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BIOMASS & BIOENERGY
Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69-75 www.e\sevier.com/locate/biombioe
Firewood consumption along an altitudinal gradient in mountain villages of India B.P. Bhatt*, M.S. Sachan Agro{orestry Division, ICAR Research Complex for N EH Region. Umiwll, Meqhalaya 793103, India Received 7 April 2003; received in revised form 24 October 2003; accepted 24 October 2003
Abstract The nlral population of the Himalayas has been using firewood as the only source of energy for generations. Increasing population coupled with decreasing forest resources have led to strict environmental protection laws in the area. This paper analyses the fuel wood consumption pattem for households along an altitudinal gradient in Garhwal Himalaya. Uttaranchal. Firewood consumption was 2.80, 2.00,1.42,1.10 and 1.07 kg/capita/day, respectively, above 2000,1500-2000,1000-1500, 500-1000 and below 500 m altitude. The energy expenditure for fuelwood collection was 60.77, 62,57, 76.70, 87.23 and 85.14 MJ/capita/year, accordingly. Firewood consumption was influenced by climate and season of the year. On average,
the fuelwood consumption was 2.0-3.0-fold higher in winter than summer (considering 265 days as winter and 100 days as
summer). The present infonnation on fuelwood consumption pattern by different altitude could fonn the basis for designing
appropriate technologies for energy plantations in the region. The biomass consumption rate has also been discussed in
environmental perspective in the Himalayan region.
© 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Fuelwood; Garhwal Himalaya; Energy ""
\... I. Introduction The consumption of biomass as fuel has been iden tified as one of the most significant causes of forest decline in many developing countries and according to one esti mate, woodfuel accounts for over 54% of all global wood harvests per annum, suggesting a signifi cant and direct role of woodfuel in forest degradation [I]. Biomass is the main source of energy in Indian mountain villages and about half of all energy (com mercial and biogas) consumed in India is used for • Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-364-570301; fax; +91-364 570257. E-mail address:
[email protected] (RP. Bhatt). 0961-9534/$-see front matter © 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.10 16/j .biombioe.2003.1 0.004
cooking food. This is nearly double the energy (fos sil, fuel, electricity) consumed by agriculture and the industrial sector combined [2]. Data about rural en ergy supply and consumption patterns are lacking and prejudices rural energy planning. At the same time, energy planners overlook this most essential energy use and planning priorities are usually set in favour of the industrial and agricultural sector's commercial en ergy demand rather than for domestic cooking. In the case of cooking, non-commercial sources of energy are even more crucial providing as much as 87% of the country's cooking energy requirements [3]. Tech nically and economically sound means exist both for reforestation and for improving the efficiency with which wood and other biomass fuels are burnt [4].
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B.P. Bhatt. M.S. Sochan I Biomass and Bioener{/y 27 (2004) 69-75
Traditionally, people of the Himalayan region have been fulfilling their energy needs almost entirely from forests. But with dwindling forest resources and en forcement of new environmental laws by Government agencies has restricted fuelwood collection without provision of alternative sources of energy. Thus the very existence of the local people is being threatened [5]. A field survey was undertaken to study the fuelwood consumption pattern of rural communities across an altitudinal gradient with a view to identify (a) major tree species, which are being used and preferred by the rural population for fuel, (b) quantify the fuel woods consumed by households at different altitudes, and (c) quantify the human energy spent and distance travelled to collect fuel wood.
2. Study area and climate The study was conducted in Garhwal Himalaya, Ut taranchal, India (situated between 30°7'-30°35' N lat itude and 78°23'-79°42'5" E longitude). Pennanent settlement in this area occurs from 380 to 2500 m. The climate is sub-montane with an average rainfall of 1550-2700 mm. The average maximum tempera ture during the summer season is 35°C and the aver age minimum temperature 21.8°c, with a maximum and minimum of 22°C and 7.9°c, respectively, during winter. The forest changes with altitude; the distribution of chir pine (Pinus ruxhuryhii) occurs in the tropical and the subtropical region of the area, but oaks (Quercus spp.) dominate the higher hills. Although forests dom inate the landscape in the Garhwal region, agriculture is the main occupation of the hill people. Villagers cultivate a variety of crops on the hill slopes, e.g., Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivul11, Eleusine curacana and Echinuchloa frul11el1tacea are the major crops, with Setaria italica, Zea mays and Amaranthus spp. the staple food crops. Brassica spp., Cleo/11e viscusa and Glycine max are the major oil crops. Various pulses and vegetables are also cultivated in rainfed agricultural land. Sulanu/11 tuherlisum, Fayopyru/11 spp. and beans are important crops of the more tem perate parts (Up to 2500 m). Agricultural land cover 2 about 4196 km in six districts of Garhwal; the val leys are more productive than the upland fields but the
area under valley cultivation is less than 20% of the total agricultural land. Though irrigation facilities are meager, valley land in cultivated for rice and wheat production, but at the high altitudes only rainfed agri culture is practised.
3. Data collection The study began with a preliminary survey con ducted in the villages at different altitudes to count the number of families and members in each household. At each altitude, three villages were selected randomly to represent the villages of that particular altitude. A minimum of \5 families in each village was used for the fuel wood consumption study. The fieldwork was conducted during July 2000-June 200 \. The quantity of fuel wood consumed was measured over a period of 24 h using a weight survey method [5,6]. The wood was weighed using 50 kg spring bal ance and then left in the kitchen of each household with instructions to burn wood only from the bundle. On the next day the authors returned to each house hold and the remaining wood was weighed to calcu late the actual consumption per day. Time spent for fuel wood collection was noted when the members of the household went to the forest. The distance trav elled and the time spent for fuel wood collection was crosschecked by the authors who visited the forest along with the villagers during the period of firewood collection. Based on Gopalan et al. [7], the time and labour spent for fuel wood collection by the house hold members was measured in hours and then con verted into energy (MI). Total fuel energy consumed was apportioned to each activity [8] according to rel ative duration on the basis of sedentary, moderate or heavy work. Per hour energy expenditure of 00418 MJ for sedentary work, 00488 MJ for moderate work and 0.679 MJ for heavy work for an adult male; 0.33\, 0.383 and 0.523 MJ for an adult female; and 00412 MJ for heavy work for a child of the age category of 9 -12 years were used for the calculation of the energy input into fuel wood and other fuel collection. Overall rank sum index (ORSI) of the major firewood species was assessed on the basis of fuel wood production, firewood properties like calorific value, wood density, moisture percentage, biomass to ash ratio, ash percentage and availability. For each
B.P. Bhatt, M.S. Sac/ran I Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 69-75
attribute, the rating was made using 0.25 -1.0 scale (0.25 = poor; 0.50 = fair; 0.75 = good; and 1.0 ex cellent). Based on these estimates, the total score of each species was then divided by number of species evaluated, i.e., 33 species, to present the pooled value of ORSI [9].
Table I Major firewood species at different altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya, India Altitudinal range
Vernacular name Scientific name
Up to 500 m asl
Aseen Dhauda Gutel Jamun Kanju Kusum Ruina Sal Sandan
Terminalia /omen/osa Wood/ordia /rul/icosa Trewia nud!flora Eugenia jamholana Holop/elia in/e!Jtifolili Sapindus mukorossi MallolUS philippinensis Shorm rohus/a Ougeinia dalhergioides
500-1000 m asl
Chir Dainken Guiral Haldu Khair Siris Toon Tung
Pinus roxhuryhii Melia a::adirachta BlIuhinia re/usa Adina cordi/olia Acacia catechu A Ihi:::ia lehhek Toona cilia/a Rhus parv!flora
4. Results The major tree species used for fuel wood at dif ferent altitudes are presented in Table I. Almost any species is used as firewood depending on occurrence at different altitudes. Firewood consumption was 1.07, 1.10, 1.42, 2.00 and 2.80 kg/capita/day, respectively, at 500, 500 1000, 1000-1500, 1500-2000 and above 20001TI. Firewood consumption was 2.61-fold higher at high altitude (above 2000 m) compared to fuelwood used at low (up to 500 m) altitude. At each altitude, the fu elwood consumption was highest in winter, followed by the spring. High altitude populations use fuel for space heating, boiling water and lighting as well as cooking and this is the reason for the higher rate of firewood demand at high altitudes (Table 2). Fuelwood collection is mainly done by the women, particularly at high altitudes. On average, irrespec tive of altitudinal gradient, women use 55% of the total labour energy expenditure for firewood collec tion. Men and children contribute the rest. Total en ergy expenditure for firewood collection is highest (85.14 MJ/capita/yr) at low (up to 500 m) altitude as the villagers have to walk long distances in search of firewood (2.0 to 3.0 km daily). At high altitudes, due to plentiful resources and comparatively low popula tion pressure, they walk 1.3-1.5 km in search of fire wood. Thus less labour energy (60.77 MJ/capita/yr) is required for firewood collection. On average, there was a lA-fold higher energy expenditure at low alti tude (up to 500 m) compared to high (above 2000 m) altitude (Table 3). Liquid petroleum gas (LPG), kerosene and cow dung are also used to meet energy requirements but only at low altitudes. On average, LPG, kerosene and cow dung contribute 23% of the energy requirement up to 1000 m; 2.6% at 1000-1500 m and below 2.0% above 1500 m altitude. Thus, firewood is the major source of energy at all altitudes. In spite of the higher
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1000-1500 m asl Banj Chir Khainda Painya
1500-2000 m asl Anyar Alder Banj Burans Chir Harinj Kafal Above 2000 m asl Alder Kanjula Kapasi Kharsu Pangar Rag Surai Thuner
Quercus leucolrichophora Pinus roxhurghii FiClis cunia Prunus cerasoides Lyonia ovali/i,lill Alnus nepalensis Quercus leuco/ricllOphora Rhododendron arhoreum Pinus roxhur!Jhii Quercus ylauca Myrica esculen/a Alnus nepalensis Acer caesium Comus lI1acrophylla Quercus sel1licarp!/i,lia Aesculus indica Ahies pindrow Cupressus /orulosa Taxus hacca/a
energy consumption of fuel wood collection at low al titudes the total fuel energy consumption increased with increasing altitude as firewood consumption in creased markedly with increasing altitude (Table 4). Abies pindrow, Adinu cordij{J!iu, Aesru!us indiw, Comus macrophy!!u, Ho!vpte!ia inteyrif
