only school that prepares VE teachers/trainers in Greecethe curricula provide candidate teachers with a variety of skills and competencies that facilitate them to teach in different learning environments (e.g. classroom, laboratories, workshops) and fullfil different roles (e.g. teachers, mentor, advisor). The pedagogical training sessions develop skills and competencies that enable candidate teachers to implement collaborative learning sessions, coordinate and animate group working, design lesson plans with the use of IT, provide guidance and consultancy beyond the traditional teaching roles. The Syllabi of the Peqadagogical Taining and the Teaching Practice Sessions programme have integrated a variety of subjects and activities that combine the subject oriented studies with pedagogical skills and competencies. The Teaching Practice Sessions have developed as a collaborative action between the General Department of Education and the undergraduate Technological Departments addressing three major themes: (a) Teaching and Learning, providing knowledge and skills for teachers’ role in the classroom and in the school, (b) Policy and Change, providing guidance for teachers’ role in the school and in society, (c) Professional Ethics, providing knowledge and understanding for teachers’ role in the profession. School Management and Administration courses are provided to VE teachers, as part of the pre-service, mandatory training (before placement) courses. ASPAITE and other Higher Education Institutes graduates can be employed in a variety of learning settings, i.e. TEE, IEK,

2. Economy: How is the work and training of trainers financed? It took a long time to develop a distinct policy towards vocational education and training (VET) in Greece. Only recently have the State and social partners engaged in a process of social dialogue about the optimal way to prepare young people for work and to help adults adjust to the demands of their professions and labour market needs. 144

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There have been a number of developments throughout the 1990s regarding initial vocational training (IVT), continuing vocational training for employed people (CVT) and training for unemployed people (UVT). These developments have been so fundamental that the attitudes towards training have changed greatly and have been spurred by the following factors: − − − −

there was a high level of concern for those upper secondary school graduates who do not enter tertiary education but could benefit from initial vocational education and training; both policy makers and administrators became aware of the positive correlation between levels of participation in VET and economic growth; social partners were recognised as active participating members in the overall decisionmaking procedure in the education and training sectors; funding available through EU Community Support Frameworks (CSF) for Greece ensured that policy-makers were able to implement wider ranging schemes for IVT and CVT for both employed and unemployed people.

The most notable developments in each section of the VET system in Greece are as follows: − a new type of institution, vocational training institutes (IEK) were established in 1992 at post-upper secondary level. These are operated either by the State or by private organisations and provide 2 years, part-time, specialist training for specific qualifications recognised at European level. − a recent reform in the educational system, enacted in September 1998 has some major institutional implications related to IVT. The former 4 types of schools in upper secondary level have been merged into unified lyceio (EL) and technical vocational institutes (TEE). The first type leads to tertiary level studies, while the latter provides VET for specific occupations. − the fund for employment and vocational training (LAEK), formed in 1996 by merging 2 funds established in 1994. The LAEK fund is supported by a joint employer/employee contribution. Its main purpose is to reimburse enterprises for their expenses for training activities. LAEK is managed by a tripartite committee (State–employers–employees) and is the most important source of private funding for CVT in Greece. − a new type of institution (vocational training centre–KEK) was established in 1995 to provide vocational training to unemployed as well as to employed people. At the same time, legislation created a framework to: develop appropriate training programmes; certify training providers to operate as a KEK; and register trainers. The principle underpinning this legislative framework was to ensure that public funds coming from the European Social Fund and the State budget were used in an efficient way. The administrative structure regarding VET financing in Greece is complex. At central government level, 4 ministries are responsible for funding and managing VET programmes. The Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs is responsible for IVT programmes and the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs for CVT and UVT. The Ministries of Economy and Finance are responsible for coordinating national and EU funding and financing as well as auditing procedures, respectively, for all VET programmes. A large number of bodies and organisations are involved in planning and implementing VET programmes and their financing. The most important resources derive from European Structural Funds (via the CSF and Community Initiatives), the Greek State budget, employers’ and employees’ contributions and household budgets. During the last 20 years, a series of different mechanisms for financing VET have been established. The organisations related to training include: funding agents; allocating agents; providers; and final consumers. The way in which these 4 types of entities interact with another constitutes the financing system for vocational training. There are 5 main sources for the provision and allocation of funds to the various training agents: 145


− − − − −

Greek government; European funds; Public and private enterprises; Employees; Household budgets. VET funding sources, allocation, implementation and consumers Funding agents

IVT (public)

European FundsState Budget (Ministry of National Economy)

IVT Households (private)

Allocating bodies

TES, TEL, EPL (until 1998) Ministry of Education Technical vocational and Religious Affairs institutes (TEE)(after OEEK 1998) Ministry of Labour Vocational training and Social Affairs institutes (IEK) (OAED) OAED apprenticeOther Ministries ship schools Vocational schools of other Ministries

European FundsState budget(Ministry of National Economy)

Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs OAED Other Ministries

CVT Employers and em(private) ployees (LAEK)

LAEK Committee (with the technical support of OAED)

CVT (public)

UVT (public)

Implementing bodConsumers ies

Vocational Training Centres (KEK) Enterprises Private training schools (KES)

European FundsMinistry of Labour State budget (Minis- and Social Affairs KEK try of National Econ- Regional Authorities omy)

UVT Employers and em(private) ployees (LAEK)

LAEK committee

Persons seeking professional qualifications and skills (mainly 16-22 years old)

Employees

Unemployed

KEK

LAEK fund The LAEK fund receives contributions from both employers and employees and part of it is used to reimburse enterprises for training costs. This contribution amounts to 0.45% of the yearly total gross employees’ wages of each enterprise. Act 2434/96 defines the administrative framework and entitlement criteria. Enterprises can claim reimbursement for expenditure on training after completion in the year after the training was undertaken. Enterprises are entitled to receive up to 80% of total expenditure on training from the LAEK fund up to a ceiling based on its contribution for the previous year to the fund. The whole procedure is supported by OAED services, according to LAEK regulations. There is a possibility to transfer unspent amounts to the following year. The main problem with LAEK is that small enterprises contribute small amounts per year and are not able to use the amount of money they are entitled to for staff training within the framework of their needs. As a consequence, large amounts, which are left unused, are transferred after two years to employee and employer associations, which in return implement training programmes for their members. The LAEK fund, however, is used construc146

January 2008

tively by large enterprises (e.g. banks, insurance companies, big industrial enterprises, etc.), which have large amounts of money at their disposal and are able to plan their vocational training programmes effectively. The LAEK fund receives contributions from both employers’ and employees and part of it is used to reimburse enterprises for training costs. This contribution amounts to 0.45% of the yearly total gross employees’ wages of each enterprise. Act 2434/96 defines the administrative framework and entitlement criteria. Enterprises can claim reimbursement for expenditure on training after completion in the year after the training was undertaken. Enterprises are entitled to receive up to 80% of total expenditure on training from the LAEK fund up to a ceiling based on its contribution for the previous year to the fund. The whole procedure is supported by OAED services, according to LAEK regulations. There is a possibility to transfer unspent amounts to the following year. The main problem with LAEK is that small enterprises contribute small amounts per year and are not able to use the amount of money they are entitled to for staff training within the framework of their needs. As a consequence, large amounts which are left unused are transferred after 2 years to employee and employer associations, which in return implement training programmes for their members. The LAEK fund, however, is used constructively by large enterprises (e.g. banks, insurance companies, big industrial enterprises, etc.), which have large amounts of money at their disposal and are able to plan their vocational training programmes effectively.

3. Selection and allocation: How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? OEEK is in the process of drawing up a register of the teachers/trainers employed in its structures. Trainers who want to work in KEK and generally CVET structures should be included in the Register of Trainers for Adults (Eisagogiko Mitroo Ekpaidefton Enilikon) initiated by the National Accredidation Center for Vocational Training (Ethniko Kentro Pistopolisis Synexizomenis Epangelmatikis katartisis, EKEPIS). Table: Teachers/trainers in IVET (number, gender) Total number

Vocational Education (EPAL)

Initial Vocational training (IEK)

Female

Public

17,288 (418 institutes)

9,683 (56%)

7,605 (44%)

Private

1,508 (77 institutes)

687 (45%)

821 (55%)

Public

125 institutes

4,701 (56%)

3,743 (44%)

18,796

8,444

Male

Source: Ministry of Education/Operational Research and Statistics Dept. (statistics 2002-2003), OEEK Dept. of Personnel (2003).

Table: Salary rates of teachers/trainers in Vocational Education (TEE) according to their educational background and work experience Basic salary rates (monthly) * Secondary education (SE) Years

Basic salary

Techical education (TE) Years

Basic salary

Higher education (PE) Years

Basic salary

Higher education 5-years Years

Basic salary

6-years Years Basic salary

147


0

720

0

750

0

808

0

843

0

877

1

749

1

782

1

843

1

877

1

911

3

778

3

813

3

877

3

911

3

945

5

807

5

845

5

911

5

945

5

980

7

837

7

877

7

945

7

980

7

1,014

9

866

9

909

9

980

9

1,014

9

1,048

11

895

11

940

11

1,014

11

1,048

11

1,082

13

924

13

972

13

1,048

13

1,082

13

1,117

15

954

15

1,004

15

1,082

15

1,117

15

1,151

17

983

17

1,036

17

1,117

17

1,151

17

1,185

19

1,012

19

1,067

19

1,151

19

1,185

19

1,219

21

1,041

21

1,099

21

1,185

21

1,219

21

1,254

23

1,071

23

1,131

23

1,219

23

1,254

23

1,288

25

1,100

25

1,163

25

1,254

25

1,288

25

1,322

27

1,129

27

1,194

27

1,288

27

1,322

27

1,356

29

1,158

29

1,226

29

1,322

29

1,356

29

1,391

31

1,188

31

1,258

31

1,356

31

1,391

33

1,290

33

1,391

Salary rates 01.01.2004, Law 3205/03, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Economy and Finance.

Table: Teachers/trainers in CVT (number, gender) Total Male number Continuing Vocational Training (KEK)

Female

12,885 8,481 4,404 (*) (66%) (34%)

General subject teachers

Practical subject trainers

11,040

11,272 + 2,367 (**)

Table: Salary rates of teachers/trainers in IEK according to their academic status and qualifications (per hour €) Academic Scientific Staff / Higher Education Institutes (AEI) 1. Professor AEI 2. Associate Professor AEI 3. Assistant Professor AEI 4. Lecturer AEI

28.61 € 26.41 € 23.48 € 21.13 €

Scientific Staff /Higher Technological Education Institutes (TEI) 1. Professor TEI (PhD) 2. Professor TEI (MSc/MA/MBA)

21.13 € 19.96 €

Other Staff 1. PhD holders 2. Msc/MA/MBA holders 3. University graduates of six-year studies 4. University graduates of five-year studies 5. University graduates of four-year studies 148

20.54 € 19.37 € 17.61 € 17.02 € 16.43 €

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6. University studies (PE) / without diploma 7. Technological Education (TE) full-time studies (ex AP4 No.3 Law 2470/97) SELETE graduates 8. TEI graduates (No.3 Law 2470/97) 9. Technological Education (TE) without TEI diploma or equivalent (No 3 Law 2470/97) 10. IEK graduates/ post secondary vocational training 11. Secondary Education (SE) /Law 1505/84 and Law 576/77

15.85 € 15.85 € 15.26 € 14.67 € 14.09 € 12.33 €

(Source: OEEK 2003)

Salary rates for teachers/trainers in IVET are decided by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Economy and Finance taking into account and following the provisions of the National Collective Employment Agreements - Ethniki Sillogiki Simvasi Ergasias (ESSE) either for the private or the public sector. ESEEs are negotiated between the private sector trade unions (GSEE) and/or the public sector trade unions (ADEDY), the employers' unions/associations and the state representatives. Supplementary Sector Collective Employment Agreements are negotiated between the Ministry of Education and the Secondary Education Teachers’ Federation (OLME); they exemplify the special terms and conditions of employment (including salary rates) for teachers/trainers in Secondary Education including TEE. Teachers and trainers are mainly tertiary education graduates. However, in some cases, the bodies that offer CVET may use as trainers, persons that are not tertiary education graduates but have an extensive work experience. A teacher/trainer may work in different providers. The Table below summarizes the admission requirements, as well as the in-service training opportunities for teachers and trainers in Vocational Education (TEE) and Initial Vocational Training (IEK). For more details on each feature of the Table, the reader should refer to the headings below. Table:Types of IVET teachers/trainers, admission requirements, in-service training Type of IVET

Type of practiInitial admission requirements tioner (*)

Vocational education General subject teachers (TEE)

Vocational / technical subject teachers

Opportunities for in-service training

Training courses implemented by the Regional Training CenHigher Education (AEI) diploma tres (PEK) and other training bodies. ASEP national competition: selection Training courses (further trainthrough written exams ing) implemented by ASPAITE. Higher Education (AEI, TEI) diploma or ASPAITE technological education Training courses provided by diploma the Regional Training Centres. ASPAITE pedagogical training certification for candidates with no pedagogical background

Training courses (further training, specialization) implemented by ASPAITE.

ASEP national competition: selection through written exams

149


Trainers

TEI diploma ASPAITE pedagogical training certiTraining courses provided by fication the Regional Training Centres. ASEP competition: selection through written exams

Theoretical Higher Education (AEI, TEI) diploma No in-service training is foresubject teach- ASPAITE technological education seen. ers diploma Initial Vocational training (IEK)

Practical subject trainers

Higher Education (AEI, TEI) diploma ASPAITE technological education diploma No in-service training is foreSecondary Vocational Education seen. (former EPL, TEL, TES) diploma Training experience Professional experience

(*) Vocational Education: 1. General subject teachers: PE1 Theology, PE2 Greek Language and Literature, PE3 Mathematics, PE4 Physics, Chemistry, Natural History, Biology, Geology, PE5 French Language, PE6 English Language, PE8 Art Subjects, PE9 Economics, PE10 Sociology, PE11 Physical Education, PE13 Law and Political Science, PE33 Methodology, History and Theory of Science (Higher Education - A.E.I. graduates). 2. Vocational subject teachers: PE12 Civil Engineering, Architecture, Surveying, Mechanical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Nautical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Metallurgy, Chemical Metallurgy, Radio-Electricity Physics, Computer Science, PE14 Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacology, Agronomy, Forestry and Natural Environment, Nursing, PE15 Home Economics, PE 16 Music, PE32 Theatrical Studies, PE17 teachers of Electricians, Mechanics, Electronics, Infrastructure Civil Works and of Civil Building Works (AEI, A.S.PAI.T.E. graduates). 3. Technical subject teachers/trainers: PE18 Graphic Arts, Business Administration, Accounting, Medical Laboratory, Dental technician, Assistant Social Worker, Nursing, Plant Production, Animal Production, Fish Farming-Fishery, Farm Machinery, Forestry, Farm Management, Vehicles, Textiles, Radiology, Occupational Therapy, Physical Therapy, Graphic Design, Interior Design, Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, Photography, Green House Cultivation and Floriculture, Infant Care (TEI graduates). (*) Initial Vocational Training: a total of 168 specialisations are currently taught in the institutes. 1. Theoretical subject teachers: Higher Education graduates (A.E.I. and T.E.I.), A.S.PAI.TE. graduates. 2. Practical subject teachers: TEI graduates, former Eniaio Polikladiko Lykeio (E.P.L.), Techniko Epagelmatiko Lykeio (T.E.L.) and Techniki

4. Qualification: How are trainers qualified? The entry requirements for the trainers of intial VET include a tertiary education certificate and a certificate in pedagogics (for those that pedagogics are not included in the curriculum of their basic studies) gained after they complete a two-semesters training programme in the Higher School of Pedagogical and Technological Education (Anotati Scholi Paidagogikis kai Technikis Ekpaidefsis, ASPAITE). There is no pre-service training provided for this type of teachers. In-service training is provided through YPEPTH structures as follows. Compulsory training programmes implemented by the Regional Training Centres (Periferiaka Epimorfotika Kentra, PEK), on various subjects. Training programmes provided by the Training Support Centres (Kentra Stirixis Epimorfosis, KSE).

150

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In-service training is also optionally provided to teachers by ASPAITE for further training or specialization, leading to a ‘Certificate of Further Training’ or ‘Specialization’ e.g. Specialization programme in Pedagogy and Didactics of General Technology and Specialization programme in Counselling and Guidance. All training activities are supervised by the Organization for Teachers’ Training (Organismos Epimorfosis Ekpaideftikon, OEPEK) that has operated as a legal entity of public law supervised by YPEPTH. OEPEK is authorized to design the curricula for teachers’ training and define the standards for the certification of teaching and pedagogical skills. Training curricula are designed by teams of experts employed by the Pedagogical Institute (Paidagogiko Institouto, PI), the scientific body of YPEPTH, and approved by YPEPTH. Teachers can be members of such teams. The entry requirements for the trainers in Continuing VET are either a tertiary education certificate or a Secondary Vocational Education certificate (TEE graduates) or an Initial Vocational Training certificate (IEK graduates). Besides formal qualifications, the recruitment of trainers depends upon professional experience, which is considered to be an important factor for admission. Pre-service training is provided by the National Accreditation Centre for Vocational Training (Ethniko Kentro Pistopoiisis Synexizomenis Epangelmatikis Katartisis, EKEPIS). EKEPIS has initiated the National Training Programme for trainers in Continuing Vocational Training (Ethniko Programma Ekpaidefsis Ekpaidefton apo Apostasi, EPEEA). The programme was launched in late 2002 and aimed at setting up and providing pre-service, pedagogical training for trainers in Continuing Vocational Training. The programme has planned to implement distance learning methods and techniques for large-scale, nation-wide training courses. Candidate trainers who wish to be appointed in KEK, Education Centres for Adult Education (Kentra Ekpaidefsis Enilikon, KEE), the Centre for Distance Lifelong Education and Training of Adults (Kentro dia viou Ekpaidefsis kai Epimorphosis Enilikon, KEEENAP), Prefectural Committees for Adult Education (Nomarchiakes Epitropes Laikis Epimorfosis, NELE) should have been accredited before by EKEPIS and be included in the Register of Accredited Trainers in Continuing Vocational Training (Mitroon Pistopeimenon Ekpaidefton). The criteria for the accreditation of teachers in Continuing Vocational Training are: formal qualifications, pedagogical-teaching skills and experience and work experience. In-service training for CVET trainers is not foreseen. Trainers in CVET have possibly the opportunity to participate in training courses provided by various educational and training institutions. However, training is voluntary and not necessarily related to the tasks performed in CVET training structures. Up to now there are no continuous assessment procedures to evaluate quality and performance of trainers while in service. Prerequisite for the accreditation of Trainers for Adults and Support Services Professionals is the participation in training programmes accredited by E.KE.PIS. Participation in a training programme is a non-formal learning process since no official recognition is received. Nevertheless, the certificate awarded upon successful completion of the training programme constitutes a prerequisite for the participation of the trainee in the subsequent accreditation procedure. Additionally, the accreditation certificate provided by E.KE.PIS to Trainers for Adults is a prerequisite for being eligible to teach from 1.1.2008 onwards in EU co-funded vocational training programs. Similarly, the accreditation certificate provided by E.KE.PIS to Support Services Professionals is a prerequisite for being eligible for employment from 1.1.2008 onwards in EU co-funded Support Services programs and actions. Initial Vocational Education - secondary, post-compulsory Technical Vocational Schools (TEE) Candidate teachers complete their basic studies in specific subject areas and receive their pedagogical training at the following educational institutions: 151


1. At the Higher Education Institutes (Higher Education Institutes - A.E.I., Technological Education Institutes - T.E.I.): general subjects and vocational/technical subjects teachers. 2. At the Higher School of Pedagogical and Technological Education - Anotati Sxoli Pedagogikis kai Technikis Ekpaidefsis (A.S.PAI.T.E.): candidate teachers in the PE17 subjects (four-year studies includine pedagogical training). A.S.PAI.TE. offers courses in five major subject areas: − Electrical Engineering − Electronic Engineering − Mechanical Engineering − Civil and Construction Engineering − Civil and Structural Engineering The graduates of Higher University and Technological Education Schools (A.E.I. and T.E.I.) who have not been provided with pedagogical skills during the course of their studies, have to complete one year of pedagogical training (pre-service) in ASPAITE in order to be appointed in the Technical Vocational Schools (T.E.E.). For example the graduates of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), who have no pedagogical skills acquired as part of their five-year studies, can possibly be employed as TEE teachers, if they acquire the ASPAITE's pedagogical skills certification. Pre-service training courses (short-term) on pedagogical, administrative and professional topics are mandatory for candidate teachers who have succesfully passed the ASEP written competition; they are offered by the Regional Training Centres. Initial Vocational Training (IEK) teachers/trainers can be Higher Education graduates (AEI and TEI), Vocational/Technical Education graduates (TEE, IEK), Secondary Education graduates (former TES, TEL, EPL or Eniaio Lykeio) depending on the needs and requirements of the training programmes implemented by each Vocational Training Institute (IEK). Apart from formal qualifications, the selection of teachers/trainers appointed in IEK depends on professional experience as well, that is considered to be an important prerequisite for admission. The number of years of prior professional experience vary and is usually correlated with formal qualifications and the subject of training. No special pre-service training is foreseen or required for practioners who wish to be recruited in initial vocational training institutes (IEK). According to the admission requirements or selection criteria stated by OEEK, teachers/trainers may have acquired knowledge, qualifications and skills at various levels and institutions, through various education and preservice training programmes. [an overview of IVET initial education and pre-service training is provided in 0602; see the Table: IVET teachers/trainers classification and main characteristics] Teachers in CVT acquire their general and technical subject qualifications in Higher Education and Technological Institutes (AEI, TEI, ASPAITE). Qualifications on technical subjects may also be acquired at the post-secondary level (IEK) for teachers who perform practical subject training, although IEK graduates are usually employed as trainers and operate inpractice training, labs and workshops. Due to the lack of pre-service training structures, the National Accreditation Centre of Vocational Training Structures (EKEPIS) has initiated the National Training Programme for teachers/trainers in CVT – Ethniko Programma Ekpaidefsis Ekpaidefton apo Apostasi (EPEEA). The programme was launched in late 2002 and aimed to set up and provide pre-service, pedagogical training for teachers/trainers in Continuing Vocational Training. The programme has planned to implement distance learning methods and techniques for large-scale, nation152

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wide training courses. The first (pilot) phase of EPEEA aimed to design the distance training model, to develop the training material and provide trainning to 265 tutors that were supposed to act as trainers of trainers during the second (large scale) phase of the programme. The Hellenic Open University (EAP – Elliniko Anoikto Panepistimio) was the coordinator of the project during the first phase. The training of trainers was implemented between February and July 2003. In the second phase, the National Programme intends to train all teachers/trainers in Continuing Vocational Training, approximately 12,700 curently included in the Register of TT in CVT that has been compiled by EKEPIS (statistics 2003). Training will be obligatory for trainers who aim to be appointed in vocational training programmes supervised by the Ministry of Labour. EPEEA is expected to advance the quality and efficiency of the training programmes in CVT and, moreover, to promote and standardize distance learning in Greece. For the time being, the second, large-scale training phase of the EPEEA has not been announced.

5. Integration: How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? Material and motivational appreciation, and support from the top management is highly deficient in Greece, which requires serious measures to be taken. On the other hand, no progress has been made to this day due to various reasons. Moreover, the enterprises that have training units and expert teachers should be encouraged by the state because these units have the quality of schools. The state should search for the ways of satisfying the expert teachers working in the vocational training units in the enterprises, both financially and morally. Given the traditional divide in many European countries between the academic and vocational routes, achieving parity of esteem is a long-term aim. It is not surprising, therefore, that no EU country has fully achieved parity of esteem. It is, however, one of the positive (if sometimes indirect) effects of a combination of initiatives designed, for instance, to enhance vocational provision and build better progression routes. The most difficult factor to influence is the perception of the families, students, employers and higher education institutions. There appears to be a lack of information for the general public about the reality of labour market opportunities, and the effects of new measures concerning vocational provision could be enhanced if they were accompanied by information and communication campaigns. This report also summarises the recommendations of the working groups at the seminar organised by ELWa on 27 November 2002 (World Class Learning in Wales. Case Study: Parity of Esteem – in Search of the Holy Grail?). The outcomes of the working groups' discussions, combined with the desk research led to a number of actions being identified which are considered to be effective in improving parity of esteem.

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6. Innovation: How innovative is the work and training of trainers? In the framework of the Operational Programme “Education and Initial Vocational Training” is implemented the further training programme for trainers of all the sectors and specializations trainers of primary and secondary education in the use of ITC, for their effective utilization in the class, which encompasses the following two phases: A) Further training of first and secondary degree trainers in the use of ITC in education, in appropriate lab rooms – room of the recognised Centres for the Support of Further Training, from selected (from a relevant Registry) trainers. The study program covers basic concepts of IT and basic elements for the use of a PC, effective use of a word processor, spreadsheets and presentation software, as well as connecting and communicating through the internet. The program refers to the obtainment of basic knowledge and the effective use of ITC in the educational procedure through the use of educational software products. B) Accreditation of knowledge and skills of the trainers in ITC, which takes place in planned time periods, electronically, through the appropriate software, at a fully equipped and accredited Accreditation Centres (University and TEI labs which have been selected through an open process) The VTIs, public and private, which are managed or controlled by Ο.Ε.Ε.Κ, who is controlled from the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs, encompass in their specializations the Information Technology-Communications-Networks specialization. They are encompassed in the post-compulsory secondary education and accept both high school graduates, and lyceum graduates. The National Accreditation System of Vocational Training was established under the Ministerial Decree of both the Minister of National Education and Religion Affairs and the Minister of Economy and Finance. O.E.E.K, with the contribution of the Central Examining Committee for the Accreditation of Vocational Training, in which participate all the social partners, implements, at a national level, examinations for the accreditation of vocational training twice a year. In these examinations, which include a practical and a theoretical part, the graduates of public and private VTIs, compete in common theoretical subjects for all the country, in order to obtain the Vocational Training Diploma. The Vocational Training Diploma is recognized both in Greece, as well as in the member states of the EU [Presidential Decree (PD) 231/29-07-98, which made feasible the inclusion in the Greek Law the Directive 92/51/European Economic Community]. Companies of the Wider Public Sector Big companies of the wider public sector implement educational programs-seminars through their own structures. The Public Power Corporation S.A. (PPC SA) and the Hellenic Telecommunications Organization S.A. (OTE SA) are mentioned indicatively: The PPC SA Department of Education implements the educational policy of the company, taking in its responsibility the initial and continuing vocational education and further training of all the employees of PPC SA. Moreover, the PPC SA Department of Education, operating as a vocational training centre, ensures the prospect for the provision of its educational and consulting services to the wider public sector and the private corporations. The PPC SA Department of Education constitutes a modern training unit, having at its disposal seven organized and fully equipped educational centres all over the country, in which are implemented educational programs which cover specific subjects or subjects adapted to the needs of the clients (ITC subjects included). It has been accredited for the obtainment of the European certificate for the accreditation of skills in matters which concern computers and IT. ΟΤΕ SA implements ITC seminars through its subsidiary company ‘OTE Academy’. Participation in the seminars includes both the newly hired employees and the ‘old’ employees of 154

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the company. They last 2-5 or 10 days (6 hours per day). With the completion of the seminar is awarded the certificate for the participation in the seminar. Accreditation of Trainers for Adults: Trainers for Adults assume a multi-dimensional role. The Accreditation System for Trainers aims at upgrading their skills and competencies and ensuring their ability to combine their knowledge, professional experience and pedagogical skills in response to the needs of the trainees. EKEPIS has already set up Registers for Trainers for Adults. Enrolment is upon criteria requirements on Trainers’ educational background, professional experience and teaching experience. To date, approximately 17,150 Trainers have enrolled in the EKEPIS Register. Additionally, accredited Trainers for Trainers for Adults are enrolled in the respective EKEPIS Register. Accreditation is upon successful completion of an accredited training programme based on the respective job profile. The process for their accreditation entails a combination of different methodologies and is currently underway. c. Accreditation of Support Services Professionals: Within the national and European policy for combating social exclusion and distinction, EKEPIS aims at upgrading the quality of support services provided and the qualifications of the professionals in the field. Support Services Professionals are engaged in both the public and private sector and provide specialised counselling and social services to people who are socially excluded or threatened to be. EKEPIS has designed and currently implements the Accreditation System for Support ServicesProfessionals (Joint Ministerial Decision 113709/2005). This specific accreditation system entails 3 main phases: − Enrolment in the Support Services Professionals Register of EKEPIS. − Training of Support Services Professionals, Training of Trainers, Training of Accreditation Experts. − Enrolment in the EKEPIS Register of Accredited Support Services Professionals. Greece has developed a three stage process leading to the accreditation system of trainers of adults in CVET: The first phase was to develop a trainers’ register and until now more than 15.000 trainers are already registered at EKEPIS (the National Accreditation Body for VET). There were three main criteria in order for a trainer to be registered: a. specific academic qualifications (mainly a university degree), b. minimum professional experience which is at least three years’ experience in his profession and c. adult teaching experience, which is very crucial. One had to fulfil all these three criteria in order to be registered. According to a recent Ministerial Decree (December 2006) adult teaching experience is not necessary, once the trainer attends a specific 300 hour training programme for adult trainers. The second (undergoing) phase is the training of more than 10.000 trainers (out of the total). This includes a 300-hour distance learning course addressing the need of enhancing the ability of trainers to teach vocational skills. The third and final phase is the accreditation of these trainers. In addition to the above, EKEPIS has planned the development of a new VET trainers’ profile and this is going to have the form of a study (an analysis) on the basis of the job profile accreditation system. The main components of this include: − A similar process of offering adequate training in practical and theoretical aspects of pedagogy is planned for the case of Support Services Professionals for CVET. − A relevant register has been developed, while the providers of such services will undergo a specific course in order to be able to apply for their accreditation.

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The above-mentioned initiatives aim at increasing the pedagogical abilities of VET teachers in general, as well as of the specific case of Support Services Professionals for CVET. Teachers and trainers do not have any additional roles in the VET system. In some cases, however, they may be chosen by the bodies responsible for providing VET, to form committees that will be engaged for some period in curriculum development, in different types of assessment etc. The choice is based upon their qualifications, experience etc.

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GREECE: Summary of expert interviews Issues 1. Needs regarding the training and qualification of in-company trainers are largely ignored, both at the policy and company level. 2. There is an increasing demand lately for in-company trainers but nevertheless there is a big gap between the needs of the companies and the skills of those who are in charge of training. 3. There is a lack of training culture. Neither the employers nor the employees fully understand the importance of training and re-training with the consequence of not giving the appropriate qualitative characteristics. The in-company trainers lack the necessary information and educational support. 4. The allocation of human resources is not efficient. 5. Trainers lack motivation and interest to engage in continuing learning. Top-down approaches seem to lead to better results. 6. Also the majority of companies expect a top-down approach in that the state should be responsible for the organisation of training. Thus, companies avoid initiatives in the direction of taking charge of developing training methods and content.

Discussion -

Innovation in learning is an issue; training and learning methods remain underdeveloped in terms of making greater use of modern and innovative methods.

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The professional in-company trainers are still a very rare case in Greece. In most cases the trainers are experienced employees who have parallel duties. Although it is clear that the needs are calling for well educated and trained trainers there are no incentives and even very few possibilities for them to develop their competences. Therefore the implementation of modern methods is still problematic and the diversification of the trainee groups in most cases is considered a luxury. There is no clue on the existence of associations or professional bodies of trainers.

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Regarding the accreditation of prior learning this is a more general problem as in Greece a legislative framework or relevant competent bodies to recognise accomplishments of prior learning through different learning pathways do not exist.

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Being a trainer is considered a respected position within the company. Thus, the status within the company is respectable although it is not supported financially or through other incentives. The recognition of the training profession has to pass through the official existing infrastructure which is the system of continuing vocational training. Further career pathways are dependent upon on-the-job experience and do not follow any guidelines or specific procedures.

Examples of ‘good practice’ -

In the Greek banking sector there are examples of good practice. ALPHA Bank, for example, has established a modern system for internal training and offers incentives to the trainers, recognising their working experience and enabling a smoother promotion procedure. It is interesting that supporting e-tools were developed in house. 157


-

The ‘school’ for the employees of the Ministry of Finance introduce e-learning to foster: i. On the job training of the trainers to convey the experience on training of trainers from Universities and companies to the staff of the Ministry. ii. E-Training for the employees by the trainers of category a. iii. Real time training iv. Evaluation and retraining of trainers.

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Neorion shipyard, based in Syros island developed a system of specialised training for the staff focusing on the changing needs of the sector.

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Other good practice examples can be found within some multinational companies.

Future trends The decreasing number of skilled workers and overall qualification of the workforce combined with lifelong learning policies will increase the importance and recognition of training personnel in the mid and longer term. From big and multinational companies this changing role will also trigger down to SMEs. Currently, Greece lacks significantly in the organisation and provision of in company training. So far a supporting framework for the upgrading of the trainers’ competences has not yet been developed. However, following examples of trend setting companies and public organisations it is expected that within the next few years the whole system will be rationalised. Operating in the European market, companies and employees will recognise the importance of continuous up-grading of skills and competences permitting an enhanced role for the trainers.

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Country Report HUNGARY Sabine Archan & Bettina Lehner Institut für Berufsbildung (ibw), Austria 1. Background and country context National economy The transformation of the political system in 1989 changed the economy and the labour market in Hungary and caused enormous shiftings in the three economic sectors have been caused. In 2005 employment in the service sector exceeded 60 per cent whereas only approximately one third of the working population was employed in industrial companies and 5.16 per cent in agriculture. Productivity in Hungary is improving but is still far below the European average (EU-27). Compared to the nine other candidate countries which entered the European Union in 2004 the Hungarian economy is performing temperately. Cyprus, the Czech Republic or Slovenia for example are performing better in terms of GDP per capita, while Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia and Poland record smaller outputs than Hungary. Since 2000 the gross domestic product per capita in Hungary has risen by slightly more than 44 per cent. According to EUROSTAT the gross domestic product in 2006 was EUR 15,600 (EU-27 EUR 23,400) and following EUROSTAT`s estimations the GDP per capita in 2007 will increase by nearly 4.5 per cent whereas the EU-27 average will rise by only 4 per cent. In terms of unemployment Hungary faces relatively high percentages. During the 1990s the national unemployment rate increased rapidly due to the transformation process (11.9 per cent in 1993), but also currently the employment situation is an important economic theme in Hungary. According to EUROSTAT the national employment rate accounted for 57.3 per cent in 2006, the EU-27-average being at 64.3 per cent. Regarding the general averaged unemployment rate of Hungary in 2006 7.5 per cent of the working population aged between 15 and 74 years were unemployed (EU-27 7.9 per cent). Also youth unemployment is very high in Hungary. In 2006 19.1 per cent of the teenagers between 15 and 24 years were unemployed. Improvements of the vocational education and training (VET) system shall help to enhance the employability and integration of young people into the labour market. In order to reduce youth unemployment Hungary has started several programmes which aim to enhance the prestige of VET. General political context Hungary has been a member of the European Union since January 2004. The country has an area of 93,030 km² and comprises 19 counties in seven regions. In 2005 Hungary`s population counted 10,097,549 people and consists mainly of ethnic and linguistic Hungarians and several minorities (Roma, German, Slovak, Romanian). General European demographic trends are crucial also in Hungary. Declining birth rates, ageing population and migration problems impact the current education and training system and Hungary`s education policy. For the development of programmes and strategies for socio-economic problems the social partners play an important role in different fields including also the area of vocational education and training. Social partners are involved in VET through the participation in various councils (National Council for the Conciliation of Interests, National Vocational Training Council, Higher Education and Science Council, National Adult Training Council). The influence of the social partners affects nearly every level of policy making but only on the enterprise level they may 159


carry out their decision making power. Important tasks concern the provision of practical training, students` assessments and the monitoring of practical training. On the national, regional, sectoral level the social partners only have advisory functions. They are involved in setting up strategies and policies in VET, defining professional and examination requirements etc. Vocational education and training (VET) in Hungary Compulsory education begins at the age of five and lasts until the age of 16, thus compulsory schooling takes ten years and is to be further extended to18 years if primary education was started in 1998 or later. Usually at the age of 16 pupils may start vocational education and training by attending either vocational schools or secondary vocational schools. • Students of vocational schools may obtain qualifications on the ISCED 3C or 2C level. • Secondary vocational schools provide VET to students who want to acquire the maturity certificate (ISCED 3A) or award ISCED 4C level qualifications. Both school types award qualifications of the National Qualifications Register (OKJ) (see below). In terms of educational attainment of the Hungarian population the situation has been improving in the last decade as 59 per cent of the population aged between 25 and 64 dispose of a ISCED 3 or 4 level qualification. Vocational Education and Training (VET) is carried out jointly by the state and the economy. Since 1972 schools have been providing theoretical training whereas companies have been responsible for the practical training part. Up to now Hungary has maintained this long tradition of good relations between the social partners which will be continued also in the future. The Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MKIK) is an important actor in VET which coordinates the cooperation between state and economy and pursues the objective of increasing practical in-company training in order to improve the status of VET. In this respect also the improvement of the content of VET, i.e. the professional and examination requirements as well as the curricula of state recognised and other qualifications, is a decisive target in the modernisation process. Vocational education and training in Hungary is strongly influenced by the National Qualifications Register (OKJ) which was introduced due to the economic change. The transformation caused a change in the structure of schools and traditional vocational training underwent a big crisis in the first half of the 1990s. Thus in 1994 Hungary introduced the National Qualifications Register (OKJ) as a result of the market economy transition. The OKJ contains a list of formal state-recognised qualifications and has become a very important instrument in VET. After several modifications in 2001 the register has been systematised in a new way according to 21 vocational groups and four professional fields (human, technical, business and services, agriculture). One of the main advantages of the OKJ is the high practical value. Users may find practical references to legal regulations which describe the prerequisites for certain professions and qualifications. Today the OKJ is a very important instrument for the harmonisation between the responsibility of the state, the rapid changes demanded by the economy and the requirements of the European Union. In addition it helps to make the national vocational structure and qualifications that have been recognised by state more transparent and visible. Further improvements of the OKJ thus play an important role also in the Hungarian VET policy as current development programmes aim to further develop the OKJ (see also VET policy in Hungary). On the one hand a partial reduction of the number of vocational qualifications and the development of a modular structure of qualifications on the other hand are strived. The focus is on the job profiles defined by employers for each professional group. The profiles serve as the basis for the development of the content and the professional and examination requirements of qualifications and later of training programmes.

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VET policy in Hungary In the course of the recent last years modernising and renewing the vocational education and training in line with the demands and needs resulting from the economic and social situation has become increasingly important in the Hungarian educational policy. Besides the different projects implemented according to the National Development Plan of Hungary several strategies and development programmes listed below help to establish a modern VET system in Hungary: − Strategy for the Development of Vocational Education and Training − Strategy for the Enhancement of Lifelong Learning − Vocational School Development Programme (SZFP) − Human Resources Development Operational Programme In 2005 Hungary has adopted a Strategy for the Development of Vocational Education and Training. The concept pursues high quality of VET by providing state recognised qualifications of the National Qualifications Register (OKJ) within or outside the formal school system. Improvements should be made by restructuring the VET system, facilitating the accessibility of VET, providing modern learning materials and by enhancing the training of teachers and trainers. Furthermore Hungary follows the Strategy for the Enhancement of Lifelong Learning which focuses among other aspects on the quality and efficiency of education and training as well as on strong links between education, training and economy. In terms of the European indicator for Lifelong Learning which accounts for 12.5 per cent according to the guidelines of the European Union, Hungary has still a long way to go. In 2006 the participation of the population aged between 25 and 64 years in continuing training activities accounted for 3.8 per cent. This value is very low although there are several other European countries with even lower percentages. Beside these two strategies two development programmes influence the current VET policy of Hungary. The Vocational School Development Programme (SZFP) has the objective of improving the quality of the competences of vocational school graduates and thus increasing the image and prestige of vocational schools in general. One major component of this programme concerns human resources development which affects teachers, trainers and school managers. Human resources development also plays an important role in the Human Resources Development Operational Programme which deals with different themes (employment, education and training, social and health services). Regarding education and training a list of measures has been developed with the main objective of improving the links between education and training and economy.

2. Organisation The responsibility for Vocational Education and Training in Hungary is divided between two ministries. IVET (Initial Vocational Education and Training) is organised by the Ministry of Education (OM) and CVET is subject to the Ministry of Employment Policy and Labour (FMM). IVET is organised at a national level. Although there are various similarities and common issues of different trainer types the differences concerning for example the organisation of the training of trainers must not be neglected. For providing a clearer picture the following information is split up between the two main types, namely IVET trainers and CVET trainers. IVET training in companies Generally IVET in Hungary is provided mainly within the school system. Only a small part of IVET activities takes place outside the school system. IVET in companies within the school system is related to apprenticeship training or alternance (cooperation between school and 161


economic organisation) in vocational training schools. There are two types of vocational training schools which lead both to state-recognised vocational qualifications of the National Qualifications Register (OKJ): • Vocational schools (for students aged 14-18): two years of general and two years of VET • Secondary vocational schools (for students aged 14-19 or older): four years of general and in addition one optional year of VET; maturity examination at the end In the school year 2004/2005 261 OKJ qualifications were offered by vocational schools and 273 by secondary vocational schools. The areas which are most popular are the building industry, engineering, hotel and catering industry, wholesale and retail, ICT and nursing. This implies that also a big part of the trainers has specialised in these fields. Vocational trainers and practice trainers are the relevant actors in apprenticeship training, the former being employed by (secondary) vocational schools and the latter being employees of an enterprise. These are both IVET trainers who provide training within the school system. As the target group of the EUROTRAINER study focuses on in-company training the following report concentrates on practice trainers in the area of IVET. Practice trainers conduct practical training for pupils of (secondary) vocational training schools. They work as “learning facilitators”, i.e. practice trainers who instruct practical training at an enterprise within the framework of a cooperation agreement or apprenticeship/student contract. The Hungarian version of apprenticeship training belongs to the category of IVET and is one of the three forms of practical training beside school-based workshops and cooperation agreements between school and enterprise (alternance). Students from vocational schools or secondary vocational schools can enter this form of practical training. Apprenticeship training in Hungary includes remunerated practical training which is based on a contract between the student and the company. Apprenticeship training is strongly promoted by law and the national education policy because currently most of the students do their practical training within school-workshops or alternance. The content and learning outcome of students doing an apprenticeship training is the same as that of students who attend a school workshop or acquire practical skills in alternance. Despite this fact apprenticeship training is regarded as the most successful form of practical training to strengthen the relationship between economy and VET which is one of the overall objectives of the Hungarian educational policy. “… Pursuing the Act on Vocational Education and Training practical training should alternate with theoretical education within a week during the study period and has to be conducted uninterrupted during the summer vacation time. Typically, however, during the school year one week of theoretical instruction alternates with one week of practical training which may be done in the school workshop and/or at an enterprise workshop or the workplace…” (see Vocational Education and Training in Hungary, Thematic Overview, CEDEFOP, March 2006) Practice trainers who train students from (secondary) vocational schools have to assess the performance and achievements of the students on a regular basis. The applied instrument is a so called “work log” which has to be administered by the practice trainer and includes exercises, their evaluations as well as attendances or absences of the students. Practice trainers also assess the performance of the vocational examination of students from vocational schools. This is done with the assistance of the school, the representative organisation and the relevant local chamber of economy. The student has to carry out a complex exercise which is generated by a central database of the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and measures the student`s professional and technological competences. CVET training in companies OKJ qualifications, i.e. vocational qualifications listed in the National Qualifications Register OKJ can be obtained either within or outside the formal school system. Although VET is provided mainly within school education most OKJ qualifications are also offered within adult 162

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training. Therefore CVET in Hungary may be provided either within or outside the school system. In Hungary there are CVET trainers on the tertiary education level, in upper and post secondary adult education as well as in adult training. Only within adult training there are CVET trainers in companies (workplace – internal training) who are either instructors of vocational practical training or practitioners organizing, planning, managing etc. adult training. This document focuses on CVET outside the school system. Thus the following information concentrates only on this aspect. Regarding CVET outside the school system many types of learning opportunities can be distinguished. The Act on Adult Training issued in 2001 (Act CI of 2201 on Adult Training and Act LXXVI of 1993 on VET) differs between vocational, general and language learning. Adult training is provided by nine state-subsidized regional training centres, private training enterprises, non-profit organisations, public and higher education institutions. Except the mentioned training providers also employers must be comprised as they provide in-company (internal) training for their employees. All adult training providers have to be registered at the county labour centres and conclude training contracts with every training participant according to the Act on Adult Training. Concerning the development of courses in general there are no legal prescriptions. Since around 90 per cent of the courses award an OKJ qualification, in most cases the professional and examination requirements (the Hungarian abbreviation is SZVK) serve as the basis for the development of curricula for training programmes. They are published by decrees of the minister of the relevant field and include a precise definition of the objectives, content and duration of the OKJ qualification training. Through the SZVK (professional and examination requirements) and the national uniform state vocational examination of OKJ qualifications the quality of adult education is comprehensively ensured. CVET provided by enterprises decreased considerably in the last ten years due to the change of the political system. This process occurred contemporaneously with the privatisation of the large state companies and the rise of small and medium enterprises. As a result significant differences of continuing training activities can be noted. The amount and form of CVET in companies varies strongly according to different sectors and company sizes. In addition, compared to the European average, participation rates in CVET in Hungary are relatively low. Thus CVET in SMEs needs to be promoted and supported by the state. (see Economy) Educational policy in Hungary is concerned with implementing strategies and programmes for enhancing CVET at all levels of the education and training system (see above VET policy Hungary). The adopted development programmes are financed by national and/or EU funds. The European Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS 2) in 1999 revealed that in Hungary only 37 per cent of the Hungarian enterprises provided CVET for their employees whereas the European average accounted for 62 per cent. This shows that training activities in companies must be stronger promoted in the future. Several sectors are more concerned than others. Thus textile, clothing and leather industries as well as hotels/restaurants and construction or wood and manufacturing companies do offer very little CVET activities for their employees. Sectors which are more innovative in CVET are banking and insurance, telecommunication or electricity, gas and water supply. CVET activities depend also on the size and sector of the companies. Thus larger companies with more than 250 people usually engage more in training of their employees than small companies. Further training of employees in the public and partly also in the private sector is mandatory and thus regulated by legislation. The right of employees to participate in continuing training is specified in the Act XXII of 1992 of the Labour Code. Accordingly so called study contracts may be concluded between employers and employees which usually stipulate the support of the training through payment of course fees and other expenses by the employer. Continuing training for CVET trainers is not prescribed by law except for accredited training institutions. 163


CVET in the private sector is obligatory for certain vocations like (e.g. gas production, bookkeepers and auditors, professional drivers). Employers may provide training for their employees either internally at the workplace or externally. Internal trainings include trainee programmes, job rotation etc. Concerning CVET in Hungary there is very little separated data for CVET trainers in companies. General data for CVET training is easily available but national and international statistics unfortunately do not distinguish different vocations and thus only total numbers and general information can be found. According to the results of the Eurotrainer study in-company trainers in Hungary are involved in IVET, CVET and human resources development. They work either in small, medium and large enterprises and are full-time or part-time employed. Because they usually carry out very similar work tasks most trainers regardless if IVET, CVET or HRD are concerned with the organisation, conceptualisation and implementation of training activities (e.g. courses). Furthermore also the assessment of skills and competences and the introduction of new learning and training methods play an important role in the job profile of trainers in general. Their work is either based on legal regulations and recommendations of VET and/or company-specific training guidelines. Among the learning methods most applied by trainers in general are the following: 1. demonstration – imitation 2. trainer-centred learning 3. task-oriented learning supported by guidelines 4. projects The ranking shows that open forms of learning are already used but have not replaced traditional teaching methods. Most of the training activities take place in workshops, in classroom settings or within the work process. According to the Eurotrainer study IVET trainers mostly work in big companies as full-time or part-time trainers. In their work IVET trainers cooperate closely with teachers in vocational schools and other trainers in the company.

3. Economy As already mentioned Hungary has adopted new strategies in order to improve the system of VET. Besides the major goals of enhancing the quality of the system and its competitiveness also the efficient use of financial resources is regarded as an important objective. The rationalisation of costs should facilitate the optimum use of resources for development. The financing of the Hungarian VET system is based on the following four sources: − − − −

Central budget (per capita funding of public education institutions, adult training programmes) Local government subsidies for public education institutions Training and employment sub-funds of the Labour Market Fund (MPA) Non-state financial funds: especially enterprises which pay the vocational training contribution and provide practical training for apprentices or finance training for their own employees etc.

When considering vocational training in general, both IVET and CVET is at least partly financed by the companies themselves. In terms of cost and financial incentives the vocational training contribution plays a decisive role in the financing of the VET system. The contribution 164

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which was introduced in 1997 is compulsory and can be compared to a kind of tax which is paid in various forms by enterprises in the amount of 1.5 per cent of their total labour costs. The detailed regulations can be found in the Act on the Vocational Training Contribution (Act LXXXVI of 2003). Companies have different possibilities or options for allocating their vocational training contribution: −

− − −

At most 100 per cent can be used for the provision of practical training for students of VET schools (these funds may include also the work (salary) and training of IVET trainers) At most 75 per cent can be used for development subsidies for VET schools or at most 37.5 per cent for higher education institutions At most 33 per cent can be used for VET of the own employees (further trainings) – (these funds may include also the training of VET trainers) At most 100 per cent can be used for the training sub-fund of the Labour Market Fund (MPA)

Financing IVET training in companies VET schools and companies are stimulated to foster apprenticeship training by several financial incentives. The expenses of an economic organisation for practical training are primarily born by the enterprise. Costs which are not covered by the company`s vocational training contribution can be reimbursed from the training sub-fund of the Labour Market Fund (the Hungarian abbreviation is MPA). Companies may also reduce the tax base by 20 per cent of the minimal monthly wages per apprentice. Since the current Hungarian education policy tries to encourage apprenticeship training because of its great practical value also the financing of VET has been changed. The administration requirements for the reimbursement of expenses of enterprises were simplified and also the per capita funding of practical training for vocational training schools was modified (VET schools are entitled to receive development subsidies from enterprises which can be paid from the companies` vocational training contribution). Between 2000 and 2004 the amount of the vocational training contribution allocated for practical training of VET students at enterprises has grown by more than 50 per cent. From EUR 22.0 million in the year 2000 the contribution increased to EUR 33.6 million in 2004. Financing CVET training in companies The state financing system of adult training aims to encourage the creation of a knowledgebased society and to enhance employability and the competitiveness of employees. In addition, the access to adult training should be facilitated in order to realise lifelong learning. Adult training outside the school system is financed by the three major contributors state, employers and participants which contribute each about one third of the total costs according to the governing principle of the Hungarian education policy. The main sources for financing CVET can be classified as follows: − − − −

Central budget Labour Market Fund (employment sub-fund, adult training section, training sub-fund) Participants who can reduce their expenses through the deduction of the personal income tax Employers who can reduce their expenses through the allocation of their vocational training contribution (including the costs for trainers and training of trainers)

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CVET in the private sector is strongly promoted by the Hungarian state not only politically through the Lifelong Learning Strategy but also financially by the vocational training contribution. According to the issued Act employers can use one third of their compulsory vocational training contribution for the continuing training activities of their own employees. As the second European Continuing Vocational Training Survey in 1999 has shown the amount and form of CVET and the financial contributions vary according to the sector and size of enterprises. In 1999 the training support altogether accounted for 37 per cent of the enterprises and only 12 per cent of the employees followed CVET activities. The cost of CVET courses provided by companies amounted to only 1.2 per cent of the total labour costs. This was about the half of the EU-15-average. The reasons for the small engagement in in-company trainings was the lack of financial resources as it was revealed by the second Continuing Vocational Training Survey in 1999. Thus the state has started to encourage adult training and the improvement of CVET by offering and promoting the opportunity to spend at most 33 per cent of their compulsory vocational training contribution on their own employees. This financial incentive was introduced in 1997 in order to improve CVET of employees in private companies. The investment development shows a quite positive picture. The invested funds increased enormously between 2000 and 2004 although a lot of companies still do not make use of the financial support. The amount rose from EUR 4.124 million in 2000 to EUR 21.2 million in 2004. The vocational training contribution which is paid by companies to the Labour Market Fund (MPA) supports the development of the system, institutions and participants of CVET. In Hungary the allocated amount from the state and local government VET budget is currently nearly as high as the vocational training contribution although these two sources show different tendencies. While over the last five years the budgetary resources have decreased or at least show a declining tendency the amount of the vocational training contribution has steadily increased. Concerning the financing of training of trainers there is no precise information available. Several statistical data give a rough idea of the economy of VET and its different areas but do not describe the financial aspects for trainers separately. Since there is no further CVTS the available figures are all from the year 1999. It must be noted that a valid interpretation and acceptance of this data for the current period cannot be presumed without reservation.

4. Selection and Allocation The recruiting of trainers of both IVET and CVET shows an interesting picture. According to the Eurotrainer study most of the trainers are recruited internally. This is very typical for the vocational group of in-company trainers and among other reasons also a characteristic in their individual career process. Nine of ten experts say that trainers in companies complete an initial vocational training programme to acquire a skilled worker status before becoming a trainer. Usually they carry out a special job or profession which is the basis for their work as trainers. Regarding this aspect it seems very feasible that trainers are recruited inside the company and not from outside. The forms of employment of trainers (full-time, part-time) in Hungary are diverse and the current data situation does not allow a precise distinction for the different types of trainers. A clear answer for which type of trainers underlies which form of employment unfortunately cannot be given. According to the Eurotrainer study IVET and CVET trainers are both employed as full-time or part-time employees, considering that IVET trainers tend to work more as part-time-workers than CVET trainers. Furthermore they also may be external trainers, i.e.

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trainers who are employed by a specialised training institutions and carry out demanded training in different companies. Selection and allocation of IVET trainers in companies Regarding the formal qualification practice trainers (IVET) need a specific vocational qualification plus five years of professional experience. Practitioners who have passed the master craftsperson examination or have a certain vocational trainer qualification must be preferred when selecting the instructor of vocational practical training. The provision of the practical training at vocational training schools is subject to the Act on Vocational Education and Training and related decrees. The most frequent specialisations of practice trainers may be deducted according to the most popular fields of students which are the building industry, engineering, hotel and catering industry, wholesale and retail, ICT and nursing. Presumably also a major part of IVET trainers has specialised in these areas. The availability of IVET trainers (practice trainers) is difficult to describe because there is no separate data of whether there are too many or too less trainers in different sectors of the labour market. A few indications can be gained from the availability of practical training throughout Hungary. The Hungarian law does not distinguish apprenticeship schemes according to sectors/occupation areas/professions. Only the distribution and number of students by qualification studying in apprenticeship training gives little information. In the school year 2005/2006 there were 32,114 student-contracts in 190 professions. 16,546 students or 51 per cent of the apprentices studied in the following 10 vocations: 1. Food and household retailer 2. Cook 3. Waiter 4. Hairdresser 5. Painter and wallpaperer 6. Carpenter 7. Body ironer 8. Bricklayer 9. Garment retailer 10. Electrician (the vocations are ranked according to the number of apprentices; 1 = largest number of apprentices, 10 = lowest number of apprentices) Selection and Allocation of CVET trainers in companies CVET outside the school system or adult training in general comprises several types of practitioners which are teachers, trainers, instructors, tutors or mentors. Since adult training includes general, language and vocational training programmes, the different types of teachers/trainers can be classified according to these three types of adult training. Furthermore there are a lot of “learning facilitators” who carry out organisation or management tasks. As the qualification requirements for CVET trainers are mainly unregulated the selection of these strongly depends on their completed school level, the vocational qualification and work experience. Recruiting of CVET trainers does not follow formal criteria but company guidelines and the ability of the individual trainer for self-presentation. Generally the same procedures are adopted for the search for CVET trainers as for other employees, i.e. job ads in newspapers, on internet platforms etc.

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There is no information about the number of CVET trainers employed by companies as well as no special data about whether there are too much or too less CVET trainers in certain fields.

5. Qualification Qualification of IVET trainers in companies IVET trainers are practice trainers in companies who instruct practical training in an enterprise. They train apprentices who attend a vocational school and have a cooperation agreement or a student contract with a company for completing their practice training. Regarding the formal qualification practice trainers (IVET) need a specific vocational qualification plus five years of professional experience. At least they need the same level as they provide training for. Practitioners who have passed the master craftsperson examination or have a certain vocational trainer qualification must be preferred when selecting the instructor of vocational practical training. The provision of the practical training at vocational training schools is subject to the Act on Vocational Education and Training and related decrees. Because there is no separate pedagogical qualification for practice trainers in companies the only training contents for trainers are found in the National Qualifications Register (OKJ) and/or the professional and examination requirements for the vocational qualification they have acquired. Practically this means that practice trainers acquire their trainer skills and competences in schools or education institutions and “on the job”. As skilled workers they are able to train apprentices in their profession but as such they have also the possibility to pass the master craftsperson examination introduced in 1996 and thus reach a higher education level. The involved institutions in training of trainers are therefore public schools, enterprises and CVET institutions. Qualification of CVET trainers in companies CVET provided outside the school system is regulated by the Act CI of 2001 on Adult Training and the Act on Vocational Education and Training. This law is also applied for companies offering in-company (internal) training for their employees (adult training in companies). In adult training/CVET the qualification requirements of instructors are regulated only in the case of training programmes falling under the effect of the Act on Vocational Education and Training and in accredited adult training companies and programmes. At the moment only instructors providing training for disadvantaged adults in an accredited institution need a trainer-specific qualification requirement. In other cases where the instructor has a certain number of years of professional experience, he/she is allowed to work as a trainer having completed a tertiary level (ISCED 5A) in the relevant field or a secondary vocational qualification. Practitioners who work in different learning facilitator positions may be trained in higher education. The new multi-cycle training structure which was introduced in September 2006 provides a human resources and an andragogy BA programme leading to four possible specialisations (human organizer, educational organizer, human resources organizer, employment consultant). Additionally practitioners having the maturity examination certificate may attend the two year higher VET programme for becoming a professional training assistant. They are prepared for carrying out organisational tasks in adult training and practical vocational training. The Eurotrainer Survey has shown that most trainers are recruited internally as full-time or part-time trainers. National standards, i.e. the National Qualifications Register (OKJ) determine the qualifications and competences of trainers. Nearly all interviewed people said that 168

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trainers usually have acquired the status of a skilled worker before becoming a trainer. The preparation of trainers for carrying out their job is generally regarded to be very good. The optimistic approach may be due to different strategies and development programmes Hungary has implemented in the last few years. As national standards are the basis for the trainers` qualifications and competences they seem to play an important role for quality assurance. A lot of in-company trainers have acquired different types of diplomas in the area of engineering, economy or similar fields. The Eurotrainer survey as well as different sources of secondary literature show that adult learning and continuing training activities are initiated either by the individual or the employer. Regarding frequent further trainings for trainers Eurotrainer has shown that the focus is laid on ICT courses as well as on trainings for the improvement of social competences. The most frequent organisation forms of continuing training for trainers are either workshops or courses. Further training for CVET trainers generally is not mandatory by law except for accredited institutions but according to the Eurotrainer study it can be assumed that depending on the vocational qualification at least certain trainers are obliged to follow continuing training activities. Since there is no general obligation for continuing training for CVET trainers, they do not participate regularly in further training. As a possible reasons for the low CVET activities of trainers especially lacking motivational benefits or insufficient support of employers are named.

6. Integration Social Integration of IVET and CVET trainers in companies The prestige of initial vocational education (IVET) is considerably low as well as the social status of skilled workers. As a result there has been an enormous decrease in the number of students participating in vocational training. From 1990 to 2002 the number of worker trainees decreased by approximately 50 per cent whereas the number of students attending secondary vocational schools increased by over 40 per cent. Regarding the professional and social status of in-company trainers (IVET) a quite similar picture can be shown. According to a survey conducted in 2000 the prestige of trainers and vocational school teachers is lower than the status of skilled workers (e.g. carpenter) and teachers in general. This may depend also on the low remuneration trainers get for their work. The average salary of trainers accounts for between one fifth to one third related to the salary of professionals in the private sector with the same qualifications. According to the Eurotrainer results IVET trainers as well as CVET trainers enjoy various contacts to other professional groups. Contacts to other trainers play an important role in the work of VET trainers. IVET trainers usually cooperate very closely with teachers from vocational schools. As the survey has shown inside the company VET trainers, both IVET and CVET trainers work together also with members of the management or other departments. Outside the company they hold contacts especially with the Labour Office and different economic chambers. Unemployment of IVET and CVET trainers in companies There is no statistical information available on the unemployment rate of VET trainers in companies. As IVET trainers usually have acquired the status of a skilled worker and are recruited internally they take over a certain job position including training activities. Thus they carry out a special profession and in addition part-time training. Consequently specifications

169


about unemployment of in-company trainers may only refer to the employment situation of the relevant branch or sector the trainer is working in. Additionally unemployment strongly depends on the qualification status of VET trainers. IVET trainers need a vocational qualification plus five years of work experience. There is no pedagogical training required. As a result the group of IVET trainers statistically does not exist as they are identical with other employees of the same profession and a clear distinction between employees who actually have the formal requirements for working as a trainer and other employees cannot be made. The same principle is true for CVET trainers.

7. Innovation In the last few years European policy and strategy has strongly contributed to the development of national VET and HRD policies in Hungary. According to secondary literature Hungary is currently conducting a lot of research and development activities in the field of VET training. Based on the National Development Plan and the Strategy of Development of Vocational Education and Training until 2013 several research projects have been started. These projects involve also the theme of teachers and trainers in VET although it does not seem to be the topic with the highest priority. At the moment VET research in Hungary is closely linked to the modernisation of the VET system as such. The topics are currently dominated by the overall restructuring of VET awarding vocational qualifications listed in the National Qualifications Register (OKJ), the development of effective labour market analysis in order to anticipate changes in labour supply and demand and the development of training programmes based on the local/regional labour market needs including also a model of prior learning assessment and e-learning programmes. The research and development activities with the most impact on the work of VET trainers in companies involve the following projects. • Renewal of the National Qualifications Register (OKJ): the register involves all formal qualifications and as the number of vocational qualifications is too large a current project on the one hand aims to reduce the number of qualifications and on the other hand tries to establish a modular structure of qualifications (qualifications of different levels shall build on another and also partial qualifications shall be included). Job profiles defined by employers for occupational groups are the basis for the content development. Improving the content of VET also refers to the professional and examination requirements (SZVK) and curricula of state recognised and other vocational qualifications. In Hungary the existing planning mechanisms and forecasting methods of VET are still considered to be insufficient. Thus the renewal process of the OKJ also pursues the objective of establishing a system for anticipating skills and needs demanded by the labour market. An important step towards this target was the implementation of sub-committees of the relevant stakeholders in all 21 occupational groups of the OKJ. • VET curricula development is an important priority in current development programmes as curricula have become competence-based and require more open elements. In this regard the improvement of pre-service teacher/trainer training programmes and providing continuing training programmes play a key role in assuring the success of the renewal of curricula. • Apprenticeship training is strongly promoted by law and the national education policy because currently most of the students do their practical training in school-workshops or alternance (see table below). Apprenticeship training is regarded as the most successful 170

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form of practical training to strengthen the relationship between economy and VET which is one of the overall objectives of the Hungarian educational policy. As a consequence of this policy also the role of IVET trainers is strengthened. Place and form of practical training

Vocational school

26 885

per cent 39.9

Special vocational school Numper ber cent 2685 65.65

Secondary vocational school Number per cent 41 682 62.00

8 261

12.26

743

18.17

1 436

2.14

3 245

4.82

230

5.62

1 358

2.02

13 543

20.10

70

1.71

4 609

6.86

4 867

7.22

173

4.23

4 271

6.35

9 793

14.53

60

1.47

6 106

9.08

795

1.18

129

3.15

7 771

11.56

67 389

100.0

4 090

100.0

67 233

100.0

Number Only in a school workshop in groups Only in a workshop outside the school in groups Only at the workplace in groups Only outside the school not in groups In workshops within and outside the school in groups In a school workshop and at the workplace (not in groups) In other forms (in a school environment in groups or not in groups) TOTAL

Quality assurance of IVET training in companies As IVET trainers usually acquire the status of a skilled worker and complete a vocational qualification high quality in IVET requires a high standard of vocational examination. The Act LXXVI of 1993 on Vocational Education and Training assures a systematic examination standard. Candidates have to pass written, oral and practical exams in front of an Examination Board, an independent professional body. The Board comprises the president appointed by the minister in charge of the given vocational qualification and the representatives of the institution organising the exam and of the local relevant chamber of economy. Members of the Examination Board have to fulfil certain criteria, i.e. they are required to have the relevant vocational qualification. High standards for vocational examinations influence also the level of the master craftsperson examination which is awarded with the master title. The requirements for this exam are developed by the chambers of economy in cooperation with the national economic interests organisations. • Flexible ways of learning in VET, i.e. e-learning and different ICT technologies and their efficient use will be enhanced through several operational programmes. • Improving the training of trainers and the system of quality assurance will be a future research theme. The professional and methodological competences of teachers and trainers working in VET must be renewed. Project: Defining the competencies of trainers working in adult education (ERO) Innovative Organisations in VET Innovation is only possible if competent actors encourage change and innovative strategies. Beside several ministries specialised institutions acting as change managers in the area of VET play a crucial role in innovation processes. A few important organisations are listed here: − National Institute of Vocational Education – NSZI 171


− − −

−

National Institute for Adult Education – NFI National Vocational Training Council Alliance of Teachers and Trainers (http://human.kando.hu/tsz): A civil association which was set up by university and college teachers in order to develop the training of trainers. The activities of the association range from research projects to the organisation of discussions and conferences. Higher education network for lifelong learning (http://www.mellearn.hu): This network aims to develop lifelong learning and organises meetings, conferences, provides counselling and information newsletters.

Sources Initial Vocational Education and Training in Hungary http://observatory.org.hu/Feltoltott/ReferNet/IVET_in_Hungary_ReferNet_DTA_2006.pdf, access: April 12 2007 CEDEFOP, Vocational education and training in Hungary, Thematic Overview http://observatory.org.hu/Feltoltott/ReferNet/VET_in_Hungary_ReferNet_TO_2006.pdf, access: April 12 2007 Eurydice – Eurybase, The Education System in Hungary 2004/05, www.eurydice.org, access: June 12 2007 CEDEFOP, Vocational Training Nr. 11 – European Journal, Political questions http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/Information_resources/Bookshop/128/11_en_kiss.pdf, access: June 21 2007 CEDEFOP, ERO National Research Report Hungary http://observatory.org.hu/Feltoltott/ReferNet/ENRR_HU_ReferNet_2006.pdf, access: June 21 2007 National Qualifications Register (OKJ), Sixth revised edition, 2001 http://www.nive.hu/english/okj/insteuction.doc, access: June 25 2007 Hungarian National Development Plan 2004-2006, www.rec.hu/sdconference/doc/NDP_Hungary.pdf, access: June 25 2007 Country Report: Hungary, www.refernet.org.uk/documents/Country_Report_Hungary.pdf, access: June 25 2007 European Continuing Vocational Training Survey http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-BP-02-007/EN/KS-BP-02-007-EN.PDF, access : June 29 2007 Seminardokumentation, Berufsbildung in Ungarn und Österreich – Ausbildungssysteme und Ansprüche des Arbeitsmarktes, http://www.expak.at/pdf/expak1094127039.pdf, access: June 29 2007 Berufsbildung Nr. 11, Europäische Zeitschrift: Berufsbildung in Ungarn - Übersicht http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Upload/Information_resources/Bookshop/128/11_de_keydata_hu.pdf, access: June 30 2007 Financing Vocational Education and Training in the EU new member states and candidate countries – Recent trends and challenges http://www.etf.europa.eu/pubmgmt.nsf/(getAttachment)/3AD39E01E3BA762AC125712A0064D1BB/$F ile/NOTE6MNPHG.pdf, access: July 24 2007 CEDEFOP, Training of VET teachers and trainers in Hungary http://observatory.org.hu/Feltoltott/ReferNet/Training_VET_teachers_ReferNet_DTA_2005.pdf, cess: July 24 2007

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ac-

January 2008

Country Report ICELAND Martti Majuri & Kristiina Volmari HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Finland 1. Background and country context In Iceland the system of government is based on the principle of the tripartite division of power. According to the Constitution, Parliament (Althingi) and the President jointly exercise legislative power. The President and other governmental authorities are entrusted with executive power and the judiciary with judicial power. In 2005 there were 98 municipalities. Municipalities are responsible for pre-primary and primary education whereas the state is responsible for all post compulsory education. Education in Iceland has traditionally been organised within the public sector, and there are very few private education institutions.It also monitors that educational laws and regulations are followed. Unemployment hardly exists and drop-out from education and training is high. Compared to other Nordic Countries, relatively few Icelanders complete upper secondary education. Only a 1/3 of those who do complete it have chosen VET. This low level of VET graduates and the high demand for skilled personnel has resulted in the immigration of foreign workers partly or fully qualified to journeymen standards. Approximately 2/3 of a cohort complete upper sec. before the age of 30. 90-95 per cent enter upper sec. after comp. school. Many take one or more breaks for a job etc. and come in later on to finish the study. Initial vocational education and training VET usually begins at upper secondary level, even though there are a few courses that for statistical reasons are classified as lower secondary education (e.g. the licence to drive trucks or other heavy machinery). School-based IVET is perhaps more common nowadays with 10-40 per cent of the total study time is on-a-job-training. This is true for the biggest and most technified branches like electro... metal/mechanical, construction AND health, social care, cosmetology AND handycraft like dressmaking where 1/4th to 2/3rd of total study time is spent at a work-place. VET is not as popular as general education and it is not uncommon that students start first in general education and then move to VET. Since the 1980s it has been made easier to change paths or to graduate with double qualifications. The main providers of VET are: − −

−

Industrial-vocational schools (iðnskólar) which offer theoretical and practical programmes of study in certified and some non-certified trades; Comprehensive schools (fjölbrautaskólar) which offer theoretical and practical training as in the industrial-vocational schools and some other programmes providing vocational and artistic education. All these schools also offer general upper-secondary education and training and it is possible to combine a general degree with a vocational one; Specialised vocational schools (sérskólar) which offer specialised programmes of study as preparation for specialised employment, such as marine schools. At post secondary and tertiary level, there are also special schools for the agricultural sector.

Continuing vocational education and training CVET provision is mainly private and is designed to meet the training needs of enterprises and individuals. The largest change in recent years has been the increase in demand which 173


is more the result of general growing interest than any change in government policy. CVET has been an important matter of wage agreements on the common labour market after year 2000 and the government has increased considerably Overall planning and forecasting has not taken place. With improvement in technology, distance education has flourished and many schools now offer a combination of distance and on-campus education and training. CVET can be divided into: − Further education and training for those already with some qualifications. − Basic training for those with compulsory training or less. − Training at the workplace. This is a growing field, even though it is mainly larger companies that provide it. − Training for unemployed people. − Hobby courses.

2. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? The teaching profession is regulated in the legislation, but other teaching occupations are not regulated by law. In the latter case those teaching are referred to as instructors or trainers. Work-place trainers. Training for a skilled trade includes a study contract with a master craftsman (work-place trainer) or industrial firm. Work-place trainers within certified trades must at least have the formal qualifications of master craftsmen. To become a master craftsman one needs to complete a Programme of Master Craftsmanship (operated within various comprehensive schools and industrial-vocational schools). That training includes (among other things) a two credit course on teaching/training.The entrance requirements for a Programme of Master Craftsmanship is a Journeyman’s certificate and at least one year of work experience in the trade in question. Master Craftsmen receive their education at the upper secondary and post secondary school level. Health care trainers. Training for health care occupations includes 16 to 40 weeks of workbased training within the health-care system. There are no formal criteria set for the employment of health care trainers. However, generally health care trainers have completed training in individual health care occupations (practical nursing, dental assistant, medical secretary, pharmaceutical technician and foodstuff technician) and have professional experience. The initial training for work-place trainers The Ministry of Education authorises enterprises or individuals to take on apprentices if they meet the qualification requirements laid down in regulations (280/1997) issued by the ministry. According to these regulations, master craftsmen and enterprises are allowed to take on apprentices if they meet following qualifications: A work-place trainer should be a certified master craftsman. Master craftsmen are certified according to the law (42/1978) issued by the Ministry of Industry and Commerce in the trade he intends to teach. Enterprises are allowed to take on apprentices if they employ a qualified work-place trainer. A work-place trainer/enterprise should have assignments/project that are accepted by curriculum or individual occupational councils. The facilities that a workplace trainer/enterprise offers should be satisfactory. Individuals who meet the following qualifications can become master craftsmen: 174

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− − − − −

− − −

Icelandic citizens or foreign citizens who have been residents in Iceland uninterrupted for at least one year. Exempt from this rule are citizens of countries within EEA and EFTA. Legally competent individuals. Financially competent individuals (Hefur forræði á búi sínu). Individuals who have not been convicted according to the General Penal Code No. 19/1940 Master craftsmen are required to have basic business knowledge (bookkeeping/accounting). These requirements are according to the National Curriculum Guidelines. Individuals who have successfully completed the journeyman’s examinations. Individuals who have worked in their trade, for at least one year, under the supervision of a master craftsman. Individuals who have successfully completed the course of study in the School of Master Craftsmanship (operated within various comprehensive schools and industrial-vocational schools).

CVET trainers There is no organized pre-service training for CVET trainers in Iceland. Most trainers in CVET primarily work as specialists in their respective field, and have teaching and training in continuing education only as a secondary obligation. Some training centres even explicitly only hire experts whose main qualification is practice in their field of expertise and who are respected in the field. These trainers have very different backgrounds, ranging from master craftsmen to a doctorate. Their training is thus as diverse as the trainers are many. Trainers usually have little or no pre-service pedagogical training in addition to their subject of expertise.

3. Economy: How is the work and training of trainers financed? The only piece of information available is that workplace trainers do not receive payment from the upper secondary level school system. It is hard to say that workplace trainers in Iceland have special status. A trainer might have been training for years, but does not very often have a trainer identity. The professionalisation and formalisation of training is an interesting debate going on now and for example universities support that kind of development. It would be interesting to offer a certificate for those trainers who have already been trained.

4. Selection and Allocation: How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? The training is almost always part-time in Iceland – there are very few full-time trainers (Eurotrainer expert interview)

175


5. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? According to the expert interview there is now a common acceptance: people understand the need for training the trainers. The people who should train are highly motivated, they are often the best people in companies. They are also active people in many other ways and they are the most competent people – which also often means that they don’t have time. Most of these persons like the training and especially those who have done it earlier. In companies they don’t know however how to train and they are not educated for that. Managers and key staff give training tasks but, they don’t enough time to prepare their courses; they managers don’t give time people time to prepare their training programmes or even some lessons.

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Country Report IRELAND Lorna Unwin Institute of Education, University of London 1. Background and country context During the 1990s and first half of 2000, Ireland’s economy doubled in size, resulting in the fastest economic growth of any country in the OECD, despite being affected to some extent by the global slump in the information and communication technologies (ICT) sector (OECD 2006). This led to Ireland being referred to as the ‘Celtic Tiger’. Ireland’s population, which stood at 4.2 million in 2006, has also been witnessing growth with an expansion of 8.1% between 2002 and 2006 (CSO Ireland 2007). This has been partly due to increasing numbers of migrant workers from the European Union (EU) due to Ireland’s ‘open door’ policy, and to the numbers of Irish people returning to the country after living overseas attracted by the economic success and improved living standards. In the past decade, the per-capita income in Ireland has caught up with and overtaken the EU average. Ireland has the second highest fertility rate (1.99%) in Europe (after Iceland) and has the highest proportion of people under the age of 30 and under the age of 5 in Europe. Its school population will increase by 19% between 2005and 2015, exceeding that of any other EU country. The OECD (2006) describes Ireland as one of the world’s more ‘open economies’ with foreign investors attracted to the country due to its: • • • •

Business friendly regulatory environment Flexible labour market Moderate tax rates Sound fiscal policy

Ireland is second only to Luxembourg in terms of the amount of direct foreign investment in the county and it is estimated that some 49.2% of employees in manufacturing are based in companies that are under foreign ownership (see Heraty and Collings 2006). The government department responsible for matters related to in-company training is the Department of Enterprise, Trade and Employment (DETE) and it delegates this to Forfás, the National Policy and Advisory Board for Enterprise, Trade, Science, Technology and Innovation (see Forfás 2006). Forfás oversees three ‘sister’ agencies, one of whom, Enterprise Ireland, has the mission to: “…accelerate the development of world-class Irish companies to achieve strong positions in global markets resulting in increased national and regional prosperity”. (www.enterprise-ireland.com/AboutUs) The agency operates a Productivity and Improvement Fund, which gives grants of up to 150,000 euros for training initiatives in companies and across sectors. A key part of the agency’s training mission is to improve management and leadership capacity in which it invested 11.5 million euros in 2006. Despite Ireland’s economic success over the past few years, the OECD has warned that the country faces some considerable challenges if it is to maintain its growth rates. These challenges include: increasing the number of women in the labour market (Ireland is below the OECD average, except for women under the age of 30); making significant improvements in childcare services; transport infrastructure; the competitiveness of nationalized industries such as electricity supply; and the participation of young people in pre-school learning and in education beyond the school leaving age of 16. The Irish education system, overseen by the Department of Education and Science, has been going through a number of changes in recent years, partly in response to demands to improve post-compulsory participation rates. Secondary level education (from age 12 to 18) 177


is provided in different types of schools: secondary; vocational; community; and comprehensive. At ages 15/16, young people sit a national examination (set by the State Examinations Committee) for the Junior Certificate and at 17/18 for one of three types of Leaving Certificate. The general education Leaving Certificate (which includes a range of academic subjects) gives access to further and higher education, but the numbers taking this have been in decline since 2002 (see FÁS 2007). The Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme, whose numbers are showing a slight increase, also operates as an access route to further and higher education, and for apprenticeships. The Leaving Certificate Applied is designed for young people who are assessed as not having the ability to progress to third level study. Young people can also enter a Transition Year at 16 in which they can participate in a range of educational and work-based experiences designed to develop their social awareness and life skills. Third level education provision in Ireland is provided by universities and Institutes of Technology. The Further and Adult Education sector in Ireland, which comprises colleges of further education and community education centres, is regarded as being separate from the third level education provision and is responsible for a range of programmes including postschool certificates, second chance education for the unemployed, basic skills education, and programmes such as Youthreach for early school leavers. There is also a relatively small private sector operating at third level. This comprises colleges and institutes offering courses in banking, accountancy, insurance, management and law. Government-funded vocational education and training in Ireland is organized by the National Training and Employment Authority, known as Foras Áiseanna Saothair (FÁS),which was set up in 1988 following the 1987 Labour Services Act. FÁS is governed by a Board, appointed by the Minister for Enterprise, Trade and Employment and comprising representatives from the trade unions, employers, social welfare organisations, education and youth groups, together with representatives from Government Departments (Ministries of Finance; Education and Science; Social, Community and Family Affairs; and Enterprise, Trade and Employment), along with FÁS employee representatives. Its budget in 2006 was 999.7 million euros. FÁS has 66 offices and 20 training spread across Ireland and is responsible for: • Training and employment programmes • Recruitment services for jobseekers and employers • Advisory services for industry • Support for community-based enterprises Apprenticeships in Ireland are defined as programmes to develop the skills of ‘craftspeople’ and are available in 23 crafts as follows: • Agricultural Mechanics • Aircraft Mechanics • Brick and Stonelaying • Cabinetmaking • Carpentry and Joinery • Construction Plant Fitting • Electrical • Electrical Instrumentation • Fitting • Floor and Wall Tiling • Heavy Vehicle Mechanics • Instrumentation • Metal Fabrication • Motor Mechanics • Painting and Decorating 178

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• • • • • • • •

Plastering Plumbing Print Media Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Sheet Metalworking Tool Making Vehicle Body Repairs Wood Machinery

The occupational nature of these apprenticeships means that apprentices are almost entirely male and, hence, so are the instructors, trainers and vocational teachers who deliver the training. The restriction of apprenticeships to traditional crafts and trades continues despite the prediction that three out of four Irish workers will be employed in the service sectors by 2010. Apprenticeships generally last four years and are divided into seven phases: 3 phases of off-the-job and 4 of on-the-job training. Training takes place in the workplace, in FÁS training centres, Institutes of Technology and in other approved centres, some of which are in the private sector. Apprentices work towards an Advanced Certificate awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC), which was set up in 2001 as a statutory body. FÁS also administers Traineeships which last from 24 to 40 weeks and which also lead to FETAC qualification.

2. Organisation Ireland shares the same characteristics in terms of the history and prevailing culture of workforce development (both at formation and post-formation stages) as the United Kingdom (UK). The labour market is largely unregulated and skills’ training takes place mainly in the workplace. Surveys in 2005 estimated that less than half of Irish employees (48%) had participated in employer-sponsored training (NCPP, 2005). A survey in 2007 of members of the Small Firms Association revealed that one third of owner-managers had not undergone training in the last 12 months and that the average spending on training had been less than 5,000 euros (see SFA 2007). In addition, 20% of companies reported they had spent nothing on training. A survey of employers’ use of FÁS services in 2007 found that six out of ten had never used the agency’s services and this rose to two out of three for companies with 100 or more employees. The most popular services related to recruitment and apprenticeship (Conway and Fox, 2007). A report drawing on data from the Irish Quarterly National Household Survey in 2006 found that 12% of employed people had received some form of training in the previous four weeks to being interviewed for the survey (Fox, 2007). The report also showed that access to training was, however, determined by certain characteristics: • • • • •

Females were more likely to receive training Younger employees (aged 25-34) were more likely to receive training than older employees (aged 55-64) Graduates were far more likely to receive training than employees with a Junior Certificate Associate professionals and professionals were more likely to receive training than production operatives and craft workers Employees in the public sector and financial services sector were more likely to receive training and employees in agriculture or manufacturing

Just as in the UK, the Irish government has been focusing attention on the need for Ireland to become a ‘knowledge economy’ in order to meet the challenges of globalisation. The National Development Plan for 2007-2013 states that 7.7 billion euros will be invested in the upskilling of the employed workforce and 2.8 billion euros in measures to train and engage groups outside the workforce (see www.ndp.ie). Targets have been set to increase the quali179


fication levels of the workforce: 48% to have a third level qualification or higher; 45% to have a Leaving Certificate; and 7% to have a Junior Certificate. These targets are similar to those set by the recent Leitch Report for the UK (see Leitch, 2006). In 2003, the National Centre for Partnership and Performance (NCPP) was asked by government to convene a ‘Forum on the Workplace of the Future’. This examined a range of issues including the nature of employee involvement in workplace decisions (see NCPP, 2005). The Forum led to the development of a ‘National Workplace Strategy’, which was launched in 2005. The strategy has five priority areas: • • • • •

Commitment to workplace innovation Capacity for change Developing future skills Access to opportunities Quality of working life

In addition, four aspects of ‘workplace attitudes and practices’ have been identified as in need of attention: 1. Leadership and capacity of change (capability of managers, employers and trade unions to proactively champion and manage change) 2. Up-skilling and workplace learning (removal of barriers to work-related learning and training – especially in the case of workers in lower-skilled jobs and those with narrow skill sets in vulnerable areas of the economy) 3. Promoting diversity and work-life balance (need to be promoted as an integral part of every organisation’s culture and management) 4. Practical approaches to partnership and employee involvement (seen as best mechanism for tackling the challenges facing workplaces) In a survey of 1,491 employers in the private sector and 392 public sector organizations in Ireland in 2003, Williams et al (2004) found that the majority of employers (66%) thought that training and development was important in terms of the future of their organizations and helping them overcome increasing external pressures. For public sector employers, training and development was particularly important. The report also noted that, in terms of reacting to external pressures, relatively large percentages of private sector employers had assigned a high importance to progressive employment policies and a third were introducing new workpractices. As in the UK, in-company trainers in Ireland come from a wide range of occupational backgrounds and will have entered the profession at different stages and for different reasons.

3. Economy The vast majority of investment in in-company training in Ireland, amounting to 1 billion euros comes from employers and a relatively small amount, 49 million euros, comes from the public purse (see Forfás 2006). In 2001, it was estimated that the average annual expenditure (for companies employing more than 50 people) was 3.85 per cent of the payroll, but that this had dropped slightly to 3.55 per cent in 2003 (Heraty and Collings 2006) In 2000, Ireland abandoned its system of sector-based training levies and replaced it with a National Training Fund (NTF) which is made up of the income generated from taking 0.7% of every employee’s Pay-Related Social Insurance (PRSI) contribution. Some 75% of the Irish workforce is covered by PRSI. In 2005, the NTF amounted to 312 million euros of which 100 million was spent on apprenticeships, 23 million on continuing vocational education and training for people in employment, 180 million for the training of unemployed people, and one million for infrastructure to support advice and guidance services. A further 8 million was allocated to Skillnets, which are networks of enterprises, who come together on a geographical 180

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or sectoral basis, to share resources and ideas (including in relation to training) to help their businesses grow. A report for Skillnets in 2005 stated that there were still shortcomings in the quality and organisation of employer-based training in Ireland and that many trainers failed to adequately evaluate the courses they ran and the impact they were having within enterprises (see Impact Measurement Centre 2005).

4. Selection and Allocation There is very little up-to-date literature and no detailed statistics on the HRD and training community in Ireland. The Central Statistics Office in Ireland publishes figures for the numbers of people employed under the same Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) codes as used in the UK (see www.cso.ie). Three SOC codes cover people employed in some form of training role. The figures only show the total numbers and are not broken down according to type of employment or by gender. SOC code 124 SOC code 363 SOC code 391

Personnel, Training and IER Managers in Ireland Personnel, Industrial Training Officers Vocational and Industrial Trainers and Instructors

6,500 1,600 5,600

In October, 2007, the Irish Institute for Training and Development announced that it was starting a project to identify the skill and education level of people working in the fields of Human Resource Development (HRD) and training and to assess their needs for professional development in order to improve the stock of qualified training consultants working in companies and as external consultants. The findings will be used to inform the work of the Institute in designing, developing and piloting programmes and initiatives to meet the needs of professionals and businesses. This initiative is important in that it will provide up-to-date information on the HRD and training community in Ireland.

5. Qualification There is no statutory requirement in Ireland for trainers to be qualified, though mandatory certification will occur in certain sectors, particularly where health and safety regulations are prominent. In-company trainers in Ireland have access to a similar range of qualifications as in the UK, though there is far less post-graduate provision in universities in terms of Master’s level qualifications. Trainers in Ireland who seek qualifications can apply to two bodies: the IITD; and the UKbased Chartered Institute of Training and Development (CIPD). The IITD is the Irish representative on the European Training and Development Federation and the International Federation of Training and Development Organisations. It was formed in 1960 and now has 2,000 professional and student members. It runs its events through a network of regional ‘chapters’, which organize evening seminars and meetings, and it also publishes a quarterly magazine called HRD Ireland. It also organizes a network for trainers in micro organizations (less than 5 employees). The CIPD, however, claims on its website to have 6,000 members in Ireland located in seven regional ‘branches’. These two organizations are, therefore, in competition with each other both for members and for the right to ‘represent’ the trainer community. A new BA in Training and Development has been launched in the autumn of 2007 by the IITD in partnership with the National College of Ireland in Dublin. Study will be part-time and organized around a series of modules. 181


The IITD has a similar membership structure to the CIPD: • • • • •

FELLOW (post-graduate qualification and significant senior experience and evidence of continued professional development) MEMBER (first degree and/or diploma plus significant senior experience and evidence of continued professional development) ASSOCIATE (first degree or diploma plus experience at a junior level and evidence of continued professional development) GRADUATE (IITD diploma or relevant qualification at diploma/degree level) AFFILIATE/STUDENT (for people who want to have an association with the IITD, perhaps whilst studying)

The IITD’s qualifications are as follows: Certificate in Training and Development Aim: to enable participants to develop the necessary knowledge, skills and confidence to undertake training activities. These include the development of planning, delivery and evaluation of skills in the area of training and development. Participants attend 75 hours of training divided across three modules: systematic training; interpersonal skills development and delivering training; and training strategies and training administration. Assessment is through written assignments, tasks in the classroom, a project, and presentations. Trainer Skills Certificate This is designed to help companies develop a ‘pool’ of people who can undertake training functions and, hence, help to improve business performance. The course lasts four days and covers four modules: adult learning; analyzing training needs; designing training activities; and delivering training.

6. Conclusions The Irish National Development Plan for 2007-2013 states that more money will be invested in the training of trainers, though much of this appears to be focused on trainers in educational institutions. There is specific reference to in-company trainers. This reflects the continued marginality of in-company trainers in a country where public policy is heavily concentrated on general education and on initial vocational education.

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References Conway, S. and Fox, R. (2007) Survey of Employers’ Use of FÁS Services-2007, Dublin: FÁS. CSO Ireland (2007) Census, 2006, Dublin, Stationery Office. FÁS (2007) Monitoring Ireland’s Skills Supply, Dublin: FÁS. Forfás (2006) Forfás Annual Report, Dublin: Forfás. Fox, R. (2007) Participation of Employed in Education/Training 2006, Dublin: FÁS. Heraty, N. and D.G. Collings (2006) International briefing 16: training and development in the Republic of Ireland, International Journal of Training and Development, 10(2): 164-174. Impact Measurement Centre (2005) Measuring the Impact of Training and Developmenty in the Workforce, Dublin: Forfás. NCPP (2005) Forum on the Workplace of the Future: Final Report, Dublin: NCPP. OECD (2006) Economic Survey of Ireland, 2006, Policy Brief, Paris: OECD. SFA (2007) SFA Training Survey, Dublin: Small Firms Association. Williams, J., Blackwell, S., Gorby, S., O’Connell, P. and Russell, H. (2004) The Changing Workplace: A Survey of Employers’ Views, Dublin: NCPP.

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Country Report ITALY Marianna Forleo, Giulia Governatori, Germana Monaldi & Claudia Montedoro ISFOL, Italy 1. Background and country context The institutional framework Italy is a parliamentary democracy. The 1948 Constitution established a bicameral parliamentary system, which consists of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate, an independent judiciary system and an executive branch – the Council of Ministers- headed by the Prime Minister. The Italian State consists of 20 Regions, 103 Provinces and 8.100 Municipalities with their own powers and functions. Five Regions (Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Valle d'Aosta, Sicilia and Sardegna) and two Provinces (Trento and Bolzano) enjoy a special autonomous status and are granted greater autonomy in various areas, including education and vocational training. Significant changes to the institutional framework were introduced between 1997 and 2001, to mention the Law 59/1997 called “Bassanini” and the Legislative Decree 112/1998 on administrative decentralization; the reform of Heading V (Titolo V) of the Constitution introduced with constitutional Law 3/2001 concerning the role and function of Regions, Provinces and Municipalities. The constitutional reform, in accordance with the principle of subsidiary, was aimed at promoting a wider participations of institutions and citizens to the definition of public policies. The Law 3/2001 has attributed greater autonomy to local authorities and has changed how legislative function is divided up between the State and the Regions. As a result, the Regions have legislative power not only in matters of their “exclusive” jurisdiction, but also in those of the legislation concurrent with the State. Moreover the regional authorities have "exclusive" legislative jurisdiction over vocational training and education, save for relationships with the European Union, and "joint" legislative jurisdiction over general education, save for the determination of the fundamental principles, reserved to the State. The Provincial Authorities and Municipal Authorities undertake measures for adult education and guidance, also in the context of the management of the Employment Services. Likewise social inclusion measures are responsibility of the Municipal Authorities. Labour market and economy Whereas in the last four years the Italian economy has recorded an average rate of development barely equal to 0.4 per cent per year, in the 2006 there was a moderate growth of GDP (1,9 per cent), that attained 2,3 per cent in 2007. Still the Italian economic performance, affected by structural problems, is below the European average. The overall employment rate is one of the lowest (58,6 per cent) in Europe (it is equal to 63,8 per cent for EU25), and much lower for women (46,3 per cent). The employment rate also varies significantly according to geographical areas: much higher in the North of Italy (66,2 per cent) than in the South (46,6 per cent)15. There are high levels of exclusion of young people, women and old people from the labour market. Italy is historically characterised by a structural gap between the Northern / Central regions and the Southern ones (plus islands). Infrastructural weaknesses undermine the production system in the South that is more agricultural, covering the 15 per cent of Italy’s industrial capacity. Another distinctive feature of Italian economic system is the large share of “underground” economy that is estimated around 12 per cent of the work age population (little less than 3 million people). The number of irregular workers accounts for as much as half of the 15

See Istat, Italia in cifre, 2007.

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total employment in some branches of activity in the Southern regions. The overall rate of unemployment recorded 6,5 per cent in 2006. It was almost the double (equal to 12.2 per cent) in the South, to be compared to the North (3.8 per cent) and the Centre (6,1 per cent). On the contrary North-East Italy is approaching the full employment. The Italian labour market is highly fragmented. One Italian out of three is a self-employed worker through individual and small companies. Italy’s main economic strength has been traditionally based on small and medium size companies (SMEs). Some of these companies are currently facing increasing competition from Asian economies, especially from China. Comparing to the European enterprises, Italian ones are smaller, family-owned and specialized in low added value sectors (traditional manufacture and tertiary). One third of SMEs shows a low productivity rate and a lack of innovation and research. Italy is still weak in the high-tech and high-intensity knowledge sectors, characterised by higher levels of productivity and less susceptible to face the new challenges of the global market. The Italian system of enterprises supports a significantly lower labour cost (per worker) compared to the other European economies. Lower salaries have been facilitating companies to maintain a profitability and a competitiveness that is comparable to the European one. Nevertheless there is a number of enterprises, mainly concentrated in the productive districts (especially in the Northeast and Centre) that are present on the international markets, being specialised in the more innovative sectors of light manufacture, with higher levels of competitiveness and profitability. The reform of the labour market, so-called 'Biagi reform' (Law 30/2003 and the Legislative Decrees 276/2003, 251/2004 and 248/2005) was meant to make the Italian labour market more flexible, enhancing the economic growth through the creation of new jobs and reducing irregular work. It contained many measures, mainly relating to job placement services and forms of employment relationship – such as staff leasing, on-call work, project work and work/training contracts – and the involvement of the social partners in management of the labour market. Apprenticeships and the integration contracts for young people aged 18 to 29 and disadvantaged workers are other aspects addressed by the reform. The reform was strongly criticized for its remarkable increase of forms of “precarious” contracts and the newly elected - April 2006 - centre-left wing government had the explicit mandate to amend it: the debate on the reform is still open. On the other hand, the reform of the labour market still lacks of an overall reform of “social shock absorbers” to protect workers by job losses, contract interruptions and enterprise restructuring with forms of concrete supports (except for provisional Law 80/2005 that revised the regulation of the unemployment benefits). The Italian Education System In the last ten years the Italian education system has been going through a period of continuous reforms. Therefore, new and old rules have been overlapping and sometimes contradicting each other. These reforms went essentially towards the autonomy of the education institutions, the reorganisation of the school cycles and the introduction of new – and European inspired - education tools such as the tutor and the portfolio of competences. These reforms were little welcomed by the majority of teachers. A general reconsideration of the last and controversial “Moratti reform” (Law 53/2003 and the Legislative Decrees 76/05 and 77/05) is now under way. The reform introduced the right and duty to complete educational and vocational training for at least 12 years16, eliminating the previous distinction between the compulsory school until the age of 15 years17 and the obligation to engage in training activities until the age of 18 years18. In accordance with the new law 296/2006, since the 1st of September 2007, a new regulation has reintroduced the obligation to remain in compulsory school until the age of 16. The fulfilment of such obligation is to 16

This right and duty can also be satisfied by obtaining a vocational qualification. The schooling obligation set out in Law 9/99. 18 The training obligation set up in Law 144/99. 17

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get an upper secondary school diploma or at least a three year professional qualification. Moreover new guidelines reforming the first school cycle and vocational schools, together with the suspension of the reform of the second cycle has been recently undertook. The Italian education system is divided into six levels (pre-school education, primary, lower secondary, upper secondary, post- secondary – non-university - and university). Education pathways are differentiated on entry into upper secondary education: upper secondary schools with a prominence on humanities, sciences or art, (licei); technical schools (istituti tecnici) and vocational schools (istituti professionali), three years + 2. The reform of the university system (Law 127/1997 and Ministerial Decree 509/1999) provides for academic courses to be organised in two cycles according the “3+2” formula. The reform has brought the Italian university system closer with EU countries’ ones; its main goal being to reduce the drop-out rate and to accelerate graduation and an earlier labour - market entry. Notwithstanding Italy’s long-term commitment to the process of qualification of its population and workforce, the average level of educational attainment is lower than in the other industrial countries and remains a significant gap to the best performing countries in terms of quantity, quality and equity19. According to the last Italian Census (2001), 25,4 per cent of the Italians had at most a primary-school certificate. Who got an upper secondary certificate accounted for 30.1 per cent of the total, while only 7.1 per cent achieved a university qualification (in 1991 Census the last percentage was 4,2 per cent), still far below the OECD average. Nevertheless there was a significant progress in female education: while 45-to-54-yearold women have been educated slightly one year less than men, the situation has now reversed and 25-to-34-year-old women are educated slightly half a year more than men. In addition improvement has been recorded in dealing with early school leavers, young people aged 18-24 who dropped out of school with low levels of education. In Italy social background plays an important role in students’ school success and young people access to the labour market. In the case of young adults with low levels of education, the transition from school to work is even more difficult. Anyway, the attainment of the lower secondary certificate and the transition to the upper secondary school remains a consolidated asset of the Italian education system: while in the early nineties the rate of school leaving certificate was around 51,4 per cent, in the last two- year period 2004 -2006 it increased till 76,6 per cent (still below the Lisbon objectives of 85 per cent of 22 year old young people obtaining an upper secondary diploma). The total public expenditure of the Italian education system is around 4,66 per cent of GDP, lower than the European average that is 6 per cent. The large share of it (78,3 per cent) is allocated for schools, the remaining part is for universities (16,8 per cent) and a small part to regional training systems (4,9 per cent). The Italian Vocation Training System and the continuing vocational training Since the 1990s the Italian vocational training system underwent a strong reorganisation process that is consistent with a significant decentralisation of the VET system, according to the 2001 Constitutional reform concerning the new role and function of Regions, Provinces and Municipalities. In Italy there are 20 regional training systems fitting the needs of local labour markets, enterprises and workers. The challenge is to push towards integration and guarantee a good governance of the whole system that lacks of a repertory of professions and qualifications, common minimum standards and the certification and recognition of training credits. While the Law 845/1978 on Vocational Training recognised the training as a strategic tool for young people, workers and enterprises, Law 236/1993 took the first step to set up and struc-

19

See OECD Education at glance, 2006 (www.oecd.org).

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ture a national continuing training system, in order to modernize the entire vocational education and training system. In addition, Law 196/97 launched the experimentation of sectoral and local in-company training plans, managed by the Social Partners, supervised by the Ministry of Labour, and agreed upon with the workers' and employers' associations. New legislation was introduced in the period 2000-2003 to set up an integrated and coherent policy system for continuing training, focusing on the Lisbon goals with regard to lifelong learning and the European Employment Strategy. In this context the Joint Multi-sectoral Funds for Continuous Training20, established under Law 388/2000 (amended by the Art. 48 of Law 289/2002) have contributed to the financing of continuing training, by enlarging the range of the available measures to finance actions of teacher training, in-company training plans and individual training plans. With the approval of the last education and training reform (Law 53/2003), initial vocational training acquired a different role in the Italian education and training system, completing the process begun with Law 144/1999, which introduced the new strand of Higher Technical Education and Training (IFTS) and the institution of compulsory training i.e. the compulsory requirement to remain within one of the three strands of the education system (education, vocational training, apprenticeship) until the age of 18. Training for adults can be lifelong education and training (to acquire general and preoccupational skills), provided by CTPs (Permanent Regional Centres for Adult Education) and continuing vocational training, finalised to vocational retraining and refresher training of adult workers. Major beneficiaries of the training supply are adult workers and apprentices. Most of the whole training supply (59 per cent) takes place in three regions (Piemonte, Friuli Venezia Giulia and Toscana), whereas southern regions are lately contracting their training activities21. Continuing training schemes for workers may be run by public and private enterprises, training agencies, bilateral bodies, professional associations and other institutions such as universities and employment centres. Even so the need to favour workers skills development and to offer adequate answers to their training needs is, by now, sufficiently taken into consideration, at least by a portion of the entrepreneurial world, mainly large enterprises. However, surveys carried out by ISFOL and by other national research institutes (ISTAT, Unioncamere), still register inconsistent and insufficient vocational training investment levels. At the end of the Nineties, Italy was at the bottom of European classifications on continuing vocational training and displayed a major delay in comparison with other EU countries: indeed, if hardly one quarter of private sector enterprises (23,9 per cent) supplied vocational training activities (against a European average of 62 per cent), only one fifth of the employees benefited from such activities (40 per cent in Europe)22. Large enterprises are the major training suppliers: as a matter of fact the level of training increases proportionally to the size of the enterprise and only large enterprises have a high tendency to provide training services. In Friuli Venezia Giulia (North East Italy) for example the opportunity to experience some training is likely to be the double than in Sicilia. Indeed SMEs consider expensive providing in-company training, and medium companies sometimes turn to external training. In this scenario, the sectors paying special attention to training benefits are ICT and telecommunication services; companies advanced services; credit, financial services and insurances; education and private training services; health and private health services, and clients orientated services. In addition, during the 2000-2006 period, the gap between micro and large enterprises increased, reaching 57 percentage points in 2006, with regard to the indicator that measures the incidence of enterprises supplying vocational training, varying from 16 per cent in micro-enterprises, to 74 per cent in large enterprises23. In-company training activities take up little more than a work week per year, in companies with less than 49 employees. The national average is around 5 days per year. One structural difficulty of in-company 20

Fondi Paritetici Interprofessionali per la Formazione Continua. See ISFOL Rapporto 2006, Giunti, Roma, 2006. 22 See ISFOL Rapporto 2004, Roma, 2004. 23 See Unioncamere – Ministero del Lavoro, Sistema Informativo Excelsior, 2007. 21

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training is due to the fact that enterprises draw up training plans as internal communication instruments not taking into account the real needs of the companies and their workers.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? In Italy there isn’t a strong tradition of continuing vocational training with formal education pathways, because the economic system, based on SMEs, ever needed high qualifications. Informal training used to be and is an important asset. Moreover large companies usually outsource training services to specialised external providers or to freelance trainers. Only a few have an internal educational department with full-time trainers (according to some estimations, approximately 1,000), in private sectors (above all banking and assurance, mechanic and chemical industry) and public sectors (above all in health services and public central administration). Public sectors and some private organizations invest in and perform training activities in order to guarantee services’ quality and clients’ satisfaction. Despite the wide spreading public speech on the importance of continuing vocational training, training is mostly considered a subsidiary activity and Italian entrepreneurs tend to regard it as a cost and not as a company’s investment. On the contrary, public health services have a specific compulsory continuing professional development system based on credit points. It’s possible to become a CVET trainer through the pathways provided by public bodies (such as Regions, Ministries) or a private institution (trainers associations, business schools). Academic degrees in adult learning and training are available from the universities (bachelor and master's degrees). The typical CVET trainer is middle aged with (at least) a bachelor degree. Actually there are two different career paths of trainers in Italy. The first one is informal and regards the training consultant’s pathway, capitalizing the experience of working for years within a company. The second path is the academic one (training degree, occupational psychology degree). In addition to the degree, they might attend a post lauream, with a special focus on organizational topics. In Italy there are a few masters and Training of Trainers’ courses, but not many would–be trainers attend them. Even in large organizations as well as multinationals, those who perform such a role often have never attended specific training courses.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? The work and the training of trainers are mainly financed by public funds within framework of national laws (Law 236/1993 and Law 53/2000), the European Social Fund (ESF) and Joint Multi-sectoral Funds for Continuing Training (industry-based training funds). Law 236/1993 established a fund for vocational training to finance in-company training actions, innovative and individual training pathways, training plans negotiated with Social Partners, training of trainers and system related actions to bolster the quality of continuing training provisions24. Since 2000, 678 million euros have been allocated. Law 53/2000 marked an important step by recognizing to workers the right to continuing training through the institution of a specific leave (not exceeding 11 working months, either 24 A good practice regarding “concerted” training is the Rubik Project. It has been promoted by SME Services Centre in Reggio Emilia, managed in association with other institutions and supported by National Trade Unions and by CONFAPI (Small and Medium Enterprises Italian Confederation) and launched in the context of Law 236/93. Its aim is to create a flexible and tailor-made “training pathway”, to guarantee the consistency between corporate needs, workers’ needs and the modes of training delivery, in line with the specific features and organisational aspects of small and medium-sized enterprises. Over 100 SMEs, mainly in the mechanical engineering sector, several hundred workers, social partners, training agencies, experts in specialised know-how, consultants and trainers were involved. The project also included the proposal of a portfolio of skills to be validated for the individual participants and also training of trainers.

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continuous or distributed over the whole working life) to participate to training initiatives. Training can be an independent choice of the workers or provided by the employer / enterprises through training plans negotiated with Social Partners. The Ministry of Labour allocates yearly to regional and provincial authorities 15,4 million euro. Through Law 53/2000 two main actions have been financed: workers training projects that provide partial reductions of working hours, on the basis of contract agreement; training projects submitted by the workers themselves. The ESF represents more than 80 per cent of the resources that finance continuing training within the framework of Regional and National Operational Programmes. Actually during the ESF programming 2000-2006 approximately 2 million euro (71 per cent Ob.3, 29 per cent Ob.1) have been allocated for continuing training initiatives addressed to develop: a continuing training system, labour market flexibility and competitiveness of public and private enterprises giving priority to SMEs and Public Administration staff, skills and human potential in the ICT sector, training of trainers and equal opportunities for all in the labour market. The Joint Multi-sectoral Funds are the most relevant innovation concerning the CVET in the last decade in Italy. They enable the Social Partners (trade unions and entrepreneurs) to participate in the planning and management of a significant part of the resources allocated to CVET. The aim is to encourage wider dissemination of the training culture, especially with regards to smaller and medium-sized enterprises, and to contribute to steering funds towards initiatives expected to be more in line with the real company needs. The funds finance the continuing training system, through actions of training of trainers, in-company training plans and individual training plans. They are 12 (see table below) managed at national level and regulated by law and by collective agreements. The funds collect the 0.3 per cent of global wages amount (coming from the annual contribution of the salaries paid by the enterprises to the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Previdenza Sociale - National Social Security Institute - as a contribution for the compulsory insurance against involuntary unemployment). Joint Multi-sectoral Funds (year 2006)

Economical Sector

Fondo formazione PMI

Industry ( Fund for the continuing training in SMEs)

For.te

Fund for the continuing training of commerce – tourism services, lending-financial, insurance and logistic, dispatch, transportation Fund for the continuing training of tertiary, segment of tourismdistribution-services Fund for the continuing training of handcrafts –SMEs

Fon.ter Fondo

Artigianato

For-

mazione Fon. Coop

Fund for the continuing training of cooperatives

Fondirigenti

Industry (Fund for the continuing training of managers)

Fondir

Fund for the continuing training of managers who work in the tertiary, segments of commerce-tourism-services, lending-financial, insurance and logistic, dispatch, transportation. Fund for the continuing training of SMEs managers

Fondo Dirigenti PMI Fondo professioni Fond.E.R.

Fund for the continuing training of professional offices and associated companies Fund for the continuing training of religious organizations

Fon. Arcom

Fund for the continuing training of tertiary, handcrafts, SMEs

Fondimpresa

Fund for the continuing training of the associated companies of Confindustria

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Companies’ total expenditure for training was around 1 billion in 2006, including public funds such as Regional ones and Joint Multi-sectoral Funds. The trend of training expenditure is rather positive, especially for large enterprises.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? In Italy no official statistical data exist concerning trainers neither detailed information concerning gender, age, education distribution. According to some estimation, approximately 50,000 trainers are involved in adult learning activities. An Isfol survey25 shows that the population of trainers working for vocational training centres – public and private - is gradually ageing (average age 43), especially among male trainers, while the number of fixed-term and flexible contracts and female trainers is rising. Concerning the educational level the number of graduate trainers is increasing and more than 50 per cent of trainers have an upper secondary diploma. Most of the trainers work as freelance outside the companies that outsource training services. Only a small part of them work as full-time employees in SMEs or large companies. In most cases trainers work part-time, often hired by different training providers26, employment services, Social Partners’ vocational training centres, in a flexible way or as freelance. The shortage of in-company trainers is due to the fact that companies’ management does not consider sufficiently training as a strategic dimension to develop. Indeed in the culture of the Italian management a strong regulated training system is often considered more as a bond than a real opportunity. In the future large companies might come to an agreement with training schools for a gradual insertion of employees with training background. In that case the recognition of trainer’s role would be much easer for companies than for internal employees that need to be trained as trainers and to be contracted differently within the company. Some large enterprises have also exploited the experience of aged employees to train new young employees, transforming a risk of obsolescence into a resource. So far, these experiences have been financed through public funds. For the recruitment and selection of trainers each enterprise or training provider has its own prerequisites and / or management guidelines (in terms of technical expertise, qualification, years of experience in a subject or in a field, etc.). Recruitment takes place through informal channels such as a response to job-offers by enterprises, vocational training bodies, as former students, etc. On the contrary, formal recruitment procedures take place mainly in public VET centres (e.g. by public examination) or certificated private ones. The trainers are engaged in a large number of fields for updating and continuing training promoted by entrepreneurial organisations and trade unions directly or through the Joint Multi-sectoral bodies. CVET trainers and, in particular, in-company trainers have above all the workers as customers target, especially the more qualified (“white collars” and technicians). Public providers have less qualified adults as privileged target group.

5. How are trainers qualified? In Italy there is no formal recognition and qualification of the in-company trainer profile – and no specific national standards for trainers, but only general standards for employees of Certi25

ISFOL, I formatori della formazione professionale. Come (e perchè) cambia una professione, I libri del FSE, Roma, 2005. 26 Such as private and public vocational training agencies/centres, consultancy units providing in-service training, business schools, chambers of commerce and industry, non profit organisations.

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fied Training Providers by Regions. According to the National Decree 166/01, training providers should be “certified” in order to be granted public funds. The certification implies to meet some requirements such as: organization and logistical capacity, financial aspects, efficacy and efficiency, territorial relations and, last but not least, professional competences. Training providers can choose to work in different fields of intervention, mainly: compulsory education, continuing training and higher education and training. The Decree also states that the Ministry of Labour in accordance with the Regions should define minimum standards of trainers’ professional competences. In SMEs the only trainer’s profile formally recognised is the so-called tutor in enterprise for apprenticeship27. The tutor is generally the employer or a qualified employee with at least three years of professional experience. The tutor deals with the reception and insertion of young apprentices, planning and supporting learning process and in-service socialisation pathways, keeping the relations with the training centres, to maintain positive integration between formal training and on the job experience; the tutor does the follow up and assesses the results achieved by the apprentices. At the beginning of the course the tutor has to attend a compulsory training course organised by the Regions. The minimum duration of this course is 8 hours, up to 32 hours. Generally trainers can develop their competences by self training (studying, reading and researching), by non formal training (participating to workshop, conferences, to professional networks) and by formal training (training courses, distance learning, coaching). Continuing learning activities very often take place on voluntary / self-initiated basis. Much depends on trainers’ responsibility. Personal and professional self-empowerment is also important for trainers to persuade the management to invest more in the function. The Italian experts28 indicated as main topics of the continuing training for trainers: social competences (communication, counselling, leadership), management, planning and training activities organization, monitoring and evaluation of training activities, ICT. Only a few of them indicated budgeting and financial aspects, tutoring and guidance as topics. Formal continuing training is provided by some national providers, offering modular training (i.e. ENAIP29, IAL). The main association of trainers is Italian Association of Trainers30 that organizes 2,500 professional trainers. This association includes in-company trainers, adult learning trainers, human resources staff, and above all freelance trainers. It promotes adult learning quality, supports trainers development and professional national and international networks. Since 10 years AIF has developed a trainer competences certification process that is recognized by all clients participating to AIF training courses. To acquire such a certification, it is compulsory to attend technical and qualifying courses and to develop competences in a continuous way. The recognition/certification of trainers’ previous learning carried out by AIF is only for freelance trainers and it’s granted on the basis of: the quality of training courses; the number of training hours supplied; competences acquired through qualifying training. In-service training of trainers is more likely to be structured for trainers who work in private vocational training centres accredited by Regions and located in the Centre-North of Italy. According to the Italian experts a major professionalisation and qualification of trainers would be important for those who work with training. With regard to trainers continuing learning, it would be very useful a competences’ portfolio to be constantly updated. Trainers employed by largest organisations may profit (rarely) from specific continuing professional development programmes. 27 The profile of tutor for apprenticeship has been introduced by the Law 196/1997 in order to promote employment and qualify the learning on the job by apprentices. This law was reformed by the legislative decree 276/2003 so that the apprenticeship was completely renewed, by assigning the Italian Regions and Autonomous Provinces the exclusive competences on the matter. 28 The experts interviewed within the Eurotrainer research project, 2007. 29 Ente Nazionale Acli Istruzione Professionale. 30 Associazione Italiana Formatori (AIF).

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In Italy a national collective agreement in the sector of CVET training doesn’t exist. Only the teachers and trainers employed by public and private certified Vocational Training Centres / providers have a collective agreement established on the same basis of the rules applied to IVET teachers and trainers.

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? In Italy there is no recognition of the trainers’ role. As a matter of fact trainer’s status is rather weak except for companies attributing an important role to training. As external training providers or freelance, trainers are often considered business-oriented; in-company trainers are often work-motivated by their personal interest and the opportunity to broaden their experiences, in order to get more chances on the labour market. Generally they don’t enjoy employer–related incentives such as higher status, pay etc. The recognition of trainer’s status depends mainly on companies’ investments in training policies and the programs of the internal management. If training were really a strategic tool, the internal trainer would be crucial for enterprises and workers’ development processes. For that reason trainer’s status in SMEs depends on the trainer himself / herself, on his / her ability to be credible and behaving consistently within the organization. On the contrary, in large companies there is more acknowledgment of trainer’s status than in SMEs where the training investments are poor and the trainers are freelance or work for external training providers. According to the experts the motivational factors to assume the role of a trainer in an enterprise seem to be related especially to personal interest and to qualifying aspects (such as broadening the range of skills). Other motivational factors are linked above all to general career perspectives in the occupational domain.

7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? There are some innovative training experiences dedicated to the managers of the large companies who are involved in human resources management and need to develop training competences. They have been trained in order to develop training culture and skills. Other enterprises (especially the public ones but also banks and assurances) prefer to qualify a training referent employee on topics such as needs analysis, tutorship, evaluation of results and ICT learning tools (such as e-learning). Also some Italian Regions, big municipalities and medium and large companies (the bank sector) developed some interesting good practises concerning the preparation of a training referent who is in charge of the training activities. This profile should be able to identify the training needs of the company and workers, to support and monitor training processes when outsourced, in order to dialogue with training providers, and to take care of the evaluation of results. Among the innovative experiences it’s worth mentioning a national, online permanent training system. Since 2005 SPF online, promoted by the Ministry of Labour and carried out by ISFOL, has been set up as public and free continuous training project, based on new technologies (e-learning). Its main goal is to improve the competences of trainers who operate in the training / education / labour market system. SPF online combines traditional online courses with collaborative learning environments to promote the creation of professional communities31.

31

See www.xformare.it; www.europalavoro.xformare.it.

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A recent research32 carried out by the Ministry of Labour has been finalised to identify a competences evaluation model for the profile of the in-company training referent able to manage and develop the whole training process. The research has designed a specific profile of the in-company training referent with the following features: between 30 and 50 years old, employed (76 per cent) and consultant (16 per cent), with high education (80 per cent graduated, 20 per cent high school diploma), a rank job from 5 to 30 years, a lack of degree coherent to the role of training referent (graduation in Psychology, Educational Sciences) versus less specific degree (Political Sciences); more than 50 per cent of the interviewed is a training referent since less than 5 years and altogether 88 per cent since less than 10 years. The role of the trainer referent seems to be very complex and the competences most developed are related to training needs analysis and processes management. In some Italian regions SMEs trainers and tutors in enterprise for apprenticeship are developing community of practices in order to update their competences through ICT tools. Web facilitators provided by SMEs professional categories help them to keep the community animated. According to the current debate some issues are very likely to be risen in the next future: − the role of the tutor for apprenticeship should be more valorised dealing not only with apprentices but also with all new employees. The tutor should be also a kind of “referent” for the training processes and be enough qualified to identify the competences acquired by the apprentices; this could be the first step towards apprentices’ competences recognition and certification. − the recognition of trainer’s role in collective agreements would be also of great help to enhance the function of the in-company trainers, to avoid the risk to compel companies within a training model, they do not believe in. Also it would be important to plan training services with Social Partners (entrepreneurs and trade unions). In the large companies – where training services are outsourced – it would be necessary to invest in a profile enough skilled to deal and dialogue with training providers and assess the results of the training delivered. − it would be also useful to work with external training providers, to be sure that trainers fit some kind of standards, bolstering the creation of a national system of trainers competences recognition. − more investments in the training of trainers and the improvement of its quality and efficacy through a real training needs analysis.

Resources AA.VV. EuroRubik, Neos Edizioni, Rivoli, 2005 Barricelli D. e Pilotti L. Apprendimento, conoscenza e percorsi di formazione continua nelle microimprese, Osservatorio ISFOL, Anno XXIII n. 6, 2002 Frigo F., L´investimento in formazione continua come obiettivo strategico dell´azienda, Osservatorio ISFOL, Anno XIX n. 6, 1998 Frigo F., Analisi della principale normativa collegata al sistema di finanziamento della formazione continua in Italia, relazione, Roma, 2001

32 The research analyses 200 training company models among the main Italian enterprises and has defined a theoretical and ideal model of training company, focusing on training evaluation systems as well as on company training referent’s skills.

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January 2008 ISFOL, Modelli e metodologie per la formazione continua nelle azioni di sistema. I progetti degli Avvisi 6 e 9 del 2001 del Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali, (Frigo F., Leuci F. e Coronas G., a cura di), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Roma, 2006 ISFOL, La formazione continua nelle piccole e medie imprese del Veneto. Atteggiamenti, comportamenti, ruolo del territorio, (Frigo F. e Angotti R., a cura di), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Roma, 2005 ISFOL, La formazione continua nella contrattazione collettiva, (Frigo F. e Vaccaro S., a cura di), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Roma, 2004 ISFOL, Formazione continua e grandi imprese, (Frigo F. e Lindo V. W., a cura di), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Roma, 2004 ISFOL, Formazione aziendale e azioni di sistema nell’esperienza della legge 236/93, (Frigo F. e Benincampi M., a cura di) Quaderni di Formazione, Franco Angeli, Milano, 2003 ISFOL, La formazione continua nella legge 236/93. L’esperienza della circolare n.174/96, (Frigo F. a cura di), Quaderni di Formazione, Franco Angeli, Milano, 2001 ISFOL, Economia e costi della formazione aziendale, (Frigo F. e Lindo V. W., a cura di) Strumenti e Ricerche, Franco Angeli, Milano, 2001 ISFOL, Le buone pratiche della formazione continua, (Frigo F. a cura di), Roma, 2000 ISFOL, La Formazione Continua nell'esperienza italiana: schemi interpretativi e classificatori, (Frigo F., a cura di ), report,, Roma, 2001 ISFOL I formatori della formazione professionale. Come (e perché) cambia una professione, (Gaudio F. e Montedoro C., a cura di ), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Roma, 2005 ISFOL, Insegnare agli adulti: una professione in formazione, (Montedoro C. e Governatori G., a cura di), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Roma, 2006 ISFOL, XFormare.it Sistema Permanente di Formazione On Line. Catalogo dei percorsi di formazione continua per gli operatori del Sistema Formativo Integrato. Verso un quadro europeo delle qualificazioni, (Montedoro, C. e Arleo, F., a cura di), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Catanzaro, 2007 ISFOL, Il glossario e-learning per gli operatori del Sistema Formativo Integrato. Uno strumento per l’apprendimento in rete, (Montedoro C. e Infante, V., a cura di), I Libri del Fondo Sociale Europeo, Catanzaro, 2007 ISFOL Rapporto 2004, Editrice La Scuola, Brescia, 2004 ISFOL Rapporto 2006, Giunti, Roma, 2006 ISTAT, Italia in cifre, 2007 ISTAT, Rapporto annuale sulla situazione del Paese 2006, 2006 Ministero del Lavoro e Previdenza Sociale, Rapporto al Parlamento sulla Formazione Continua 2006, FOP-Formazione Orientamento Professionale, anno 7, n.2-3 marzo giugno 2007 Ocse, Education at a glance, Oecd, Parigi, 2001 Piccardo C, Benozzo A., Tutor all'opera: ruolo, competenze e percorsi formativi, Guerini e Associati, Milano, 2002 Unioncamere e Ministero del Lavoro, RAPPORTO EXCELSIOR 2007, 2007 www.isfol.it www.europalavoro.it www.oecd.org www.eformazionecontinua.it www.istat.it www.aif.org www.xformare.it www.europalavoro.xformare.it 195


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Country Report LATVIA Olesja Bykova & Krista Loogma Institute of Education Research, Tallinn University, Estonia 1. Background and Country Context There is a school based VET system in the Baltic countries. After the collapse of the Soviet system and transformation to the market economy the system of practical training in enterprises was ruined. It has taken years to establish new networks of practical training for VET students and apprentices in enterprises. For the moment a new action plan that concerns better co-operation between schools and enterprises and recognition of the informal education is under discussion. On the basis of the EUROTRAINER survey (only 6 answers) it remained unclear whether the area of in-company training is totally unregulated and there are no formal qualification certificates for the trainers. It seems that regulations concern only in-company training centers established by large enterprises. The interviewed representative of the Ministry of Education and Science said: “The colleges created by big companies should be registered according to the laws. The status of the companies that take school apprentices for practice is also defined. For instance, teachers from in-company colleges have the same obligations as teachers from the VET schools: improve their qualification during three years“. The Law on Vocational Education also states that starting from September, 2004, only persons with pedagogical education will have the right to teach at VET schools. In the same competences of incompany trainers who do not work at the colleges are not regulated. As there is a lack of laws, standards and state support in this area, everything depends on the enterprises' will and activity and there are big differences how trainers/supervisors in companies work and what kind of competences they have. There is also no official statistics or quantitative data on trainers working in enterprises available. The separate investigation is needed for big enterprises that establish their own training centers and solve a great amount of educational problems by themselves. For instance, KNAUFE – construction and building, Latvenergo, Latvtelekom have their own colleges and invite teachers from the schools and experts from other enterprises to give lectures there. These colleges give certificates. If they wish they apply for the state licensing and their graduates get national certificates. The last one is is not obligatory. Colleges do it if they wish to get some financial support from the state. For instance when the unemployment office is looking for trainers for its clients.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? The trainers are usually full-time employees in the enterprises and hold the job position as a trainer or teach apprentices as an additional job. Becoming a trainer in most cases is not restricted for people not having qualification certificate of adult educator. However, they should have subject-specific/ technical skills and a combination of pedagogical and social competences. Most often trainers follow the company-specific standards and closely cooperate with the management. Thus as in other Baltic countries, the self-initiative of enterprises plays a crucial role in cintinious and in-company training. If the in-company trainers teach pupils from VET schools they also follow the recommendations of vocational education. It worth mentioning that compared to Lithuania, trainer activities have a small positive impact on the salary, but propose better career possibilities and help to avoid working routines. On the state level there are no concrete measures in order to regulate and to improve 197


the quality of in-company training. As it was mentioned before, only status of trainers from incompany colleges is regulated in a case that a company wants to get state recognition. The training of trainers is not systematically embedded into the formal education. Some VET schools have tight cooperation with enterprise trainers and are arranging training courses for the trainers in enterprises. Usually trainers are learning in the process of work and on seminars organised by equipment producers.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? The training of trainers rests on the shoulders of the companies. Firstly, employers should pay extra salaries to in-company trainers, in addition their equipment is at a risk and the pupils spend their materials. Secondly, nobody is confident if it is a write way of treating new employees by teaching them: you never know if he/she stays with you during next three years or goes to the competitor because of extra 100 EUR. Thirdly, according to the opinion of the interviewed empoyers' representative, there is no proper attention to these problems at the policy level. He brought an example: “An Unemployment Agency had a project with unemployed people having practice within companies. It was a crucial question: who will manage the practice and who will pay for this? The state proposed only 3 Lts per hour (~4,2 EUR) to compensate”. How much money is invested in the training of trainers (percentage/GDP(gross domestic product)? No data available. Who benefits from the work of trainers (average income of trainers, cost-benefit analyses per enterprise/sector/region/nation)? No data available. Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? For the moment lack of labour is one of the most serious obstacles in a way to higher economic growth as a lot of young people left Latvia after its entering the EU. Thus the question of qualified skilled workers is a very important one and needs systematic approach and attention from the state side.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/part-time; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? It is extremely hard even to estimate the number of trainers in enterprises as the field is not regulated and no statistics is available. One interviewed said: “It is quite possible that there is even a sufficient number of the trainers in Latvia, but for the moment nobody knows how important they are and how many of them we need. There is no common system that would be responsible for their training, level of knowledge and payment. For the moment it is just a cooperation between personal department and a concrete employee. In Norway, for instance, each branch creates its own training centre. They have a dual system of VET education their, that is why the role of companies is so important. I find that it is much more advantageous for the economy”. To become a trainer in most cases is not restricted for people not having qualification certificate of adult educator. Though they should have subject-specific/ technical skills and a com198

January 2008

bination of pedagogical and social competences. Trainers follow the company-specific training guidelines. If the in-company trainers teach pupils from VET schools they also follow the recommendations of vocational education. Some companies also hire VET teachers to be in-company trainers. There are no extra recruitment. As it was mentioned above a person should have some interest and technical skills to start teaching within a company. In which main occupational areas trainers have specialised? No data available.

5. How are trainers qualified? Usually there are no official qualification standards for trainers in enterprises. Everything depends on a person: if he/she is interested in the field, they can self-initiate some continuing learning and update their skills. But if it is a trainer of an official in-company college, he/she works under the same rules as the teachers from VET schools. For them it is also improtant to have a formal qualification/certificate. For more information on VET teahers' standards (http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/cinfo/cinfo12004/c14zden.html):

please

see

The institutions incorporated in the training are: universities, VET centers, Chamber of Commerce, professional unions, employer orgranisations, large enterprises.

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? Though it is not possible to make a general conclusion, both interviewed persons were very positive concerning status of in-company trainers. Interviewee 1: ... They actually represent their company and it should a have a significant positive impact on their status. Interviewee 2: It is prestigious. I even know people that left the Ministry of Education to do this job in enterprises where salaries are better. Which is the unemployment rate of trainers? No data available. It should be mentioned that in a situation of a labour shortage unemployment is not an issue in the Baltic States.

7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? Is there research about the work and training of trainers and what does it suggest? According to TTNet representatives (http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/projects_networks/ero/ pb_view.asp?theID=469) VET research institutions in Latvia did not exist before 1990, during 90-ties and are quite marginal today. It was fragmented and had low impact to VET policy. Regular research on VET/HRD in Latvia started in 1996 and was initiated by ETF. The main 199


research activities concentrated on issues that are relevant to priorities set by VET development program and EU strategic documents. Since 2003 the number of VET/HRD research activities decreased due to limited funding, because till 2003 the VET research activities were significantly supported by ETF. The development of VET system in Latvia is stated in the Concept on Education Development 2002-2005 and Vocational education development programme 2003-2005. In 2004 VET research was oriented to VET teachers quality development and progress in VET development in line with economical changes in country. In 2004 Latvia received ESF funding for labour market research, the implementation of the projects have started in 2005. The main funding for VET related research in the next years is starting to come from ESF. The ESF projects’ activities are based on priorities stated in Single Programming that deals with analysis of labour market situation and obstacles for entering it. Since 2005 the labour market research is started and is partly finalized. Which are weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers? Where is a need for reform? The biggest issue is that for the moment every company works independently as far much as possible, because state financial support for in-companies training is insufficient. As a result the information about training centres, programs and staff is not transparent and the centres is issuing only local certificates and not obliged to go through accreditation process. What should be improved: – –

Social dialogue at regional and sectoral level. Financial and informative support from government.

Are there any ‘good practice examples’ at company or sectoral level? Latvenergo (energy company), railway company – their have their own colleges, Grindex (drugs) – they work in very close co-operation with schools, support them financially and through practice.

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Country Report LITHUANIA Olesja Bykova & Krista Loogma Institute of Education Research, Tallinn University, Estonia 1. Background and country context There is a school based VET system in the Baltic countries. After the collapse of the Soviet system and transformation to the market economy the system of practical training in enterprises collapsed. It has taken years to establish new networks of practical training for VET students and apprentices in enterprises. A representative of the Lithuanian Methodological Center for VET schools said that when in the 1990-tes the reformation of VET education was taken place the in-company trainers topic was not relevant as nobody including politicians did not understand its importance. As a consequence Lithuanian pupils spend 15 weeks on practice during their studies. It should be also mentioned about other consequences of VET reform in Lithuania (http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/cinfo/cinfo12004/c14z6en.html). In the 1990s putting in place a VET system to meet labour market needs was constrained by the specific situation in the country. The economy has been undergoing a radical restructuring from centralised planning to a free market and schools have needed to promote vocational education and training, traditionally of low prestige. As a result, links between vocational education and training and the economy were rather formal: it became difficult to ensure the same standard of qualification for graduates from different VET schools. Therefore, it was decided to separate education and training from the final qualification assessment. This function was delegated to the Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Crafts. The experiment began in 1998; in 2003 the final assessment of qualifications in initial education and training was organised by the chamber for the whole country. The first steps in transferring responsibility for the final assessment of qualifications for labour market training to the Chamber have also been taken. The method of final assessment commits schools to maintaining more strictly the qualification requirements set by the state and to paying more attention to meeting labour market needs. The participation of all the interested parties - employers, employees and school representatives - in the assessment stimulates further social dialogue. In 2003 one more quite radical reform began: Lithuania started decentralising responsibility for vocational school (http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/cinfo/cinfo22005/ c25f3en.html). As a result the shareholders in some schools became privately-owned enterprises. For instance, Vilnius Builder Training Centre partly belongs to a construction enterprise. Until recently companies considered providing support to a state-financed school as a form of charity; but with the company now owning shares, the material and intangible assets of the institution become part of the assets of the company. In participating in the administration of a public institution, the enterprise is in fact investing in training its own workers. In turn, this allows the VET institution to use the company's equipment and specialist knowledge. Such a relationship between an enterprise and a vocational school is highly relevant to builder training in Lithuania. Construction companies are modernising their equipment and technologies while vocational schools lack state-of-the-art equipment in their classrooms and workshops. Still currently practical training is under development process as Lithuania is suffering from the labour shortage and a great amount of sub-contracting works that do not leave human and time resources for apprentice-learning. Though with the support of EU funds the Camber of Commerce initiated a project for in-company trainers that consists of a special pedagogical 201


module. There were 3000 candidates for this program and after conversations and tests 1000 instructors was chosen for further participation. In a year the training will be finished and pupils from the VET centers will do to this instructors for practice. The similar project is already done in Estonia. As the field of practical training is very weakly regulated and there are no national standards regulating requirements for the competences of the trainers, it depends on the policy of different companies, there are big differences how trainers/supervisors in enterprises work and what kind of competences they have. As the field is not regulated there is also no official statistics or quantitative data on trainers working in enterprises available. The separate investigation is needed for big enterprises that establish their own training centers and solve a great amount of educational problems by themselves. For instance such training centers exist in the Ahema factory that produces fertilizers, and Lithuanian oilrefining company.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? The trainers are usually full-time employees in the enterprises and teach apprentices as an additional job. They are not formally recruited and it is hard to estimate time they spend on the pupils. To become a trainer in most cases is not restricted for people not having qualification certificate of adult educator. Though they should have subject-specific/technical skills and a combination of pedagogical and social competences. Trainers follow the companyspecific training guidelines or guidelines provided by the management. If the in-company trainers teach pupils from VET schools they also follow the recommendations of vocational education. In-company trainer activities have a positive impact on the salary and propose better career possibilities. On the state level there are no concrete measures in order to regulate and to improve the quality of in-company training. The training of trainers is not systematically embedded into the formal education. Some VET schools have tight cooperation with enterprise trainers and are arranging training courses for the trainers in enterprises. There are also big differences between SMEs and big enterprises. Often the big enterprises have their own training centres with internally established standards and/or rules for trainers, having better or worse contacts with schools / education system. As it was mentioned before the Camber of Commerce initiated a programme for in-company trainers that consists of a special pedagogical module.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? The training of trainers rests on the shoulders of the companies. Though some European money is available within the new project mentioned before. Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? For the moment lack of labour is one of the most serious obstacles in a way to higher economic growth as a lot of young people left Lithuania after its entering the EU. Thus the question of qualified skillful workers is a very important one and needs systematic approach and attention of the state.

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4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/part-time; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? It is extremely hard even to estimate the number of trainers in enterprises as the field is not regulated and no statistics is available. Part of trainers work as trainers “not officially” recognised as trainers. To become a trainer in most cases is not restricted for people not having qualification certificate of adult educator. Though they should have subject-specific/ technical skills and a combination of pedagogical and social competences. Trainers follow the company-specific training guidelines or guidelines provided by the management. If the in-company trainers teach pupils from VET schools they also follow the recommendations of vocational education. Some companies also hire VET teachers to be in-company trainers. There are no extra recruitment. As it was mentioned above a person should have some interest and technical skills to start teaching within a company. In which main occupational areas trainers have specialised? No data available. Though it is possible to assume that oil-refining companies have narrowly specialised trainers.

5. How are trainers qualified? There are no official qualification standards for trainers in enterprises. Everything depends on a person: if he/she is interested in the field, they can self-initiate some continuing learning and update their skills. The institutions incorporated in the training are: VET centers, Chamber of Commerce, professional unions, employer orgranisations.

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? It is hard to estimate as importance of in-company trainers became recognized only a couple of years ago. According to the interviewed opinion, the following years will indicate real recognition and high attention to this topic. Which is the unemployment rate of trainers? No data available. It should be mentioned that in a situation of a labour shortage unemployment is not an issue in the Baltic States.

7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? How is the quality and efficiency of trainers‘ training assessed? It is hard to say, as it is assessed on the irregular basis.

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Is there research about the work and training of trainers and what does it suggest? Dienys Vincentas, Beleckiene Giedre and Vaitkute Lina (http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/projects_networks/ero/pb_view.asp?theID=451) VET research in Lithuania is not widely developed. Only a few institutions are undertaking research activities, and there is no nationally coordinated VET research program. Universities are mostly focusing their research on the quality of training (curriculum development, didactics, teacher training, etc.). Other institutions are more involved in topics related to the analysis of labour market needs and transition from school to work. A number of national VET system development projects were started in 2005 with the support from European Social Fund. They include research, development of methodologies, models and systems and are directly linked to national VET policies. Which are weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers? Where is a need for reform? The biggest weakness is absence of any legal regulations and recognition of importance, status and needs of in-company trainers. The following suggestions for reform were made: −

− −

it is a need for general guidelines developed for in-company trainers (including training process, roles and tasks and responsibilities) and common understanding (the state and employers) on the importance of training of trainers. thus it is needed to put the issue of trainers’ qualification on the agenda of the Ministry of Education and Science. to support and develop further the initiatives of the Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Crafts in the field of training of trainers.

Are there any ‘good practice examples’ at company or sectoral level? Big enterprises with their own training centres.

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Country Report MALTA Antoine Barbara TTNet Malta, Employment & Training Corporation, Malta 1. Overall Country Information General Malta is a small open economy with a strong manufacturing base for high value-added products, such as electronics and pharmaceuticals produced mainly in foreign-owned export oriented enterprises. The financial services sector is very active and increasing in importance due to the very high standards and regulations under the laws of Malta, tightly imposed by the regulator. The most important economic sector is, however, tourism. Distinctive features of the labor market in Malta are the limited number of large enterprises, and related to that is the dominance of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs), of which many are micro-enterprises, and a low overall employment rate (54.6 per cent in total), but in particular of women (33.1 per cent).SMEs and micro enterprises are of a largely local character with relatively few connections to international markets. The large majority of these enterprises are family-owned. As a consequence in this category, there are hardly any drivers for change to stimulate productivity increases through rationalization and efficiency in general. Secondly, the labour market is highly segmented, especially in terms of gender, with somewhat limited employment opportunities for women. The employment rate for women is well below the levels found in many other European countries. In Malta females represent only around 30/35 per cent of the gainfully occupied working force. However, as in many other EU countries, the number and proportions of females working on a part-time basis has been on a constant increase. Thirdly, the current enterprise structure also results in fewer continuing training opportunities for the employed labor force, as these tend to be provided mainly by larger firms. The limited scope of continuing training provision in enterprises combined with relatively low levels of educational attainment is a potential obstacle to advancing towards the European Employment Strategy. This relates in particular to the employability and adaptability pillars, but also to life long learning. Another important characteristic of the Maltese market is the legacy from British colonial times of a strong public sector. Although this is being monitored and controlled by the present administration, this sector remains the largest single employer and therefore, exercises a powerful influence on the labour market. One other distinctive feature of the Maltese labour market has been the relatively low level of unemployment over the past fifteen years. While other European countries have seen a significant increase, the rate of unemployed in Malta has remained stable at around 7 per cent per annum. Within this scenario there has been, until now, little or no institutionalized social partner involvement in vocational education and training, either as an input into the decision making process or through financial contributions. The result has been a set of training opportunities and forms of certification with no structure and no unified recognition.

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Education Education has traditionally been an important aspect of Maltese society. Social prestige has always been part of certain professions, for instance doctors, lawyers, accountants and bankers. Given the recent changes to the Maltese economy, in which the services sector has grown in relation to industry or agriculture, and as the demands of the knowledge economy increase, VET is becoming more important to individuals, enterprises and the wider society. The liberalisation of the Maltese economy and the impact of technology are accelerating these trends. The policy priorities in recent years have been to adapt to EU norms. In general there has been a significant investment into quality management, as seen for example in teacher training, quality charters, the adaptation of European qualifications standards and similar activities. The main investment in initial and continuing VET remains stateprovided. Decision-making and policy development tends to be driven by government, which is often an early adopter of VET and wider human resources and employment guidelines and standards. The government is often the avant-garde of adapting to new labour and educational requirements. The foundation of the Institute of Tourism Studies, the foundation of the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology, the ever steady expansion of the University of Malta, the empowerment of the Employment and Training Corporation to administer apprenticeship schemes with independent Trade Testing Boards, and the increase of a number of other training providers from the private and non-governmental sectors has resulted in a beneficial increase of training and educational opportunities.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? The formal training of trainers for employment in the public and private educational sectors falls under the Education Act XXIV of 1988 which requires a recognised University Degree. At secondary level a postgraduate diploma in further education is essential. Moreover, in conjunction with the Malta Union of Teachers (MUT) and the Faculty of Education of the University of Malta, the Malta Education Department has developed a range of training and qualifications opportunities which are now required for or available to professional management/administrative and teaching staff in the national school system. Some examples: − Training Needs Analysis plans for the Department of Education in the Ministry has resulted in the formulation of Individual Education Programmes (IEPs) for staff and teachers. A range of general and individual training programmes have been developed in response, on topics such as curriculum development, teaching and learning strategies, pedagogical competencies and others. − Training for administrative staff (heads and deputy heads of schools) has been implemented on a widespread basis on themes such as leadership, examinations and others. − Certificate and diploma courses for Inclusive Education have been launched, focussing on special learning needs for challenged or disadvantaged individuals. A number of opportunities and resources have also been made available for specialised institutions or post-secondary teachers. These include programmes launched within relevant institutions, such as the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technonoly, the Institute of Tourism Studies, the Employment and Training Corporation or the University of Malta, as well as exchange and EU-related projects, such as Socrates or Leonardo da Vinci.

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The situation in the private sector, however, is different. Given the absence of resources that are allocated on the same basis and availability as the public sector, and given the fact that no formal certification and recognition of vocational teachers and trainers presently exist, private sector teachers and trainers have had to rely on own resources or market reputation to enhance their knowledge and skills and find the necessary employment. From the available data at hand it is apparent that in most cases VET adult teachers and trainers within the private sector work part time, and on the basis of predetermined working agreements. Most of these trainers and instructors are specialists in their work but lack formal pedagogical and teacher/trainer certification. As far as distribution is concerned male trainers predominate in most sectors except for language training, health and general vocational education

3. How are trainers qualified? In the 1960s most of the teachers involved in the technical education field used to come from St Michael’s Teacher Training College of Education. They used to be competent and highly knowledgeable in the technical field since they were employed as supply teachers and trained in pedagogy at the college. In the 1970’s other teachers were employed in trade schools as Instructors. These people were highly competent in their respective trade and practical knowledge (most of them came from the Malta Drydocks or similar enterprises, where they had passed through a tough apprenticeship scheme under the British colonial authorities). At a later stage they were given a Pedagogy course for Instructor by the Faculty of Education at the University of Malta so as to be in line and competent with the professional status of a teacher. The first set of Vocational teachers that were ever appropriately trained to become Vocational Technical Teachers in the field of technical education was as recent as 1993. Todate, MCAST provides a BTEC Certification in FE teaching (stage 3 - Level 5) for all those fulltime lecturers who are employed with the organisation and do not yet possess pedagogical certification. The Education Act of 1988 regulated the formal training of teachers for employment in the public educational system. This demanded a recognised University Degree for employment at the primary level and an additional postgraduate diploma for teaching at Secondary and higher level. The University of Malta degree structure has traditionally been based on three cycles so that Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctoral programmes are available and recognised by most well-established European Universities. Subsequent amendments to the Education Act were introduced during the past three years so that the Act now covers all levels of education in Malta from ISCED 0 to ISCED 6. Furthermore, the National Commission for Higher Education was established in September 2006. In October 2005, Parliament approved the establishment of the Malta Qualifications Council, whose main objective is to steer the development of the “National Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning”. The Council will also establish and maintain a qualifications framework for the development, accreditation and award of professional and vocational qualifications, other than degrees, based on standards of knowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes to be acquired by students.

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4. How is the work and training of trainers financed? Working conditions of teachers in the national educational sector are good (favourable leave regulations and remuneration packages: starting salaries of Euro 13,380 compared to an average national salary of circa EUR 11,600). This has made teaching an attractive profession. At a national level, teachers as well as learning facilitators belong to a publicly recognised profession, with a strong trade union which also functions as a professional association. The knowledge and competence base of public teachers and learning facilitators has been codified in teacher training programmes. Vocational teacher and trainer training on the other hand does not belong to a “profession” as such. As yet there are no clearly defined entry routes, no career progression paths and no established set of standards or codes of conduct. Presently, three qualified Vocational Teacher Trainers are involved in the setting up, administration and delivery of the vocational teacher course catering for MCAST teachers who have no pedagogical certification. Experts in certain subjects are used as auxiliary staff to fulfil certain areas of the course. Hence trainers in the vocational field are being selected on the basis of teaching experience and their CPD in the field area of teaching. There are no statistical figures that reveal the amount spent on training of vocational trainers in general. Private enterprises make use of ETC facilities in the Training of Trainers and this is mostly subsidised. Training courses provided by private training agencies and institutions have mushroomed, with supply and demand stimulating each other. There is little information on the extent of this provision or its quality. Since most of the trainers in the large enterprises are technical personnel employed on full time basis with the same employer, they do not command separate remuneration for any inhouse training of staff members. Where training takes place after office hours the parties preagree to fixed hourly rates. A major aspect will be the extent to which the overall private sector will adapt to and invest in VET policies, while at the same time dealing with competitive pressures introduced by changing regulatory, technological and economic factors. The costs of full implementation of some policies, for instance the employment policy, depends to a fairly large extent on continued government spending and direct public support to enterprises and individuals.

5. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? Because vocational teachers and trainers do not belong to a “profession” their status is not officially recognised by the majority of private enterprises. On the other hand, the majority of trainers and instructors in private industry are specialists in their work with the majority lacking formal pedagogical and teacher/trainer certification. Once they have made a good name within their organization they may be chosen by their employer to follow a certificate course in “train the trainer”, usually held by the Employment and Training Corporation. These courses are heavily subsidized under the Business Promotion Act. On a national basis the reputation of trainers is considered by society as very good. This is the result of the reputation enjoyed by teachers who belong to the publicly recognised profession which is backed by a strong trade union.

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6. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? No official selection process of vocational trainers exists. In general most organisations would use trainers that have already made a name or are experienced in their particular field. With a shift towards competence-based vocational qualifications, the whole system of education and training in Malta is presently promoted by employer associations, most notably the Malta Chamber of Commerce and Enterprise, the Federation of Maltese Industries, the Building and Construction Council and the unions. With the increased industrialisation of Malta gaining a fast pace, the area of human resources has taken an important role. There are, as yet, no set criteria for trainer selection. Allocation of human resources in the public and private sector vary. An important development over the last ten years has been the awareness of training and development of human resources. It is, therefore, no wonder that the social partnership model in the formulation of VET and LLL policy comes across most strongly in the constitution of the governing boards of the Institute of Tourism Studies, MCAST, ETC and the Malta Professional and Vocational Qualifications Award Council. In all four cases, the boards are composed of educators and employers, but representation of unions is scarce. Of note is the allocation of more human resource to the training of staff within the public sector which has been ongoing for a good number of years. In the private sector the only exception has been the highly developed and well regulated banking, insurance and investments sectors. Training of trainers in the banking sector usually takes place within specialised United Kingdom training institutions and banking colleges. This is the result of over two centuries of close connections with the British banking system.

Recent Announcement VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM FOR MALTA’S NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK The recent announcement of the National Qualifications Framework is a welcome piece of news for all. It is an essential step in the educational reform programme laying the foundation of Malta’s National Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning. Malta’s proposed NQF lays the groundwork for a bridging exercise between vocational education and compulsory education on the one hand, and higher education on the other. Major reforms have been taking place in Malta in the Education and Training fields since the 1990s when a comprehensive review of the past national minimum curriculum led to the publication of the current NMC. Another important milestone was the setting up of the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology in 2001. This brought together a number of seperate institutions providing vocational education qualifications for secondary school leavers. In December 2005 the Malta Qualifications Council was set up to steer the development of a national qualifications framework and to oversee the training and certification leading to qualifications within the Framework. The NQF illustrates and empasises the various routes to learning. It aims at valuing all learning in formal, informal and non-formal contexts. Thus it provides clear pathways of learning experiences.

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The National Qualifications Framework − is based on the principle that levels of education and qualifications can be measured by what a person is capable of doing rather than by what an individual has been taught; − aims at being a common reference and translation device between various qualifications, qualifications systems – including sectorial qualifications frameworks - and levels; − aims at increasing transparency of qualifications, recognition of learning outcomes and building of mutual trust among all stakeholders; − adheres to the Bologna and Copenhagen processes and aims at attracting more individuals to learning experiences and to employablity; − has eight levels of qualifications and is compatible with the Framework of Qualifications of the European Higher Area (EHEA) or the Dublin descriptors. The National Qualifications Framework gives Malta the opportunity to have an autonomous and self-regulatory system of education and training at all levels and in all sectors (including officially recognised training of VET teachers and trainers). It places challenges so that Malta can build on its human resource capacity to create qualifications that are demand driven and directly related to Malta’s economic and social needs. It also places Malta on the map of obtaining further international recognition of its qualifications.

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Country Report NORWAY Martti Majuri & Kristiina Volmari HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Finland 1. Background and country context In Norway the national assembly (Stortinget) decides major political principles and goals, as well as budgets and legal frameworks for activities under each ministry. Education and training are considered a public responsibility. Equality in access to and quality of education regardless of social or geographical factors is a fundamental political principle. There are no school fees at any level, including higher education, in the public education system. Only a small fraction of pupils and students attend private schools. Norway has three administrative levels: it is divided into 19 counties and 431 municipalities. Local autonomy is a strong principle. The Ministry of Education and Research (Kunnskapsdepartementet) has overall responsibility for national policy development and administration of mainstream education and vocational training at all levels. Operational responsibilities for the development of curricula, delivery of training, examinations and quality control are mandated to other public bodies. The 431 municipalities (Kommuner) own and run the public primary and lower secondary schools, while the 19 counties (Fylker) are responsible for all aspects of public upper secondary general education and VET, including apprenticeship training and some post-secondary pre-tertiary VET. Municipalities and counties receive financial support from the central government. Adults have a statutory right to receive public primary and secondary education, and the responsibility for provision is similar to that for young people. Adults may also study at tertiary institutions on similar terms as those for young people. Many different education and training courses for adults are offered by adult education associations (Studieforbund), distant training organisations and public and private training centres, consultancy companies and sector organisations. Modes of delivery cover most approaches from traditional classes to open and distant learning and e-learning. Labour market training for unemployed people and language and vocational training for immigrants also constitute important parts of the Norwegian education and training system. The educational level of the Norwegian population aged 25-64 is above the European average. Only 12 per cent of the population have left the education system completing only compulsory education. Despite population sparsity with people having to travel a long way to attend education and training, 88 per cent of the population attended upper secondary and tertiary education. Recent statistics show that around 95 per cent of those who complete compulsory school enter upper secondary education (Statistics Norway,http://www.ssb.no/). Major reasons for high participation in non-compulsory education are found in objectives and measures under national education policies and because employment opportunities are few for those with low education. Initial vocational education and training VET is available at upper secondary level. The path to a specific vocational qualification might contain several levels, each of them being a complete, terminated, qualifying unit with a formal certificate. Initial vocational education and training (IVET) covers the first/lowest level of a specialising education and training path. IVET has two main access points:

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1st year of upper secondary school (11th to 13th grade) which includes both general and vocational studies (most upper secondary schools provide both); and 1st year of post-secondary education, including tertiary education, i.e. following the finalisation of 13 years of general education.

All young people leaving compulsory school have a statutory right to receive 3 years of upper secondary education or VET. Each county has a follow-up service (Oppfølgingstjeneste), which is responsible for contacting pupils who do not enter, or drop out of, upper secondary education and training, and make an effort to get them “back on track”. Since the 1980s, there has been an increasing awareness of the general importance of having a highly educated population and updating training in order to meet changing labour market needs. CVET provisions have been developed accordingly. More than 70 per cent of the population aged 16-74 participates in some form of learning activity. 54 per cent of the economically active population aged 22–66 participates in some form of education and training each year. Organised non-formal learning at the workplace and learning through daily work are considered the most important types of CVET by respondents. Continuing vocational education and training There is a tendency that those with higher education levels seek and attend more continuing vocational education and training (CVET), resulting in an increasing educational gap. Thus, the government and social partners have given high priority to the improvement of framework conditions - educational leave, financing - and access to adapted training opportunities for adults with weaker educational backgrounds. All adults have been given a statutory right to primary (from 2002) and secondary (from 2000) education and VET similar to the one provided to regular pupils and students. Municipalities and counties, respectively, are obliged to organise appropriate schooling, free of charge. All sorts of CVET and personally oriented courses are available through flexible modes of delivery, e.g. part-time and evening courses, and distance education including e-learning. Training is frequently used by the various public authorities in national employment, regional development and gender equality policies. This also applies to the work with integration of migrants and other minority groups. Since 1995, public universities and colleges are responsible for organising CVET for external clients in their own subject areas. The provision comprises both regular study programmes and tailor-made courses for individual clients. Training is embedded in several of public measures targeted at unemployed people and other vulnerable groups in the labour market. The measures vary according to fluctuations in the labour market and the number of people with specific needs of support. Vocational training and work practice are organised for people with various vocational disabilities by 100 labour market enterprises (Arbeidsmarkedsbedrifter). Ordinary labour market measures with training elements comprise rehabilitation training (Rehabilitering) and labour market training (Arbeidsmarkedsopplæring – AMO). CVET is also offered by adult education associations, distance education institutions and folk high schools. In addition informal training taking place at work. Almost half of all new trade and journeyman’s certificates are awarded to adult practice candidates (Praksiskandidater), who sit for examinations on the basis of skills developed through work participation. In general, CVET opportunities are available to all groups at all levels in all parts of the country. Existing CVET provisions are continuously assessed by the relevant public authorities, social partners and providers themselves. Training is frequently adjusted to identified needs and changes. 212

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2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? In upper secondary IVET in Norway the term 'trainer' primarily denotes staff involved in training of apprentices and trainees. In Norway, continuing formal vocational education and training are mostly supplied by VET teachers in schools and colleges as a supplementary service or through part-time work for adult or distance education associations. Non-formal and informal workplace training do not involve trained teachers or trainers. There has been no regulations regarding formal qualifications for individuals functioning as trainers or learning facilitators outside the regular training institutions. They may on a voluntary basis attend educational courses - either as pre-service or as in-service training. No specific benefits accrue from such training - but might be helpful for promotion. However, each company has to make a plan for the training. The local training boards recognise this plan. Also the apprenticeship contract is approved by local authorities. Every company has to make a plan how the students will achieve the goals of their studies in the company. There are also national tests, which are assessed together with representatives from working life. In the future the trainers have to get further education for training. This is included in the new legislation (April 2007). Instructors/trainers are mentioned in the new law: it should be ensured that the trainers should be trained for training to be better able to arrange apprenticeships. Before now there has not been any systematically arranged education for the trainers after the end of 1990s. Local counties will begin training trainers. The Ministry will give local authorities 3 750 00 000 Norwegian crowns to arrange the education of trainers and teachers. Local authorities have to make a plan to be granted the money. Local authorities can use different education offices in arranging the training of trainers. Many companies are members of those offices (Eurotrainer expert interview). Almost all persons becoming trainers and learning facilitators in the apprenticeship system are qualified and experienced skilled people or professionals. Rarely will they have any preservice training in instruction and tutoring. Most IVET trainers and learning facilitators are offered and participate in relevant courses after they have become trainers or tutors. VET trainers and facilitators involved in apprenticeship training comprise four groups: 1) VET personnel working in training establishments (apprenticeship enterprises); 2) Members of examination and appeals boards; 3) VET managers and officers (county VET office, apprenticeship training office, branch organisations, etc.); 4) Members of syllabus (competence platforms) committees. There is no formal system of guidance for pre-service training of IVET trainers and learning facilitators. Competent educational authorities initiate relevant training programmes and disseminate information to targeted groups. Some programmes are accessible on the Internet. The number of VET instructors (trainers) is a rough estimate based on the number of apprentices and the fact that there are about 11,000 apprenticeship establishments. Thus the estimate is around 15,400. Skilled persons giving advice and support to 'candidates of practice' are not included. The 'turn-over' is much higher among instructors than among VET teachers for various reasons such as change in work tasks and assignments, reorganisation of staff etc.

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There are no special training programmes for CVET teachers and trainers. CVET teachers and trainers are not identified as a separate category. Basic features of work, qualifications and training of VET personnel are depicted in the following table. National education authorities initiated and financed an extensive training programme of VET personnel as a measure for implementation and quality assurance of Reform 94. Almost 16,000 instructors and training supervisors participated in the extensive upgrading course programme offered in the second half of the 1990s. The training programmes were free of charge and extra expenses for travel and accommodation were covered by public funds. The training establishments had to give leave of absence and cover the salary of their participant employees. The trainers were not entitled to any salary increase after such training. The course offered to IVET trainers was organised in two modules: 1) Training curricula/syllabus, instruction and organisation of apprenticeship learning; 2) Legal and administrative aspects of the apprenticeship training system. Key topics in the programme included: (a) Legal requirements and provisions for apprenticeship training; (b) Development of apprenticeship companies as a learning arena; (c) Planning and facilitation of learning; (d) Instruction, guidance and communication; (e) Quality assurance; (f) Adapted training for special groups; (g) Assessment - of the apprenticeship training and the apprentice. The Ministry of Education together with social partners prepared Guidelines (rammeplan) for vocational training. Training establishments in manufacturing industry, chemical process industries and public health institutions have been evaluated (Olsen 1999). Great diversity was found in the quality of training. Primarily large enterprises had long term strategies for recruitment and competence development in which apprenticeship training played a well-defined role. In the smaller enterprises the recruitment of apprentices was first of all seen as necessary training and recruitment of future skilled employees for the enterprise itself - not for other companies. After the intensive national upgrading training programme was completed at the turn of the century the County Education Authorities have continued to offer these courses depending on the needs identified.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? The companies receive a grant of 88,000 NOK for two years for the last two years of apprenticeship training. Each company has to make a plan for the training and the local training boards recognise this plan. (Eurotrainer interview). The local education providers get funds for arranging the training of trainers (Totally 3 750 00 000 NOK). To be able to get the funding they have to draw up a plan for/ on how to arrange the training of trainers.

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4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? Reportedly, trainer assignments often entail a heavier workload because tutoring will be on top of ordinary work. Basically, to become a VET trainer is not considered as a career - but as an extra job a person is assigned to.

5. How are trainers qualified? Cf above point 2)

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? According to the expert interview many professional want to do the trainer’s work: many trades foresee that if they want to continue their trade, they must take students and the responsibility for apprenticeships

7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? The trainers have to make plans for the apprenticeships. The targets have to follow the national guidelines so that the students are able to pass the national tests. Otherwise the trainers are quite free to choose the methods they use. Of course it depends also on the sector and the company.

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Country Report POLAND Olga Strietska-Ilina 1. Background and country context The legislation does not provide a single overall classification of teaching and training occupations. There are various categories of practitioners in initial and continuing vocational education and training (IVET and CVET), depending on their place of work and on the level and the type of education or training provided. Teachers and academic teachers are distinguished in the legislation as separate categories. They work within the education system and provide both IVET and CVET (Cedefop 6). Trainers are not distinguished as an occupational category and thus the term is not defined in the legislation. As a general term, it may be taken to include various groups of practitioners who provide training outside the education system, as well as those who provide training within the education system, but do not qualify for the category of teachers or academic teachers and/or are not employed in teaching staff positions. Practical vocational training instructors, who are the only distinct category of trainers, work in both IVET and CVET. Other trainers work mainly in CVET, though they may also be involved in IVET on a limited basis (Cedefop 6). Within the broad category of trainers, only practical vocational training instructors have a clearly defined status in the 2002 Regulation of the Minister of National Education and Sport on practical vocational training, as amended, and the Act on the Education System of 1991, as amended. Practical vocational training instructors are employees, employers or persons running privately owned farms who provide practical vocational training as part of IVET or CVET (alternance IVET or practical training organised for pupils/learners in schools and schools for adults which do not have adequate facilities) at the workplace or in a farm. Thus, an instructor is a role or function in a work-based setting rather than a separate occupation. Instructors are sub-divided into two categories: – –

employees who provide training to learners and young workers as their primary activity weekly teaching load laid down for teachers in the relevant legislation; and employers, employees appointed by employers or persons running privately owned farms who do not provide training to learners or young workers as their primary activity or who provide such training for a smaller number of hours than laid down as the weekly load for teachers (Cedefop 6).

Though the legislation does not use specific terms for the two categories, they are further on referred to in brief as full-time and part-time practical vocational training instructors respectively. In practice, instructors may also provide practical training in schools, continuing education centres (centrum kształcenia ustawicznego, CKU) or practical training centres (centrum kształcenia praktycznego, CKP) which, for example, have a shortage of practical vocational training teachers (Cedefop 6). The legislation does not distinguish any other category of practitioners who provide training outside the education system or practitioners other than teachers who provide training within the education system. This is a very broad and diverse group of practitioners, representing various levels and types of qualifications and working in a wide variety of institutions and organisations, who may provide training as their primary or additional activity. Although there is no official general term for this group of trainers, they may be jointly referred to as trainers-

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specialists because they are qualified specialists in the area in which they provide training. Trainers-specialists work mainly in CVET (Cedefop 6). Trainers (Instruktorzy or Szkoleniowcy) Practical vocational training instructors (Instruktorzy praktycznej nauki zawodu)

Mainly: Employers (workplace) and privately owned farms; on a limited basis: VET schools for adults, continuing education centres (CKU) and practical training centres (CKP)

Trainers-specialists (Szkoleniowcy-specjaliœci) (NB. No official term is used in the legislation; the term “trainers-specialists” used only for ease of reference in this report)

Mainly: employers, employers’ and employees’ organisations, trade unions, employment services, government bodies, research institutions, churches and other religious organisations, commercial providers; on a limited basis: VET secondary and post-secondary schools for adults, continuing education centres (CKU), retraining and further training centres (ODiDZ), practical training centres (CKP), higher education institutions.

Source: (Cedefop 6).

2. Organisation: How is the work and training of trainers organised? 2.1 How is the training of trainers organised, how is it embedded in the general education system and in the further education system? (Source: Cedefop 6) Generally, the differences between VET teachers and trainers concern the extent to which the entry into their professions is regulated by law, the level of qualifications and/or pedagogical qualifications. Depending on the aspect considered, there are differences between teachers and trainers, as well as between the two categories of teachers (teachers and academic teachers) and between the two types of trainers (practical vocational training instructors and trainers-specialists). The legislation defines specific entry requirements for teachers and academic teachers, both providing IVET and CVET. Detailed entry requirements are also defined by law for practical vocational training instructors, working in IVET and CVET. The legislation applicable to trainers-specialists, providing mainly CVET, includes only general provisions concerning the qualifications required. Teachers and practical vocational training instructors must have a pedagogical qualification (pedagogical competence confirmed by a diploma or certificate awarded upon completion of theoretical and practical training) before entry into their profession. Only in exceptional cases may teachers obtain a pedagogical qualification during the first year of employment. No pedagogical qualification is required of academic teachers. Generally, there is no requirement for trainers-specialists to hold a pedagogical qualification. However, trainers-specialists in institutions and organisations providing VET which have been or apply to be accredited by the educational authorities should have experience in teaching/training in non-school settings. In addition to a pedagogical qualification, teachers must have a specific level of qualification, depending on the level and type of education or training provided. General subject teachers, except those teaching at ISCED 3C level, college teachers, teachers-pedagogues, teacherspsychologists, teachers-methodological advisers and teachers-consultants are required to have a Master’s degree (ISCED 5A). Theoretical vocational subject teachers, except at ISCED 3C level, must hold at least a Bachelor’s degree (ISCED 5A). The minimum qualification for general subject and theoretical vocational subject teachers at ISCED 3C level is a diploma of an initial teacher training institution (a currently existing teacher training college, ISCED 5B, or a previously existing teacher training institute, ISCED 3A or 4). The minimum qualification required of practical vocational training teachers is either a maturity certificate 218

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(ISCED 3A) together with a vocational title, combined however with work experience in a given occupation, or a certificate from a previously existing technical teacher training institute (ISCED 3A or 4), or the vocational title of Master Craftsman (awarded to those who have completed at least secondary education (ISCED 3), have relevant work experience in a given occupation and have passed an examination which validates knowledge and skills acquired while in employment). There are no general qualification requirements applicable to all academic teachers. Entry requirements in the legislation are laid down for specific positions of teaching staff and research and teaching staff to be held by academic teachers. They are defined in terms of the degree, academic degree or academic title required. In order to be employed in the positions for teaching staff, academic teachers must hold a Master’s degree or an equivalent degree, except in one optional position which requires a doctoral degree. A Master’s degree is also required for the lowest position for research and teaching staff, while academic teachers taking up higher positions must hold a doctoral or post-doctoral degree or the academic title of professor, as appropriate. The statutes of higher education institutions may specify additional requirements for academic teachers. In addition to a pedagogical qualification, there are specific entry requirements for practical vocational training instructors. Regardless of the differences in detailed requirements for fulltime and part-time instructors, the minimum level of formal qualifications for both subcategories is either a maturity certificate and a vocational title from an ISCED 3A school, combined with work experience in a given occupation, or the above-mentioned vocational title of Master Craftsman. Full-time instructors should have the same qualifications as practical vocational training teachers; those who do not hold a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree must have relevant work experience in a given occupation. Part-time instructors are in all cases required to have work experience in a given occupation either in combination with a qualification obtained in formal education or as a prerequisite for taking a Master Craftsman examination. The legislation applicable to trainers-specialists providing IVET and/or CVET stipulates only that they should have occupational qualifications appropriate to the type of training provided. Since trainers-specialists are not recognised as a distinct occupational category, no information is specifically collected about their qualifications or work experience. 2.2 Which ways do exist to become a trainer and to further develop as a trainer? (Source: Cedefop 6) The legislation applicable to trainers working in CVET provides only that trainers should have occupational qualifications appropriate to the type of training provided. Specific requirements are defined by individual institutions and organisations employing trainers, depending on the level and type of education or training provided. The legislation includes only more specific provisions concerning trainers in institutions and organisations (except schools for adults) which apply to be, or have been, accredited by the educational authorities. Trainers working for such providers should have competence necessary for training in non-school settings in addition to their occupational qualifications. However, accreditation by the educational authorities is voluntary. Practical vocational training instructors are employees, employers or persons running privately owned farms who provide practical training as their primary or additional activity at the workplace or in a farm. Both full-time and part-time instructors are required to have at least a secondary school certificate as the minimum level of qualifications obtained in formal education, and a pedagogical qualification. Depending on the occupation and career path chosen, they may be trained at higher education, post-secondary or secondary level to obtain a relevant qualification in a given field/occupation in formal education. In order to obtain a pedagogical qualification, full-time instructors take a pedagogical qualification course for practical 219


vocational training teachers in an in-service teacher training institution. Part-time instructors may complete either a pedagogical qualification course, like full-time instructors, or a pedagogical course for practical vocational training instructors in an in-service teacher training institution or other authorised training institution (e.g. a continuing education centre (centrum kształcenia ustawicznego, CKU), practical training centre (centrum kształcenia praktycznego, CKP), professional association). Trainers-specialists are not recognised in the legislation as a distinct occupational category. Thus, there are no general qualification requirements and there is no predefined level or structure of pre-service training for this group. Experts interviewed in the framework of the Eurotrainer survey mentioned that there is not enough offer for continuing learning for trainers. There are some associations which can offer the training and courses for their members. Other way to develop yourself as a trainer is to go to post-graduate studies which offer post-diploma courses. The same concerns policy provisions to support training of trainers in enterprises: each company has its own solution and there is no system at national level (Eurotrainer interview survey). 2.3 Who is taking which decisions concerning the work and training of trainers? (Source: Cedefop 6). The implementation of a practical training programme by instructors is supervised by their employers/farm owners or specially appointed persons at the workplace or in a farm. In case trainees are sent for practical training to the workplace or a farm by a school, instructors are approved by the sending school and the implementation of a practical training programme is also supervised by the school. There is no special guidance for prospective practical vocational training instructors. Information concerning qualification requirements and pedagogical training for prospective instructors may be obtained in staff training sections at the workplace or from the regional educational authorities, or directly from institutions providing such courses. No special guidance is offered for prospective trainers-specialists. Information about training career opportunities may be obtained directly from training providers. Interview with experts in the framework of the Eurotrainer survey provides evidence to the fact that the basic motivation for continuing learning among trainers is the effort to keep the job due to the tough competition on the labour market. The trainer must undergo training if required by the company, especially in cases where new technologies, innovations, new products are included in the company production / services. The trainer has to adjust to such changes and has to possess skills and competences in new technologies and innovations in order to be able to train others.

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3. Economy: How is the work and training of trainers financed? In Poland there is, as yet, no single data collection system which would bring together different categories of information on financing education and training. The available information is partial, collected unsystematically and incomprehensive. Unfortunately there is lack of data on the national scale regarding financing continuing education in out-of-school forms (Cedefop 10). The information on financing of training of in-company trainers is not collected. 3.1 How is the training of trainers financed, who invests why into the training of trainers? In-company trainers’ training is normally financed by the employer or by the employee. If training takes place in the interest of the company it is funded by the enterprise. The most frequent internal training courses are organised to observe the work and safety legislation (30 per cent), followed by skills upgrading (21 per cent) and IT training (17 per cent) (MNES 2005). Reasons for employers to organise training are normally – new products / services, innovations, new training methods etc. It is however also important for trainers to keep up with the pace of change on a permanent basis. Therefore often in-company trainers undergo self-training, e-learning, learning by doing, informal learning, and sometimes engage into courses on their own costs. There are also funds coming from EU sources, e.g. innovation projects implementing new leaning methods in the framework of Leonardo da Vinci, EQUAL initiative, and recently the European Social Fund. Such projects include (pilot) training phases where trainers in enterprises are often trained to disseminate further the project results in a cascade manner. 3.2 How much money is invested in the training of trainers (percentage/GDP(gross domestic product))? There is no information available on financing of training of trainers. The following information in this sub-chapter is provided on financing of education and training in general. The information source is Cedefop’s Country Report on Poland ‘Theme 10: Financing – Investment in Human Resources’ (Cedefop 10) In 2004 public expenditure on education and science totalled PLN 38.4 billion (in 2004 1 €=4.534 PLN), approximately 4.3 per cent of GDP. The expenditures for education from the state budget amounted to 37.2 billion PLN, approximately 4.13 per cent of GDP. Territorial government units spent on education 36 billion PLN. A great deal of funding for the education and training system is co-financed by the ESF under the Operational Programme for Human Resource Development. Between 2004/2006, the Ministry for National Education and Sport has been allocated € 527.4 million (€ 395.55 from ESF and € 131.85 from the state budget). These are budgetary guidelines rather than levels of real expenditure. Education in public schools for adults is free of charge. These schools are financed in the same way as public schools for youths. Education in non-public schools is paid. Non-public schools in certain cases receive a subsidy from the state budget. In general, continuing education can be financed from the following sources: state budget (school forms and expenditures of Labour Fund); trainees’ own funds; enterprises/employers; foreign assistance funds. The Survey on Educational Activity of Adults, carried out by the Central Statistical Office in 2003 shows that in out-of-school education 31 per cent of participants finance their education from their own or family’s resources, 57.6 per cent have the education financed by employers, 4.6 per cent by foundations and other NGOs, 2.2 per cent by labour offices and 4.7 per cent have the education financed from other public funds.

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The pilot monitoring project concerning vocational training of employees in enterprises, carried out in 2002 demonstrates that the involvement of employers in the training of their employees depends on the number of staff and type of business activity. In 2002, the cost of completed and financed training programmes in the surveyed enterprises (100 randomly selected enterprises in the Mazowsze region) totalled 452,700 PLN (117,410.58 €), which accounted for 0.6 per cent of total labour costs. The training investment per capita (regardless of the training duration) was 442 PLN (114.64 €) (Source: Cedefop 10). 3.3 Who benefits from the work of trainers (average income of trainers, cost-benefit analyses per enterprise/sector/region/nation)? There are no regulations concerning the remuneration of trainers. Salaries of trainers are decided by their employers in accordance with the Labour Code and the legislation concerning a given type of institution or organisation, where applicable. No data are available about salary rates for trainers. (Cedefop 6). The monthly average gross salary level of a teacher is 85 per cent of the salary level for all state employees (EC 2006). There are benefits for a trainer in terms of a positive impact on the career progression of the employee, a positive impact on the status of the employee and, although to a lesser extent, a positive impact on the salary of the employee. (Eurotrainer questionnaire). The 2002 survey of continuous vocational training in enterprises was based on the CVTS2 methodology (cf. Balicki 2003). The survey findings show that 41.4 per cent enterprises were involved in training, and that the bigger the enterprise the larger the share it had in the financing or co-financing of training. The obtained data indicates that, on average, in 2002 enterprises spent 694 PLN (179.99 €) on every employee in training. As the enterprise size increased, the unit training cost would diminish. In small enterprises, the largest training costs were borne by entities in the sector of wholesale and consignment trade – 1,879 PLN (487.33 €) per trainee. In medium-sized enterprises, most funds were spent on training by entities manufacturing means of transport – 2,607 PLN (676.14 €), and in large ones – by entities manufacturing cellulose pulp, paper and paper products – 1,291 PLN (334.82 €) (Cedefop 10). The amounts spent on training also depend on the type of the enterprise’s activity, and were the largest (on average) in the sector of wholesale and consignment trade – 1,297 PLN (336.38 €) per trainee. The survey shows that as the expenditures on training grow, measured by the relation of total training costs to total labour costs, the average training costs per trainee also increase (cf. Balicki 2003) (Cedefop 10). Surveys carried out by the Management Institute at the turn of 2001 indicate that the average cost of training depends on the training content and the level of the personnel for whom the training is organised. Research proves that the training costs of executives and managers are on average twice as high as those of other employees. Also, considerable regional disparities in the training costs can easily be observed. The average cost of 1 training day for 1 trainee who is an executive/manager reached 383 PLN (99.33 €) in central Poland (Warsaw and Mazowieckie region), and 138 PLN (35.79 €) in Malopolskie region. The average cost of one training day for one trainee among the other (non-executive) staff is, in the above regions, 204 PLN (52.90 €) and 111 PLN (28.78 €), respectively (Cedefop 10). As far as the structure of costs for training is concerned, the CVTS 2 shows that 80 per cent of direct costs compose of fees and direct payments for courses as well as subsistence and travel costs. Labour costs for internal company trainers constitute only 16 per cent. This may lead to the conclusion that employing in-company trainers is in fact very cost efficient and may save companies’ finance for fees and payments of external training providers.

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Table: Percentage of direct cost of CVT courses, by type of direct cost in PL Type of costs

per cent

Fees and payments

60

Travel and subsistence payments

19

Labour costs of internal trainers, exclusively involved in training Labour costs of internal trainers, partly involved in training Cost of premises, equipment etc.

11 5 4

Source: Eurostat database, CVTS 2

Compared to other EU countries the proportion of labour costs for in-company trainers in the structure of all direct CVT costs is rather small: in Ireland it is 39 per cent, France 35 per cent, Luxembourg 33 per cent, Spain 31 per cent. Figure: Percentage of direct cost of CVT courses, by type of direct cost in the EU Member States 100 90

Cost of premises, equipment etc.

80 70

Labour costs of internal trainers

60 50

Travel and subsistence payments

40 30

Fees and payments

20 10 0 CZ DK DE EE GR ES FR IE

IT

LV LT

LU HU NL AU PL PT

SI

FI

SE BG RO

Source: Eurostat database, CVTS 2

3.4 Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? There is evidence about returns on investments into training at different levels: for individuals (e.g. higher salary, better quality jobs), enterprises (e.g. better economic performance, lower staff turnover), society (e.g. lower unemployment, lower poverty and crime) and national economy (higher economic competitiveness). Certainly a level of preparation of trainers and their subsequent work in the training provision in enterprises directly contribute to investments into human resources and therefore in individual, social and economic returns on these investments. Although apparent, it is still hypothetical, because there is no hard evidence in research and statistics. Many respondents in the Eurotrainer survey mentioned insufficient awareness on the site of companies on usefulness and economic necessity to invest into training in their companies. It was suggested to organize an information campaign via media, publications, promotional materials, projects and conference explaining about returns on investments into in-company training and on the important role of in-company trainers in this process. 223


4. Selection and Allocation: How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? 4.1How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/part-time; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? Since trainers are not recognised as a distinct category in the legislation, no statistical data on working status, origin, age or gender distribution are specifically collected for this group. The overall number of qualified teachers of all levels in Poland in 2004 was 588,419 (EC 2006). 4.2 What are the prerequisites to become a trainer? (Source: Cedefop 6). Admission requirements for practical vocational training instructors are laid down in the 2002 Regulation of the Minister of National Education and Sport on practical vocational training, as amended. Requirements are defined as a combination of the level of formal qualifications, competence in a given field/occupation and pedagogical competence. They do not depend on the level at which instructors will provide practical training, but are slightly different for fulltime and part-time instructors (see the table below). However, the minimum level of formal qualifications for both sub-categories of instructors is either a maturity certificate from an ISCED 3A school combined with work experience or the vocational title of Master Craftsman awarded upon passing an examination which validates knowledge and skills acquired while in employment (which may be taken by those who have completed at least secondary education, from ISCED 3C upwards, and have necessary work experience, its duration depending on the level of qualifications obtained in formal education). Full-time instructors should have the same qualifications as practical vocational training teachers; those who do not hold a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree must have work experience in a given occupation. Part-time instructors are in all cases required to have work experience in a given occupation either in combination with a qualification obtained in formal education or as a prerequisite for taking a Master Craftsman examination. Both types of instructors must have pedagogical competence acquired, in accordance with the above-mentioned 2002 Regulation, as a result of completing pedagogical training which leads to a recognised pedagogical qualification (a certificate of completion of a course in an authorised institution). However, while full-time instructors should complete a pedagogical qualification course for practical vocational teachers, part-time instructors may also take a shorter pedagogical course for instructors. There is no way to award a pedagogical qualification through the assessment and validation of training experience or knowledge and skills acquired in non-formal or informal education. Practical vocational Level of qualifications and other requirements training instructors The same requirements as for practical vocational training teachers: 1) a Master’s degree (ISCED 5A) in the field corresponding or close to the subject to be taught/type of training to be provided, and a pedagogical qualification; or 2) a Master’s degree (ISCED 5A) in a field different from the subject to be taught/type of training to be provided, a pedagogical qualification, and a certifiFull-time practical cate of completion of a non-degree postgraduate programme in the subject to vocational training be taught; instructors 3) a Bachelor’s degree (ISCED 5A) in the field corresponding or close to the subject to be taught/type of training to be provided, and a pedagogical qualification; 4) a diploma of a technical teacher training institute (previously existing initial teacher training institution, ISECD 3A or 4); or 5) a maturity certificate from a technical secondary school ((ISCED 3A) offering a programme in a given field, together with a vocational title, corresponding to 224

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the subject to be taught/type of training to be provided, a pedagogical qualification, a certificate of completion of a course on health and safety at work, and at least 2 years of work experience in the occupation in which the prospective instructor will provide training or the title of skilled worker/employee; or 6) the vocational title of Master Craftsman in the occupation in which the prospective instructor will provide training (awarded to those who have completed education at ISCED 3, 4 or 5A level, have necessary work experience and have passed a MC examination which validates knowledge and skills acquired while in employment), and a pedagogical qualification. 1) the vocational title of Master Craftsman in the occupation in which the prospective instructor will provide training (see: above) and a pedagogical qualification; or 2) a maturity certificate from a technical secondary school or an equivalent school (ISCED 3A) or a leaving certificate/diploma from a post-secondary school (ISCED 4) and a vocational title in an occupation related to the one in which the prospective instructor will provide training, at least 3-year work experience in the occupation in which the instructor will provide training, and a pedagogical qualification; or 3) a maturity certificate from a vocational secondary school (vocational lyceum, ISCED 3A) and the title of skilled worker or an equivalent title in the occupation in which the prospective instructor will provide training, at least 4-year work Part-time practical experience in this occupation after the award of the vocational title, and a vocational training pedagogical qualification; or instructors 4) a maturity certificate from a general education secondary school (general lyceum) or technical secondary school (technical lyceum or technical school) (all ISCED 3A) training in a different occupation than the one in which the prospective instructor will provide training, or from a secondary vocational institute (ISCED 3) and the vocational title of skilled worker or an equivalent title in the occupation in which the instructor will provide training, at least 6-year work experience after the award of the title, and a pedagogical qualification; or 5) a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree (ISCED 5A) in the field corresponding to the occupation in which the prospective instructor will provide training and at least 3-year work experience in this occupation after the award of the diploma, or a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree in a different field and at least 6-year work experience in the occupation in which the instructor will provide training, and a pedagogical qualification.

There is no distinction between practical vocational training instructors working in IVET and CVET. Since trainers-specialists are not recognised in the legislation as a distinct occupational category, there are no general admission requirements for this group. Specific admission requirements are defined by individual institutions and organisations providing IVET which employ trainers, depending on the level and type of education or training provided. However, IVET for young people aged 16-18 years in part-time compulsory education may be provided – apart from institutions within the education system – only by employers, who employ practical vocational training instructors, and commercial providers accredited by the educational authorities. Trainers working for such accredited providers should have competence necessary for training in non-school settings in addition to their occupational qualifications. The legislation applicable to trainers working in CVET provides only that trainers should have occupational qualifications appropriate to the type of training provided. Specific requirements are defined by individual institutions and organisations employing trainers, depending on the level and type of education or training provided. The legislation includes only more specific provisions concerning trainers in institutions and organisations (except schools for adults) which apply to be, or have been, accredited by the educational authorities. Trainers working for such providers should have competence necessary for training in non-school settings in

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addition to their occupational qualifications. However, accreditation by the educational authorities is voluntary (Cedefop 6). From a competence and skills point of view, to become a trainer in a company, somebody in the first place needs to have subject-specific/technical competences in combination with pedagogical competences/teaching abilities, social skills (such as communication, interaction, counselling, conflict resolution) and organisational competences (such as relating to course and training organisation), as well as work experience (Eurotrainer project questionnaire). Trainers need to posses andragogic (adult learning) competences, and a number of skills that could only be attained through work and personal experience. Trainers also need to posses personal predispositions such as person-to-person contact, communication skills etc. Personality of the trainer is very important (Eurotrainer interview survey). 4.3 How are trainers recruited by enterprises? There is no special structure for attracting people to the teaching or training profession. Teachers and trainers are recruited by individual institutions and organisations (Cedefop 6). Trainers in enterprises are recruited both externally and internally, as full or part-time employees or sometimes as external trainers (Eurotrainer survey). 4.4 Are there too many/not enough trainers in different sectors of the labour market? In 2005 the Institute of Public Affairs (Instytut Spraw Publicznych) carried out a study on the initial and in-service teacher training system commissioned by the Ministry of Education. The study covered teachers in all types of schools. The study discovered that every year, the number of graduates who have completed teacher training programmes exceeds by far the demand for teachers in the school education system. It should, however, be noted that no analysis was carried out specifically for vocational subject teachers. (Cedefop 6). Moreover, there is no information on shortage/surplus of trainers in enterprises and there has not been a study on future labour demand for trainers in companies. It is however important to note that the projected annual decrease in the school age children between 2004 and 2015 is -3.4 per cent. At the same time the annual decline in numbers of teachers in Poland between 2000 and 2004 was -0.1 per cent. (EC 2006). Thus there is no indication of shortages in the teaching professions at least in the new future. It can be suggested that there will be a further shift in the demand for teachers and trainers occupations from the school sector to the adult training sector. At present there are however already shortages of teachers and trainers in certain fields, such as training in foreign western-European languages. Retraining measures targeted at those who are qualified non-language teachers or teachers of other languages (e.g. Russian) are organized to combat the indicated shortage (EC 2006). The situation with presence of trainers in companies is better among middle sized and large enterprises. In-company trainers are more common in the foreign-owned companies. Also the situation is better in bigger cities and industrial provinces as opposed to small towns, villages and rural areas. (Eurotrainer questionnaire). Regarding the problem of shortages of teachers, respondents of the Eurotrainer interview survey indicated that in fact there was no specific research into this problem in Poland but in general in VET schools there is no shortage of teachers, and there is even oversupply in certain fields. Teachers do not always want to work as teachers due to low salaries. (Eurotrainer questionnaire). There is evidence that 50 per cent of qualified teachers in Poland are the so called dormant teachers i.e. those who for various reasons do not work in the profession being either employed in another occupation or are inactive or unemployed (EC 2006, LFS 2nd Q 2005).

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Figure: Status of qualified teachers in Poland

Source: EC 2006

There are indications of shortage of in-company trainers. It is difficult to attract teachers and trainers from the school sector to become trainers in companies because this profession is not very attractive: it involves a lot more work and responsibility than for teachers at schools which is not always reflected in salaries. This is also connected to the lack of tradition of employing in-company trainers and providing in-company internal training. Companies, especially SMEs, rather use external training providers. To solve this problem, a promotional campaign about the role of trainers in companies, their usefulness for company performance through mass media, publications and conferences is needed. Also, recognition of incompany trainers and publicising of their useful role for companies by employers’ organisations would be useful. Companies should be helped to realise that investment in in-company training is investment in the future and that they have to attract trainers financially and to create conditions competitive to those at schools (Eurotrainer interview survey). Teachers from the IVET school sector sometimes move to work in companies but their competences do not always correspond to the requirements of employers. Training in companies requires technical knowledge in the professional work performance and specialisation of the company as well as other competences which may not be possessed by school teachers. Due to the fact of still rather high unemployment in Poland there are teachers on the labour market available for recruitment for in-company training but it is not known whether these people satisfy skill requirements of companies for this work (Eurotrainer interview survey). The major obstacle in enhancing the role of in-company training in Poland is the lack of tradition which is linked to transition from planned to market economy. Often a trainer in companies is not called ‘trainer’ and is incorporated to the department of personnel / HR. Further obstacles for taking up a job of a trainer in an enterprise were mentioned by the respondent: – financial constraints; – no strong policy for training of staff and therefore low need in such training personnel; the situation however depends on the size of enterprise: in smaller companies there is no strong policy for training of staff but in larger companies the situation is much better; – if training is carried out by a person outside the company, it often enjoys a better authority among the participants/trainees (Eurotrainer interview survey). 227


Polish society is an aging society and the profession of teachers and trainers is one of the most ‘aging’ too. There are measures taken to ensure transfer of knowledge from older trainers to younger workers to enable them to take up a role of a trainer. As a good practice example was mentioned the experience of some private companies that have developed their own internal culture leading to sharing the experience between young and “old” workers/employees. But respondents consider these measures insufficient, they are rather accidental, taking place at a company level and have no systematic and long-term character. Initial preparation of young personnel is not considered anyhow problematic. Also again due to high unemployment, recruitment prospects for companies is still good, as there is oversupply of labour on the market. Thus companies have a choice in their recruitment process at least for the time being. But it is true that companies prefer recruiting older trainers, to whom there is a stronger trust and respect which has a good impact on the training performance and outcomes (Eurotrainer interview survey).

5. Qualification: How are trainers qualified? 5.1 Who determines the training contents for trainers and how are these contents found? (Source: Cedefop 6) Practical vocational training instructor: There are two types of pedagogical training: – pedagogical qualification courses, which should be taken by full-time instructors, and – pedagogical courses designed specifically for instructors, which may be taken by parttime instructors. Minimum requirements for pedagogical qualification courses (which are the same courses as for practical vocational training teachers) are laid down in the 2002 Regulation of the Minister of National Education and Sport on detailed qualification requirements for teachers and framework curricula developed in 1993 by teacher training experts appointed by the Ministry of Education. Detailed curricula are developed by providers (in-service teacher training institutions). The minimum duration of a pedagogical qualification course is 150 hours. It comprises: – theoretical training, 130 hours: fundamentals of education, 60 hours, including basic concepts in the area psychology and pedagogy, the organisation of the education system and the legislation in the area of education; and methodology of practical vocational training, 70 hours; and – practical methodological training, 20 hours. Minimum requirements for pedagogical courses specifically designed for instructors are laid down in the 2002 Regulation of the Minister of National Education and Sport on practical vocational training. Detailed curricula are developed by providers (e.g. a continuing education centre (centrum kształcenia ustawicznego, CKU), practical training centre (centrum kształcenia praktycznego, CKP), professional association) and approved by the regional educational authorities (educational superintendents). The minimum duration of a pedagogical course is 80 hours. It comprises: – –

theoretical training, 70 hours: courses in psychology, pedagogy and methodology; and practical methodological training, 10 hours.

Trainers-specialists:

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There are no general qualification requirements and thus no predefined training contents or curricula for this group. There are no special training paths and no specific arrangements concerning the award of qualifications for this group. The performance of trainers in service is assessed by their employers in accordance with their own procedures. In the case of trainers working for commercial training providers, the quality and effectiveness of their work is also verified by customers. Training providers which apply for, or have obtained, accreditation by the educational authorities are required to assess the performance of their training staff on a regular basis (Cedefop 6). According to the answers to the Eurotrainer project questionnaire, apart from national standards, training of trainers and instructors in companies are sometimes determined also by sectoral standards (defined by relevant ministry and/or depending on specific sectoral activities). Sometimes training standards are company-specific and are determined by a manager/owner. Training standards may also be part of modular training competences defined for training of trainers. Although in principle training standards for teachers and trainers and instructors are of the same kind, they are much less formalized in case of trainers and instructors in enterprises (Eurotrainer project questionnaire). 5.2 Which institutions are incorporated in the training of trainers and how do they cooperate? (Source: Cedefop 6). There is no special accreditation of pedagogical qualification courses or pedagogical courses for instructors and qualifications awarded by providers. However, pedagogical qualification courses are provided only by authorised in-service teacher training institutions which are required to carry out internal evaluation of courses. Moreover, in-service teacher training institutions are subject to pedagogical supervision exercised by the relevant educational authorities. To ensure the appropriate quality of pedagogical courses for instructors, their detailed curricula are, as mentioned earlier on, approved by the regional educational superintendents, and providers within the education system are also subject to pedagogical supervision by the inspectors. In-service teacher training institutions, except the National In-Service Teacher Training Centre, and providers of pedagogical courses for instructors may also apply for accreditation by the educational authorities. Such accreditation is, however, voluntary. Institutions involved in in-service teacher training at national level: – National In-service Teacher Training Centre (Centralny Osrodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli, CODN): http://www.codn.edu.pl – National Centre for Supporting Vocational and Continuing Education (Krajowy Osrodek Wspierania Edukacji Zawodowej i Ustawicznej, KOWEZiU): http://www.koweziu.edu.pl – Methodological Centre for Psychological and Pedagogical Support (Centrum Metodyczne Pomocy Psychologiczno-Pedagogicznej, CMPPP): http://www.cmppp.edu.pl – Support Centre for Polish Teachers Abroad (Polonijne Centrum Nauczycielskie): http://www.pcn.lublin.pl/pcn/intro.htm Additionally there are a large number of regional in-service teacher training institutions. Professional bodies and associations exist but not specifically for in-company trainers or trainers in general. There are several sectoral bodies which among others focus on training provision and therefore network trainers in these sectors (e.g. Association of Engineers and Mechanics, Association of Electrical Workers of Poland etc.). Apart from these, the Polish Network of Modular trainers is being developed in the framework of the Leonardo project. There are also several associations of trainers in Poland for example association of trainers for management MATRIK (http://www.matrik.pl) (Eurotrainer interview survey). 229


5.3 How do trainers acquire competences (theoretical and practical knowledge, work experience)? (Source: Cedefop 6) A practical vocational training instructor is a role performed by an employer, an employee or a person running a farm rather than a separate occupation. Moreover, work experience in a given occupation is usually required to perform the role of an instructor. Thus, prospective instructors may only take a consecutive training path. They first obtain their occupational qualifications, and acquire work experience where necessary, and only subsequently complete a pedagogical qualification course in an in-service teacher training institution or a pedagogical course in other authorised institution (e.g. a continuing education centre (centrum kształcenia ustawicznego, CKU), practical training centre (centrum kształcenia praktycznego, CKP), professional association). Both types of pedagogical training include a theoretical and practical part, but its duration varies (see above). Prospective practical vocational training instructors obtain their qualifications in a given field/occupation in accordance with procedures applicable to formal education at higher education, post-secondary or secondary level or the examination for the vocational title of Master Craftsman which validates knowledge and experience acquired while in employment. Instructors taking a pedagogical qualification course for practical vocational training teachers are required to complete all theoretical courses and practical pedagogical training. Some providers conduct an examination at the end of training, while others use different forms of assessment such as papers, projects and/or continuous assessment. At the end, instructors obtain a certificate of completion of a pedagogical qualification course, which is a recognised pedagogical qualification in accordance with the 2002 Regulation of the Minister of National Education and Sport on detailed qualification requirements for teachers. Instructors taking a pedagogical course for instructors are also required to complete both all theoretical courses and practical training. Courses may end with an examination or providers may use continuous assessment methods to assess the knowledge and skills acquired by prospective instructors. At the end, instructors obtain a certificate of completion of a pedagogical course, which is a recognised qualification in accordance with the 2002 Regulation of the Minister of National Education and Sport on practical vocational training. Since trainers-specialists are not recognised in the legislation as a distinct occupational category, there are no general admission requirements and thus no predefined models of training for this group. Like in the case of IVET trainers, there are no arrangements at national level for in-service training of trainers working in CVET. Specific arrangements for both practical training instructors and trainers-specialists are adopted by their employers in accordance with the Labour Code. Practical training instructors may attend, for example, courses upgrading skills which are organised by practical training centres (centrum kształcenia praktycznego, CKP) for practical vocational training teachers. As indicated by the Eurotrainer survey respondents, a typical career path of a trainer would be as follows. First of all each trainer should be an expert in a given field/domain. The next step is to train oneself as a trainer (methodology for training, personal attitudes). The personal attitudes, methods how to work with a group of trainees, how to present knowledge, how to carry out the workshops, give presentations – those skills can be gained during short courses (paid and they tend to be rather expensive) or during post-graduate studies (studia podyplomowe) (Eurotrainer interview survey). Trainers in companies are most often allocated to the training personnel or HR departments (the latter are mostly available in larger enterprises). Education of this types of personnel takes place in specific education fields in sociological and pedagogical faculties (e.g. Warsaw University, labour pedagogy). Besides this day-type education, there are post-diploma stud230

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ies which allow to attain pedagogical and methodical competences as well as communication skills targeted to different groups and types of trainees. Sometimes pedagogical specialisation is taken at a later stage during higher education studies (e.g. faculty of chemistry, specialisation pedagogy) (Eurotrainer interview survey). Typically there three levels of career advancement of a trainer: – – –

trainer-intern normally possesses a formal qualification but has limited work experience (less than 5 years); trainer-specialist possesses at least 5 years of work experience; senior trainer who could also be a mentor to 1) and 2)

Such grading, although informal, is widespread. In some fields it is a bit different but the principle is the same: e.g. in language training there are 3 levels of trainers – basic, intermediary and advanced (Eurotrainer interview survey). 5.4 How useful is what has been learned? Respondents to the Eurotrainer project questionnaire valued rather high the level of preparation of trainers in Poland, adequate to perform their duties in companies, including design, organisation and implementation of training activities/courses, evaluation of training outcomes, recruitment of staff or trainees, implementation of new training and teaching methods, planning and evaluation of the quality and costs of training activities, assessment of skills and competences of employees and/or trainees, counselling/mentoring trainees, facilitation of trainees’ and/or employees’ personal development and growth, establishment of linkages with other vocational training institutions/schools, introduction of learning-supportive elements in the work environment, resolution of conflicts and/or balancing different interests (Eurotrainer questionnaire survey). 5.5 How important is a formal qualification/certificate? As far as formal regulations to take up a trainer’s job in an enterprise are concerned, according to answers of respondents to the Eurotrainer project questionnaire and the interview survey, the situation is rather deregulated. In fact there are no specific regulations which would not allow to employ anybody as a trainer in a company. The employer decides him/herself. But in practice companies do require pedagogical competences. Formal qualification is an important factor of distinguishing qualified trainers from those without formal qualification. A typical trainer in a company does hold a formal qualification (preferable) or at least a nonformal qualification / skills, and is also expected to possess knowledge of foreign languages, especially in companies with foreign capital, and ICT competences. (Eurotrainer questionnaire and interview surveys) Comprehensive statistical surveys covering qualifications held by trainers-specialists working in CVET are not conducted. A pilot survey among institutions providing CVET was carried out in 2003 by PBS DGA (formerly Pracownia Badañ Społecznych in Sopot), a public opinion research company, within the framework of the project “The National Vocational Training System” under the PHARE 2000 Programme. However, it covered only a small sample of 55 CVET providers in 5 of 16 Polish provinces, including: continuing education centres (CKU), practical training centres (CKP), retraining and further training centres (ODiDZ), employers, labour offices, professional associations, employers’ and employees’ organisations, trade unions, churches and religious organisations, associations, foundations and other voluntary organisations, research institutions, and central and local government bodies. It did not include the sector of commercial training providers. Moreover, it covered all practitioners providing CVET jointly, without distinguishing between teachers and trainers-specialists. Thus, the findings of the survey are not representative. However, by way of illustration, the survey 231


shows that practitioners working in CVET, including trainers-specialists, are trained mainly at higher education level and that they have the following qualifications (Source: Cedefop 6): – a doctoral or post-doctoral degree: 41.2 per cent; – a Master’s degree (ISCED 5A): 38.0 per cent, including 31.6 per cent also holding a pedagogical qualification; – a Bachelor’s degree (ISCED 5A): 1.3 per cent, including 1.1 per cent also holding a pedagogical qualification; – a diploma/certificate from an initial teacher training institution: 1.8 per cent, including 0.3 per cent holding diplomas of currently existing teacher training colleges (ISCED 5B), and 1.5 per cent holding diplomas of previously existing teacher training institutions (ISCED 3A or 4); – a maturity certificate (ISCED 3A): 2.6 per cent, including 1.9 per cent also holding a pedagogical qualification; – the vocational title of Master Craftsman (awarded to those who have completed at least upper secondary education, from ISCED 3C upwards, have necessary work experience and have passed an examination which validates knowledge and skills acquired while in employment): 0.3 per cent, including 0.2 per cent also holding a pedagogical qualification; – other qualifications: 14.8 per cent. Most or all of 36.6 per cent practitioners holding a pedagogical qualification, including a diploma/certificate from an initial teacher training institution, may be teachers working in continuing education centres (CKU), practical training centres (CKP) and retraining and further training centres (ODiDZ) which form a part of the education system.

6. Integration: How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? 6.1 Which functions of social integration are fulfilled through the work and training of trainers? See above - 3.4 To meet the demands of increasingly diversified trainee groups, the most common approach among trainers is their own intuition as well as asking participants about their expectations and needs. The training needs analysis is very important in order to provide successful training targeted to different social and educational background of trainees. This is especially important for the adult learning sector, including in-company training. (Eurotrainer interview survey) No more information 6.2 How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? Generally, trainers in enterprises engage regularly in continuing training to update their knowledge and skills related to their training activities. However, a number of obstacles to engage into training activities were indicated in the Eurotrainer project’s survey: trainers often do not have access to training offers, trainers are not always supported by their employer to participate in CVET (financially or in terms of freeing them from their regular work duties), and also participating in training is not always adequately recognised within the company. It is however important to note that majority of respondents agreed that employers valued and recognised continuing learning among trainers, considering it an important aspect for the employee’s career progression and thus actively supporting such training engagement. They also agreed that assuming a role of a trainer in a company is relatively attractive for employ232

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ees. The main effect of becoming a trainer on one’s career in an enterprise is normally the authority which becomes more valuable (Eurotrainer questionnaire and interview surveys). One of the problems of trainers’ recognition is that they are not perceived as people with a specific occupational status but rather as regular employees. This leads to the situation where overall occupational status of trainers working in enterprises is undervalued. Low, demotivating salaries further worsen the situation (Eurotrainer questionnaire). The status of trainers is not very pronounced especially in SMEs, unlike in large companies, multinational corporations, companies with foreign capital (Eurotrainer interview survey). As far as accreditation of prior learning is concerned, it is different in case of formal education and in/non-formal learning. In the former, Bologna declaration regulations are applied. Pedagogical qualification (normally 4-5 years of studying is assumed), also those in technical faculties, automatically entitle graduates to perform teaching and training. Such qualifications rate the highest on the market. Apart from those, there are courses provided by institutions accredited by the Ministry of National Education which provide training to professionals who would like to become trainers. Such certificates, though not of the same weight as qualifications mentioned earlier, are better acknowledged by employers on the market than certificates from non-accredited training providers – quite numerous on the market. The latter have their trial by employers in practice on the market. Since the profession of a trainer is not included on the list of occupations, there is no systemic way (institutions, regulations) of accreditation and recognition of prior informal learning. In case of crafts an individual may pass an exam which would validate his knowledge and skills but in case of trainers such system does not exist (Eurotrainer interview survey). In general there is no self-recognition / occupational identity of an in-company trainer because there is no such occupation officially. The awareness exists only among trainers who have pronounced predispositions to the profession. Occupational identification in general is weak. Communities of practice and networks are not developed. Unlike in case of e.g. the profession of a career counsellor, whose occupation is included in the official classification, and this profession is organised in associations and enjoys higher self-recognition and identity (Eurotrainer interview survey). At the same time the training profession is well-perceived in the society and enjoys high recognition – similar to teachers. A job of a trainer in a company is very responsible, it supposes that the trainer assists the company workforce in professional development, helps to plan individual development and monitors the implementation of the plan. Such job should be well respected in the company. The situation where a worker in a company becomes a trainer is rather exceptional but if it happens it is most certain career advancement linked to his or her growing responsibility (Eurotrainer interview survey). 6.3 Which is the unemployment rate of trainers? Trainers are not recognised as a specific occupational category and therefore their unemployment rate is not recorded. Unemployment rate of teachers (those indicating having a teacher qualification as their highest qualification) in 2005 was 5.1 per cent (EC 2006, LFS data).

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7. Innovation 7.1 How innovative is the work and training of trainers? It is not a very easy task to cope with the accelerated pace of innovation – trainers usually have to manage information on their own and to develop their knowledge themselves. Trainers cope with the accelerated pace of innovation mostly by self-learning, Internet resources, in more specific cases they use training on order from outside training providers. There are training providers on the market that train in new technologies, ICTs, foreign languages etc. Often these are used as part of ESF-funded training (Eurotrainer interview survey). In order to employ new learning methods, trainers also sometimes use training services of specialised institutions. For instance, the Institute for Sustainable Technologies (ITeE) provides training in modular curricula and training. If such training services are not used, trainers try to implement new learning methods by ‘attempts and mistakes’. Also trainers try new methods themselves, making workshops, running simulations, and preparing case studies (Eurotrainer interview survey). Observations of the Leonardo da Vinci projects regarding implementation of new learning methods show that more and more projects can offer the innovative tools for trainers and teachers - the most popular is e-learning for trainers and teachers and to train them how to use e-learning/ICT solutions to create training (Eurotrainer interview survey). 7.2 How is the quality and efficiency of trainers’ training assessed? Qualifications and competences of trainers in enterprises are assessed, monitored and adjusted but not on a regular basis, depending rather on changing training demands. The process to a large extent depends on specific enterprise and its management. Methodological tools used to assess qualifications and competences of trainers in enterprises are evaluation questionnaires, surveys, control lists, observations, although these are not applied by all or majority of companies on a standard basis (again a lot depends on the management of a specific company) (Eurotrainer project questionnaire). Enterprises also assess the quality of the training they provide, mostly on a regular basis. Methodological tools for training assessment depend largely on the company; some have tools to measure the effectiveness of trainings, such as practical check in the workplace, questionnaires, surveys, independent experts’ evaluation; partial evaluation, evaluation of training; ISO evaluation procedures and methods etc. The work of trainers (their methods, training design, competences) are also subject to the quality assessment. In such assessment learners are consulted on the quality of training provision (i.e. curriculum, content, method) and results (output) of training, the latter type of evaluation prevailing. Company’s evaluations also consider the impact on the learner as well as the impact on the organisation. Training is evaluated based on opinions of participants and managers, comparison of the results at work and skills owned before and after training as well as according to the criteria of a client that orders training. 7.3 Is there research about the work and training of trainers and what does it suggest? Most of the so far research was organised either into the subject of IVET / CVET in general or into the subject of teachers and their training (e.g. Instytut Spraw Publicznych 2005, Cedefop 6). There is very little information on in-company trainers, their work, qualifications and skills. The limited research results were used in the form of secondary sources in this report. The empirical research of the Eurotrainer questionnaire was useful but very difficult due to the fact that the Delphi method cannot be used in the condition of virtual absence of the primary data. The basic problem in Poland is that the profession of trainers is not formally recognised and therefore there is no data collection and analyses. It is could be useful to organise a survey among trainers in companies to find out how many they are, what their qualifications and skills are, how their work and training are organised etc. There are very few experts who could answer these questions without having such reliable data at their hand. 234

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Also – see above (5.6) 7.4 Which are weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers? Where is a need for reform? Since trainers are not distinguished as a separate occupational category in the legislation, there is no specific policy for their initial or in-service training (Cedefop 6). According to opinions of respondents of the Eurotrainer questionnaire survey, the training of trainers in Poland is rather cost-effective. Job positions of trainers generally reflect their relatively good-level qualifications and potentials to a satisfactory level. However, training of trainers is not very effectively organised, the work of trainers generally is not well recognised in the society, and the national training system of trainers may not be able to meet future needs and demands (Eurotrainer questionnaire). The respondents of the Eurotrainer interview survey mentioned the following problems and challenges that in-company trainers in Poland face at the moment: – – – – –

–

– – –

skill shortages among in-company trainers; financial constraints including equipment and resources for the training provision and for the attraction of trainers to work; linked to the above problem – insufficient provision of training for trainers; combination of trainers’ tasks with other professional duties of trainers (often training becomes an additional tasks which is not financed); lack of understanding of usefulness to employ trainers on the side of enterprises, especially SMEs: large companies, especially multinational corporations, realise the need and usefulness to employ in-company trainers, but SMEs do not; the current system of occupational classification does not contain the occupation of an incompany trainer: there are school teachers, HR specialists and managers as well as career counselling workers, and the closest occupation ‘lecturer at a course’ for which the qualification standard has been developed but trainers in companies do not officially exist, and this has also a direct negative impact on the education and training offer for trainers on the market; lack of capacity to adjust to the change on the market and to the change in general as well as lack of planning and strategic thinking among companies; adequacy and actuality of training materials; time organisation of training (Eurotrainer interview survey).

Although these problems are often solved by enterprises themselves, there is no systemic solution. The solution rests at the discretion of enterprises (Eurotrainer interview survey). As far as the vision of future trends of in-company training is concerned, the interviewed experts were not united. On the one hand, it was suggested that the role of trainers in companies will increase and will become more important than traditional school training. Provision of training in course outside companies will be less important than in-company training, although it could be different for SMEs. On the other hand, it was recognised that the future vision of an in-company trainer is directly linked to the future of the company. The trends show abandoning of hierarchical structures, more important role of new technologies. It was therefore suggested that new retraining centres will be developed where a network type of cooperation among companies could be possible. So the second possible trend would be rather from in-company training towards re-training in centres for companies. This could be a network-type of solution, especially for SMEs. Such centres should offer apart from retraining also access to new technologies and offer e-learning possibilities (Eurotrainer interview survey) 235


Furthermore, experts recommended: – –

–

a stronger support to people who have an excellent knowledge, experience and they simply need some background as a trainer; more support to the development of the training offer for “beginners” and for advanced trainers: the training offer should be adjusted to the specific needs and to the situation of an employee who is interested or have the potential to become a trainer; in order to improve the situation of in-company training in Poland, it is necessary to help companies to understand that training is very important for the company performance and it can really improve their position on the market. This could be done through seminars, advertisements, flyers and so on (information campaign).

Some policy provisions aimed at enhancing human resource development in enterprises including the role of training and trainers in company performance are already included in the ESF Operational Programme Human Resources.Further recognition of competences and experiences of trainers could be improved through new projects which allow elaboration of qualification standards (250 standards, 1,800 occupations). The most close to a ‘trainer’ is a ‘lecturer at courses’. The standard includes the description of competence requirements for recruitment and further training (www.standardyiszkolenia.praca.gov.pl). The inclusion of the occupation of the in-company trainer into the list of occupations and the development of the qualification standard become the alpha and omega for further improvement of the situation. The respondent suggests to verify qualification standards of trainers in other countries in the framework of EQF. It could be useful to collect information on standards of all professions the most close to trainers and to make a comparison across EU countries. (Eurotrainer interview survey) 7.5 Are there any ‘good practice examples’ at company or sectoral level? – – – –

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Institutions co-operation network i.e. Polish Network of Modular education (Eurotrainer questionnaire). Organizing training out of a regular dwelling place (Eurotrainer questionnaire). Headmaster’s prizes ( money) (Eurotrainer questionnaire). The Institute for Sustainable Technologies - National Research Institute (ITeE-PIB) is a state-owned research and development institution conducting basic and applied research as well as implementation in the field of advanced technologies related to machines manufacturing and maintenance, materials engineering, environmental protection and systems engineering. ITeE is engaged in building competences of trainers and teachers in 3 phases: identification of competences needs; design of the training offer / programmes; pilot training implementation. In particular ITeE designs modular training and focuses on building up didactical / methodical competences during pilot training of trainers. In the framework of the project ‘Preparation of the information system for monitoring and evaluation of the qualification requirements of workers’ (ITeE, 2007-2008) a prototype of the information system for identification of qualification and skill needs is developed and the system will serve as a tool for HRM in enterprises. The system allows to monitor requirements for competences as well as training needs in specific professions. The conceptual basis of the newly developed information system is the existing vocational qualification standards of the database of the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy. The standards will be used as a tool to measure the gaps between the job requirements (skills, knowledge, competences and psychophysical features) in a specific occupation and the factual qualifications and skills of the worker. The identified gap will indicate the training needs. The database will also include a possibility for updating competence requirements for the profession ‘lecturer at a course (educator, trainer)’ – the closest to the in-company trainer at the moment.

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–

–

–

–

– –

(http://www.standardyiszkolenia.praca.gov.pl/servlet/dane_s?zaw_id=235910) (Eurotrainer interview survey); the Leonardo da Vinci project ‘European bank for the development of modular curricula and educational technologies’ where among other tasks a competence profile of a trainer of modular training is designed (the 2-year project is in its final stage, www.emcet.net) (Eurotrainer interview survey); project ‘Development of retraining in the framework of advances technological manufacturing and maintenance’ in the framework of the government programme ‘Development of innovative systems of manufacturing and maintenance 2004-2008’, where a training progamme is designed for trainers in distance education courses ‘Organisation and implementation of e-learning in SMEs’ (www.itee.radom.pl) (Eurotrainer interview survey); projects coordinated by the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development and co-financed by European Structural Funds, e.g. training of trainers, design of on-line e-learning courses for SMEs in the consumption sector in the framework of the initiative EQUAL for micro-enterprises etc. (Eurotrainer interview survey); experience of some private companies that have developed their own internal culture leading to sharing the experiences between young and “old” workers/employees (Eurotrainer interview survey); some private companies provide training carried out by the experienced employees who are simply experts in a given narrow domain (Eurotrainer interview survey); Altadis Poland – after the change of ownership, the ´bilanc des competences’ were performed and total retraining of the personnel on the basis of a French model. The role of trainers in the company enhanced (Eurotrainer interview survey).

Sources Cedefop 6: Training VET Teachers and Trainers, Thematic Overview, Theme 6, Cedefop, http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Information_resources /NationalVet/Thematic/criteria_reply.asp Cedefop 10: Financing – Investment in Human Resources, Thematic Overview, Theme 10, http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Information_resources/ NationalVet/Thematic/criteria_reply.asp Questionnaire survey of the Eurotrainer project. Telephone interviews with selected experts. Balicki A., Badanie "Ustawiczne szkolenie zawodowe (CVTS2) w przedsiebiorstwach w 2002 r". Rynek Pracy, wydanie specjalne, grudzien 2003 (The survey on continuing vocational training in enterprises in 2002) MNES 2005: Raport o stanie edukacji ustawicznej w Polsce w roku 2005, (Report on the situation of continuing training in Poland), Ministry of National Education and Science, Warsaw 2005 EC 2006: Study on Key Education Indicators on Social Inclusion and Efficiency, Mobility, Adult Skills and Active Citizenship; Lot 2: Mobility of Teachers and Trainers. Final Report. European Commission DG EAC

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POLAND: Summary of Expert Interviews 1. Introduction Expert 1: Responsible for monitoring the progress of thematic projects financed under Leonardo da Vinci Programmes (http:www.frse.org.pl); cooperation and coordination with companies that provide training of trainers; trains/coaches colleagues with less experiences in managing European educational programmes and provides training for trainers in ‘Kuratoria’, which are responsible for the dissemination of Leonardo da Vinci Programmes at the local/regional level. Expert 2: Researcher at the Institute for Sustainable Technologies – National Research Institute (ITeE-PIB), a state-owned research and development institution conducting basic and applied research in the field of advanced technologies related to machines manufacturing and maintenance, materials engineering, environmental protection and systems engineering; is involved in projects in the field of methodology of training. Expert 3 (telephone interview): Head of Vocational Education Research Department at a state-owned research and development institution, which performs scientific research, projects and other activities in the field of labour pedagogy and vocational and continuing education and training. The institution is engaged in building competences of trainers and teachers, identifying competence needs, designing training programmes and piloting training implementation.

2. Identify major issues / key challenges in a national perspective -

Skill shortages among in-company trainers, but oversupply of teachers.

-

Financial constraints of companies for training provision and for attracting well-qualified trainers.

-

Linked to the above problems – insufficient provision of training for trainers and lack of opportunities for trainers’ continuing learning and professional development. Some trainer associations offer training and courses for their members. Other ways to develop as a trainer is to go to post-graduate studies which offer post-diploma courses. The basic motivation for continuing learning among trainers is to keep the job due to the tough competition on the labour market. The trainer must undergo training if the company requires, if there are new technologies, innovations or new products.

-

Conflicting experiences of trainers in terms of combining training activities with their other professional duties (“for me it is an additional task which is not being paid”), also in terms of time management: Not enough time is allocated to the training tasks.

-

There is no policy in place to support the training of staff and therefore the there is low level of staff training overall. The situation, however, depends on the size of the enterprise: smaller companies do not have a training policy for their staff but larger companies often develop or rely on such policies.

-

Lack of awareness: particularly SMEs do not understand the benefits of employing trainers, while large and multinational companies realise the need and usefulness to employ in-company trainers. SMEs tend to hire external training providers when training needs arise instead of developing their own training strategies.

-

Since the supply of young people is higher than the demand due to high unemployment rates, companies do not need to attract new trainees by means of providing training of good quality.

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-

If training is carried out by a person from outside the company, it often enjoys higher recognition and more authority among the participants/trainees than when provided by internal trainers.

-

Lack of equipment and resources, good training materials in particular.

-

Most problems derive from lack of resources and are solved by the enterprises themselves, but without applying more systemic or strategic solutions. Most solutions are individual solutions, resting at the discretion of enterprises.

-

The current system of occupational classification does not contain the occupation of incompany trainer: there are school teachers, HR specialists and managers as well as career counselling workers, and the closest occupation ‘lecturer at a course’ for which the qualification standard has been developed, but trainers in companies do not officially exist. This has a direct negative impact on the education and training offers for trainers on the market.

Despite these issues of concern, the training profession overall is well-perceived in society and enjoys high recognition – similar to teachers. Also in companies trainers have a recognised position and the trainer function is regarded an advancement in the career: “A job of a trainer in a company is very responsible, it supposes that the trainer assists the company workforce in professional development, helps to plan individual development and monitors the implementation of the plan. Such job should be well respected in the company. The situation where a worker in a company becomes a trainer is rather exceptional, but if it happens, it is most certain a career advancement linked to his or her growing responsibility.”

3. Discuss in a national perspective common issues that may be of relevance across Europe -

Coping with the accelerated pace of innovation presents a challenge – trainers usually have to manage information on their own and develop the relevant knowledge themselves.

-

As regards the implementation of new learning methods, more and more projects introduce and offer innovative tools for trainers and teachers, the most popular being elearning for trainers and teachers and to train them how to use e-learning/ICT solutions to create training.

-

Meeting demands of increasingly diverse trainee groups: most commonly, trainers ask training participants about their expectations and needs. Such a training needs analysis is very important in order to provide successful training.

Several associations of trainers in Poland exist, for example the association of trainers for management MATRIK (http://www.matrik.pl). In addition, trainers are somewhat covered by sectoral bodies that provide forms of training and network trainers in these sectors (e.g. the Association of Engineers and Mechanics or the Association of Electrical Workers of Poland). Apart from these, a Polish network of modular trainers is being developed in the framework of the Leonardo project ‘European bank for the development of modular curricula and educational technologies’ where among other tasks a competence profile of a trainer of modular training is designed (the 2-year project is in its final stage, www.emcet.net). A typical career path of a trainer would be as follows. First of all each trainer should be an expert in a given field/domain. The next step is to train oneself as a trainer (methodology for training, personal attitudes). The personal attitudes, methods how to work with a group of trainees, how to present knowledge, how to carry out the workshops, give presentations – those skills can be gained during short courses (paid individually and they tend to be rather 239


expensive) or during post-graduate studies (studia podyplomowe). The main benefit of becoming a trainer on one’s career in an enterprise is normally that the individual authority and recognition becomes more valuable. Generally, there are three levels of advancement as a trainer: 1. trainer-intern normally possesses a formal qualification but has limited work experience (less than 5 years); 2. trainer-specialist possesses at least 5 years of work experience; 3. senior trainer who could also be a mentor to 1) and 2) Such grading, although informal, is widespread. In some fields it is a bit different but the principle is the same: e.g. in language training there are 3 levels of trainers – basic, intermediary and advanced.


Some private companies have developed their own internal training and learning culture, leading to sharing experiences among young and ‘older’ experienced workers/employees to ensure the transfer of knowledge from older trainers to younger workers to enable them to take up a role of a trainer. Some private companies also provide training carried out by experienced employees who are in addition the experts in a given narrow domain. These measures, however, are not sufficient but are rather accidental and have no systematic and long-term character.

-

Altadis Poland – after the change of ownership, the ‘balance des competence’ was achieved with the total retraining of the personnel on the basis of a French model. This also enhanced the role of trainers in the company.

-

The project ‘Development of retraining in the framework of advances technological manufacturing and maintenance’ in the framework of the government programme ‘Development of innovative systems of manufacturing and maintenance 2004-2008’, where a training programme is designed for trainers in distance education courses ‘Organisation and implementation of e-learning in SMEs’ (www.itee.radom.pl).

-

In the framework of the project ‘Preparation of the information system for monitoring and evaluation of the qualification requirements of workers’ (ITeE, 2007-2008) a prototype of the information system for identification of qualification and skill needs is developed. The system will serve as a tool for HRM in enterprises. It allows to monitor requirements for competences as well as training needs in specific professions. The conceptual basis of the newly developed information system is the existing vocational qualification standards of the database of the Polish Ministry of Labour and Social Policy. The standards will be used as a tool to measure the gaps between the job requirements (skills, knowledge, competences and psychophysical features) in a specific occupation and the factual qualifications and skills of the worker. The identified gap will indicate the training needs. The database will also include a possibility for updating competence requirements for the profession ‘lecturer at a course (educator, trainer)’ – the closest to the in-company trainer at the moment. (http://www.standardyiszkolenia.praca.gov.pl/servlet/dane_s?zaw_id=235910)

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5. Future trends -

The future vision of in-company trainers is directly linked to the future of the company. The trends show the abandoning of hierarchical structures, which emphasises the role of the trainer as a coach or a facilitator.

-

New technologies and networking will become more important in the area of training and the training of trainers.

-

New retraining centres will be developed where a network type of cooperation among companies could be possible. Thus, the trend will be rather from in-company training towards re-training in centres for companies. This will be a network-type of solution, especially for SMEs. Apart from retraining such centres could also offer access to new technologies and e-learning possibilities.

-

The role of trainers in companies will increase and become more important than traditional school training. Provision of training in courses outside the company will also become less important than in-company training, although it could be different for SMEs.

-

Future developments should support people who have an excellent vocational knowledge and experience and simply need some additional background as a trainer.

-

More training offers should be provided for beginners and for advance trainers. Training offers should be adjusted to the specific needs and the situation of an employee who is interested or has the potential to become a trainer.

-

In order to improve the situation of in-company training in Poland, it is necessary to help companies to understand that training is very important for the company performance and it can really improve their position on the market. This could be done through seminars, advertisements, flyers and so on (information campaign).

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Country Report PORTUGAL Luís Imaginário & José Manuel Castro Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Porto University, Portugal 1. Background and country context In Portugal, there is now a population of about 10.5 million. Similarly to other European countries, the aging processes are under acceleration due to a declining birth rate on the one hand and higher life expectancy on the other. It is just a tendency: the age ratio rose from 109 aged / 100 youngsters, in 2004, to 110 / 100, in 2005. Immigration, however, has contributed to minimize that aging tendency: we receive a lot of people, namely youngsters, from Portuguese Official Language African and South American Countries (mainly Cape Verde, Brazil, Angola, Guinea-Bissau) and from East Europe. According to EUROSTAT, last years, Portugal lost positions face to EU25 average in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. However, according now to the Stability and Growth Programme 2006-2010, it is foreseen that in 2006 Portuguese economy get a growth of 1.4 per cent, accelerating face to 0.4 per cent observed in 2005. In 2005, employment rate was 67.5 per cent, above EU-25 average, with a large women participation in labour market, larger than EU25 average. In 2000-2006, unemployed has risen, but in 2006 still below EU25 average. By activity sectors, employment evolution, between 1998-2005, shows decrease in primary (13.3 to 11.19 per cent) and secondary (35.5 to 30.8 per cent) sectors and increase in tertiary sector (51.2 to 57.3 per cent). So, like other EU countries, as a tendency. The amount of workers and employees under continuous vocational training depends on companies economic sector and size, and it presents big differences. National (Vocational Training Actions Performance) and EU (Continuous Training in Enterprises) inquires show a positive evolution of workers and employees participation from companies with 10 and more in-service people. The data for 1994 concerning the participation of workers and employees in continuous vocational training show a figure of 7.7 per cent, whereas the figure for 2003 is 19.6 per cent,. However, it is well known that formal vocational qualification and even formal schooling levels in Portugal still far away from EU-25 averages. A set of priorities in education and training were defined to reduce the lack of formal academic and vocational qualifications of the Portuguese population and to enhance access to a knowledge society for all citizens (as determined in the Lisbon Strategy). For this purpose, the Government recognises that it is necessary to increase by all means the offer of initial training for individuals and also make enterprises and individuals more aware of the importance and need for continuous training, in particular in the field of the new information and communication technologies (ICT). Also, the inclusion of ICT in the curricula of 50 per cent of continuous training courses has been set as a principle target. A set of instruments is currently being implemented in an attempt to reach this goal. For instance, it has been defined and included in the Labour Code (2003), a compulsory minimum of 20 hours (at present 35 hours) per year of continuous training for all workers and employees. The "training clause" presented in the Labour Code foresees that young people under 15 years old cannot work without undergoing an initial training course. Another important aspect that is a part of the Lifelong Learning Strategy is the certification of acquired non-formal and informal competences, currently being implemented in Portugal and is seen as a priority in order to increase the motivation for continuous training. Besides that, 243


a set of strategies are being implemented in order to reduce the gap between academic and vocational certifications (people that had acquired occupational experience and educational knowledge but have no diploma), by increasing the financial support of courses that provide both educational and vocational diplomas.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? In legal terms, trainer is defined as “the professional who, in a training situation, sets up a pedagogical relationship with trainees in order to favour the acquisition of knowledge, skills and competences as well as the development of attitudes and behaviours appropriate to occupational performance”. In-company trainers, some times, are also named tutors, just because their training activities are performed in a real world of work context. Trainers’ activity is regulated since 1994, and requires a Pedagogical Aptitude Certificate (PAC). To be a trainer, one should have, in the training domains, theoretical / scientific, technological, technical and practical, and pedagogical education and training at least of same level, or higher, than their trainees when they accomplish the respective course. Add to this, they should have specific vocational training in his area of training and an occupational experience of at least two years; however, only in the cases of trainers’ certitication through experience, before 1998. PAC requires attending a pedagogical training course lasting about 90 hours. There are no trainers’ certificates for specialized sectors of training. Moreover, PAC does not include training in specific scientific or technical subjects. Only in exceptional cases, it is possible to obtain a PAC on the basis of the trainer’s professional experience. The pedagogical training courses, which leads to PAC, are based on the following curricular structure and contexts, defined by EVTI: (a) “contextual”, to help future trainers to understand the training process and the development of personal and inter-personal skills; (b) “operational”, to enable the acquisition of technical skills related with the training context; (c) “practical”, for guidance in the application of skills taught during training, through simulated practice. That is: PAC Structure

Contents

Total Duration 93 hours

Contextual Training

Operational Training

"The trainer and training context"

"Training planning"

"Theories, factors and learning process"

"Training resources and communication technologies"

"Pedagogical methods and techniques"

"Evaluation of learning"

"Pedagogical relations, group animation and management of differentiated learning processes"

"Evaluation of training"

22 hours

24 hours

Practical Training

"Defining training goals"

"Pedagogical simulation"

47 hours

So, the embeddement of the training of trainers in the general education system and in the further education system occurs only through the general and further education the trainers receive before attending pedagogical training courses leading to PAC, which are not a segment of the formal educational system, in a large sense; we can say, perhaps, they are nonformal education. (This situation is different from that one of teachers, which education and training is a part of the formal educational system; nevertheless, a lot of them are also or 244

January 2008

mainly trainers, namely in-company trainers; that is, a teacher who teaches vocational subjects is also, and automatically, certificated with a PAC.) 2.2. Which ways do exist to become a trainer and to further develop as a trainer? See 2.1. Besides, PAC must be renewed every 5 years. To ensure that trainers have obtained relevant training experience in the 5 years since getting PAC, they should prove that they have attended 60 hours of training, or other relevant pedagogical experience, and also that they have given 300 hours of training. In addition to this legal demand, further development of trainers depends significantly on their personal commitment (and even investment). See also 1.3. 2.3. Who is taking which decisions concerning the work and training of trainers? Training of trainers, and PAC attribution, is a National Centre of Training of Trainers (NCTT)’ function; this Centre (now designated as National Centre of Qualification of Trainers) is a structure of Employment and Vocational Training Institute (EVTI). One of his missions is to contribute to upgrade the quality of vocational training through the education of those professionals. The in-service, continuous training of trainers system is linked with the renewal of the PAC. Therefore, EVTI offers training courses on various subjects: Training Systems, Training and Certification, Training Management, Training Technologies and Methodologies. EVTI manages directly 31 Vocational Training Centres (these ones are transectoral) and is a part of the management, with social partners (Trade Unions and Employers Associations) and, of others 26 (these ones are sectoral). Centres are spread all over the country. Social partners are also represented in the EVTI’s administration. However, other public and private entities promote initial and continuous training of trainers too, on one hand, but most of the trainers with a PAC as described before work in EVTI centre, on another hand.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? 3.1. How is the training of trainers financed, who invests why into the training of trainers? The VET system, of which the training of trainers is a part, is almost fully financed by public funds through contributions from State Budget, Social Security Budget (23.75 per cent of wages paid by companies and 11 per cent of wages received by employees, wages without deductions in both cases), and, mainly, the European Social Fund (ESF). As far as continuous VET offered by companies, without public support, is concerned, financing is of companies’ full responsibility; that is on the contrary of some EU members practices — in Portugal there are not specific taxes to finance vocational training. Although, as we stress before, companies and workers and employees do contribute indirectly, through Social Security Budget, which is a financing source for vocational training. It should be mentioned that companies under modernisation projects and work force qualification improvement processes could get financial support. Nevertheless, in Portugal, the policies for training trainers have been strongly influenced by the regulations of EFS, since they usually subsidize them. Besides, the EFS have offered significant financial support for the training of trainers and teachers, and the production of teaching materials. These funds have been available in edu245


cation through the Programme of Educative Development for Portugal (PRODEP) and in employment and vocational training through the Operational Programme Employment, Training and Social Development (POEFDS), as well as through other sectoral and regional operational programmes, in order to improve the conditions in which training and education are offered. However, since the end of Community Support Framework II (1993-1999), Initial Pedagogical Training of Trainers (IPTT) is no more a priority for public financing; IPTT courses — homologated previously by EVTI (at present about 1,300) — are nowadays financed by indivudals themselves. In recent years, the policy for the development of trainers' training in Portugal, from a legal perspective, was the introduction of a community support regulation in 1996. This requires that certified trainers should provide all training financed by the State. This new regulation conferred an important role in regulating and orienting the public demands and offers within the National System of Vocational Training. 3.2. How much money is invested in the training of trainers (percentage/GDP (Gross Domestic Product)? The maximum of information we have got it is just to say that, according to data from Institute for Management of the European Social Fund (a public institute), in 2006, the total public expense with training of trainers was € 3,104,242, from which € 2,075,830 was European Social Fund co-participation. 3.3. Who benefits from the work of trainers (average income of trainers, cost-benefit analyses per enterprise/sector/region/nation)? The remuneration for trainers is fixed by law in accordance with the level of qualification and type of training (theoretical or practical). According to the career regulation of the EVTI officials, the trainer's salary rate varies from € 954 to € 2,417 per month. Part-time trainers earn from € 17.50 to about € 45 per hour. According to 2005 data from Directorate-General of Studies, Statistics and Planning, in a total of 46,053 enterprises with more than 10 workers, from which 31 per cent have promoted VET actions (62 per cent of inquired enterprises’ workers comprised), the benefits from these actions (and therefore from the work of trainers also) were (i) at technology and organisation level, production processes changes (72 per cent), new technologies adoption (62 per cent), products and services innovation (60 per cent); (ii) at productivity, quality and employment level, clients more satisfaction (82 per cent), higher quality of products and services (76 per cent), improvement of competitiveness (72 per cent); (iii) at employability and work conditions level, competences more adaptation (76 per cent), health, hygiene and safety conditions improvement (73 per cent), level of satisfaction improvement (63 per cent), internal mobility improvement (30 per cent). 3.4. Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? It is generally recognized that the quality of training, especially in-company training, depends, for a large part, on the quality of trainers. Therefore, we should stress that the role of the work and of trainers’ training is an important and relevant one, namely as a means for economic development.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? 4.1. How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/parttime; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? In March 2006, the number of certificate trainers by the National System of Vocational Certification was about 140,000. This is the total number of professionals who requested the 246

January 2008

PAC, the legal requirement to become trainer, as already mentioned. There is no data for initial VET trainers only. The number presented includes all professionals with a certificate to give training (including initial and continuous vocational education and training). This data is provided by EVTI [IEFP] (www.iefp.pt) A lot of them work, directly or indirectly, in EVTI context, which is the most important vocational training operator. Nevertheless, trainers can also work in the context of adult education and training courses, which are organized by the Ministry of Education. Of course, in-company trainers work mainly in companies. 4.2. What are the prerequisites to become a trainer? To have a PAC, under the conditions already mentioned. 4.3. How are trainers recruited by enterprises? Some are recruited outside enterprises, others inside. However, all of them should have a PAC; if they have not it yet, they should attend first a pedagogical training course, which leads to a PAC. Recruitment outside or inside depends on level and/or area and/or sector of training, as well as on the size of enterprise. There are not fixed rules. Larger enterprises use to have a stock of fulltime permanent trainers, smaller ones not. There is also a labour market of trainers, which is a resource for enterprises, large or small. Besides, there is also a National Stock of Trainers, by regions, activity sectors and training areas, where companies and other organisations can recruit trainers. 4.4. In which main occupational areas trainers have specialised? For specific pedagogical competencies, see 1.1. For occupational areas in general, I would say that all the 14 Apprentice System (with a similar rationale of Dual System) training areas, each one with 3 or 4 four courses on average, which cover all occupational areas, at VET level (with the exception of higher education), are equivalent, as far as specialisation of trainers is concerned. Pay attention to the fact that these areas are almost the same we find in incompany training, on one hand, and that, as I said before, a lot of trainers work, directly or indirectly in EVTI context, on another hand. Otherwise, occupational and training areas of all levels are under the same typology. As a matter of fact, the specialisation of trainers is a consequence of their occupational specialisation (plus PAC). When a trainer obtains a formal certification as a trainer, he or she should at the same time enter himself or herself in a table of areas of training. 4.5. Are there too many/not enough trainers in different sectors of the labour market? Trainers are never too many, at least while one considerer that VET stills the key-answer for the main problems in the labour market and even society! In Portugal, the development of initial and continuous training is also assumed as a company’s responsibility, specially continuous training, in a permanent and sustainable way, to assure that all workers and employees get a minimal amount of certificated training hours every year. The involvement of social partners in continuous vocational training’s development was reinforced through the Employment Politics, Labour Market, Education and Training Agreement (2001), the implementation of a new Labour Code (2003), and the Vocational Training Bilateral Agreement (2006). This one consecrates the employer duty to reach, each year, at least 10 per cent of employees and workers under no term contract in training actions, as well as the right of each worker and employee to benefit a minimal amount, each year, of 35 certified training hours. Aditionaly, nowadays, almost all vocational education and training (VET), initial or continuous, for youngsters or for adults, for employed and for unemployed, at every qualification level, includes a practical component, that is, a part of the training is done in a real world of work context. In other words: VET offers are designed in such a way that they call for trainers (or tutors). On another hand, as far as VET demands are concerned, training on the job (or at least, for unemployed, near possible jobs) is a rule. If we should mention an area where trainers are not enough, we would indicate Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), which are more and more transversal to all sectors.

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5. How are trainers qualified? 5.1. Who determines the training contents for trainers and how are these contents found? As far as PAC is concerned, NCTT/EVTI determines the training of trainer’s contents. For other occupational contents, we have, on one hand, contents defined by VET system and, on another hand, contents that are negotiated between social partners, at national and regional level, and/or at enterprises level, between trainers, employers, employees and workers. Ministry of Education and Ministry of Labour usually promote and/or organise such negotiations, at national and regional level, and since VET definitions. 5.2. Which institutions are incorporated in the training of trainers and how do they cooperate? As far as PAC is concerned, NCTT/EVTI is the main institution. Social partners, trade unions and employers associations, as we said before, are represented at EVTI administration board level. Beyond initial PAC and even the PAC renewal, EVTI offers training courses of trainers on various subjects. Personnel from companies and also from secondary and higher education can co-operate with NCT too. 5.3. How do trainers acquire competences (theoretical and practical knowledge, work experience)? See Table in 2.1. Of course, trainers acquire competences and practical knowledge through work experience, some times under supervision. 5.4. How useful is what have been learned? Trainers inquired and interviewed say it is useful, mainly as long as training of trainers means opportunities to share experiences. 5.5. Which certificates can be gained, in which duration? PAC is the true certificate. However, when a trainer attend a training course, independently of his duration, is common that afterwards he/she gains a certificate. This one mentions the institution or organization, which offers it, as well as the content and the duration. 5.6. How important is a formal qualification/certificate? Are qualifications/certificates internationally acknowledged? As we stressed before, to have a PAC is a sine qua non condition to become a trainer. The certificate international acknowledge is not a common situation at VET level; however, when it occurs, certificates are acknowledge according international regulations. 5.7. Which qualifications do those have who are responsible for the training of trainers and how do they acquire these qualifications? Besides a PAC, and before that, most of them have higher education diplomas.

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? 6.1. Which functions of social integration are fulfilled through the work and training of trainers? We would say that social integration functions of the work and training of trainers, near trainees, are fulfilled through occupational integration, namely on the job, which is a specific task of trainers and of training’ trainers. 6.2. How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? In general terms, and as far as trainers feel it, we would say it is well recognised, in enterprises and in society, which recognised themselves also in this feelings. 248

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6.3. Which is the unemployment-rate of trainers? We have not exact data. On one hand, trainers are either EVTI officials or in-company employees. On another hand, they are independent professionals who, of course, can be sometimes unemployed, but are not registered as unemployed under the category of trainers — they are, in fact, related to various occupational areas.

7. How innovative are the work and training of trainers? 7.1. How is the quality and efficiency of trainers‘ training assessed? As far as trainers (and tutors) of Apprenticeship System are concerned, the quality and efficiency of trainers’ training are systematically assessed by EVTI, from time to time through specific independent researches; one of them, in which Luís Imaginário himself is involved, is now occurring. Less systematic assessment is usually a common practice of other organisations and institutions, which offer trainers‘ training. 7.2. Is there research about the work and training of trainers and what does it suggest? See 7.1. It does suggest that there are a lot of factors, besides trainers‘ training, which are very important to promote the quality of training, namely the work (and training) organisation. Nevertheless, trainers’ training does still a very crucial one, and we have yet a lot of work to do to improve it. 7.3. Which are weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers? Where is a need for reform? Weaknesses: from our point of view, pedagogical training courses leading to PAC should offer more occasions to train and practice teamwork between trainers. Strengths: the institution of a PAC itself. We stress that the recent and most important achievement in the trainer’s career was the adoption of a new regulation under which all training financed by the State, must be given by certified trainers. In what concerns the trainer’s profession the main regulation is directly related to the trainer professional / pedagogical certification: the PAC. 7.4. Are there any ‘good practice examples’ at company or sectoral level? Of course, there are good practice examples, mainly in companies that are involved in the Apprenticeship System, which practices are transferred to other forms of in-company training. However, we have a tendency to think that are good professionals who mainly do good practices, and for that reason the importance we do recognise of the trainers’ training.

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Country Report ROMANIA Liliana Voicu 1. Introduction Conceptual clarifications The understanding of the word trainer is not unique even in English. In Romanian, there are different contents, corresponding to different activities and different occupations that can be associated with it, even at different qualification levels: The official translation would be formator used in the CVT system and in the trainers training programmes associated with the educational reforms in Romania. This occupation is included in the second major group in the Classification of Occupations in Romania (COR), requiring, thus, higher education and is clearly defined at national level in an occupational standard, recently updated. In enterprises, most of the times, the word used is directly the English term, most probably from the model of multinational companies that came with their culture of training in Romania and introduced their own system, including the terminology that was familiar for them. Other occupations are worded in Romanian instructor, now considered obsolete (a part some specific occupations like fitness instructor), usually related to a trainer facilitating and supervising experiential and work-based learning. These occupations are included in COR in the third major group, thus requiring full secondary education. Now the notion of tutor begins to be used for training in enterprise, that is not associated with a specific educational level and can be performed by any employee when helping a peer to acquire the competences required by a specific job. The use of the term is also influenced by the western model, the occupation being not included, for the moment, in COR. In order to avoid supplementary terminology analysis, in our report we refer generally to the notion understood under the official translation of trainer, being also the most used wording with respect to facilitating learning at the workplace. The same word was used in Romanian during the survey, allowing respondents to use the terms as they are accustomed to, questionnaires being presented in English. Methodology used In Romania, at present, training in enterprise has a limited extension, thus trainers in enterprise are a rare category of professionals. This is why our task to describe their profile and becoming was particularly difficult, facing the risk to over-describe details of a disparate phenomenon. Especially that quantitative data are lacking almost completely, scientific analyses are not very numerous and they are usually not matching very well the research needs, being focused either on continuing vocational training, or on human resource development. Still, there are a few interesting studies, that give useful explanations on different aspects of how training is understood and organised in companies – they are quoted whenever their conclusions were integrated into the text, being better identified in the bibliography list at the end. The research tried to cope with these limitations by producing field data reflecting the situation of the trainers there where internal training exists, using mainly the trans-national methodology defined in the project – the questionnaire and the interview guide. It was not easy to identify experts willing to be included in the survey, many persons refusing (explicitly or tacitly) to answer – 24 questionnaires were sent and only 10 were answered. The respondents 251


were, most of them, responsible for training within their own companies. They have all declined any responsibility on the significance of the information offered outside their enterprise, or, a few times, their sector. In order to improve the relevance of the data, in the selection of the resource persons (22 in total – see details in table next page), more criteria were followed, trying to: –

–

–

Cover all 23 sectors defined at national level, with experts from relevant enterprises or social partners organisations, most of the respondents being members of the sectoral committees or experts recommended by members of the sectoral committees; some sectors were partly or not at all covered, as they did not fit in the objective of the study, referring to public services, that have their own training system, based on accredited training providers (usually having a special accreditation system); for the sector Financial intermediation, banking, insurances no answer could be obtained, even if it is well known that a lot of training is done in this sector, both at the workplace and outside the company; from the sub-sector Sports it was a similar situation, but there it is less clear if there is training at the workplace and what is the status of training; for sectors where training in enterprise was almost absent, short general interviews were conducted, in order to clarify elements of the background situation, the most important questions addressed being: Why enterprises in your sector do not organise (internal) training? Do you think this will change in the future? If yes, how and why?” Have different types and sizes of enterprises represented: industrial companies and research/development institutions, both private and public and also relevant NGOs (like professional associations, social partners’ structures); Include the perspective of outside experts, being involved in the training or the evaluation of the trainers – one interviewee was the head of the training of trainers programmes in a small company specialised in tailored courses for companies, most of them being trade and retail enterprises.

Respondents in the survey N o

Sector

Tool

Position

Agriculture

GI

President

Environment Mining and quarrying of energyproduction materials, Energy Manufacture of chemicals and petroleum products

GI

General manager Executive secretary

Manufacture of equipment: electrical, electronics, automatics Manufacture of basic metals, fabricated metal products… Manufacture of machinery and equipment, fine mechanics Forestry and wood processing, manufacture of paper… Manufacture of construction materials, glass, fine ceramics

252

GI Q

HR Manager

GI

President

Q Q

Head of training department Head of training department

GI

President

Q

Training manager

Type of organisation Sectoral committee Private comp. Trade Union Private comp. (retail pharm) NGO (professional association) Private comp. (International) Private comp. (In) Sectoral committee Private comp. (In)

Constructions

Q

General manager

NGO (social partnership led)

Food industry, beverages and tobacco

GI

President

Trade union federation

Size (size is not relevant) Small (size not relev.) Large (size not relev.) Large Large (size not relev.) Medium (size not relev.– covers whole ind) (size not relev. –

January 2008 covers >50 per cent of ind.) (size not relev. – covers over 75 per cent of the industry) (size not relev. – covers >75 per cent of sub-sector)

Textiles and clothing industry, shoes and leather products

Q+iD I

President

Trade union federation

Transports

GI

Executive secretary

Employers’ association of road transport

GI

President

NGO (profession. association - IT)

(size not relev.)

President

Trade Union (Post office = public company)

(size not relev.) – covers >85 per cent of subsector)

Training manager

Public comp.

Large

Training manager

Private (retail) Private (training)

Medium

Information technology, communications, post office GI

Mass-media, Publishing and printing Retail trade Financial intermediation, banking, insurances (no sectoral committee) Public administration and services Tourism, hotels, restaurants Education and vocational training, Research-Development, Sports Health, sanitation, social services Culture, crafts and traditional arts Other industries and services (no sectoral committee established until now)

Q+iD I Q iDI

Head of ToT

Small

Not covered – no answer Not covered (official system, based on accredited training providers) Q+iD Private comTraining manager Medium I pany (In) Not covered (official system, based on accredited training providers) (size not GI President Trade union relev.) Not covered – no answer Not covered (official system, based on accredited training providers) Small (official Manager of train- Public institutraining cenGI ing provider tion ter of the field) Q

T&D officer (Realestate)

Private company

Medium

Abbreviations: Tool column: GI – General interview; Rest: IT – Information technology iDI –In-depth interview; T&D – Training and Development Q – Questionnaire ToT – Training of trainers Questionnaires (the English version), were usually sent by e-mail, most of the respondents answering alone, part of answers being discussed by telephone, when clarifications were needed. In two cases, the questionnaire was answered with operator, once by telephone, another time in a direct meeting. One of the questionnaires was fully revised by the respondent, since it seemed influenced by another reply. Three respondents to the questionnaires were subject to in-depth interviews as well (two of them taken by telephone), the other interview being taken to a person that did not answer the questionnaire (in direct discussion). 253


This report is based on the analysis of all these different types of data. In order to make it useful for transnational comparison in the project, we kept the structure provided by the coordination team, even when data available allowed no real answer to questions, this is why some subtitles may cover short lines like: ”there is no data to answer this question”. Brief historical overview on training in enterprises in Romania Since 1990, Romanian society suffered a deep transformation in all major aspects of economical processes, political organisation, social life, axiological bases. This period, called under the general name of ”transition towards a market economy and a democratic organisation” meant huge changes, where the main shift in the economical field was felt at the enterprise level: From enterprises mainly: → - large and very large, - state owned, - centred on heavy industry, - dominated by old technologies, - evolving in a strong stable planned economy, - managed under official ideology influences;

to enterprises mainly: - small and medium sized; - private; - with a strong trend towards services; - recuperating trend to new technologies; - surviving in a dynamic fragile free market economy; - managed under new values and cultural trends.

This shift made obsolete the previous organisation of vocational education and training and the role that trainers had in enterprises. Training in enterprises was, before 1990, a very familiar phenomenon, both in initial and continuous vocational training, but shortly after 1990 it was dropped almost over night, in both systems. The organisation of vocational education (which covered almost all the upper secondary education) included strong relationships between schools and enterprises, practice training being usually run by foremen employed by the enterprise, either in the schools’ workshops (equipped mainly by the enterprise) or at the workplace. At the same time, enterprises had their own system of initial training, through apprenticeships organised on their own standards33 and finalised with certificates endorsed by the Ministry of Labour. After 1990, initial training faced big challenges, since the previous organisation matched an economy that entered in collapse, the huge heavy industry state owned colossi being already overstaffed, thus operating massive lay offs. The relationships between vocational schools and enterprises were lost, foremen covering practice training in school workshops had to choose between education and enterprise and apprenticeship disappeared as an alternative initial training. The VET reforms in late ‘90s, and especially in the years 2000, brought back on the educational stage the idea of the importance of practice training at the workplace and tried to restore the relationships between enterprises and vocational schools at another scale and on different backgrounds: the full responsibility of the training was incumbent to schools, tutors and trainers in enterprises having no special status and no benefits, this going along with their lack of specific training. Continuous vocational training (CVT) was compulsory for enterprises in communist times, ruled on the basis of the Law no. 2/1971 on upgrading vocational training of the working personnel in socialist economic units: on one hand, every employee was supposed to enter periodically a CVT programme, on the other hand, enterprises were obliged to organise periodical updating programmes at the workplace. Inspired by the Japanese model of organisation of work, on the background of the quick evolutions of the technologies and the rapid 33

As enterprises were state owned, standards were controlled by the Ministry of Labour, as salary ruling bases.

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pace of development of the Romanian industry in the late ‘60s and early ‘70s, the law was applied in a rigid manner and lead to side effects. Courses were scholastic, expositive, knowledge based, usually repeating the information already acquired in initial training and, most of all, included ideological propaganda. These features lead to identification of such courses with another dictatorial absurd measure and made them subject to many popular jokes. In 1990 the system was simply dropped naturally. This way, training in enterprises became obsolete and the new employers installed themselves in the new economic lines with the concept that competences were the responsibility of the worker and enterprises were not directly concerned with their improvement. The idea that it is easier to find better competences by recruitment on the labour market, along with the echo of the old image of the inefficient and useless communist CVT contributed to the enhancement of this mentality. At the same time, the lack of incentives in the national strategies did not encourage organisation of training, while the slow pace of the economic development, negative before 1999, did not allow many enterprises but survival strategies, human resource development meaning usually trying not to fire people. Especially that training is costly and may lead to the improvement of competences for competitors, who can afford better salaries instead of organising training. Different research results confirm this image: –

–

– – – –

CVTS 2 placed Romania on the last position in EU Member States and candidate countries – at the time, only 11 per cent of the enterprises declared having done some training during the year 199934, this low score being explained, among others, by the negative development rate that Romania had until 1999; LFS placed again Romania on the last position in Europe, with rates around 1.5 per cent of the adult population involved in LLL activities – eventually, in 2006 Romania overpassed Bulgaria, with a rate of 1.8 per cent; Different studies on strategies adopted by companies with respect to skills development have consistent conclusions35: Limited number of companies with systemic HRD approach; High awareness of changes in business environment but reactive, survival strategy less than proactive, success strategy; Administrative and consultative role of HR department, less than strategic one.

The positive trend of the economy in the years 2000, with the sharpening of the concurrence on sound bases and the increase of investments lead to the beginning of a change in the strategies of the enterprises, training began, slowly, to be seen as a development measure, corresponding to specific needs and consolidating the market position. The model of the transnational companies, coming in Romania with a sophisticated culture of training, and the process of integration to the European Union, with accompanying measures putting a strong emphasis on training, supported this attitudinal shift. A small amount of enterprises began to invest regularly in training, some of them – usually the larger ones – building their own internal training system. National policies encouraged this trend, on one side by stipulating obligativity of training in specific areas (for instance, a very new regulation concerns work health and safety, operating for all economic agents36), on the other by adding new incentives and mechanisms meant to promote training – yet, far from being sufficient: For instance, enterprises are allowed to account their training expenses as production costs37. Moreover, part of 34 Main results of CVTS2: CZ 69 per cent, EE 63 per cent, LV 53 per cent, SI 48 per cent, LT 43 per cent, PL 39 per cent, HU 37 per cent, BG 28 per cent, RO 11 per cent; some EU Member States at the time: DK 96 per cent, S 91 per cent, NL 88 per cent, FIN 82 per cent, IRL 79 per cent, DE 75 per cent, A 72 per cent, LUX 71 per cent, B 70 per cent, E 36 per cent, P 22 per cent – Eurostat, Statistics in Focus, Theme 32/2002. 35 Social Impact of CVT, 2001, Skills audit survey, 2004, HR Profile, 2006. 36 Law no. 319/2006 on health and safety of work and its consecutive norms. 37 Government Ordinance no. 129/2000 on adult vocational training, republished.

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the training can be subsidised from the unemployment fund, under specific conditions, especially when the training is undertaken directly by the enterprise itself (unfortunately, these conditions are very beaurocratic and employers are not encouraged to apply for these subsidies)38. The regulation of adult training39 stipulates the possibility that training centres cooperate with enterprises for the practical training, promoting involvement of the enterprises by assuring trainers/tutors for the work-based training or even by becoming themselves accredited training providers, obtaining thus the capacity to offer nationally recognised certificates. At the same time, the law stipulates that enterprises have the right to organise their internal training, issuing certificates recognised within their internal system (a part from qualification programmes, because labour regulations do not recognise work records but if based on recognised qualification certificates), which is meant to encourage enterprises to develop training corresponding to their own needs, without any related external bureaucracy. A special element in this legislation is of particular interest for us: trainers in accredited adult training are supposed to be certified, until 2010. Even if a specific system was not defined to that respect, the existing official/accredited systems for initial and continuing training of teachers and trainers should be valued, so their status enhanced, as there is no fundamental difference between the training of trainers in enterprises and trainers in CVT centres and in vocational education. The adoption of the new Code of Labour40 introduced the obligativity for enterprises to develop their own training plan, agreed and monitored in cooperation with the trade unions/representative of the employees. Moreover, employees are entitled to have a training programme at least once in two years and if the enterprise is not assuring it, they have the right to ask for a paid training leave, up to 10 working days. We may expect from this to see an explosion of training done by enterprises, out of which part being developed with internal means. But, as these provisions are accompanied neither by incentives, nor by strong regulative measures (the law does not say what happens if employers do not fulfil these obligations), its effects are rather weak until now. In 2005, a new law of apprenticeship was adopted41, trying to reintroduce enterprises and work based learning in the initial training system. The law’ entered into force in 2006, when its methodological norms were approved, but no effects were recorded until now. It is important to know that regulations include stipulations related to the competences of trainers consistent with aforementioned CVT regulation. Since 2004, with the increased speed of the measures supporting integration of Romania to the European Union, many of the related programmes included specific actions/chapters dedicated to training – Sapard, ISPA, Phare. Among them, the specific Social and Economic Cohesion Phare Programme included an action dedicated to HRD measures, enterprises being encouraged to apply. The idea of the beneficial training spread better this way, and the new possibility to access European funds, where a full operational programme is dedicated to HRD, with the accompanied discussions and trainings is going to speed and deepen this trend. In conclusion, for the moment, training in enterprises remains an isolated phenomenon, being difficult to assess and describe its features, information on internal trainers being absent. There are no national regulations on internal CVT, no related statistics, research data on training done by the enterprises are not numerous and only a few side elements can be de38

Law no. 76/2002 on the unemployment security and employment stimulating system, with further modifications and consecutive norms. 39 GO no. 129/2000, republished, with further modifications and consecutive norms. 40 Law no. 53/2003, republished, with further modifications. 41 Law no. 279/2005 on apprenticeship at the workplace.

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rived from the few existing, the issue of the internal trainer being treated only in an implicit or tangent way.

2. Organisation How is the training of trainers organised, how is it embedded in the general education system and in the further education system? There are several ways of organisation of training of trainers: –

– – – –

Educational module offered by the teacher-training department of universities. It is an optional programme, based on academic accreditation rules. Based on agreements at national level (corresponding to autonomous status of universities), at present it usually includes: Educational psychology – one semester; Sciences of education – two semesters; Didactics of the speciality – one semester; Pedagogical practical training – one semester.

Not all universities have teacher training departments, but most of state owned universities do, since many students are interested about it, as the school system is an important employer and access to teaching positions (including higher education) is conditioned by having followed such a module. Many trainers in enterprises have higher education and most of them have followed this module. Accredited trainers training programmes. They have different lengths and different approaches, but they are all based the same occupational standard, approved at national level. With all the variations, the curriculum of all these training providers demonstrates that the competence units from the occupational standard are acquired at end. The certificate awarded after successful graduation of the final exam, is a nationally recognised certificate and mentions the competence units acquired. Occupational standards are elaborated (then updated) on the basis of an occupational analysis undertaken (according to a specific methodology) by experts contracted by interested entities (most of the times – big companies of the field or training providers interested by the existence of such a standard). After a process of validation, generally with the involvement of sectoral committees, wherever such a committee exists, they are approved at national level by the National Adult Training Board (NATB) and then posted on NATB’s site. The occupational standard for trainers was recently updated, the process being finalised in July 2007. According to National Register of Accredited Training providers, at the end of August 2007 there were 88 training providers accredited for continuing training programmes for the occupation of trainer, no differences being made between trainers working in training centres and trainers working in enterprises (see also next chapter ”Qualification”). Non-accredited training programmes. Usually, these are programmes offered by international training providers or by mother/sister enterprises (in multinationals or in twinning relationships). Most of the times, these programmes are run by prestigious trainers and match very closely the needs of the enterprises, coming from a similar professional context and acting in a proved successful way, desired by the host enterprise. Not only they generally stress on response to client needs and are oriented towards innovation and creativity but offer transfer of tacit knowledge as well when similar enterprises are involved. 257


There is no possibility to estimate the extent of such programmes, neither their impact, but apparently, wherever they interfere, they bring along important change in the attitudes of the professionals of the field. Assessment in competence assessment centres. A system of accreditation of prior learning is also in place in Romania, meant to validate non-formal and informal learning, and open to trainers in enterprise as well. Assessment centres are authorised by NATB to award competence certificates after assessment by means of instruments developed on the base of the occupational standards. According to the National Register of Competence Assessment Centres, there are 2 assessment centres accredited for the occupation of Trainer, but their activity is rather limited until now. However, the importance of this alternative system is increasing, so we may expect an explosion of interest for the competence assessment, as 2010 is closer and the entrance into power of the obligativity for trainers in accredited vocational training programme to be certified. Which ways do exist to become a trainer and to further develop as a trainer? The main way is to be hired as a trainer or to be given tasks to perform training activities, when trainers are not specialised only for this activity. However, some details must be considered. According to respondents in the survey, most of the times, trainers in enterprises do not fully work as trainers, their main position being different, unless they are included in the specialised compartment. This one is usually a subdivison of the HRD department, most of the times reduced to only one person. Thus, the training work is complementary or even supplementary to the main duties, as a specialist. The latter is preferred, being associated with supplementary income. Further development is generally seen as a personal issue, using different learning opportunities; sometimes, it is subject to a staff development strategy, especially when the training unit is large and specialised. Who is taking which decisions concerning the work and training of trainers? There are different approaches in who is taking what decisions on the work and training of trainers, depending on how large is the enterprise, and how wide and specialised is the department/team in which the trainers are working: it may be the general manager, the HRD manager, or the training manager. Generally, larger enterprises can afford larger and more specialised teams, but it may depend also on the organisational culture – if the training has a strong image, then teams are larger, work and training of trainers more reach and relevant. As most of the times trainers are not mainly employed as trainers, the decision on their work (and training) must be taken in cooperation with the production department/manager, because the work/training of the trainers must not interfere with their main tasks in the enterprise. It may happen that large enterprises, valuing training highly, have a very economic organisation of training – it is the case of Hilton-Athénée Palace in Romania. Hilton has not a training department, just a training manager that is doing the training needs analysis, in collaboration with the heads of the different departments and services in the company, usually along with the periodical evaluation. Then the decisions on what training is going to be done is taken in collaboration with the HRD manager; the final decision about timing is taken together with the head of the department where the trainer is working, sometimes, if the group is enough homogenous, the supervisor(s) of the trainees being also involved.

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3. Economy How is the training of trainers financed, who invests why into the training of trainers? There are several sources to be considered for financing the training of trainers, related to the different ways previously described. Training trough educational modules offered by the teacher training department of the universities – being a part of the university system, the funds come from the funding sources of the studies, part of them being subventioned by the state, part being covered by individuals. In Romania, most of the universities are state owned, studies being almost completely financed by the national budget; however; yet, all state owned universities have groups/series of students that pay by themselves their studies, the subventioned places being established yearly, according to academic performances; a part from this, scholarships are awarded by the state, sometimes by other entities as well, meant to cover also the subsistence costs – they depend both on performances and on social criteria. Most of private universities have their own scholarships and facilities systems, but rates and amounts are usually lower than in state-owned universities (fees are often lower, also). Not all private universities have a teacher training department, but reasons are different, from the lack of interest of students, in specific fields (like law, for instance) to the lack of specialists required by the academic accreditation norms. Within the CVT system, training of trainers may be financed by the individuals or by the company. For the accredited courses, an important part is paid by individuals. The CVT activity in this specific field is quite intense, which is proved also by the number of new programmes accredited in 2007 (over 20 at the national level), but most of the trainees are coming from (or acceding to) training centres and not to enterprises, and this is valid also for the training that is not paid by the individuals, training centres being themselves registered as employers. Unfortunately, there are not reliable data even to illustrate the overall participation in these courses. For the nonaccredited ToT, the financing sources are diverse. Sometimes, the training is paid directly by the enterprise, especially when speaking of multinationals or enterprises having an international management, with a culture of training embedded in their HRD concept. But many training programmes in this area are organised within bilateral exchanges or European projects, so most of the funds are coming either from external donors, or from central European funds. To notice that many European projects involve often trainers training programmes. For the accreditation of prior learning system, we cannot really speak about the funding of the training, as we speak about competences acquired in nonformal and informal way, where training is not systematic and cannot be clearly defined as a specific activity. However, certification process is paid, most of the times, by the individuals, only rarely is financed by the enterprises. This is why the system is not enough exploited – for instance two assessment centres accredited for one year42 in 2006 for the occupation of trainer and trainer of trainers did not ask for the renewal of their accreditation, because of the lack of interest of the potential clients and the idea of certifying separately trainers for trainers is now about to be dropped, being considered too complicated and not economically interesting. Overall, even if we cannot indicate any figures, we can conclude that training of company trainers is more often financed by the companies themselves only when there is a specific technical innovation involved or a legal obligativity (such as work safety and health).

42

According to performance criteria, assessments centers may be accredited for one, two or three years, with the possibility of renewal against a new evaluation.

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How much money is invested in the training of trainers (percentage/GDP(gross domestic product))? There is no information basis for this, even estimative. Who benefits from the work of trainers (average income of trainers, cost-benefit analyses per enterprise/sector/region/nation)? Average income of trainers is difficult to be estimated, since there are important discrepancies from sector to sector and from enterprise to enterprise. But generally, their work is not paid significantly more than the technical specialists in the same enterprise. Sometimes, as the work as a trainer is considered extra work, a part from the usual tasks, it involves supplementary income, but the amount is not very big. As the average income in Romania is low, even small benefits can be important for those professionals, especially in the public sector, where the wages are not so high. Cost-benefit analyses are done very rarely at enterprise level on this area and they are not available. We can only assume them to be positive overall, companies do not invest in activities that are not profitable. One should note, yet, that costs/benefits calculations are not easy, benefits are sometimes shown in long term and may have aspects that are not accountable, being more emotional than material (like employees feeling more linked to the enterprise, atmosphere at work being friendlier, people feeling connected to the development of the company) that are very important for the overall welfare of the enterprise and can be only reflected in the lower rate of staff fluctuation. This difficult accountancy makes training image easier through costs than through benefits, this is why the mentalities about the costly training are so slow to change. Which role does the work and training of trainers play as a means for economic development? There are no data to support a concrete and clear answer to this question. Generally, when enterprises use internal trainers, it is because their work counts as a means for economic development, especially when their work is related to the introduction of innovations, either technological, or organisational.

4. Selection and Allocation How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/part-time; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? There are no data to support a detailed answer. As training in enterprise is a rare phenomenon and their work is not sufficiently accounted, it can only be stressed that they are not very numerous. Gender is not an issue, trainers are usually recruited among the professionals of the domain, so if there is a certain unbalance between genders, it should reflect the general situation of the trade. About the nationality, it is certain that most of them are Romanians. In multinationals, it may happen that trainers are foreigners, especially when specific elements of the technology or organisational culture of the mother company is involved, and especially at the beginning or in stages of revision/renovation, afterwards Romanian trainers are taking over, since the language of the trainees is very important (as well as certain cultural elements related to nationality) so Romanian trainers are doing the better job. Equally, when the training is a part of an international cooperation, in bilateral projects or in European ones, the trainers are foreigners, since the background idea is the know-how transfer, coming usually from the sister/twinning enterprise to the Romanian one. It is very rarely that Romanian enterprises may be the source of the transfer, and then the trainers are 260

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Romanians – we may quote the Renault case, that used Romanian trainers for the first trainings in their new factory purchased in Ukraine and another case, of a pharmaceutical chain that extended to Bulgaria and used Romanian trainers for their first training programmes, part of them being trainers’ training ones. What are the prerequisites to become a trainer? There are no clear prerequisites to become a trainer in an enterprise. Specific certificates are not interesting for employers using trainers. Requirements are closely related to the objectives of the training. Sometimes, enterprises choose for this activity experienced workers, in order to transfer their experience to the new generations. Other times, when the main objectives of the training are about innovation and/or organisational development, other elements count – high professional skills, fresh approach, communication and empathic abilities – this is why many times trainers are younger in this situation. To be noted that age is not really a factor, but a minimum experience in the company is valued, except for the case where competence prevail, then nothing else matters. There are no rules with respect to specific competences related to training work. It is normal that a trainer in enterprise enters first a trainers’ training programme (if they have not previously participated in such a programme, or, better, have already some experience as a trainer), but, usually, professional competences are prevailing. However, to be noted that, in order to receive an official certificate in the CVT system, either through an accredited training programme or after assessment of competences in an accredited assessment centre, because trainer is mainly defined as an occupation of university level, a higher education diploma is required for entering both processes. How are trainers recruited by enterprises? There are no special recruitment strategies for hiring trainers – see below. In which main occupational areas trainers have specialised? Most of the times, trainers are specialised in technical areas, technological innovations being one of the main reasons determining enterprises to use internal trainers. Are there too many/not enough trainers in different sectors of the labour market? As training in enterprises remains a limited phenomenon, we cannot speak about too many or not enough trainers on the labour market and we cannot make general statements, even at sectoral43 level. Companies often complain about shortage of good professionals, and trainers are sometimes considered as a solution, but most of the times employers in Romania expect to find professionals on the free market and not to train them inside the enterprise. For enterprises and domains using intensively internal training, shortages may occur, but it cannot be an important problem for the moment.

5. Qualification Who determines the training contents for trainers and how are these contents found? As mentioned in the introduction, with respect to the terminology (that actually reflects the concept in action) the occupational definition of the trainer is far from being acceptable to most of the professionals of the field. The sectoral committee Education and professional training, Research-Development, Sports works on the clarification of the occupational structure related to this qualification, one of the most important steps being finalised recently – updating the occupational standard, that is used as a basis for the training in the CVT system for the accredited programmes and for assessment of the competences acquired in non-

43

In Romania, sectors related to training are the ones defined by NATB, presented in Annex 1.

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formal and informal way. Other steps in this process are depending of functioning of the national qualifications framework, now under a deep reform. To note that in the Classification of Occupations in Romania (COR), the occupation of Trainer bears the code 241205, being included in the second major group, that requires higher education. This is quite often criticised by professionals of the field, as not all types of training require higher education. In COR there are also other occupations in training, included in the major group 3, corresponding to qualification level 3, thus requiring full secondary school (labelled ”instructor”). In enterprises, tutors acting as workbased trainers for newly hired colleagues or for youngsters in initial training are often experienced qualified workers, meaning qualification level 2, even if, for the moment, this occupation is not included in COR (for further information on qualification levels, see Annex 2). The newly approved occupational standard for Trainer tries to cover different occupations, the aforementioned ones and further more (evaluator of training programmes, for instance), by introducing a new concept: compulsory/optional competences. Compulsory competence units must be demonstrated by all categories of trainers; optional competences are to be acquired and/or assessed together with or after compulsory competence units and must be demonstrated only by specific categories of trainers, with respect to their specific tasks. Trainers for trainers must demonstrate having acquired all competences, meaning compulsory specific competences in: – Planning and preparing training; – Running training; – Assessing trainees learning progress. – Optional specific competences in: – Using special training methods and techniques, – Marketing of training; – Planning training programmes; – Organising training programmes and stages; – Evaluating, revising and assuring quality of training programmes. As ways for training as a trainer are not standardised, training contents are established in different ways for the different pathways described before, the occupational standard influencing only some of them. The structure of the educational module offered by the teacher training departments of the universities is not directly connected with the occupational standard, but was subject to a national agreement between most important universities, including, as previously presented: – educational psychology – one semester; – sciences of education – two semesters; – methodics of the speciality – one semester; – pedagogical practical training – one semester. Most of trainers have higher education background, many of them having followed such a module (sometimes under different names and with slightly different structure and contents), but many times, especially for more mature trainers, they do not relate their training as trainers to these background studies. Generally, this system is criticised for being too academic and teacher centred and for not promoting innovation, thus not being enough appropriated to adult training, and especially to work-based related one.

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Accredited trainers training programmes, as previously said, have different lengths and contents, but, being based on the same occupational standard, the differences in contents cannot be but not significant. As the occupation Trainer requires higher education, only updating and specialisation programmes are organised by accredited training providers, so they are not obligatorily covering all the competence units in the standard. The certificates awarded after successful completion of an accredited programme indicate the competences acquired – partly or fully, depending on the objectives of the concrete programme. According to the official procedure, when the occupational standard is updated, the contents of the accredited training programmes are to be updated also, certificates awarded being supposed to bear the new competence units in the standard. There are no rules for non-accredited training programmes. When they are performed in an international context, the contents respect a certain general profile of the mentor/facilitator, meant to support trainees and to make them responsible about their own learning process, training being tailored on the learners’ needs. The trainers’ training respect the same general rules, so the content may differ significantly from one programme to another one, depending on the concrete situation. Which institutions are incorporated in the training of trainers and how do they cooperate? Different kind of institutions are involved in the different systems. Educational modules are run only by universities having a teacher training department, under academic accreditation. Accredited trainers training programmes are run by accredited training providers, that can be very different in type and shape – public and private organisations, commercial societies, foundations, professional associations, etc. Competence assessment centres may also be very diverse, including accredited training providers offering already accredited trainers’ training programmes. Both assessment centres currently accredited for the occupation of trainer are actually training centres, private owned, linked to important professional associations. How do trainers acquire competences (theoretical and practical knowledge, work experience)? Approaches are different in the different systems. The aforedescribed educational module is more theory oriented, based especially on traditional lectures and seminars in the subjects listed before. Practical skills are also considered, trainees having to observe a number of classes in their specific curricular area, run by experienced teachers that act as mentors (the norm is different, varying from 12 to 20). Then, trainees have to perform themselves, under the supervision of the same mentor, in a number of classes (usually they are supposed to perform 3 to 5 teaching classes). The other types of training are, generally, more practical skills oriented. As these programmes have a limited duration, they do not pretend to undertake a full algorithm of acquisition of all the competences, but to begin a change process that is supposed to be finalised in training practice afterwards, stressing on the most important aspects of the training act – case studies, simulations and role-plays being favourite methods used. Sometimes, specialists in training of trainers consider that specific abilities cannot be trained, like empathy and interpersonal (charismatical) skills, but such capacities are not fundamental for all types of training. For the accreditation of prior learning it is not important how the competences were acquired, but usually they are acquired through work experience in facilitating non-accredited training

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programmes, and also through individual learning, either occasional or, sometimes, in nonaccredited training of trainers programmes. How useful is what has been learned? Generally, training of trainers is not crucial for trainers in enterprises, their appointment/enrolment, promotion and benefits being not directly related, most of the times, to a specific training of trainers. As already said, the academic system is often criticized for being too theoretical and teacher centred and for not promoting innovation, thus not being enough appropriated to adult training. Sometimes, accredited training programmes are also criticized for being superficial and, sometimes, too theoretical. Some prejudices persist that trainers´ work is more art then skill, learning is limited to technical aspects, the core of the ”profession” being not subject to progress through normal learning process, maybe transferred in a subtle way, from direct examples. Which certificates can be gained, in which duration? For the academic system, the disciplines are mentioned in the academic record of the diploma obtained, after graduation. In special cases, a paper certifying the completion of the educational module may be awarded by the teachers training department of the University. For the accredited programmes for training of trainers, the duration is not regulated, so duration may vary from 80 to over 300 hours. As a university degree is required, part of the competences in the standard may be considered already acquired. This is an important criticism brought regularly to the CVT system. How important is a formal qualification/certificate? Are qualifications /certificates internationally acknowledged? Most of the times, formal qualification is not important, since employers are interested by the results of the trainers and not by their certificates. In other domains, rules oblige employers to ask for a formal certificate in order to hire somebody in a specialised job. Trainers can be easily hired as technical or administrative staff, especially that training is most of the times a special task of the professionals involved, so it is not directly reflected in the labour norms. This is why formal certificates do not count very much. However, living in a diploma culture, people usually prefer to have certificates (especially officially recognised ones), this is why training programmes in this domain are quite successful until now and assessment centres are expanding. Nationally recognised certificates are recognised also at international level, by means of bilateral or multilateral agreements. However, a part the aspects discussed before, the work of the trainer is deeply culturally and linguistically embedded, so, for the moment, international labour market is not enough important for trainers, unless for professional development and career progress, in contexts that value training – especially in multinationals, training work may be a basis for an international career, as it happens with Hilton or Lafarge. Even in such cases, what is really valued is less the certificate, formal or not, but the experience, validated by the company itself. Which qualifications do have those who are responsible for the training of trainers and how do they acquire these qualifications? In the academic system, they have academic qualification and status. In other systems, qualifications may vary, depending on the training tasks usually performed. Generally, trainers have certifications at least equal with the ones of the trainees, being specialists in the field they are taking care of as trainers. For the moment, as already said, a university degree is required for the accredited training or assessment providers. Quite often,,

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trainers involved in the trainers training programmes have participated in international trainers training programmes. COR includes the occupation of trainer for trainers and a national standard exists for this occupation, but after the approval of the new occupational standard for Trainer, the previously approved standard for Trainer for trainers becomes obsolete, as trainer for trainers is only a very good trainer, having acquired all competences defined for a trainer, thus being able to train other trainers. Actually, the sectoral committee for education and vocational training, research and development, and sports began the procedure for taking out this occupation from COR and to cancel the present occupational standard, the use of the new standard for Trainer being recommended for the programmes currently accredited for this occupation – the official request for the latter is under analysis by NATB. In connection with this process, the assessment centres accredited in 2006 for this occupation have already renounced to ask for a renewal of the accreditation (awarded for one year).

6. Integration Which functions of social integration are fulfilled through the work and training of trainers? Generally, apart rare cases, social integration function within the work and training of trainers in enterprise is related to the integration of the new comers and to the promotion of the organisational culture. No wider social integration functions are foreseen, unless in specific programmes with regard to special needs groups (like disabled or Roma ethnical) or special problems (like diversification of opportunities in rural areas or mono-industrials zones). How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? Most of the time, there is no special recognition of the work of trainers, a part specific cases, where it is considered to influence directly on the success of the trainees or of the enterprise – in sales, in domains with high degree of technological innovation or in enterprises valuing training (see the Hilton example discussed before). Which is the unemployment rate of trainers? There is no calculation on the unemployment rate for trainers, as trainer is usually a secondary occupation and not a primary one, so there is no record for it.

7. Innovation How is the quality and efficiency of trainers training assessed? In enterprises with a strong emphasis on training, the quality and efficiency of trainers is assessed against strict criteria by means of well defined instruments. As they are part of the organisational technology, they are not transparent to outsiders. In most of the enterprises, the work of the trainers is rarely assessed and the methodology is not strictly defined. Is there research about the work and training of trainers and what does it suggest? The research on training in enterprise is not very extended, and it usually stresses on general issues of training in enterprises, information on the concrete work of trainers being, most of it, indirect, and the one on training of trainers being actually absent. A study on training of trainers was elaborated in 2005 on the training of trainers within the Romanian-German project ”Quality assurance of adult vocational training in Romania”, but with no specific regard on the trainers in enterprises. It suggested the revision of the occupa265


tional standard for trainer and a concrete proposal was advanced to NATB. The recent modification of the standard is based on the results of that study. Which are weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers? Where is a need for reform? A part from the revision of the occupational standard, the revision of the occupational structure was also proposed, with diversification of the different occupations related to training and a more refined classification with respect to qualifications levels, distinguishing between tutor, mentor, trainer, curriculum developer, facilitator, training needs auditor, learning material designer, evaluator of training programmes, etc. Part of these occupations were proposed from the perspective of trainers in enterprise – mentor, tutor – other being too specialised for the size of most of the units in charge with training in enterprises. At general level, valid also for enterprises willing to accredit their training activities, in Romania there is a need for the establishment of a clear system for the training of trainers, responding to the legal requirements of certification of trainers in 2010. Are there any ‘good practice examples’ at company or sectoral level? From the information gathered in desk and field research no good practice examples could be identified. As long as the overall image of training in enterprise remains to be a costly luxury, appropriate only for big companies and multinationals, the few good practice cases are too specific to be given as an example.

8. Instead of conclusions The present study could give but a thin, superficial image about who are, at present, trainers in enterprises in Romania, there where they do exist. The limited resources allocated could not allow for a larger analysis, this is why the relevance of the elements in this study remain narrow, especcially that in Romania an important reform of the qualification system is now on the run. A more significant study could be based on extended sources and a more comprehensive methodology. It should begin with investigating on how (and how much) training is organised at workplace in Romania, then analyse deeper the trainers’ profile and their concrete situation in a wide range of contexts and eventually, conclude how their professional status could be enhanced.

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Bibliography (selection) Adult vocational training in Romania – explorative study. Bucharest: Consiliul National de Formare Profesională a Adulţilor, 2001. Anchetă asupra forţei de muncă în gospodării (AMIGO) (Labour Force Survey in the Households) – 2000. Bucharest: National Institute for Statistics, 2001. Caracteristici ale formării profesionale continue în România (Characteristics of CVT in Romania), Bucharest, National Institute for Statistic Research 2001 (CVTS 2) Skills audit and training policies in Romanian Enterprises. Bucharest: National Romanian Observatory, 2004. Social impact of CVT. Bucharest: National Romanian Observatory, 2001. From Internet sources (most of them – only in Romanian): legal texts Law no. 2/1971 on upgrading vocationa/ training of working personnel in socialist economical units – www.cdep.ro/pls/legis. Law no.84/1995 – Law of Education, republished – www.old.edu.ro Common order no. 138/1949/1995 of Minister of Labour, Social Solidarity and President of the National Institute for Statistics on the approval of Classification of Occupations in Romania, with further modifications – www.mmssf.ro Government Ordinance no. 129/2000 on adult vocational training, republished and consecutive regulations on accreditation of learning outputs acquired in formal training programmes or in nonformal and informal contexts – www.cnfpa.ro Government Decision no. 899/2002 on the organisation of postgraduate medical and pharmaceutical education – www.cmr.ro Law no. 53/2003 – Code of Labour, republished – www.mmssf.ro Law no. 288/2004 on the organization of university studies – www.aracis.ro Order of the Minister of Education and Research no. 4611/2005 for the approval of Methodology for Accreditation of CVT Programmes of personnel in Preuniversity Education – www.old.edu.ro/cnfp. Tripartite Agreement on the National Qualifications Framework (2005) – www.cnfpa.ro. Other documents CVT Offer Survey – www.mmssf.ro. Labour Force Survey – 2006 – www.insse.ro. HR Profile 2006 – research report – www.business-edu.ro . Methodology for Training of Trainers – portal.mmssf.ro. National Register of Accredited Adult Training Providers – www.cnfpa.ro National Register of Competence Assessment Centres– www.cnfpa.ro Formator (Occupational standard – Occupation: Trainer) – www.cnfpa.ro Evaluation of Impact: Small Grants Scheme for HRD Measures, Phare Programme 2004 – Social an Economic Cohesion Component – www.mmssf.ro

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Annex 1 – Sectoral committees (according to sectoral definition decided by the National Adult Training Board at 08.07.2004, updated at 25.01.2007) 1. Agriculture, fishing and fishing industry, hunting 2. Environment 3. Mining and quarrying of energy-production materials, Energy 4. Manufacture of chemicals and petroleum products 5. Manufacture of equipment: electrical, electronics, automatics 6. Manufacture of basic metals, fabricated metal products, non-metallic mineral products 7. Manufacture of machinery and equipment, fine mechanics 8. Forestry and wood processing (furniture), manufacture of paper and paper products 9. Manufacture of materials for construction (cement), glass, fine ceramics 10. Construction 11. Food industry, beverages and tobacco 12. Textiles and clothing industry, shoes and leather products 13. Transports 14. Information technology, communications, post office 15. Mass-media, Publishing and printing 16. Retail trade 17. Financial intermediation, banking, insurance (not established until now) 18. Public administration and services 19. Tourism, hotels, restaurants 20. Education and professional training, Research-Development, Sports 21. Health, sanitation, social services 22. Culture, crafts and traditional arts Other industries and services (not established until now).

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Annex 2 – Qualification levels in Romania Qualification levels, according to Government Decision no. 1829/2004 Level 1: the person is responsible for the execution of his or her own activity. Their work involves mainly routine, simple activities. Vocational training offering access to this level: usually, compulsory education and vocational training. Vocational initiation is acquired either by initial vocational training, in the apprentice school, or by a vocational training programme within the adult vocational training system. Level 2: the person is responsible for the execution of his or her own activity. There is also a collective responsibility within the activities carried out, which involve the cooperation with the colleagues. The work includes a large variety of activities in various contexts. Some of these activities are complex or non-routine. Vocational training offering access to this level: at least compulsory education and vocational qualification by initial vocational training – vocational school – or by vocational training programmes in the adult vocational training system. Level 3: the person is responsible for the execution of his or her own activity, but also for the tasks of the whole group, having co-ordination and control attributions. The work includes a large variety of complex, non-routine activities, in various contexts. Vocational training offering access to this level: high school education – technological and vocational strand, or post-secondary education, or high school and a specialised vocational training programme in the adult vocational training system. Level 4: the person is responsible for the execution of his or her own activity, as well as for the tasks of the group he or she belongs to; they can carry out managerial-type activities. Their work involves the application of knowledge in a large variety of complex activities, carried out in a great variety of contexts, combining diverse procedures or defining new ones. Professional training offering access to this level: technical post-secondary training by university education. Level 5: the person is responsible for the execution of his or her own activity and for those of the group he or she co-ordinates, having a high level of personal autonomy. Work involves the application of a complex system of fundamental principles in a large variety of contexts, often unpredictable. It involves high-level knowledge and competencies, related to the occupational domains, but also independent of them. Main characteristics of this level are: the capacity of analysis, diagnosis, structure, planning, execution and evaluation. Professional training offering access to this level: university and post-university education. Correspondence Qualification levels – ISCED – Tripartite Agreement on NQF Vocational qualification level ISCO 88COM UE – 85/368/EEC 1 2 3

2 3 4

4 5

5 6

Educational levels ISCED 97 First cycle of lyceum / arts and craft school Full vocational school (completion year) Upper secondary education (lyceum), Postsecondary pre-university education or Tertiary non-university education University education (Tertiary University education)

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Country Report SLOVAKIA Sabine Archan & Bettina Lehner Institut für Berufsbildung (ibw), Austria 1. Background and country context National economy Slovakia has transformed from a centrally planned economy to a modern market economy. Major privatisations are nearly complete and foreign investment has picked up. Slovakia is among the most attractive countries in the EU for foreign investors mainly because of its low labour costs (Slovakia has the lowest labour costs in the European Union) and low tax rates. Slovakia plans to adopt the European currency on 1 January 2009. Multiple reasons entailed a GDP growth of 6 percent in 2005, the fourth highest rate in the EU after the three Baltic states. In 2006, Slovakia reached the highest economic growth among the members of OECD. Nevertheless the unemployment rate of 8.9 percent in March 2007 still remains among the highest in the EU. Despite a sufficient number of researchers and a solid secondary educational system, Slovakia, as well as other post-communist countries, still faces many challenges in the field of modern knowledge society. The business and public research and development expenditures are deeply below EU average. IVET and CVET Slovakian pupils start secondary school after the primary school education, usually at the age of 15. The second stage of primary school in Slovakia is comparable with lower secondary education in other countries. The first year of secondary school attendance is usually the last year of compulsory education which lasts up to the end of the school year when the pupil reaches the age of 16. There are state, church and private secondary schools in Slovakia. They differ in the way of funding, but all of them have the same bodies responsible for their quality. These are school inspectors (Štátna školská inšpekcia) and the State Vocational Education Institute (Štátny inštitút odborného vzdelávania – ŠIOV). ŠIOV is a professional, methodological, pedagogical, advisory, coordinative and educational institution of the Ministry of Education. It acts as the professional and pedagogical guarantor for the issues of vocational education and training for the whole network of secondary vocational and specialised schools. There are different types of vocational study programmes available as full-time studies, parttime or evening studies and post-secondary studies. There are two types of secondary schools offering full-time vocational education and training: stredné odborné učilištia (secondary vocational schools) and stredné odborné školy (secondary specialised schools). Both of them provide different degrees of secondary education. Some of the secondary schools enable štúdium popri zamestnaní (part-time, evening study), which is meant especially for those already involved in working process. A post-secondary study (Pomaturitné a nadstavbové štúdium) means a study at a secondary education institution after the student has already obtained maturita certificate within his previous study. The post-secondary study may have qualification or specialisation purpose. The qualification purpose means that the graduate will reach a certificate that will be “higher” than maturita (e.g. absolutorium). The specialisation purpose is getting vocational qualification that allows to perform a specific occupation, but represents the same qualification degree: úplné stredné vzdelanie. The specific occupation can not be performed without completion of such a study after the first maturita. 271


Vocational in-company training as such is not provided in Slovakia. Initial vocational training is an integral part of secondary school system in Slovakia and even continuous vocational training is often carried out by vocational teachers and vocational schools. All in all, vocational education and training in Slovakia is still strongly school focused, and although there are good examples of cooperation between schools and enterprises, in-company training as such is still rather the exception than the standard. The Slovak National Observatory (SNO) was established by the contract between the European Training Foundation (ETF) and the State Institute of Vocational Education and Training (SIOV). SIOV has been appointed by the Ministry of Education of SR and the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and the Family as the host institute of SNO. The office of SNO is operating since 15 July 1998. Since then SNO has assisted in elaboration of several studies, and elaborated and submitted to ETF the set of statistical data - key indicators, fact sheet and other tailor made information. This contact might be useful for further investigations on this matter. See http://www.siov.sk/siov/dokhtm/7sno/snoen/sno.html for more information.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? 2.1) How is the training of trainers organised, how is it embedded in the general education system and in the further education system? Vocational education and training in Slovakia is, similar to VET in the Czech Republic, dominantly school-based. This is even more so in initial vocational education and training. Nevertheless companies are sometimes involved in the practical training of VET school students. There are generally two options: In-company training can be carried out by trainers at educational establishments of companies. And second company instructors sometimes provide practical training for students based on an agreement between school and company. Both types of trainings would typically take place at the workplace of the regarding company. The first option, training at educational establishments of companies, comprises centres of practical training, which originally aim at practical training of students of secondary vocational schools and centres of vocational practice which originally aim at practical training of students of secondary specialised schools. Their employees are mostly fully qualified trainers. The centres are recognised by education sector legislation and are usually established by educational authorities or by companies. Trainers at educational establishments of companies therefore usually are employees of the establishing enterprise. The second option of training by company instructors is less institutionalised but based on common interest and professional contacts between schools and enterprises. Based on an agreement between a school and a company and often initiated by students, practical training can be provided directly by a company under the supervision of the school, however on company premises and performed by company staff (experienced professionals – called “instructors”) who may or may not have pedagogical qualifications. They are just intuitively assessed as appropriate for working with youth. While experience and pedagogical competence is expected but not required, instructors need a respective professional qualification. 2.2) Which ways do exist to become a trainer and to further develop as a trainer? There are no specific regulations concerning trainers in continuing vocational education and training.

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3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? 3.1) How is the training of trainers financed, who invests why into the training of trainers? Not much data available. The work of professional trainers is usually based on an agreement with a respective company or institution, as they usually provide training at a workplace. Trainers in continuing vocational education and training at companies or institutions usually have an employer based status and regulation, as they carry out trainings within companies or the training facilities of companies.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? 4.1) How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/parttime; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? Numbers are available for school based training only. Out of the usual school types only in SOPs (stredisko odbornje praxe, centre of vocational practice, that provides practical training) trainings usually take place outside school. Therefore only SOPs come at least close to the concept of in-company training. In the school year 2005/2006 there were 29 such centres of vocational practice throughout Slovakia with all in all 226 employed trainers and instructors. 4.2) What are the prerequisites to become a trainer? Not much data available. Company instructors do not need to meet any formal requirement that shows experience and pedagogical competence. They are just intuitively assessed as appropriate for working with youth. But in contrast they do need a respective professional qualification. The work of professional trainers who provide training at a workplace is usually based on an agreement with a respective company or institution. The qualification will be regulated by the sectoral regulation of professional qualification. Pedagogical qualification might be required by respective sectoral regulation. Trainers in continuing vocational education and training at companies or institutions usually have an employer based status and regulation. 4.3) How are trainers recruited by enterprises? No data available as vocational in-company training as such is generally not provided in Slovakia.

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Country Report SWEDEN Martti Majuri & Kristiina Volmari HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Finland 1. Background and country context In Sweden the Parliament (Riksdagen) is the country's highest decision-making body. Sweden is divided into 290 municipalities (kommuner), and 21 county councils (landsting), including the municipality of Gotland, which does not have its own county council. In recent years it has become increasingly clear that unemployment among certain groups (e.g. youth and recent immigrants) presents new challenges for the education and training system. There is a need for a better match between education and training outputs and labour market needs. It has also become increasingly clear that there has been too little emphasis on vocational education and training (VET). To this end, the Government has introduced a new form of advanced vocational education (www.ky.se) and will improve the quality of VET at the upper secondary level in association with the new upper secondary system from the autumn of 2007. There is also agreement that language training for immigrants needs to be improved. The Swedish education and training system is highly decentralised. The decision-making power lies mainly with the local administration, even the teacher salaries and workloads are negotiated locally. Upper secondary vocational education and training has been provided in the same institutions as general upper secondary education since the 1970s. Within these, vocational programmes are offered. Also adult education often share the same buildings (workshops, classrooms etc.) and many teachers teach in both institutions. The introduction of a new upper secondary apprenticeship training programme has been proposed as an alternative within national vocationally oriented programmes at upper secondary school. This apprenticeship training will have the same knowledge goals as schoolbased programmes and provide the pupils with good knowledge in the school’s core subjects and programme-specific subjects. Six pilot schools experiment this for the launching of the apprenticeship training programme nationwide in July 2007. Apprenticeship training will be introduced. The rationale is that the quality of VET must be improved. Enterprises need qualified and skilled workers whose competences match the needs of the labour market. Enterprises must take responsibility for high quality education, but they will also receive funding and a better qualified work force. The training will be introduced in autumn 2008. There will be the option for the students to reduce the proportion of general subject studies. However, they will have to acquire a minimum of general studies, enabling them to build on these later to gain eligibility for higher education. According to expert interview 8 million euros will be provided by the state for the training of trainers in apprenticeship training.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? On-the-job learning has recently been introduced in Sweden. In a pilot experiment, part of the curriculum (approx. 30 per cent) for a national programme is replaced by lärande i arbetslivet = LIA (learning at work), which includes hands-on/workplace training. For this form of specially designed programmes it is presumed that the workplace provides the trainers they find suitable for the task - no general requirements exist for the trainers. 275


When work place-based education is part of a continuation course, the workplace is likewise presumed to provide the trainers. In advanced vocational training (KY) the only requirement is that "Teachers and trainers are to be competent for the teaching they are to provide, either by education or by experience". In a pilot project for apprenticeship training for adults, the trainers “must be professional craftsmen and each of them is approved by the respective crafts organisation”. Trainers are considered formally external but nevertheless a part of the educational system. Although no formal, initial, pre-service training exists for IVET and CVET trainers, some facilitators offer introductory courses for trainers. The way the trainers have been introduced varies, the extremes being a three-day basic education within school for new trainers on the one hand, and four-hour information after work on the other. Distance education via Internet has been used in some cases. According to the surveys, the main focus of these introductory courses has been the objectives for the workplace-based training. According to expert interview, the work with training of trainers will start in a year or two.

3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? When introducing the apprenticeship in 2008 there are some plans for funding. Enterprises that receive, train and instruct trainees will receive funding form the municipality. The funding must be used both for the training of the trainees as well as the trainers. The municipality will receive 25,000 Swedish crowns per year and apprenticeship place. Altogether the investment will be 515 million SEK in three years. Of this funding 450 million SEK is reserved for the apprenticeship training and 75 million SEK for the training of trainers.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? Employers are free to allocate the trainer they see appropriate. Cf above point 2).

5. How are trainers qualified? Cf above point 2).

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? According to the expert interviews the appreciation of trainers and vocational training as well could be higher.

7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? It seems that the role of the trainers varies depending on the company. There is no exact information on the methods the trainers use.

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Country Report TURKEY Murat Çağatay LIDEA Leadership, Turkey 1. Background and country context44 Vocational education in Turkey has deep-seated roots dating back to the Professional Guilds which came out as trade organizations in the 13th century. These Guilds had economic and social responsibilities as well as responsibilities for organising the general and vocational training of the workers. The apprenticeship training system today is based on the Professional Guilds. The establishment of vocational education schools in the modern sense started in the 19th century. In the initial years of establishment these schools were established, financed and managed by local administrations without any intervention from the central administration. After the establishment of the Republic (1923) these vocational schools along with all other schools came under the management of the central authority. Starting in the last years of the 1940s, importance was placed on the training of skilled labour force with the setting up of vocational courses. Starting in the 1960s, it is observed that in addition to vocational courses, importance was placed on 1–2 year practical trade schools to which primary school graduates could attend. Vocational high school in the 1960s was established as schools of 5 year duration after the completion of 5 year primary schools. The duration was later put up to 6 years. In the 1970s 4 year technical high schools were also included into the system. The system was restructured with the Basic Law on National Education no. 1739 enacted in 1973. With the Law no. 2089 enacted in 1977 apprenticeship training was included to the system. With the Law on Vocational Education no.3308 enacted in 1986, initial vocational education has been restructured to have a system integrity including all “formal”, “non-formal vocational education” and “apprenticeship training”. Social partners have been given important roles in the planning, implementation and evaluation of formal, non-formal vocational education and apprenticeship training with this Law. For this purpose, Vocational Education Council at national level and Provincial Vocational Education Councils at provincial level have been established. The public training centres are the main institutions offering non-formal education services. These institutions which became wide spread in the 1960s were given the responsibility of providing services for the development of the society. In this respect, public training centres have organised social and cultural courses with emphasis on literacy courses and assisted those with low educational attainment levels in acquiring a skill through vocational courses. Under the Non-formal Education Project financed by the World Bank and implemented in the 1980s, the restructuring of these institutions to train skilled labour force required by the industry was targeted. Although some public training centres were very successful in providing services to the labour market, in general this objective could not be realised.

44

Initial Vocational Education and Training in Turkey, Aişe Akpınar, October 2004, Ankara.

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Initial Vocational Education and Training The Turkish education system has been organised according to the Basic Law on National Education no. 1739 enacted in 1973. Although some changes have been made over the passing period, the basic structure has not been seriously changed. According to the Law no.1739, the objective of vocational and technical education is to prepare individuals for an occupation, higher education or life and labour market. The Law states that vocational and technical education comprises two basic parts, namely, “formal” and “non-formal” education. Law on Vocational Education no. 3308 enacted in 1986 has rearranged vocational and technical education. The initial vocational education and training (IVET) comprises the following: – Formal secondary vocational and technical education, – Apprenticeship training, – Post secondary vocational and technical education. In the existing system there are three pathways to acquire a profession. These are listed below: – Formal education, – Apprenticeship training and – Non-formal education. Initial vocational education in Turkey starts after 8 years of compulsory basic education. Students complete their compulsory education at 13–14 years of age. The entry age to formal vocational and technical high schools is 14–15. Under normal circumstances, students graduate from these schools at 17–18 years of age. Formal vocational and technical education institutions are divided into two categories, namely, 4-year vocational high schools and 4-year technical high schools. These schools implement vocational and technical education programmes. In addition there are comprehensive high schools that implement both general and vocational/technical education programmes. The Law on Vocational Education no. 3308 provides for the skills training of secondary vocational and technical education students at enterprises and the necessary infrastructure for this purpose has been prepared. The period allocated to skills training in the last grade of vocational high schools is in general 24 hours per week. Thus, students are given the opportunity to receive their skills training three days a week at enterprises. In order to enter apprenticeship training the student must be 15 years old. Students who have completed their compulsory education before turning 15 are accepted into apprenticeship training as candidate apprentice. Apprenticeship training is given at vocational education centres. Completion of compulsory basic education is also a requirement for entry to non-formal vocational education. However, those who have left compulsory education before graduation may enter non-formal vocational education once they are out of formal education age. Non-formal vocational education services are offered at institutions established for this reason such as Public Training Centres. These services may also be offered by formal education institutions when the need arises. Furthermore there are vocational and technical education centres where formal, non-formal vocational and technical education as well as apprenticeship training is given. A large proportion of initial vocational education services in Turkey are given by the MoNE (Except at Post Secondary Vocational Schools, PSVS). Almost all vocational and technical education high schools, all vocational education centres that offer apprenticeship training as 278

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well as the majority of institutions that offer non-formal vocational education are connected to the MoNE. The number of vocational education high schools operating under other ministries is only 5. The number of vocational and technical education high schools belonging to the private sector in the 2003–2004 academic years is 22. When we take into account the fact that there are 3681 vocational and technical education high schools offering education in the same academic year, the place of other organizations other than MoNE and the private sector could be better understood. Individuals who successfully complete vocational and technical high schools get a diploma. This diploma gives the beholder the right for transition to work life or to higher education. In apprenticeship training “journeymenship certificate” and “mastership certificate” are given. Those who have “journeymenship certificate” may work as journeymen and those who have “mastership certificate” may work as masters. It is observed that in the recent years universities are placing more importance on non-formal education services through the continuous training centres that they have established. In addition, some local administrations, professional and public organizations also offer nonformal education services. It is noteworthy to underline the developments in the vocational courses organised by the private sector. Furthermore, some large private enterprises and public organizations have in-service training units for the training of their own personnel. Some public and private organizations organise non-formal education services in order to provide in-service training of their own personnel. Furthermore, there are some training units established together by public, private and professional organizations to meet this demand (for example Turkish Institute for Industrial Management, TÜSSİDE). PSVSs carry out their services under the coordination of the Higher Education Council (HEC). They are established within state universities and foundation universities. Of the students in post secondary vocational education 97 per cent are in schools connected to state universities. Recent developments The main developments in IVET that affect or will affect the system are summarized: –

–

Two important regulatory arrangements regarding vocational and technical education were made in 2004. The first one is the annulment of the two articles of the Law no. 3308 and the second one is the new arrangements made in the TOBB (The Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey) Law regarding vocational education. The Constitutional Court has annulled the sub-paragraph of Provisional Article 1 of Law no. 3308 stating “the direct issuance of mastership certificate to those who own a company or those working as a master in a company in one of the recognised occupations and provinces in apprenticeship training on the date when they were recognised”. With the new legal situation, individuals will be able to get mastership and journeymenship certificate only after an examination. The annulment decision has ended the debates on people receiving certificates without having the necessary knowledge and skills.

The tradesmen and craftsmen have led the way concerning the active role of professional organizations in vocational education. With the arrangements in the Law on Tradesmen and Craftsmen no. 507 made in 1991, TESK (The Confederation of Turkish Tradesmen and Craftsmen) and its sub-organizations were given the right to deliver apprenticeship training and issue certificates in unrecognised occupations. The Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey (TOBB), the largest employer organization with regards their production and employment capacity, have also made a similar arrangement in its Law. The arrangements made with regards vocational education in the Law on Turkish Union of Chambers of Commerce and Industry on 1 June 2004 is summarised below: 279


–

–

– –

– –

Chambers of Commerce and Industry active at provincial level will be able to open vocational courses or assist the already existing ones with the permission and under the supervision of MoNE (Ministry of National Education). In addition, working on the development and direction of vocational and technical education has become one of the duties of these organizations. Chambers of commerce and industry will be able to issue certificates in unrecognised occupations under apprenticeship training (those not recognised under Law no. 3308) at companies of their members. For companies registered at chambers of commerce and industry, mastership certificate will not be required to set up a company (Article 102). TOBB will be able to establish universities, post-secondary education schools, vocational and technical education institutions or establish partnerships with existing ones to train skilled labour force required by the industry (Article 56). TOBB will guide the vocational education services offered by chambers of commerce and industry to achieve harmony between them (Article 56). Chambers of commerce and industry and TOBB will be able to establish a foundation to set up education-training institutions (Article 80).

With the amendment made in the TOBB Law, the provision stating “mastership certificate foreseen under Law No. 3008 will not be required of those registering to trade registry” has been added. Article 30 of the Law no. 3308 states that those who possess mastership certificate or those employing an individual with a mastership certificate may establish a company and that the permitting authority has to ask for this certificate. When these two provisions are evaluated together it could be said that those who set up a company after registering at Chambers of Commerce and Industry are not required to have a mastership certificate whereas those who are registered to Chambers of Tradesmen and Craftsmen have to have a mastership certificate to have the right to set up a company. It is believed that this arrangement will have a negative impact on all work carried out to encourage vocational education. It is believed that this arrangement may harm the image of VET. In addition, contradicting the equalitarian principles of the Constitution it is thought that serious problems may arise in implementation through unfair competition among enterprises active in the same sector. Placing agriculture vocational education schools, which were connected to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, and health vocational education schools which were connected to the Ministry of Health under the Ministry of National Education is another important development that took place in 2004. Thus almost all vocational education high schools have been gathered under the Ministry of National Education. Under the EU financed Strengthening of Vocational Education and Training Project (SVET) the first years of vocational/technical high schools and general high schools are being jointly structured as “orientation year”. Previously the social security premiums of those who started apprenticeship training at the age of 19 and over had to be paid by the worker and the employer. As of April 2004, with the legal arrangements made, these premiums are being paid by the State. It is believed that this arrangement will encourage participation in apprenticeship training. One of the most important problems the students face when choosing a profession is not having sufficient information regarding occupations. In addition, it could be said that there are serious shortcomings in training, guidance and counselling services to assist students in choosing a profession best suited to their interests, aptitudes and competences. Taking these issues into consideration, İŞKUR (Turkish Employment Institution) has prepared a protocol of cooperation which will assist in integrating the occupational guidance services that has been offered since 1992 with training and employment systems. The protocol concerned 280

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has been signed on the 26 October 2004 by employer and employee organizations as well as related public organizations. Another important development observed under secondary vocational and technical education is the “Follow-up of Vocational and Technical Education Graduates Project”. The objective of the project which started in 2004 and which concluded in 2005 was the regular follow up of vocational and technical education graduates using modern information communication technologies. The quality of the education provided, level of reaching the targets and the suitability of the programmes to labour market needs are evaluated in this regard. Two important issues that are being debated at present should be underlined: –

–

The graduates of vocational and technical high school may either enter work life or continue their education at universities. The continuation of vocational high school graduates to higher education is an issue that has been debated for many years now. Along with people who believe that vocational high school graduates should enter work life, there are those who believe that higher education should be open to them without any restrictions. In the recent years important steps (transition without examination) have been taken to encourage the attendance of vocational high school graduates to postsecondary education schools (PSVS) that are in the continuation of their fields. However, there are still obstacles in their transition to certain faculties that are the continuation of their fields. The situation of PSVS and technical high schools has also been debated in the recent years. With regards the occupational competences given in some technical high school programmes it could be said that they are higher level than those given in post secondary education programmes. The equipment existing in technical high schools in general is better than those in PSVSs. In this context, the purpose of transition of technical high school graduates to PSVSs has become debatable. However, there are comprehensive reform preparations made by Higher Education Council (HEC) to ameliorate the conditions of PSVSs.

2. How is the work and training of trainers organised? Training of VET Trainers in Turkey is two-fold as master-trainer and technical trainer training system. The practical part of the apprenticeship training and skills training of secondary vocational education students is the responsibility of enterprises. With the latest arrangements done in the Law no. 3308, the establishment of a training unit has been made mandatory for enterprises with 200 or more workers. In addition, these enterprises have to employ a “master trainer” who has mastership qualification and received work pedagogy training. These master trainers are responsible for the skills training given at the enterprises. Teaching is accepted as being a specialised occupation, and in Turkey technical trainers are trained through 4-year university programs. VET trainers graduate from around 20 vocational and technical education faculties. The weighting system of the scores in the entrance examination to higher education, gives somehow incentives to VET students to enroll in VET teachers training faculties and this leads to an apparent imbalance between the supply and the demand of VET Teacher Training in Turkey. It is noteworthy to mention that the faculties are under the Higher Education Council (HEC), which regulates the offer while the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) as potential employer represents the demand. The lack of dialogue between the two institutions jeopardise the efficiency of VET teachers training system.

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Which ways do exist to become a trainer and to further develop as a trainer? It is known that the proffessional group taking practical technical and vocational training at bachelors degree in the USA are entitled as ET-Engineer Technologist. On the other hand, in Europe this group of people taking practice-dominant technical education at bachelors’ level in Fachhochschulen (universities of applied sciences) in Germany or in Polytechnics in many parts of Europe acquire the title of Application Engineer. In contrast to the situation in Europe and the USA, there exists a confusion in Turkey concerning the competences and titles of trainers in vocational and technical education. The proffessional group taking practice-dominant technical education are Technical Trainers graduated from Technical Training Faculties whose status is determined by the Law no. 3795. By August 2007, there are 45,000 technical trainers graduated from 24 technical training faculties 5 of which will be opened soon, and between 1941–2007 the total number of technical trainers graduated from these faculties in Turkey is 160,000. Today, there are still technical trainers working in factories such as TOFAŞ, MANAŞ, Mercedes Benz Türk and Renault with titles as production engineer, pit boss and etc. 98 per cent of these technical trainers are also graduates of at least 4 years Industrial or Technical Vocational HighSchools, or 5 years Anatolian Technical High-Schools where English is taught as foreign language. Technical trainer candidates take pedogogical formation courses as well, by making instructor apprenticeship during 2 half-terms in theoretical and in vocational schools. On the other hand, Higher Education Council took a decision on 11 July 2007 concerning the transformation of the 19 Technical Training Faculties into Faculties of Applied Technical Sciences, and the establishment of four more Faculties of Applied Technical Sciences while only existing two Technical Training Faculties will remain and another six Technical Training faculties will be established. If this decision becomes a law, those who will study in these faculties will have the right to get trainer certificates by taking pedagogical formation courses. Who is taking which decisions concerning the work and training of trainers? With regard to private sector enterprises, the size of the enterprise and the facilities that the enterprise have are the determinants for meeting the training needs of the managers and employees. Some of the large-scale enterprises meet this need with “human resources” and “training” units that are established within the enterprise. The decision makers are mostly top-level managers and training directors appointed by the managers. Managers in enterprises have the primary responsibility for assigning qualified and sufficient number of training staff for the training fields in the enterprises. Apart from that, it is the responsibility of vocational school directors to provide that the vocational trainings in the enterprises are done by qualified trainers, and to help in-service trainings of the trainers with its staff and other facilities. On the other hand, coordinators appointed by the vocational schools for the overall supervision of training activities in enterprises are in particular responsible for providing guidance to the enterprise authorities and training staff about the vocational training in the enterprises, and making the necessary planning to provide in-service trainings of the vocational trainers in the enterprises and preparing the in-service training programme. The necessary precautions about the planning, implementation and evaluation of the vocational trainings in the enterprises are taken by the school director and the enterprise authority. Within the scope of their work and authority, the school director and enterprise authority are collectively responsible for the conduct of the training activities in accordance with the training curricula.

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3. How is the work and training of trainers financed? How is the training of trainers financed, who invests why into the training of trainers? The major difficulty concerning investment in training is that some of the directors and managers can not comprehend the real and long-term outcomes of in-company trainings such as productivity, efficiency and quality improvement. The prevalence of the insight and corporate culture to ensure the maximum return of the investment in training of trainers and technical instructors does not exist. Furthermore, there is a fear among managers from the risk that workers on whom these high training investments will be made may change their jobs. The enterprises that have extensive opportunities and some enterprises that provide supply and service to the global markets send their senior managers abroad for education or they receive service from foreign education institutes. How much money is invested in the training of trainers (percentage/GDP (gross domestic product)? Unfortunately, the enterprises and institutions are not yet aware of the necessity of training. They are not aware of the fact that these trainings will benefit them in the long-run; the private sector just focuses on the short-term benefits and profits. Also, there are not many information-literate trainers. The training unit is the first to be abolished when retrenchment is in question. All these factors constitute obstacles for vocational training. On the other hand the investment made by MoNE and HEC on Education in general and VET in particular may be seen in the tables below aken from the statistics of MoNE:

283


Yearly Distribution of Budget Allowances for Education (thousand YTL)

1981 147,3

46,5

193,8

of Total Budget for Education Consolidated GNP Share ( Budget per cent) Sh ( 12,9 2,42

1982 187,2

54,8

242,0

13,8

2,28

1983 287,7

95,5

383,2

15,2

2,75

1984 341,6

118,2

459,8

14,2

2,07

1985 466,0

151,7

617,7

12,3

1,74

1986 618,5

222,5

841,0

11,6

1,64

1987 928,6

320,6

1.249,2

11,3

1,67

1988 1.794,4

619,9

2.414,3

11,6

1,87

1989 2.967,1

1.050,7

4.017,8

12,2

1,74

1990 8.506,5

2.505,4

11.011,9

17,1

2,77

1991 13.850,2

4.696,0

18.546,2

17,9

2,90

1992 30.357,2

9.122,9

39.480,1

18,9

3,57

1993 57.546,4

16.695,5

74.205,9

22,0

3,72

1994 93.580,5

31.182,8

124.763,3

15,1

3,21

1995 135.572,4

45.232,8

180.805,2

13,5

2,30

1996 257.601,1

92.172,8

349.773,9

9,8

2,37

1997 510.063,6 1.243.108, 1998 0 2.130.308, 1999 5 3.350.330. 2000 0 4.046.305, 2001 6 7.460.991, 2002 0 10.179.997 2003 ,0 12.366.236 2004 ,2 14.882.259 2005 ,5 16.568.145 2006 ,5 21.355.534 2007 ,0

202.352,4

712.416,0 1.665.764, 9 2.807.208, 3 4.404.940. 7 5.411.216, 1 9.956.959, 7 13.526.666 ,0 16.055.990 ,9 20.100.724 ,5 22.414.968 ,2 27.942.071 ,0

11,2

2,81

11,3

3,39

11,7

3,50

9,3

3,52

11,2

3,53

10,1

3,54

9,2

3,81

10,7

3,83

12,9

4, 18

12,8

4,15

13,6

4,45

Budget Allowances Year MoNE

284

HEC

422.656,9 676.899,8 1.054.610 ,7 1.364.901, 5 2.495.96 7,7 3.346.669 ,0 3.689.754 ,7 5.218.465 ,0 5.846.822 ,7 6.586.537 ,0

Total

January 2008

Investment Allowances prescribed for 2007 (thousand YTL) General Adding Relevant Units

Study Vehicle Project Purchase

Primary and General 6.500 Secondary Education

Foreign Equipment loan (1)

Major Repair

Building Facilities

TOTAL

122.475

232.000

151.750

583.275

1.096.600

10.750

14.850

1.600

21.000

48.200

5.175

5.300

7.000

6.200

23.675

50.000

196.950

75.000

385.000

706.950

Direc. Gen. for Secondary Education

44.000

9.420

67.000

139.027

259.447

Department for Secondary Educ. Scholarships and Dormitories

5.750

32.048

37.798

Directorate General for Preschool Education Direc. Gen. for Special Training, Guidance and Consultancy Services Direc. Gen. Education

for

Primary

Direc Gen. for Education Technologies Department for Educational Research and Development Vocational Education Direc. Gen. for Boys Technical Training Direc. Gen. for Girls Technical Training Direc. Gen. for Commerce and Torism Training Direc. Gen. for Training of Trainers Direc. Gen. for Religious Education Direc. Gen. for Apprenticeship and Non-formal education Strategy Development Department Physical Education Department In-service Training Department Administrative and Financial Affiars Department Social Affairs and Training Services Department Enterprises Department Investments and Facilities Department Training Equipments Department Direc. Gen. for Foreign Relations Direc. For Training Abroad

5.000

6.800

1.500 50

1.150

GRAND TOTAL 1.096.000

13.530

4.900 90

6.400

76.000

107.620

96.240

280.000

17.500

18.000

17.860

10.500

9.500

7.750

18.371

7.000

4.000

7.750

19.374

7.000

7.000

5.000

15.000

5.700

8.000

1.500

5.000

520

635

775

575

1.930

460

850

575

1.450

450

45.000

5.560

3.000

1.600

14.775

34.000

314.000

7.500

50.000

90

20.000

90

198.475

Health Affairs Department EDUCATON TOTAL

580

Law No.3308 Incomes

7.000 6.550

232.000

5.000

2.400

259.370

679.515

SPORTS Direc. Gen for Secondary Education Direc. Gen. for Religious Education Direc. Gen. for Training of Trainers and Education TOTAL EXPROPRIATION Investment and Facilities 50.000 Department TOTAL 56.550

2000 1.376.000

34.000

1.410.000

28.800 600 600 30.000

90

198.475

232.000

259.370

709.515

30.000

30.000

50.000

50.000

1.456.000

34.000

1.490.000

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Who benefits from the work of trainers (average income of trainers, cost-benefit analyses per enterprise/sector/region/nation)? In the enterprises, the technical staff composed of trainers is generally the most qualified personnel and they are generally the ones that enterprises are greatly in need of. When these trainers give trainings during training periods, the enterprises encounter serious time and work loss. Especially, the enterprises give basic trainings in their own field over and over again; the time that could be spent for the special trainings focused on products and systems is being spent to meet the deficit of basic training. The participants are being subject to participate in the unnecessary trainings where the content is composed of basic training and they encounter loss of time and money.

4. How are trainers selected and how are human resources allocated? How many persons are working as a trainer (formally/informally; full-time/part-time; female/male; nationals/foreigners)? Statistical developments in apprenticeship training can be seen in the below table in which number of master trainers is included. Academic Year

Number Number of of OrTeachers ganizations 1989-1990 220 1.359 1994-1995 292 3.142 1999-2000 330 5.084 2003-2004 292 4604 Source: MoNE Statistics for 1989-1990, 1995 * No information available

Student/Participant Number Candidate ApprenJourMaster TOTAL Apprentices neymen Trainer tice 6.714 * * 13.523 121.596 10.036 144.126 29.748 15.173 199.083 6.792 133.551 64.274 13.959 218.576 2.501 119.996 73.413 13.460 209.370 1999-2000, 2003-2004 and SIS + MoNE Statistics for 1994-

By August 2007, there are 45,000 technical trainers graduated from 24 technical training faculties 5 of which will be opened soon, and between the years of 1941–2007 the total number of technical trainers graduated from these faculties in Turkey is 160,000. Table 3.4 below taken from MoNE statistics outlines the number of teachers by educational institutions delivering non-formal and apprenticeship vocational education and training. What are the prerequisites to become a trainer? Those who have mastership certificate may attend master trainer courses without any preconditions. Upon successful completion of this course they receive “master trainer certificate”. In order to being enrolled in 4-year Technical Training Faculties, the nationwide implemented university entrance exams should be taken after graduation from vocational, technical or normal high-schools. The trainings of the trainees in the enterprises might be done by: 1. Expert trainers who have received pedagogical formation and have expertise, 2. Vocational training teachers, engineers or technicians who are retired or self-employed, 3. Atelier and vocational teachers in the schools that work in the relevant fields of profession. 4. If the trainers who are identified in the items (1), (2) and (3) above cannot be provided for the enterprises, the school directorship temporarily assigns the most suitable ones who have expertise and competence among the workers in the enterprises. The enterprises make these trainers participate in the pedagogical formation courses that are provided by the ministry, within a year at the latest.

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How are trainers recruited by enterprises? There are some enterprises which have training centre, although their numbers are not so many. Generally in these units and centers, training and human resources experts work. However, most of the enterprises prefer purchasing training service from universities or public or private training institutions. Purchasing services from universities or inviting academicians from universities to the seminars is one of the most frequent methods that the enterprises apply. In which main occupational areas trainers have specialised? The tasks of the vocational trainers mainly in manifacturing sector that give vocational training in the enterprises are as follows: 1. Participation in the meetings that are realized by the school and enterprise authorities for planning, implementation, evaluation and improvement of the vocational trainings that will be realized in the enterprises, 2. Making the annual plans related to the training applications within the first week of academic year and presenting it to the approval of school director and enterprise authorities, 3. Keeping the attendance sheets of practical trainings and reporting the results to the enterprise authorities. 4. Assessing trainees’ state of success during the term and at the end of the term and reporting the results to the enterprise authorities. 5. Making the trainings properly and participating in the in-service training activities done by the school and enterprises. 6. Following the working calendar prepared by the ministry, related to the training activities in the enterprises. 7. Reporting their absence to the enterprise authorities when they cannot come to the work. 8. Keeping a working file for each trainee to preserve their pictures, projects and evaluation charts of their works and practices. 9. Evaluating every work right on the picture, project and chart and signing them together with the trainee. Are there too many/not enough trainers in different sectors of the labour market? The total supply of VET teachers exceeds the demand of public and private training providers with the consequence that they face serious employment problems in their profession. A considerable proportion of graduates of vocational and technical education faculties are employed outside the education sector. MoNE is potentially the main employer for the graduates of VET Teacher Training faculties; but while the number of teachers employed by MoNE has been declining for years (on the basis of recent statistics only 5 per cent are employed by the MoNE), the number of VET Teacher Training faculties and graduates has constantly and paradoxically been increasing as a path to higher education for VET school graduates. In addition, it is observed that education faculties base their student intake on capacity rather than demand. As a result, while in some areas graduates cannot find employment as teachers, in other areas the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) cannot find graduates to employ (i.e. in the field of electronics). In areas where there are teacher shortages, the MoNE employs the graduates of the nearest thematic areas or other faculty graduates as teachers, after necessary pedagogical training. The analysis of distribution of the trainers in different sectors should be made in order to unite them with trainers in similar fields of activities in Europe so that a collaborative system can be developed and the trainers can find opportunities to improve themselves in the level of Europe. A common database should be developed where all information relevant to VET trainers will be included, and communication should be established when there occurs a need in different sectors and enterprises. 287

288


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5. How are trainers qualified? Who determines the training contents for trainers and how are these contents found? There exists no specific standardization or regulation in this field in Turkey. However, there is a crucial need for trainers to have a deep knowledge of the enterprise, products and production processes in addition to their basic skills and knowloedge. Moreover, they need to pass through a comprehensive orientation programme. Legal arrangements should be done in order to make it compulsory for trainers in Industrial Vocational High Schools and PostSecondary Vocational High Schools to deliver trainings in the enterprises, while private enterprises should be encouraged in this way. Major difficulties faced by trainers concerning content in enterprises are as follows: – – – –

Diversity of levels concerning the skills and competences of the trainees Necessity for renewing the vocational and technical training contents due to frequent changes in technology The need for development of vocational and technical training sets that do not exist in the market Problems arising from the implementation of vocational and technical training programmes sent by foreign VET institutions without assessing their appropriateness to the local and sectoral conditions and differences.

Which institutions are incorporated in the training of trainers and how do they cooperate? Vocational Education Centers providing pedagogical training for masters (delivering mastertrainer certificates) in scope of apprenticeship training are under the responsibility of MoNE. On the other hand, Higher Education Council regulates procedures and issues concerning Technical Training Faculties. However, it is hard to claim that there is an effective and efficient cooperation between these two governmental bodies with respect to organization of training of trainers in vocational education and training. From another point, for those who non-formally acquire training competences in their sector there does not exist any mechanisms to certify their skills and qualifications. There are many private education institutions delivering training of trainers programs, but diplomas or certificates taken from these institutions are not recognised by MoNE and HEC. According to our interviewees, the profession of being a trainer and its certification should be taken from the monopolistic hands of Ministry of National Education and Turkish Council of Higher Education and an internationally accredited examination and certification system should be introduced. Furthermore, the barriers before developing oneself’s technical trainer competences without the obligation of graduating from Technical Education Faculties or making post-graduate study in faculty of science should be removed. As it is legally prevented to make post-gradute study in VET without having a bachelor’s degree in the same field, non-formal programs such as training of trainers should be organized for high level trainers in order to foster lifelong learning. How do trainers acquire competences (theoretical and practical knowledge, work experience)? Opportunuties for trainers in enterprises concerning life-long learning and self-development are very scarce in our country. Private education institutions have limited sources and a narrow reach in VET due to the monopoly of Ministry of National Education (MoNE) and Higher Education Council (HEC) in the field. Caused by the formulaic rules in our country, highly competent and proffessional trainers can not title themselves as trainers legally and can not certify their years long training experience and expertise in the relevant sector since they are

289


not gradutes of technical training faculties or do not have pedagogical formation, and due to the absence of a higher accreditation institution. The importance given to lifelong learning in Turkey’s accession process to the EU can be regarded as an opportunity. Throughout this period private training institutions in VET accredited by international institutions rather than MoNE or HEC should be supported and their scope should be widened. By this means trainers can certify their skills and competences, and proffessionalize. The recently ratified Law no. 5544 on Vocational Qualifications Authority is the most important step that has been taken in this scope. By means of establishing necessary mechanisms and implementing the relevant regulations sub-commissions where sector representatives will have a say should be formed and activated. Which certificates can be gained, in which duration? Individuals who participate in work pedagogy courses after receiving mastership qualification are given a “Master Trainer Certificate”. These individuals have the right to give practical training at enterprises to apprentices and vocational and technical education students. On the other hand, those graduating from 4-year Technical Training Faculties take Technical Trainer Diploma. Technical trainers have the right to give practical training at enterprises to apprentices and vocational and technical education students as well. The curriculum in technical training faculties is similar to that in engineering faculties’ upto 65–70 per cent, and also there is more emphasis on production, problem-solving and product development. Besides the practice-oriented studies, technical trainer candidates take 48 working days industry apprenticeship training in factories during summer months. This is also very appreciated by industrialists in manifacturing sector. Technical trainer candidates take pedogogical formation courses as well, by making instructor apprenticeship during 2 half-terms in theoretical and in vocational schools. As a result, they can act more positive, end-oriented, and engage in more constructive human relations. How important is a formal qualification/certificate? Are qualifications/certificates internationally acknowledged? Under the modernization of VET in Turkey, establishment of a National Qualifications System has been on the country’s agenda for the past 10 years. Important work has been carried out with regard to the organization of the functions making up the National Qualifications System (tri-partite management, recognition of the qualifications, definition of the training standards, testing/assessment and certification procedures etc.) and the development of required tools (national qualifications/occupational standards, testing instruments, training programmes, training materials etc.). Studies have been pursued in order to set up a National Qualifications System parallel with the EQF. In this respect, all parties and institutions including MoNE have been dealing with issues concerning legal framework of a Vocational Qualifications Authority (VQA). A draft law on the establishment of a VQA has been prepared by all the relevant stakeholders and has been recently ratified by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. The VQA, that was established on 7 October 2006, is an autonomous tri-partite national authority composed of the representatives of all relevant stakeholders and will be in charge of making national legislation required for qualifications; developing occupational and education standards; designing certification procedures; authorization of VET institutions and other organizations that provide VET and grant certificates. As long as there is no internationally accredited examination system that people can manifest their proficiency, country will encounter loss of money and time with repetitive trainings and certificates that has not legal basis. Which qualifications do those have that are responsible for the training of trainers and how do they acquire these qualifications? 290

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As one of the interviewees emphasized, the education level of the expert teachers is very low; for example, in hotels the kitchen staff’s education level is not above primary school level, and when it comes to the other staff, there is no connection between their positions in their work and the schools that they are trained in. For example, a graduate of an industrial vocational high school works as a captain of a restaurant, and a graduate of a high school of trade type works as a service staff. People that will be assigned as expert teachers should be furnished with the ability of using basic computer applications. The lowness of the education level reveals that a cook that claims himself as an expert, does not even know a very basic term such as protein. Also, it is a common opininon shared by interviewees that trainers with high skills and competences should be encouraged about completing their bachelor’s degrees. Moreover, new projects should be developed in order to overcome the foreign language problems of trainers. State supported crash foreign language courses should be organized in order to ensure that every trainer can speak at least one foreign language (English in particular) at a level to deliver seminars and trainings.

6. How is the reputation of trainers and how are they integrated in enterprises/society? Which functions of social integration are fulfilled through the work and training of trainers? The training workplaces where the training is done will be easily found in the enterprises. As a result of improvements in the competence and qualifications of the staff, the increase in the efficiency will be easily seen in a very short period of time and the acceleration in the position and respectibility of the trainers will be visible. People, who like renewing themselves, reading and writing techonology, will have this opportunity. The opportunity of financial strengthening of the trainers will eventually happen as they get professional. After a while, the opinions of these trainers will also be taken into account about the affairs, vision and mission of the enterprises. How is the work of trainers recognised in enterprises and in the society? Material and motivational appreciation, and support from the top management is highly deficient in Turkey which requires serious measures to be taken. On the other hand, though it has been stated that the competences and liabilities of technical trainers, whose entitlement is specified by the Law no. 3795, would be determined with a regulation related to the same Law, no progress has been made to this day due to various reasons. The most important reason, informally expressed by some of the members of Higher Education Council, is the pressure made on Higher Education Council by various chambers of engineers and some of the leading universities. This stiuation leads to great disappointment and fatigue among 200,000 technical trainers and especially among 30,000 recent graduates. Moreover, the enterprises that have training units and expert teachers should be encouraged by the state because these units have the quality of schools. The state should search for the ways of satisfying the expert teachers that work in the vocational training units in the enterprises, both financially and morally (Example: A symbolic amount of 50 cent per hour should be given to the trainers). Which is the unemployment rate of trainers? The rate of being appointed to vocational high schools after graduation by the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) declined to 5 per cent in the last 10–12 years whereas all graduates were being appointed before then right after graduation. As a result, there appeared an excess of supply due to the polices of MoNE and and Higher Education Council. It has been realized that this problem should be immediately handled only after the implementation of EU

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Project called Strengthening of Vocational Education and Training System in Turkey that started in 2002 and is expected to finish in September 2007.

7. How innovative is the work and training of trainers? How is the quality and efficiency of trainers’ training assessed? The evaluation of the training given at enterprises is done by the enterprises themselves. Teachers along with employer’s representatives attend the examinations for journeymanship and mastership examinations under apprenticeship training. The representatives of employees are not in the exam commission. The necessary precautions about the planning, implementation and evaluation of the vocational trainings in the enterprises are taken by the school director and the enterprise authority. Within the scope of their work and authority, the school director and enterprise authority are collectively responsible for the conduct of the training activities in accordance with the training curricula. Is there research about the work and training of trainers and what does it suggest? Modernisation of Vocational Education and Training in Turkey Project (MVET) funded by the European Union MEDA program started operating on 7 July 2003. The overall goal of the project was to further modernize and adapt the system to make vocational education and training more responsive to the socio-economic needs of the country and to the key principles of life-long learning. The MVET PROJECT has a vital component in improving the quality and relevance of the Turkish Vocational Education Training (VET) system. The idea was that the upgrading of vocational and technical teacher training is a significant factor in the improvement of the overall VET system, and teachers in the VET system will need to carry out new functions and assume different roles. In order to do this, the system for training VET Teachers at both preservice and in-service levels was planned to be adjusted to facilitate the development of teachers with appropriate competencies and relevant vocational experience. To facilitate assistance for these activities, five regional offices has been established. Under the general project objective VET Teacher Training competencies were identified in 9 areas. Pre-service and in-service modular curricula were developed by taking the competencies as a reference. Six areas of competence based pre-service training curricula included in the project during the first phase started pilot implementation in 11 universities, 14 VET Teacher Training faculties in 2004–2005 academic year. The first two years of piloting the curricula have been completed. The following piloting programmes were included in the assessment: Computer, Automotive, Clothing, Ready-made Clothing. Which are weaknesses and strengths with respect to the training of trainers? Where is a need for reform? Medium-sized enterprises that have facilities meet their training needs of staff and managers similarly with large scale enterprises. However, the owners of the micro and small sized enterprises have serious difficulties in meeting training needs of their managers. The difficulties of micro and small sized enterprises can be basically divided into two groups as problems emerging from supply and demand. In meeting of the training needs of the owners and managers of micro and small sized enterprises, the problems regarding demand are as follows: The demand for training activities of micro and small sized enterprises is quite low. It is thought that this result is an effect of the enterprises’ unawareness regarding training needs and benefit of trainings. Enterprises in Turkey generally do not have a separate training staff for in-company VET. Senior personnel also carrying the responsibilities of trainers consist of people whom the 292

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enterprise managers confide in with respect to training skills and qualifications. Trainers in enterprises are generally titled with their administrative and professional positions (service manager, department director, expert etc) rather than trainer. This phenomenon results in a situation where trainers are forced to change their fields since being a trainer in enterprises is not regarded as a profession and no pathways exist for carrer development. As long as it is required to get approval from institutions like MoNE and HEC in order to be recognized as trainer, it is impossible to expect qualified and competent personnel to be motivated about developping themselves as trainers. Thus, there is an unfortunate dilemma since active and professional trainers can not be accredited and recognized as trainers whereas those recruited as trainers in faculties can not be employed in sector. Are there any ‘good practice examples’ at company or sectoral level? Life-long learning activities that VET trainers in enterprises engage in for gaining a new vision, and new competences and qualifications. As they get familiar to new technologies, their self-reliance will increase, they will spread this know-how to their environment and they will be respected more by their fellows and managers in the enterprises that they work. The major vision is the establishment of the necessary know-how management infrastructure, systems and processes that will enable the transfer, sharing and development of knowhow accumulation to these system. Training Academy established within Mercedes Benz-Turk A.Ş. is one of the best examples concerning in-company training system. In this academy, personnel responsible for the processes such as Quality, Kaizen, DaimlerChrysler Production System and Job Security are also providing training services in the areas on which they have expertise. Regarding the profile of these in-company trainers, it will be seen that they are competent, have expertise on their area, and coming from engineering backgrounds. Apart from this, there exist parttime and full-time technical instructors responsible for the training of blue-collar workers and apprentices. As a result of the activities of Kaya Academy, another good practice example in Turkey, that have been established within Kaya Hotels and Resorts, the qualifications of the captains, floor chiefs and kitchen chiefs that work in Floor Services, Kitchen and Service Departments, has reached European standards and this staff trains the coming trainees as a monitor in certain modules. Also, when the other staff get the logic and essence of the work that they do, their efficiency in their work increases. It is planned that among the people that complete this training will take active role in preparing the Occupational Standarts in scope of the regulations to be executed under the brand new National Institute of Vocational Qualifications established by the Law no. 5544. Other good practice examples are as follows: – Isısan Heating and Air-Conditioning Industry Joint Stock Company – Isısan Akademy Training and Technical Publications. – İSEDA-Association of Air-conditioning and Refregeration Training, Consultancy and Research: Sectoral Trainings, Training of Trainers, common environmental and training programs aimed at NGO and Modernization of VET Sytem in Turkey Project (together with MoNE) – İYEM-İzocam (insulated window) Training Center - Sectoral and Training Institution supported trainings (periodical and delivering certificate) – İTKİB-Union of İstanbul Tekstile Exporters – Istanbul Textile Agency Trainings – AHMET YESEVİ UNIVERSITY-TÜRTEP (Distance-Learning Training Programme with Turkey Turkish) for completing bachelor’s degree and M.Sc degree enabling to continue training while working provided at an international level. Engineer Trainings.

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Country Report UNITED KINGDOM (England and Scotland) Lorna Unwin Institute of Education, University of London 1. Background and country context This report examines the situation of in-company trainers in England and Scotland. These two countries, with Wales and Northern Ireland, form the United Kingdom (UK) which has a total population of 60.6 million. In terms of population, England is by far the largest area of the UK with 50.8 million people, whilst Scotland has 5.1 million. The report is divided into eight sections. This section provides a brief historical overview of skills policy in the UK to provide the context for the contemporary situation of trainers45. In England, government responsibility for the development and management of skills policy rests largely with the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills (DIUS), though the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) overseas full-time vocational education for 14-19 year olds and works with DIUS on apprenticeship policy.46 The Treasury and the Cabinet Office, as well as the Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit, all take a strong interest in skills policy and often commission reports separately from DIUS and DCSF. The implementation of skills policy rests largely with the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) which spent around £11 billion on behalf of central government in 2006/07 to fund all post-compulsory education (apart from higher education) and government-funded training schemes47. The Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (DBERR) shares some responsibility for innovation in the economy with DIUS. A network of nine Regional Development Agencies (RDAs), with a remit for economic regeneration, also contributes to skills policy. In 1998, the UK government devolved powers to Scotland to enable the establishment of a separate Scottish Parliament48. This means that the Scottish Parliament can now introduce and enact primary domestic legislation in health, agriculture and justice, and has limited tax raising capability. Scotland has always governed its own general education system (schools, colleges of further education, and universities), separate from the rest of the UK, though funding has come via the UK government in London. Devolved government also gave Scotland the power over its own vocational education and training (VET) policy, which, unlike general education, had previously been directed from London. Responsibility for VET in Scotland rests with the Enterprise, Transport and Lifelong Department (ETLLD). Government-funded training schemes in Scotland are organized by Scottish Enterprise and Highlands and Islands Enterprise who work through a network of Local Enterprise Councils (LECs). Scottish colleges of further education and the universities are funded via the same body, the Scottish Funding Council. The impact of devolution is now being seen in a number of ways as the Scottish Parliament introduces policies that diverge from those in England. For example, Scotland is developing an all-age approach to careers advice and guidance, whereas England has separate provision for young people and adults.

45 Some people who carry out the role of ‘trainer’ may not be designated as such in their organization. Some may be referred to as ‘instructors’, ‘coaches’ or ‘mentors’. The term ‘Human Resource Development’ (HRD) covers the work of trainers, but many HRD professionals will perform both training and other personnel related duties. 46 DIUS and DCSF were created in July 2007 following the abolition of the previous Department for Education and Skills (DfES) when Gordon Brown took over as Prime Minister from Tony Blair. 47 The role of the LSC is under review following the abolition of the DfES. 48 The Scottish Parliament’s administrative body is the Scottish Executive.

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England and Scotland are, however, closely connected through the UK government’s policies on the economy, shared labour markets, and the shared involvement in UK-wide public sector provision such as the National Health Service (NHS). Regional and localised differences in terms of wealth inequality, levels of educational attainment and access, and job opportunities across both England and Scotland need to be remembered when national statistics are being cited (see Local Futures, 2006; Green and Owen, 2006). The organization and provision of VET in the two countries share characteristics which have their roots in the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. Successive governments have pursued a largely voluntarist and unregulated approach to the organization of workbased training and VET policies have been developed and organised separately from general education. Apprenticeship, for example, was not regulated by the State as it was regarded as a private arrangement between employers, and young people. In their typology of skill formation systems, Ashton et al (2000) categorise the UK (along with the USA, Australia and New Zealand) as adopting a ‘market’ model. The three other models in their typology are termed: ‘corporatist’ (e.g. Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Scandinavia); development state (e.g. Japan, Singapore); and neo-market models (e.g. some countries in Latin America). Concerns about the low levels of employer investment in training, relative to other countries, began to emerge as early as 1851 during the Great Exhibition in London. This highlighted the technological and industrial advances being made by some Continental European countries (notably Germany and France) and the USA. Since then, there have been regular reports (from both government and non-government sources) over the years calling for improvements to be made regarding the nation’s performance with regard to skills policies in general. The latest report, commissioned and published by the Treasury, was published in December 2006. In his foreword, Lord Sandy Leitch, who chaired the review, states: Our intermediate and technical skills lag countries such as Germany and France. We have neither the quantity nor the quality of necessary vocational skills. We have made enormous progress expanding higher education – and this is critical to becoming a high-skill economy. Over one quarter of adults hold a degree, but this is less than many of our key comparators, who also invest more. Our skills base compares poorly and, critically, all of our comparators are improving. Being world class is a moving target. It is clear from my analysis that, despite substantial investment and reform plans already in place, by 2020, we will have managed only to ‘run to stand still’. On our current trajectory, the UK’s comparative position will not have improved significantly. In the meantime, the world will have continued to change and the global environment will be even harsher. The scale of the challenge is daunting. (Leitch, 2006: 7). The Leitch Report drew particular attention to the stark problem of basic skills in the UK, claiming that 5 million adults were functionally illiterate and 7 million lacked functional numeracy skills. In addition, the UK lags behind other competitor countries in terms of the numbers of people in the workforce holding any level of qualification and also holding Level 2 and Level 3 (intermediate) qualifications. In September 2007, the Scottish Government produced its own report, Skills for Scotland, which acknowledges that, although Scotland’s skills profile has been improving faster than the rest of the UK, its problem lies in the fact that the Scottish economic growth rate lags behind the rest of the UK (see The Scottish Government, 2007). This acknowledgement that improving the skills base is not enough on its own to ensure economic success highlights a further problem faced by VET professionals and the wider Human Resource Development (HRD) community: too many enterprises produce goods and services of low quality and, therefore, too many employers demand little in the way of skills from their labour force (see Keep, Mayhew and Payne, 2006; Dickerson and Vignoles, 2007).

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In 1963, the UK experimented with regulation in regard to training by passing its first Industrial Training Act, which led to the establishment of Industrial Training Boards (ITBs) in 1964. In 1973, the Manpower Services Commission (MSC) was established to further extend a new social partnership approach to VET and wider skills policy. The ITBs imposed a training levy on employers in their sector, encouraged the modernisation of apprenticeship programmes, and raised the profile of the training profession. The numbers of personnel dedicated to training within enterprises and public sector organisations rose, but many employers refused to co-operate, thus weakening the ITBs. In 1981, the Conservative Government under Margaret Thatcher, which promoted a free market approach to economic policy, abolished the majority of the ITBs, and in 1988, abolished the MSC, thus returning the UK to its market model. The only ITB to survive is the Construction Industry Training Board (CITB), which continues to operate a training levy. Since the abolition of the ITBs, a series of government-funded organisations have been introduced to act on behalf of their sectors. The latest version is the Sector Skills Council (SSC). The SSCs’ goals are to: – – – –

reduce skills gaps and shortages improve productivity, business and public service performance increase opportunities to boost the skills and productivity of everyone in the sector's workforce improve learning supply including apprenticeships, higher education and National Occupational Standards (NOS).

The SSCs were introduced in 2002 and there are now 25 bodies (which comprise the Skills for Business network) covering the majority of the economy. Their remit, which covers the whole of the UK, is to: …replace the relative weakness of the UK’s sectoral arrangements with strong employer leadership capable of delivering sustained improvements in public and private sector productivity and competitiveness through the better use and development of people’s skills. (DfES, 2002). This statement reflects the continued emphasis by English policymakers on the need to have an ‘employer-led’ approach and for training providers to be more ‘responsive’ to employers’ needs. This has been extensively critiqued for the failure to acknowledge that the lack of employer demand for skills is at the root of the problems facing the nation. Interestingly, one SSC, Skillset (covering the film and broadcast media sector), has introduced a form of levy called the Skills Investment Fund to stimulate training in the film industry which is characterized by temporary workers, self-employment and small business units who come together for one-off projects. The new fund takes a percentage of the budgets of all film productions made in the UK and uses it to support training schemes. The Skills for Scotland report suggests that Scottish policymakers are beginning to diverge in their thinking from their English colleagues. The report states: It is important to remember that the outcomes in the labour market are driven both by the supply of appropriate qualifications and the demand for those qualifications from employers. Focussing on either alone is likely to limit the benefits that can be derived from our investment. Furthermore, employers’ demand for skills is based on what, where and how they choose to do business. (The Scottish Government, 2007: 10).

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Surveys continue to highlight the need for UK enterprises to take workforce development more seriously. Figures from the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development’s (CIPD) latest surveys show that only 56 per cent of organizations in the UK have a written learning and development strategy, and that less than 50 per cent have mechanisms in place to evaluate the value of the training they do invest in (CIPD, 2007). Although UK rates for employer-sponsored training are among the highest in Europe, the intensity and duration of the training tends to be lower than many countries (see EMI, 2005).

2. Organisation The way in which the work and the training of trainers are organized depends upon the context of the workplace. A key characteristic of workforce development (both at formation and post-formation stages) in England and Scotland (as throughout the UK) is that it is largely unregulated and largely takes in the workplace (see, inter alia, Unwin et al, 2007; Evans et al, 2006; Forde and Mackenzie, 2004). This reflects the continued voluntaristic nature of VET and skills policies, the historical importance of the speed of the industrial revolution, and the separation of VET from general education. Thus apprenticeship in the two countries consisted entirely, for many years, of on-the-job training (learning skills from an experienced worker). In the 19th century, when Mechanics Institutes and other organizations (which later became colleges of further education) began to provide evening classes for working people and aspiring professionals to gain extra skills and knowledge outside their workplaces, some occupations began to develop career structures and apprenticeships that demanded attendance off-the-job for set periods of time. The establishment of awarding bodies such as the City and Guilds of London Institute and the Royal Society of Arts Examinations Board led to the development of vocational qualifications (see Unwin et al, 2004, for a review of vocational qualifications). Today, the vast majority of training still takes place at work, but off-the-job provision is also widespread. Training is regarded as a derived demand – employers will train when they see a direct business need. The following table shows how the estimated £33.3 billion of employers’ money is invested in training: Employer Investment in Training (total 33.3billion GBP) Off-the-job Trainer Trainee Fees for Other wages wages providers costs 7 per cent 18 per cent 7 per cent 25 per cent On-the-job 20 per cent 30 per cent Source: Leitch (2006)

Some organizations in some sectors do have to conform to regulation with regard to the training of their staff: for example, care homes for the elderly have to ensure that 50 per cent of their staff are qualified to S/NVQ Level 2; door security staff have to be qualified to NVQ level 2; the training of Heavy Goods Vehicle Drivers now has to comply with EU regulations; and professions such as accountancy and law have to regularly prove they are up-to-date with legislative change, including EU regulations. One of the very few ‘licenses to practice’ in the UK can be found in the gas fitting industry and the electro-technical sector is highly regulated. The most common form of structured training affecting most enterprises relates to health and safety and hygiene regulations, but this may require only a few hours attendance at a course or instruction on-the-job. There is no regulation for enterprises to have qualified trainers, even when they are involved in government-funded training schemes. A great deal of employer investment in skills takes place outside the publicly funded system. Some 12 per cent of employees receive training to nationally recognised qualifications. Less than 10 per cent of employer training is delivered by colleges of further education, indicating the strength of the private sector training providers. This means that it is very difficult to map the nature and scope of training in the UK. 298

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In terms of off-the-job training and vocational education, there are three main categories of provision in England and Scotland: 1. Colleges of further education are funded by government to provide courses that lead to qualifications in the National Qualifications Framework and provide off-the-job training for apprenticeships and other work-based programmes. They can also provide tailor-made courses for employers for which they charge fees. 2. Many universities provide professional development courses (some of which are tailormade for specific sectors or employers). 3. Private training providers deliver a wide range of programmes, some of which are created specifically to meet employers’ needs, and some which form part of the governmentfunded training schemes, including apprenticeships. These providers are involved in both initial (formation) training and in continuing training and professional development. Some colleges of further education locate their vocational training within separate units that operate in a similar way to private training providers. It is important to remember that due to the competence-based approach to training used in both England and Scotland, teachers and trainers who are employed by providers may spend considerable amounts of time in the workplace. This will involve monitoring and assessing the progress of trainees on government-funded programmes, and may involve providing extra instruction to enable trainees to complete their prescribed qualifications, including Key Skills. The organization of the work and training of trainers in companies varies considerably according to a range of factors: – Size of the enterprise – Ownership – Product market strategy – Use of technology – Innovation – Sector – Involvement in government-funded programmes – History and culture Size is a crucial factor. The larger the enterprise, the greater the likelihood that training will be taking place and that dedicated training staff will be employed. Enterprises with over 500 employees are far more likely to have training staff (usually located within HRD/HRM departments). In enterprises with 4 or less employees, 50 per cent are estimated to provide training compared with 97 per cent of enterprises with 500 or more staff. In the construction industry, a number of variables come together to produce a very complex picture in terms of the range and levels of training activity. The industry is dominated by very small enterprises (who import skilled labour rather than grow their own) often carrying out sub-contracted work for large organizations, where training will be highly specialized (see Forde and Mackenzie, 2004). This sector (along with the hospitality sector) is benefiting considerably from the recent arrival of well-trained migrant workers from Eastern Europe. In an attempt to connect the variables which determine the incidence of training, a recent report (SSDA, 2007) has collated data from three different data sets: the Skills Survey 2001; the British Household Panel Survey 1991-2004; and the Workplace Employment Relations Survey 2004. It also includes data from the UK’s Labour Force Survey. The SSDA report shows that: – Women in full-time jobs are now more likely to receive training than their male colleagues, though women in part-time jobs still do less well than men. 299


–

–

–

– –

–

The impact of ethnicity is complex, but individuals from ethnic minorities under the age of 24 were less likely to receive training, whereas between 25 and 44, they were more likely to receive training. Levels of training vary dramatically between sectors with 70 per cent of individuals in Public Administration, Education and Health receiving job-related training since leaving full-time education compared to less than 40 per cent in Distribution, Hotels and Restaurants. Factors which increase the likelihood of participating in job-related training include: being under 30; having previous qualifications; working in a professional or associate professional occupation; and being a member of a trade union. Factors which decrease the likelihood of participating in job-related training include: being male; being single; being registered disabled; and living in Scotland. Most training (36 per cent) occurred in the workplace, followed by employer’s own training centre (20 per cent), a private training centre (19 per cent), and a further education college (18 per cent). It is usually the employer who pays for training.

Findings from the latest survey of employers in England (LSC, 2005) showed: – The number of staff trained over the previous 12 months is equivalent to 61 per cent of the current workforce (the same proportion as 2004,but higher than the 2001 figure of 57 per cent) – Employers funded or arranged 162 million days of training over the 12 month period, equivalent to 7.5 days of training per annum for every worker in the country – The bulk of employer investment was spent on the labour costs of those being trained (48 per cent) and the management of training and labour costs of those delivering training (35 per cent). – Total training spend was equivalent to £1,550 per employee and just under £2,550 per person trained. – The use of further education colleges was highest among sectors making up the traditional public sector (e.g. health, education and local government), though the figure for the construction sector was also high. The lowest performing sector was the land-based industries and transport. – The most common reason (71 per cent) given for not providing training was that employees were already proficient, and this was cited more commonly by smaller establishments. The next most common reason was that employers preferred staff to ‘learn by experience’. – Very few employers reported supply-side barriers to training. Opponents of the introduction of the Minimum Wage in 1999 in the UK claimed that it would have a negative effect on the amount employers invested in training due to increased wage costs. Research has shown, however, that the Minimum Wage has stimulated training in small enterprises who, in order to pass on the extra costs to their customers, have had to improve the quality of their goods and services and, hence, improve and increase the skills of their workforce (see Hayes and Gray, 2003). The UK has the second largest membership organization covering the HRD and HRM communities. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), which began as the Welfare Workers’ Association in 1913, has an estimated membership of more than 120,000 (see Farndale and Brewster, 2005, for a comparative analysis of such organizations worldwide).

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3. Economy Tracing the causal relationship between training and the benefits to enterprise, the economy and individuals is a highly contested field of research. It is partly complicated by the problem of identifying a robust list of variables and also by the need to draw distinctions between types of training (including formal and informal). In England and Scotland, where much workbased training is unaccredited, it is particularly difficult to assess its impact. Two examples from the recent research indicate the problems. Research on returns to vocational qualifications in England has found that low-level qualifications do not, necessarily, bring increased wage returns (see Jenkins et al, 2007). Returns to NVQs, the qualifications which are mandatory in government-funded training programmes and which are meant to be directly relevant to the workplace, actually perform much worse than other forms of vocational qualifications. In some circumstances, however, NVQs can bring marginal benefits to individuals. For women in personal service occupations and sales occupations, and for men in skilled, process operative and elementary occupations, there were signs of marginal wage returns. Research using data from birth cohort studies has shown that male workers who undertook work-related training in mid-career (aged 33-42) experienced 4-5 per cent wage growth as opposed to workers who did not undertake training (see Feinstein et al, 2004). The research stresses, however, that workers who are selected for training are not representative of all workers and firms will often pick those deemed most likely to gain from training. In terms of benefits to enterprises, the most convincing evidence of the benefits of training comes in the form of case studies, which show that when training is part of a clear and holistic strategy for business growth and sustainability, then training will make a definite contribution to overall success. Given that the majority of training in Britain takes place at work, the costs in relation to trainers’ wages and any costs incurred by employees from productive work are met directly by employers. There are no statistics on the amount of money specifically invested in the training of trainers. In terms of investing in the training of trainers, again this is largely the responsibility of employers, but individuals who want to work in training and those who are seeking to progress in their careers will also pay for their own professional development with organizations such as CIPD. Current estimates of the amount employers invest in training are £33.3 billion, which amounts to 2.5 per cent of GDP. There are, however, a number of government-funded initiatives, which provide financial support to employers to increase their training activity. The latest initiative in England is Train to Gain. This provides: –

– –

Free training to help employees gain their first full Level 2 qualification and ‘Skills for Life’ first numeracy and literacy qualification. This includes all training towards NVQ Level 2 or equivalent, ‘Skills for Life’ programmes, higher level skills and a wide range of other training. Wage compensation for companies with less than 50 employees. Advice on funded programmes, including for Apprenticeships and Advanced Apprenticeships, NVQ Level 3 and above, such as higher education.

To participate in Train to Gain, employers are allocated an independent ‘skills broker’ who is paid by the LSC to target as many employers as possible and put them in touch with training providers (public and private) who might be able to meet their needs. The initiative has already had £1 billion in investment from the government and is set to receive a further £900 million by 2010/11. The initiative evolved out of regional Employer Training Pilots (ETPs) and 301


was rolled out nationally in 2006. Evaluations of ETPs revealed that most of the money was being spent on deadweight training – in other words, the employers would have paid for the training regardless of the ETP funding (see Hillage et al, 2006). Train to Gain is, therefore, a controversial policy initiative and there are fears that it will not achieve the results the government wants, but will, at the same time, absorb precious resources. The mean annual salary for men in the UK in 2006 was £30,689 and for women, £17,758. The mean salary for people employed as Personnel, Training and IER Managers in the UK in 2006 was: Males Females

£53,203 £43,615

The mean annual salary for Vocational and Industrial Trainers and Instructors in the UK is: Males: Females

£24,704 £19,623

We can see from these figures that both male and female trainers are paid below the average national salary for the UK, and that women’s pay is less than men’s in both categories. The salaries for trainers are comparable to those of teachers in FE colleges where the mean salary is £22,540, but is below that for teachers in secondary schools where the mean salary is £30,276. This latter point reflects the comparative status of both trainers and vocational teachers compared to teachers in the general education sector.

4. Selection and Allocation The UK’s Labour Force Survey includes two occupational classifications for people who perform a training-related role in enterprises: a) Personnel, Training and Industrial Employment Relations Managers (IER); and b) Vocational and Industrial Trainers and Instructors. The latest available quarterly statistics for April-June 2007 are as follows: Table 1: Personnel, Training and IER Managers in UK Total Employed 143,000 Total SelfEmployed

Full-time 114,000 11,000

Source: LFS Employment www.statistics.gov.uk

Male 60,000 n/a

Status

by

Female 83,000 n/a

Occupation

and

Part-time 15,000 3,000

Sex

–

available

from

Table 2: Vocational and Industrial Trainers and Instructors Total Employed 145,000 Total SelfEmployed

Full-time 101,000 17,000

Source: LFS Employment www.statistics.gov.uk

Male 67,000 n/a

Status

by

Female 58,000 n/a

Occupation

and

Part-time 19,000 8,000

Sex

–

available

from

As the tables show, there are more females employed in a personnel, training or IER management capacity than men, whereas males outnumber females as vocational trainers and instructors. This latter statistic reflects the segregated nature of sectors such as engineering and construction, where the majority of employees are male, in which formal as well as informal work-based training tends to be higher than the service sectors.

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5. Qualification In-company trainers and teachers in the English and Scottish VET systems follow different initial training and professional development routes. In England, however, all trainers come under the classification of ‘Teaching Professionals’ in the system of National Occupational Standards (NOS) from which National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) are derived. Since September 2001, it has been compulsory in England for all teachers in further education colleges to have a teaching qualification. The training of college teachers has existed since the 1950s and many would have gained a professional qualification, (studying full or part-time), either before starting to teach or during their first few years in employment. These qualifications were and still are provided and accredited by universities throughout England and some courses are provided within the colleges themselves through franchise arrangements with partner universities. In the 1990s, the qualifications were changed to comply with the competence-based approach of NVQs and became based on occupational standards set by the Further Education National Training Organisation (FENTO). This has now been replaced by a new SSC for the ‘learning and skills sector’, Lifelong Learning UK (LLUK). The sector covers teachers, trainers, tutors, assessors and other professionals with a ‘teaching’ function as part of their job in: colleges; offender institutions, adult and community learning; and workbased learning (see Lucas, 2004 for a history). LLUK has created a separate unit, the Standards Verification Unit (SVUK Ltd), to oversee the maintenance and regulation of the occupational standards used in its sector. All providers (including universities) in England of teaching qualifications for the sector now have to ensure their curricula and assessment procedures are based on the standards in order to gain accreditation from LLUK. The standards cover the following domains: – – – – – –

Domain A Domain B Domain C Domain D Domain E Domain F

Professional Values and Practice Learning and Teaching Specialist Learning and Teaching Planning for Learning Assessment for Learning Access and Progression

Although LLUK, like all SSCs, has a UK-wide remit, its current occupational standards do not cover Scotland. The requirement for teachers in colleges to have a qualification does not apply in Scotland, where, instead, teachers are expected to gain a Teaching Qualification in Further Education (TQFE) currently provided by three universities: Aberdeen, Dundee and Stirling. The TQFE is based on standards developed by the Further Education Professional Development Forum (see www.fepdfscotland,co.uk). As was mentioned earlier in this report, there is no requirement in England and Scotland for in-company trainers to have a training qualification. The most commonly used qualifications for in-company trainers are those provided by CIPD. The first level qualification is the CIPD Certificate in Training Practice, which is designed for employees who are new to or have recently become involved in training. This costs £8,811 and comprises the following modules: – – – – –

Foundation Course (5 days) Identification and Analysis of Training Needs (3 days) Participative Methods (4 days) Training Design (4 days) Training Evaluation and Assessment (2 days)

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To complete the course, students (who are given Affiliate Membership status of CIPD) must attend a regional CIPD centre for the specified number of days for each module. Modules are offered six times a year and students have up to 2 years to complete the course. For people with more experience, there is a ‘fast track’ route to complete the course in 28 weeks. On completion, students gain Associate Membership of CIPD. The content of the Foundation Course is as follows: – – – – – – – –

write objectives for a learning session draw on learning theory when designing a training session or other learning event prepare and deliver a short training session use a range of materials to support the learning process give constructive feedback based on your own observations describe the scope of e-learning possibilities make reasoned decisions on when to use e-learning either on its own or in combination with other methods list the alternative ways in which e-learning can be resourced and managed.

Assessment for the Certificate is as follows: – – – –

2 externally assessed written assignments of 1500-2,000 words 2 assessed skills-based assignments (includes giving a presentation and completing a 1,000 word knowledge statement an integrated project a personal development portfolio

The CIPD also provides a modular Professional Development Scheme at two stages leading firstly to Licentiate Membership and secondly to Graduate Membership. A mixture of delivery methods is used, including distance learning, e-learning, and attendance at workshops. The scheme covers four fields of study: – – – –

Leadership and Management People Management and Development Generalist and Specialist Electives Applied Personal and Development Standards.

CIPD qualifications have high currency in the labour market and are sometimes linked to degree and postgraduate courses in universities. A number of universities in the UK provide courses in HRD and HRM and there is an increasing use of ‘blended’ learning in order to meet the needs of busy professionals.

6. Integration Like all occupations, the reputation of trainers in England and Scotland varies according to their location and the extent to which the programmes and qualifications they deliver are themselves perceived as having high or low status. There is no research to show that the continued low status of government-funded work-based programmes for young people (such as apprenticeships) in both England and Scotland, in contrast to further and higher education, has affected the position of trainers in wider society. At the same time, the media highlights celebrity work-based trainers such as famous chefs, athletes and hairdressers.

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In recent years, the terms ‘training and development’ and ‘personnel and development’ have been largely replaced by the broader concept of Human Resource Development (HRD). This is reflected in the titles of courses at certificate, diploma, degree and post-graduate levels, and in the titles of academic journals. The shift in terminology is in line with the growing recognition across the private and public sectors that training needs to be closely related to business need and strategy. In a study using data from the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey, Hoque and Noon explored the extent to which the characteristics and job-related activities of specialists who used the words, `human resources’ differed from those who used the term `personnel’. They argue that specialists using the HR title are better qualified than those using the personnel title and are more involved with strategic planning. At the same time, the use of the term ‘learning’ has also become ubiquitous in policy documents and the names of UK agencies in line with the promotion of the importance of informal learning and the recognition that the workplace is a site for learning (see Evans et al, 2006).

7. Innovation All government-funded work-based training in England is assessed by Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education) and in Scotland by HM Inspectorate of Education (HMIE). Inspectors visit sites in which work-based learning is taking place (including enterprises) on an annual or four yearly cycles depending on the performance of the site. Inspection reports are publicly available on the inspectorates’ websites. In England, training providers in the ‘learning and skills sector’ are also subject to the requirements of the Quality Improvement Agency (QIA) whose remit is to: – – – – – –

accelerate improvement in the performance of the learning and skills sector build the sector’s capacity for self-improvement help the sector respond to strategic reforms lead the sector quality improvement strategy position the QIA as the authoritative source of advice on quality improvement be a high-performing public-sector agency

UK Skills is a government-sponsored agency, which organizes skills competitions at local, regional and national level in order to find candidates for the international skills Olympics which are held every four years. It also runs the annual National Training Awards, which are given to individuals and organizations for developing innovative approaches to training. In 2007, organisations gaining awards included: Hertfordshire Constabulary for anti-terrorist training; P & O Ferries for customer-focused sales training; and Logistics company DHL for management training. A further way in which the UK government encourages the improvement of training standards is through its sponsorship of the Investors in People (IiP) award. IiP UK is a nondepartmental public body established in 1993. It is responsible for the IiP ‘standard’ which covers a range of areas related to personnel development and management, connected to business strategy, necessary for the running of effective organizations. Some 30,000 organisations (in both the public and private sectors) have achieved the award, amounting to 16 per cent of workplaces. IiP has a government set target to ensure that 45 per cent of the UK workforce work in establishments that achieved IiP status. The award, which is generally highly regarded, allows organizations to place an IiP plaque outside their building and many cite the award on their publicity and communications material. To gain the award, organizations must meet criteria laid down in four indicators: 305


1. A strategy for improving the performance of the organization is clearly defined and understood 2. Learning and development is planned to achieve the organisation’s objectives 3. Strategies for managing people are designed to promote equality of opportunity in the development of the organization’s people 4. The capabilities managers need to lead, manage and develop people effectively are clearly defined and understood. The ‘Learning and Development’ indicator (2) is further defied a follows: –

–

– –

Top managers can explain the organization’s learning and development needs, the plans and resources in place to meet them, how these link to achieving specific objectives and how the impact will be evaluated Managers can explain team learning and development needs, the activities planned to meet them, how these link to achieving specific team objectives and how the impact will be evaluated People can describe how they are involved in identifying their learning and development needs and the activities planned to meet them People can explain what their learning and development activities should achieve for them, their team and the organization.

It is clear from these criteria that to gain the IiP award, organizations need to show they have well-developed training strategies in place and, hence, are more likely to have qualified trainers on their staff. Research suggests that although IiP has not necessarily increased the actual amount of training delivered in the UK, it has had a positive effect on employer attitudes towards seeing training as playing an important role in business success. In 1998, the recently elected Labour government introduced the Union Learning Fund to enable workers to attend training and adult education courses. Since then, government has increased the funding in order to appoint Union Learning Representatives whose role is to stimulate training in their enterprises.

8. Conclusions The continued voluntaristic approach to skills policy in England and Scotland has affected the role and status of trainers for many decades. There are many polices being put in place to try and address this, but government’s continued reluctance to force employers to increase their demand for higher skills makes it difficult to see how the work of trainers can improve in the short-term. At the same time, in England, there is continued intense pressure on education and training providers to improve their performance due to government’s persistent complaint that low levels of skills are the result of market failure in the supply-side. There are signs that Scottish policy may be diverging and there is certainly less pressure from Scottish policymakers on the providers. A great deal of training (both formal and informal) is taking place in England and Scotland, but the unregulated nature of the labour market means that it is very difficult to gain a detailed picture of the work of trainers, and, importantly, of how many people are acting in some kind of training capacity as part of their substantive job.

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References Ashton, D., Sung, J. and Turbin, J. (2000) Towards a framework for the comparative analysis of national systems of skill formation, International Journal of Training and Development, 4(1): 8-25. CIPD (2007) Reflections on the 2007 learning and development survey, London: Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development. DfES (2002) Remit Letter to the Sector Skills Development Agency, 30th July, London: Department for Education and Skills. Dickerson, A. and Vignoles, A. (2007) ‘The Distribution and Returns to Qualifications in the Sector Skills Councils’, SSDA Research Report 21, Wath-upon-Dearne: Sector Skills Development Agency. EMI Business and Policy Research (2005) Policy Instruments to Foster Training of Employed People, Luxembourg: European Commission. Evans, K., Hodkinson, P., Rainbird, H. and Unwin, L. (2006) Improving Workplace Learning, London: Routledge. Farndale, E. and Brewster, C. (2005) In search of legitimacy: personnel management associations worldwide, Human Resource Management Journal, 15(3): 33-48. Feinstein, L., Galindo-Rueda, F. and Vignoles, A. (2004) The Labour Market Impact of Adult Education and Training: A Cohort Analysis, London: Centre for the Economics of Education. Felstead, A., Gallie, D., Green, F., and Zhou, Y. 2007. Skills at Work 1986 - 2006, Oxford, University of Oxford, SKOPE. Forde, C. and MacKenzie, R. (2004) Cementing skills: training and labour use in UK construction, Human Resource Management Journal, 14(3): 74-88. Green, A., and Owen, D. (2006) The geography of poor skills and access to work, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Hayes, J. and Gray, A. (2003) The implications of the national minimum wage for training in small firms, Human Resource Management Journal, 13(2): 76-86. Hillage, J., Loukas, G., Newton, B. and Tamkin, P. (2006) Employer Training Pilots: Final Evaluation Report, DfES Research Report 774, Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills. Hoque, K. and Noon, M. (2001) Counting angels: a comparison of personnel and HR specialists, Human Resource Management Journal, 11(3): 5-22. Keep, E., Mayhew, K., and Payne, J. (2006) From skills revolution to productivity miracle – not as easy as it sounds?, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22 (4): 539-559. Jenkins, A., Greenwood, C. and Vignoles, A. (2007) The Returns to Qualifications in England: Updating the Evidence Base on Level 2 and Level 3 Vocational Qualifications, London: Centre for the Economics of Education. Leitch (2006) Leitch Review of Skills. Prosperity for all in the global economy – world class skills. Final Report. London: HM Treasury. Local Futures (2006) State of the Nation 2006, London: Local Futures. LSC (2005) National Employers Skills Survey 2005: Key Findings, Coventry: Learning and Skills Council. Lucas, N. (2004) The ‘FENTO Fandango’: national standards, compulsory teaching qualifications and the growing regulation of FE college teachers, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 25(1): 3551. SSDA (2007) Training, Job Satisfaction and Establishment Performance, Research Report 22, Wathupon-Dearne: SSDA. The Scottish Government (2007) Skills for Scotland, Edinburgh: The Scottish Government.

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England, Scotland and Ireland: Summaries of interviews Four interviews were conducted as follows: 1. Interview with a male senior officer of a UK-wide Awarding Body (based in England and employing approximately 2,000 people) responsible for a suite of qualifications designed for the initial and continuing professional development of personnel working in a training and/or Human Resource Development (HRD) function. 2. Interview with a male senior HRD manager of a large (1000 employees) manufacturing company in the engineering sector in England. 3. Interview with a female training manager (based in Scotland) for a UK-wide chain of restaurants. 4. Interview with a female senior HRD manager based in the Irish branch of a multi-national company working in the IT and business logistics sectors. All interviewees were guaranteed strict confidentiality. The interviews were structured using the following broad questions: 1. What are the typical tasks undertaken by trainers in your organization? 2. What skills, knowledge and competencies do trainers need and how do they acquire them? 3. How does your organization evaluate training? 4. What is the employment situation of trainers in your organization and how is their status perceived? 5. What major issues and trends can you identify in relation to the developing role of trainers both within your organization and in the country more broadly?

Interview 1 Q.1. What are the typical tasks undertaken by trainers in your organization? The organization has a small team (currently 4 people) based within the HRD unit who organize and deliver a broad range of training events and activities. Two members of the team are Members of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) and two are studying part-time to achieve this status. They come from a range of backgrounds having previously worked in marketing, public relations, business administration and education. Two key roles for this team are: a) to organize and deliver induction training for all new staff; and b) to ensure that all staff complete an annual review of their training needs. The team produces an annual staff development programme of short courses in a range of job-related competencies (e.g. IT skills; preparing and editing material for publication; customer service skills). The team delivers some of these courses, but also contracts with external training organizations. The team and the HRD unit prepare bi-annual reports for the senior management team and liaise with senior colleagues when specialist training is required (e.g. triggered by the introduction of new technology or the launch of a new qualification). The training function is currently under review as the organization is growing in size and complexity. There is an increasing need for all personnel within the organization to work in highly flexible and often multi-skilled ways and this demands a much greater focus on continuing professional development (CPD). The organization also has several hundred staff who work at a regional level, mainly from home, servicing educational and private training institutions who deliver its qualifications. 308

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These people are brought into head office for training events, but the HRD unit is conscious that more needs to be done to help staff engage in CPD through more flexible methods (e.g. e-learning). Q.2 What skills, knowledge and competencies do trainers need and how do they acquire them? The respondent stressed that in-house trainers needed to have a thorough understanding of the organization’s history and culture, and an up-to-date working knowledge of the product range. Trainers are also expected to engage with the latest developments in work-based learning and e-learning and to keep their own skills up-to-date. The trainers are very busy: “This is a fast-moving business and we have new staff arriving all the time…and we’ve got lots of people who’ve been with us for years and need to shift their ways of working and thinking…so the trainers are busy, busy, busy.” In the past, training was part of a personnel function and sometimes experienced people were asked to take on a training role. Now trainers tend to be appointed from outside as the organization is looking for people with specialist training skills and who see their career in HRD and/or a training and development role. Q.3. How does your organization evaluate training? This was regarded as a difficult question because of the complexity of the organisation’s training functions. Evaluation is the responsibility of the HRD unit and tends to take the form of appraisal sheets (known throughout the UK as ‘happy sheets’) handed out at the end of training events. The respondent said that this was problematic as not everyone completed these sheets and the responses only gave a very superficial perspective on each event. There was a need for a more in-depth review of staff expectations and experiences of training. The HRD unit reported its evaluation results to the senior management team and had to prepare an annual budget showing how the training budget would be spent. In general, the respondent felt that the evaluation of the organisation’s investment in training was “not very scientific” and that the HRD unit and the organization would benefit from a more systematic approach. Q.4. What is the employment situation of trainers in your organization and how is their status perceived? The in-house trainers are employed on a full-time basis and paid about 15 per cent above the national average for people in that role. Trainers are seen as part of the HRD unit and so have a reasonable status within the organization. Q.5. What major issues and trends can you identify in relation to the developing role of trainers both within your organization and in the country more broadly? The respondent stressed that an in-house training capacity was very important to the organization and that it was vital that trainers had access to high quality CPD provided by external bodies such as CIPD and local colleges and universities. He said that expertise in the use of learning technologies was increasingly a central part of a trainer’s skill set and that the organisation was investing more in its IT capacity over the next five years.

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Interview 2 Q.1. What are the typical tasks undertaken by trainers in your organization? The organization had a dedicated training unit until 18 months ago when the Training Manager and four trainers were all made redundant. The company no longer employs apprentices. New recruits to the production lines are given a short induction training by their line supervisor and/or by an experienced worker. Training has been devolved to the managers of the company’s business units who identify the training needs of their staff and liaise with the HRD unit to organize appropriate ways to deliver the training. Currently, an external training provider is helping the company deliver ‘mechatronics’ training to a sample of engineers and electricians throughout the company. The HRD unit organizes company-wide health and safety training and any specialist training for senior staff who identify their own needs through the annual appraisal process. The devolution of training and the closure of the training unit has meant that the process of ‘on-the-job’ learning has become much more important in this company. The way in which work is organized has also changed to encourage much more team working and sharing of knowledge and skills as part of everyday workplace activity. Q.2 What skills, knowledge and competencies do trainers need and how do they acquire them? The respondent said that the line supervisor was the key person with regard to ensuring production staff (the majority of employees) were trained properly and, although supervisors are not referred to as ‘trainers’, they were, in effect, performing that role: “Supervisors are highly experienced employees who can pass on their skills when they talk to the production operators as they go about their business…they walk the floor of the factory and see when an operator needs some help or is making a mistake and they can fix the problem there and then…we don’t have to wait to send the guy on a course.” Personnel in the HRD unit also perform a small amount of training functions, but their main role is to contract with external providers for specific training events. This means they have to have an up-to-date knowledge of the providers available and build relationships with them to ensure the company can access the kind of training it needs. Q.3. How does your organization evaluate training? Again, this was regarded as a difficult question. In the case of this company, because a great deal of training is now embedded within everyday workplace activity, it isn’t possible to assess how much formal instruction is being delivered. The business unit managers do, however, evaluate the externally provided training as training is one of their Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). The managers have to assess the extent to which any training is helping them achieve improvements in productivity and, importantly, helping them reduce waste (caused when products don’t meet the prescribed quality standards laid down by the company’s customers). Q.4. What is the employment situation of trainers in your organization and how is their status perceived? The status of ‘trainers’ has clearly changed in this company which is currently going through a phase of transition from a traditional approach (with an in-house dedicated training unit) to a more distributed and embedded approach to workplace learning.

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Q.5. What major issues and trends can you identify in relation to the developing role of trainers both within your organization and in the country more broadly? The respondent stressed that a key issue for the company was improving the English language capability of migrant workers from eastern Europe who are employed on temporary contracts to help with busy production periods. This was an issue that couldn’t be handled by the supervisors or the HRD unit. The company was liaising with local colleges to try and find appropriate ways to deal with this problem. In terms of the role of trainers more generally, the respondent said that the economic climate for companies like his was extremely difficult due to the pressures of globalization and, hence, in-house costs had to be kept to a minimum. For the foreseeable future, the company was going to pursue its devolved strategy.

Interview 3 Q.1. What are the typical tasks undertaken by trainers in your organization? This company has a team of trainers (between 6 and 8) who tour the UK providing both induction and CPD training to staff in its chain of restaurants. All training is competence-based and specified in training manuals. Training sessions are highly participative and concentrate in particular on customer-service. In addition, chefs in the restaurants attend local colleges for specific short courses. The trainers are trained by the company’s HRD unit and are also encouraged to study for CIPD qualifications. Q.2 What skills, knowledge and competencies do trainers need and how do they acquire them? The respondent stressed that the trainers must be ‘people-focused’. This meant they should be aware that the trainees they would meet in the restaurants had a range of learning styles and would be from a diverse set of backgrounds in relation to: a) their previous educational attainment; b) their English language capability; c) their experience of working in a service sector job; and d) their cultural expectations of how to treat customers. Trainers must also be very clear that their role was to ensure all staff were trained in as consistent a way as possible. The company prides itself on the consistency of the products and services provided in its restaurants throughout the UK. Staff had to “sign up to the company’s goals” and “all sing from the same hymn sheet when it comes to making customers feel comfortable”. Part of the trainers’ own training, therefore, includes an induction into the company’s corporate strategy and the restaurants’ KPIs so that trainers are able to set the training they do with staff in the context of the company’s “mission and business plan”. As far as delivering training is concerned, trainers are expected to know how to: – – – –

deliver training according to the prescribed session plans (from the training manual) take account of trainees’ individual learning styles (a Learning Styles Inventory is used at the start of induction training for all new staff) use a range of materials and aids (e.g. flipcharts, whiteboards, power point slides) to illustrate their points and to vary the learning approaches in the session give constructive and encouraging feedback to participants during sessions

Trainers are not expected to design the sessions and so have limited scope for discretion and creativity.

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Q.3. How does your organization evaluate training? The company evaluates its training through the restaurants’ KPIs. This means that the restaurant managers have to monitor the performance of their staff and assess the extent to which their initial training has been adequate and whether they need further development. Q.4. What is the employment situation of trainers in your organization and how is their status perceived? Training is given a high status in this company, but the status of ‘trainers’ is not seen to be any higher than other staff. Trainers are paid about 10 per cent below the average national wage for in-company trainers and there is a relatively high turnover of people performing this role. Some use their experience with the company to move to higher paid positions in other organizations. Q.5. What major issues and trends can you identify in relation to the developing role of trainers both within your organization and in the country more broadly? The respondent stressed the company could meet most of its training needs in-house. The turnover of trainers was a cause for concern and the company was considering introducing a more hierarchical structure for its training team to create more chances for trainers to progress and be promoted. The respondent felt that government policy was too geared towards qualifications and did not pay enough attention to the provision of short unaccredited courses to suit the “just-in-time” needs of most businesses. The respondent said: “If we need a chef to do a quick update on his skills, it’s often impossible to find a provider for this.”

Interview 4 Q.1. What are the typical tasks undertaken by trainers in your organization? Of the four interviews, this respondent represented the most sophisticated approach to training in that the company has a highly differentiated model for the development of staff at all levels and a model that is adaptable to the culture difference between the host countries in which its offices are based. In addition, there is widespread use of e-learning and other technologies to support the many staff who are not office-based and to also connect staff across within and across countries through, for example, video-conferencing. Q.2 What skills, knowledge and competencies do trainers need and how do they acquire them? Training is regarded as a professional occupation that is part of the wider HRD and Human Resource Management (HRM) functions. Trainers are expected to have CIPD qualifications prior to joining the company or to obtain them within the first two years of working in a training role. Q.3. How does your organization evaluate training? Some training is evaluated at a corporate level through connections to the company’s KPIs and some is evaluated at local level. The respondent stressed, however, that the company did not expect to see a “direct causal link between training and the bottom-line…we know its much more tricky than that…it’s a constant case of trying to persuade the directors that we are spending money wisely, but trying to show them that the pay-off will come through in all sorts of ways that are hard to measure.”

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Q.4. What is the employment situation of trainers in your organization and how is their status perceived? Trainers are paid about 20 per cent above the national average and their status comes through a general corporate ethos that values and encourages staff development. A great deal of training is delivered in-house and so trainers are very visible across the company. Q.5. What major issues and trends can you identify in relation to the developing role of trainers both within your organization and in the country more broadly? The company is particularly keen to exploit new learning technologies and become better at supporting the needs of staff who are constantly having to update their knowledge and skills in a fast moving, cutting edge sector. To this extent, a great deal of emphasis is placed on individuals accessing learning in ways that suit them and not waiting for the training department to find a course for them. The respondent felt that the education systems in many countries lagged behind private sector corporations who were using learning technologies and that governments should do more to “bring education into the 21st century”.

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