IIPS Working Paper No. 12
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra Sayeed Unisa, Aparajita Chattopadhyay, Prakash Fulpagare and Atreyee Sinha
May, 2016
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR POPULATION SCIENCES Deonar, Mumbai 400 088, Maharashtra, India Tel: +91 22 42372400; Fax: +91 22 25563257 E-mail:
[email protected] Website: www.iipsindia.org
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra Sayeed Unisa, Aparajita Chattopadhyay, Prakash Fulpagare, Atreyee Sinha Introduction Food security "exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access WR VXI¿FLHQW VDIH DQG QXWULWLRXV IRRG WR PHHW WKHLU GLHWDU\ QHHGV DQG IRRG SUHIHUHQFHV for an active and healthy life" (FAO, 2012). Food security was understood to apply at the QDWLRQDOOHYHOZLWKDVWDWHEHLQJIRRGVHFXUHZKHQWKHUHZDVVXI¿FLHQWIRRGWRVXVWDLQD VWHDG\H[SDQVLRQRIIRRGFRQVXPSWLRQDQGWRRIIVHWÀXFWXDWLRQVLQSURGXFWLRQDQGSULFHV 7KH WKUHH FRPSRQHQWV RI IRRG VHFXULW\ DUH²DYDLODELOLW\ KDYLQJ VXI¿FLHQW TXDQWLWLHV RI DSSURSULDWH IRRG DYDLODEOH DFFHVVLELOLW\ KDYLQJ DGHTXDWH LQFRPH RU RWKHU UHVRXUFHV WR DFFHVVIRRG DQGXWLOL]DWLRQFRQVXPSWLRQ KDYLQJDGHTXDWHGLHWDU\LQWDNHDQGWKHDELOLW\WR absorb and use nutrients in the body). These three components provide the basis for food security policies, and programs in developing countries. Historically, in India, efforts were being made to achieve food security among the population. Public Distribution System (PDS) was started during British India at the time of World War-II to control famine and to have access to food by all households (FAO). This system was continued in independent India too. However, the PDS policy was changed as part of economic programmes of the Government of India and a new approach named as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security at national and sub-national level to see the impact of these schemes on the child nutrition. There has been a paradigmatic shift in the concept of food security, from food availability and stability to household food insecurity (Sen,1981; Radimer et al., 1992; World Food &RXQFLO )RRG VHFXULW\ WKRXJK XVHG LQWHUFKDQJHDEO\ ZLWK QXWULWLRQDO VHFXULW\ LV 1
IIPS Working Paper No. 12
not same. Factors that contribute to the household food insecurity are environmental, FRQWH[WXDODQGVRFLDOSROLF\ SURJUDPPHUHODWHGWRWKHDYDLODELOLW\RIIRRG 5DGKDNULVKQD &DPSEHOO 5XHOHWDO )RRGLQVHFXULW\LVQHFHVVDU\EXWQRWVXI¿FLHQWIRU QXWULWLRQVHFXULW\1XWULWLRQVHFXULW\FRQVLGHUVFDUHKHDOWKDQGK\JLHQHSUDFWLFHVLQDGGLWLRQ WRIRRGVHFXULW\7KH)$2GH¿QHVQXWULWLRQVHFXULW\DV³$VLWXDWLRQWKDWH[LVWVZKHQVHFXUH DFFHVVWRDQDSSURSULDWHO\QXWULWLRXVGLHWLVFRXSOHGZLWKDVDQLWDU\HQYLURQPHQWDGHTXDWH health services and care, in order to ensure a healthy and active life for all household PHPEHUV´ )$2 ,QPDQ\VWXGLHVVRFLRHFRQRPLFVWDWXVRIWKHKRXVHKROGLVLGHQWL¿HG DVDSULPDU\ULVNIDFWRURIIRRGLQVHFXULW\/LPLWHGLQFRPHRIWKHKRXVHKROGVFRXSOHGZLWK increasing living expenses (housing, electricity, education of children and medical expenses etc.) may increase the probability of household being food insecure (Zalilah and Tham, 2002; Broughton et al., 2006; Abdul and Perera, 2011). In case of cultivators, income is GHSHQGHQW RQ DJULFXOWXUH SURGXFWLRQ DQG LW LV DIIHFWHG E\ ZHDWKHU FRQGLWLRQV 0RUHRYHU many of the cultivators face the decrease in the landholding size over the period due to GLYLVLRQVDPRQJWKHIDPLO\PHPEHUV,QWHUHVWLQJO\$6HQLQKLVGRFWRUDOZRUNLQ V HODERUDWHG WKH EDVLF QHHG WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI IRRG VHFXULW\ ³3RYHUW\ DQG Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation,” brought to the forefront the importance of food access in determining food security by highlighting historical examples of famine FRQGLWLRQVLQFRXQWULHVZLWKVXI¿FLHQWQDWLRQDOIRRGVXSSOLHV 6HQ 8QGHUFRQGLWLRQV RIKLJKIRRGSULFHVDQGORZGHPDQGIRUZDJHODERUHYHQLIIRRGVXSSOLHVDUHVXI¿FLHQWWKH SRRU LQKLELW WKHLU DFFHVV WR DYDLODEOH IRRG (PEOHPDWLF RI WKLV VKLIW LQ WKLQNLQJ ODWHU IRRG security concept was revised to encompass the components of availability and accessibility 81 )$2 +RXVHKROG IRRG LQVHFXULW\ KDV EHHQ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK GHFUHDVHG KRXVHKROGIRRGVXSSO\HVSHFLDOO\RISXOVHVPLONIUXLWVDQGYHJHWDEOHV$OVRIRRGLQVHFXULW\ KDV EHHQ QHJDWLYHO\ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK ZRPHQ V IRRG LQWDNH 0DWKHVRQ HW DO 7KH QXWULWLRQ GH¿FLHQFLHV GXULQJ SUHJQDQF\ ODFWDWLRQ FDQ FRQWULEXWH WR LQDSSURSULDWH JURZWK DWWDLQPHQWVXFKDVVWXQWLQJDQGXQGHUZHLJKWDPRQJ\RXQJFKLOGUHQ ,QVWLWXWHRI0HGLFLQH $EDOR &ROHPDQ-HQVHQHWDO )RRGLQVHFXULW\PD\OHDGWRLQVXI¿FLHQW GLHWDU\LQWDNHWKDWFDQOHDGWRQXWULWLRQGH¿FLHQFLHVDPRQJFKLOGUHQ .HQGDOOHWDO 2OVRQ &RRN HW DO 7KHUH KDV EHHQ JURZLQJ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH K\SRWKHVL]HG OLQN EHWZHHQ IRRG LQVHFXULW\ DQG PDOQXWULWLRQ DPRQJ FKLOGUHQ =DOLODK DQG 7KDP 0DWKHVRQHWDO 1DNDER6VHZDQ\DQD %KDWWDFKDU\DHWDO 2VHL *LOOHVSLH%DNHU)UHQFK 5HFHQWHYLGHQFHPDNHVLWFOHDUWKDWLQDUHVRXUFH SRRUVHWWLQJDFKLOGH[SHULHQFHDGYHUVHLPSDFWRIQXWULWLRQDOGH¿FLHQF\LQHDUO\OLIHLHWKH period beginning with the woman’s pregnancy and continue until the child is 2 years old 2VHLHWDO &RIIH\HWDO 2
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
Need for the study: Few studies in India has examined aggregate level data on food security and child nutritional status *RSDODQ 'HDWRQ DQG 'UH]H &RIIH\ HW DO *LOOHVSLH Yet, the relationship between household food insecurity and nutrition status of children is not that comprehensive, using household level large scale surveys. Evidence from some VHOHFWHG GHYHORSLQJ DQG GHYHORSHG FRXQWULHV JLYH DGHTXDWH HPSKDVLV RQ H[SORULQJ WKH SDWKZD\VRIIRRGVHFXULW\DQGFKLOGQXWULWLRQ 0DWKHVRQHWDO 6DKDHWDO 1RUG HWDO .DPDOHWDO 2VHLHWDO DVIRRGLQVHFXULW\LVKDYLQJULSSOHHIIHFW RQHFRQRP\DQGVRFLHW\1RQDWLRQDOOHYHOVXUYH\LQ,QGLDKDV\HWFRYHUHGIRRGVHFXULW\ PRGXOH,QDIRRGVHFXULW\PRGXOHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHZDVLQFOXGHGLQ&RPSUHKHQVLYH 1XWULWLRQ6XUYH\LQ0DKDUDVKWUD &160 'DWDRI&160KDVJLYHQWKHVFRSHRIDQDO\]LQJ household food security in relation to nutritional indicators of children under two years. 0RUHRYHULQWKHVWDWHRI0DKDUDVKWUDDQLQGHSHQGHQW6WDWH1XWULWLRQ0LVVLRQNQRZQDV WKH5DMPDWD-LMDX0RWKHU&KLOG+HDOWKDQG1XWULWLRQ0LVVLRQLQFROODERUDWLRQZLWK81,&() KDVEHHQRSHUDWLRQDOGXULQJDQGWKH3KDVH,,RIWKH0LVVLRQ LVLQ SURJUHVVIRUWKHLPSURYHPHQWRIQXWULWLRQDOVWDWXVRIFKLOGUHQ *RYHUQPHQWRI0DKDUDVKWUD 7KHQHHGWRH[DPLQHWKHIRRGVHFXULW\DWKRXVHKROGOHYHODQGFKLOGQXWULWLRQLQ0DKDUDVKWUD LVSHUWLQHQWLQFRQWH[WRIIRRGVHFXULW\ELOO0DKDUDVKWUDKDVDOUHDG\UROOHGRXWLWVIRRGVHFXULW\ ELOOLQ$VSHU:RUOGIRRGSURJUDPPHGLVWULFWVRI0DKDUDVKWUDFDQEHJURXSHGLQWRWZR FDWHJRULHV 2QHIDOOVLQWKHKLOO\IRUHVWHGWUDFWDQGWKHRWKHULVWKHFHQWUDOGU\0DKDUDVKWUD LH9LGDUEKDDQG0DUDWKZDGDUHJLRQ$VSHU)RRG6HFXULW\2XWFRPH,QGH[ )62, VWDWXV RIUXUDO0DKDUDVKWUDH[FHSW6LQGKLGXUJDQG5DWQDJLULDOOGLVWULFWVDUHWRVRPHH[WHQWIRRG insecure and 8 districts are severely food insecure (IHD, 2010). In context of such food security scenario and child malnutrition, this paper describes the level of household food VHFXULW\LQ0DKDUDVKWUDE\LWVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHGLYLVLRQVDQGWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIKRXVHKROG E\IRRGVHFXULW\VWDWXVWRLGHQWLI\WKHULVNIDFWRUVRIIRRGLQVHFXULW\LQUXUDODQGXUEDQDUHDV separately. It also explores the relationship between household food security and nutritional RXWFRPHV RI FKLOGUHQ XQGHU WZR \HDUV LQ WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLYH GLYLVLRQV RI 0DKDUDVKWUD Divisional variation of food security needs to be captured for implementing customized SURJUDPPHV XVLQJ HYLGHQFHEDVHG ORZFRVW KLJK LPSDFW QXWULWLRQVSHFL¿F DQG QXWULWLRQ sensitive interventions. Hence, there is a need to examine the household food security QRW QXWULWLRQDO VHFXULW\ DQG IDFWRUV LQÀXHQFLQJ VXFK IRRG LQVHFXULW\ LQ RQH RI WKH PRVW prosperous states in India.
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IIPS Working Paper No. 12
Data and Methods &RPSUHKHQVLYH 1XWULWLRQ 6XUYH\ RI 0DKDUDVKWUD &160 LV D XQLTXH UHVHDUFK WKDW provides ample data to understand the child feeding practices and food habits along with food security at household level. The study was conducted by the International Institute for Population ScienFHV ,,36 DVDQRGDODJHQF\DQG81,&()SURYLGHGWKHWHFKQLFDODQG ¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUW ,,36DQG81,&() 7KHVXUYH\FRYHUHGDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVDPSOH IURP VL[ DGPLQLVWUDWLYH GLYLVLRQV RI 0DKDUDVKWUD FRYHULQJ FKLOGUHQ XQGHU DJH WZR during February -April 2012. The selection of the sample was done separately in rural and XUEDQ DUHDV XVLQJ D PXOWLVWDJH VWUDWL¿HG VDPSOLQJ SURFHGXUH7KH VWDWH RI 0DKDUDVKWUD LV GLYLGHG LQWR GLVWULFWV ZKLFK DUH JURXSHG LQWR VL[ DGPLQLVWUDWLYH GLYLVLRQV QDPHO\ $PDUDYDWL$XUDQJDEDG.RQNDQ3XQH1DJSXUDQG1DVKLN 0HDVXUHVREWDLQHGIURPDQWKURSRPHWU\DUHVHQVLWLYHLQGLFDWRUVRIKHDOWKGHYHORSPHQWDQG growth among infants and young children. So, anthropometric indicators were measured E\WUDLQHGKHDOWKSHUVRQQHOLQWKLVVXUYH\&KLOGUHQ¶VOHQJWKZDVPHDVXUHGXVLQJDOHQJWK measuring board with a maximum length capacity of 91 cm and an accuracy of 1 mm. The electronic weighing scale was used to weigh the children with a maximum weighing capacity RINJDQGDQDFFXUDF\RIJUDP1XWULWLRQDOVWDWXVLVGH¿QHGLQWHUPVRIVWXQWLQJ ZDVWLQJ DQG XQGHUZHLJKW 7KH :+2 *OREDO 'DWDEDVH RQ &KLOG *URZWK DQG 0DOQXWULWLRQ uses a Z-score cut-off point of 0D[ZHOO )URQJLOORHWDO &RDWHVHWDO .QXHSSHOHWDO@ 7KH+),$6FRQVLVWVRI LWHPVVSHFL¿FWRDQH[SHULHQFHRIIRRGLQVHFXULW\RFFXUULQJZLWKLQ the last month. Each respondent indicated whether they had encountered the following at KRXVHKROGOHYHOGXHWRODFNRIIRRGRUPRQH\WREX\IRRGLQWKHODVWRQHPRQWK ZRUULHG DERXWUXQQLQJRXWRIIRRG ODFNRISUHIHUUHGIRRG WKHUHVSRQGHQWRUDQRWKHUDGXOWKDG OLPLWHGDFFHVVWRDYDULHW\RIIRRGVGXHWRDODFNRIUHVRXUFHV IRUFHGWRHDWXQSUHIHUUHG IRRG GXH WR ODFN RI UHVRXUFHV HDWLQJ VPDOOHU SRUWLRQV VNLSSLQJ PHDOV WKH KRXVHKROGUDQRXWRIIRRG JRLQJWRVOHHSKXQJU\DQG JRLQJKRXUVZLWKRXWIRRG (QGRUVHGLWHPVDUHWKHQFODUL¿HGZLWKUHSRUWHGHVWLPDWHVRIWKHIUHTXHQF\RIIRRGLQVHFXULW\ 5
IIPS Working Paper No. 12
UDUHO\VRPHWLPHVDQGRIWHQ 6FRUHVUDQJHIURPWRZKHUHKLJKHUVFRUHVUHÀHFWPRUH severe food insecurity and lower scores represent less food insecurity. To determine the status of food insecurity the average HFIAS score was computed and then household food insecurity access prevalence (HFIAP) categories (food secure, mild, moderately and VHYHUHO\IRRGLQVHFXUH ZDVJHQHUDWHG 0XOXVHZ 7KUHHTXHVWLRQVRQKRXVHKROG V inability to eat preferred food, inability to eat a variety of food, and inability to eat the food RIFKRLFHFDSWXUHVWKHGRPDLQRILQVXI¿FLHQWTXDOLW\RIIRRG7KHGRPDLQRISHUFHSWLRQWKDW IRRGLVRILQVXI¿FLHQWTXDQWLW\LVFDSWXUHGE\DVNLQJZKHWKHUWKH UHVSRQGHQWV KDG WR HDW VPDOOHU PHDOV RU ZKHWKHU WKH\ KDG WR HDW IHZHU PHDOV7KUHH TXHVWLRQV RQ ZKHWKHU WKH respondents had no food to eat, had to sleep without food and had to go day and night ZLWKRXWIRRGFDSWXUHVWKHGRPDLQRIUHGXFWLRQLQIRRGLQWDNH VHHDSSHQGL[, Thus, the HFIAP indicator categorizes households into four levels of food security: food secure, mildly insecure, moderately insecure, and severely food insecure based on the UHVSRQVHRIWKHKRXVHKROGLQQLQHTXHVWLRQVDQGFRPELQLQJWKHPZLWKVSHFL¿HGPHWKRGVDV VXJJHVWHGE\)$17$7KHFDWHJRUL]DWLRQVFKHPHLVGHVLJQHGWRHQVXUHWKDWDKRXVHKROG¶V UHVSRQVHV FDQ SODFH WKHP LQ D VLQJOH XQLTXH FDWHJRU\ +RXVHKROGV WKDW H[SHULHQFH QR IRRGLQVHFXULW\EXWUDUHO\H[SHULHQFHVRPHDQ[LHW\RYHUVXI¿FLHQF\RIIRRGDUHFDWHJRUL]HG DVIRRGVHFXUH+RXVHKROGVWKDWZRUU\DERXWQRWKDYLQJHQRXJKIRRGIUHTXHQWO\DVZHOODV households that sometimes in last one month could not have their preferred food or have to eat to eat limited variety of food, or food that they really do not want to eat are categorized DVPLOGO\IRRGLQVHFXUH+RXVHKROGVWKDWIUHTXHQWO\KDYHWRHDWIRRGRIOLPLWHGFKRLFHDQG VRPHWLPHVKDYHWRHDWOHVVHUTXDQWLW\RIIRRGDUHFDWHJRUL]HGDVPRGHUDWHO\IRRGLQVHFXUH Those households that have no food to eat or have to starve day and night are categorized as severely food insecure. The section on food security was administered to the person in the household who was most involved with the food preparation and means, though the UHVSRQGHQWZDVWRDQVZHURQEHKDOIRIDOOWKHKRXVHKROGPHPEHUV)RUDOOWKHTXHVWLRQVRQ food security, a reference period of one-month period prior to survey was used 7KH SDSHU DQDO\]HG WKH IRRG VHFXULW\ DFFHVV FRQGLWLRQ E\ EDFNJURXQG FKDUDFWHULVWLFV OLNHUHOLJLRQFDVWHZHDOWKDQGODQGKROGLQJW\SHRIKRXVHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHUHJLRQV7KHQ thorough logistic regression analysis, we explained the main factors of food insecurity 6HFXULW\ )XUWKHUZHORRNHGLQWRWKHGHWHUPLQDQWVRIVWXQWLQJDQGXQGHUZHLJKW ZDVWLQJ EHLQJWRRVPDOOLQQXPEHULVH[FOXGHG E\IRRGVHFXULW\FRQWUROOLQJSHUWLQHQWIDFWRUVOLNH child and mother related characteristics, food consumption and food security along with administrative regions. 6
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
Results 7KHUHVXOWVRIWKHSDSHUDUHFDWHJRUL]HGLQWRWZRVHFWLRQV ¿UVWO\LWGLVFXVVHVIRRGVHFXULW\ aspects and its determinants; Secondly, it throws light on the nutrition status of children and its association with household food security. a)
Food security in Maharashtra:
$SSUR[LPDWHO\ KRXVHKROGV LQ 0DKDUDVKWUD ZHUH ZRUULHG DERXW LQVXI¿FLHQW IRRG VRPHWLPHV RU RIWHQ LQ WKH SUHYLRXV PRQWK ZKHUHDV QHYHU ZRUULHG DERXW LQVXI¿FLHQW IRRG )LJXUH 7KUHH TXHVWLRQV RQ KRXVHKROG¶V LQDELOLW\ WR HDW SUHIHUUHG IRRGLHDYDULHW\RIIRRGDQGWKHIRRGRIFKRLFHFDSWXUHWKHGRPDLQRILQVXI¿FLHQW TXDOLW\RIIRRG$ERXWSHUFHQWRIKRXVHKROGVUHSRUWHGWKDWWKH\ZHUHXQDEOHWRHDW preferred food or had to eat a limited variety of food, and 10% had to eat certain food items without choice in the previous month. However, about 2% of the households UHSRUWHG H[SHULHQFLQJ WKH LQVXI¿FLHQF\ RI IRRG RU LQDELOLW\ RI HDWLQJ SUHIHUUHG IRRG often in the last month. Approximately 8 percent of the households had to eat smaller DQGIHZHUPHDOVLQWKHODVWPRQWK7KUHHTXHVWLRQVRQZKHWKHUWKHUHVSRQGHQWVKDG no food to eat, had to sleep without food and had to go day and night without food FDSWXUHWKHGRPDLQRIUHGXFWLRQLQIRRGLQWDNH$ERXWRIWKHKRXVHKROGVUHSRUWHG KDYLQJKDGQRIRRGWRHDWLQWKHODVWPRQWKHLWKHUVRPHWLPHVRURIWHQ$URXQGRI the households reported having had to sleep without food sometimes in the last month. $ERXWRIWKHKRXVHKROGVLQ0DKDUDVKWUDUHSRUWHGKDYLQJKDGWRJRGD\DQGQLJKW without eating any food sometimes in the past one month.
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IIPS Working Paper No. 12
Figure 1: Percentage household in Maharashtra experiencing different components of Food security rarely, sometimes and often in the last month 30 25
Rarely
24.2 21 12.3
3.4
1.6
2.1
7.6 1
Had to eat certain food items without choice
Had to eat limited variety of food
Inability to eat preferred food
Worry about insufficient food
0
0.4
Often
6.6 0.3
7.6 4.3 0.3
5.2 2.4 0
Had to sleep without food
9
11.2
Had no food to eat
11.8
10 5
Some times
15.5
14
3 1.5
0
Had to go day and night without eating any food
17.6 14.5
Had to eat fewer meals
15
Had to eat smaller meals
20
Food insecurity in the rural area is higher than the urban area in all nine components considered under food security (Table 1). About half of the rural households reported to be ZRUULHGDERXWLQVXI¿FLHQWIRRGIROORZHGE\KRXVHKROGVZLWKWKHLQDELOLW\WRHDWSUHIHUUHG IRRG6HYHQWHHQSHUFHQWUXUDOKRXVHKROGVKDGQRIRRGWRHDWEHFDXVHRIODFNRIUHVRXUFHV to get food compared to 8 percent in urban areas. About one-tenth of rural households UHSRUWHGWRJRDZKROHGD\DQGQLJKWZLWKRXWHDWLQJLQWKHODVWPRQWKEHFDXVHRIODFNRI food- an intense case of food insecurity. The regions that attract attention for immediate DFWLRQUHODWHGWRIRRGLQVHFXULW\DUH$PUDYDWL$XUDQJDEDGDQG1DVKLNGLYLVLRQV
8
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
Table 1: Percentage of households by nine components of food security, according to place of residence and administrative divisions, Maharashtra, 2012
Worry about LQVXI¿FLHQW food
Inability to eat preferred food
Had to eat limited variety of food
Had to eat food without choice
Had to eat smaller meals
Had to eat fewer meals
Had no food to eat
Had to sleep without food
Had to go day-night without food
Rural
27.2
16.8
8UEDQ
8.0
2.8
Amravati
26.0
6.2
Auranghabad
26.6
7.9
.RQNDQ
18.1
8.7
1DJSXU
29.9
9.2
10.0
8.8
7.0
1DVKLN
20.2
8.7
Pune
16.1
9.8
Background characteristics Locality Type
Region
1RWH 3HUFHQWDJH VKRZV WKH FRPELQHG SHUFHQWDJH RI WKRVH ZKR UHSRUWHG UDUHO\ VRPHWLPHV DQG RIWHQ LQ HDFK TXHVWLRQ
,Q 0DKDUDVKWUD RI WKH KRXVHKROGV ZHUH FODVVL¿HG DV IRRG VHFXUH DV KDYLQJ PLOGO\ IRRG LQVHFXUH KDYLQJ PRGHUDWHO\ IRRG LQVHFXUH DQG KDYLQJ VHYHUHO\ IRRG LQVHFXULW\ 0RUH KRXVHKROGV LQ WKH XUEDQ WKDQ UXUDO DUHDV YV ZHUHFODVVL¿HGDVIRRGVHFXUH7KHSURSRUWLRQRIIRRGVHFXUHDQG insecure households varied considerably by the administrative divisions. It may EH QRWHG WKDW WKUHHTXDUWHUV RI KRXVHKROGV LQ .RQNDQ EHLQJ FODVVL¿HG DV IRRGVHFXUHDQGRQO\RIWKHKRXVHKROGVLQ$XUDQJDEDGDUHFODVVL¿HGDVIRRG VHFXUH([FHSW.RQNDQDQG1DJSXUGLYLVLRQWKHUHVWRIWKHGLYLVLRQVGHPRQVWUDWH PRGHUDWH WR VHYHUH LQVHFXULW\ ZLWK PRUH WKDQ KRXVHKROGV ZHUH FODVVL¿HG under food insecurity (Table 2).
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IIPS Working Paper No. 12
Table 2: Percentage of households by Household Food Insecurity Access Prevalence (HFIAP) according to place of residence and administrative divisions, Maharashtra, 2012 Household food Insecurity Access Prevalence (HFIAP)1 (%)
Food secure
Mildly food insecure access
Moderately food insecure access
Severely food insecure access
Total
16.7
12.7
Rural
16.6
16.0
18.0
8UEDQ
66.2
16.9
8.7
1,190
Amravati
Aurangabad
.RQNDQ
72.9
16.1
1DJSXU
8.0
6.1
221
1DVKLN
12.8
17.7
Pune
10.1
Background characteristics Total Place of Residence
Administrative Divisions
1RWH 7KH+),$3LQGLFDWRUFDWHJRUL]HVKRXVHKROGVLQWRIRXUOHYHOVRIKRXVHKROGIRRGLQVHFXULW\ DFFHVV Food secure, and mild, moderately and severely food insecure. Households are categorized as increasingly IRRGLQVHFXUHDVWKH\UHVSRQGDI¿UPDWLYHO\WRPRUHVHYHUHFRQGLWLRQVDQGRUH[SHULHQFHWKRVHFRQGLWLRQVPRUH IUHTXHQWO\%DVHGRQ)RRGDQG1XWULWLRQ7HFKQLFDO$VVLVWDQFH3URMHFW )$17$ &RDWHVHWDO
10
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
Figure 2: Percent children under 2 years experiencing stunted growth and underweight by food security status
%DVHGRQ:+2 VWDQGDUG6WXQWLQJPHDQVWKHFKLOGKDVORZKHLJKWIRUDJH 8QGHUZHLJKWPHDQVORZZHLJKW for-age
Household living in rural and urban areas must be facing a different level of food security DQG WKH IDFWRU LQÀXHQFLQJ LW PD\ DOVR GLIIHU +HQFH LQ WKLV SDSHU DQ DWWHPSW KDV EHHQ PDGHWRH[DPLQHIRRGVHFXULW\IRUUXUDODQGXUEDQDUHDVVHSDUDWHO\E\GLIIHUHQWEDFNJURXQG characteristics of the surveyed households. It has been observed that in rural households RI 0DKDUDVKWUD VHYHUH IRRGLQVHFXULW\ LV H[SHULHQFHG E\ 0XVOLPV IROORZHG E\ 6FKHGXOHG&DVWHVDQG7ULEHV DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\ /DQGKROGLQJVL]HDQGW\SHRI FURSSURGXFWLRQKDYHDGLUHFWUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKIRRGVHFXULW\+RXVHKROGVZLWKOHVVWKDQ¿YH acres of land and those who produce mainly cotton have a higher incidence of food insecurity in comparison to households with large land holding and cash crop farming. Twenty-three percent households without ration card in rural areas face severe food insecurity (Table D :KLOHLQXUEDQ0DKDUDVKWUDWKHVLPLODUVLWXDWLRQRIVHYHUHIRRGLQVHFXULW\LVREVHUYHG DPRQJWKHSRRUKRXVHKROGVWKRVHVWD\LQJLQNDFFKDKRXVH 7DEOHE +RZHYHUUHOLJLRQ wise differentials in the severe food insecurity have a lower margin in urban areas. 11
IIPS Working Paper No. 12
Table 3a: Household Food Insecurity Access Index by different background characteristics in rural Maharashtra Household Food Insecurity Access Index (%)
Food secure
Mildly food insecure access
Moderately food insecure access
Severely food insecure access
Total
Hindu
16.2
17.7
100.0
0XVOLP
12.6
10.8
19.8
100.0
%XGGKLVW1HR Buddhist
29.6
100.0
Others
0.0
0.0
86.6
100.0
6&
17.9
28.7
100.0
ST
19.7
100.0
2%&
11.7
12.1
100.0
9-17
19.1
21.8
100.0
Others
100.0
Poorest
17.0
100.0
Second
19.1
100.0
0LGGOH
19.8
100.0
Fourth
67.0
17.2
11.8
100.0
Background characteristics Religion
Caste
Wealth Index
Agricultural land own/lease Amount of landholdings Type of crop produced
Type of house
Household has ration card Region
12
Richest
90.8
6.1
0.0
100.0
1R
16.7
100.0
Yes
16.6
12.9
16.1
100.0
DFUHV
100.0
! DFUHV
8.9
9.9
100.0
Food crops
100.0
&RWWRQ
12.6
20.9
100.0
&DVKFURSVIUXLWV
20.1
100.0
.DFKKD
18.6
18.8
100.0
Pucca/semi pucca
100.0
Yes
16.8
100.0
1R
20.8
100.0
Amravati
18.9
100.0
Auranghabad
20.1
29.9
100.0
.RQNDQ
12.0
9.1
100.0
1DJSXU
29.9
7.1
100.0
1DVKLN
10.9
100.0
Pune
16.2
19.0
12.6
100.0
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
Table 3b: Household Food Insecurity Access Index by different background characteristics in Urban Maharashtra Household Food Insecurity Access Index (%)
Food secure
Mildly food insecure access
Moderately food insecure access
Severely food insecure access
Total
Hindu 0XVOLP %XGGKLVW1HR Buddhist Others 6& ST 2%& 9-17 Others Poorest Second 0LGGOH Fourth Richest .DFKKD Pucca/semi pucca
8.2
100.0 100.0
68.2
20.8
100.0
70.9 68.7 62.6
18.1 19.1 7.6 16.2 17.8 12.9 17.6 22.0
9.9 11.1 10.0 9.2 6.8 12.7 2.8
6.6 11.9 6.7 11.2 21.8 18.6 9.7 2.0
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
7.6
100.0
Yes
67.7
16.2
8.7
100.0
1R Amravati Auranghabad .RQNDQ 1DJSXU 1DVKLN Pune
19.6 18.2 16.8 17.9
11.2 10.2
18.7 6.7 22.1 7.7
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Background characteristics Religion
Caste
Wealth Index
Type of house
Household has ration card Region
:HFDQFOHDUO\LQGLFDWHIURP7DEOHWKDWSRYHUW\LVWKHVWURQJHVWIDFWRULQUXUDO0DKDUDVKWUD WR GHWHUPLQH IRRG LQVHFXULW\ &RPSDUHG WR WKH KRXVHKROGV LQ ULFKHVW ZHDOWK TXLQWLOH WKH SRRUHVW KRXVHKROG LV WLPHV PRUH OLNHO\ WR IDFH IRRG LQVHFXULW\ 7KH SRRUHU DQG HYHQ the middle order households experience 7 to 8 times more chance of experiencing food LQVHFXULW\FRPSDUHGWRULFK0RUHRYHULQUXUDODUHDVRI0DKDUDVKWUDKRXVHKROGWKDWKDV DODQGKROGLQJPRUHWKDQ¿YHDFUHVIDFHVLJQL¿FDQWO\ORZHUIRRGLQVHFXULW\WKDQWKRVHZKR GRHVQRWKDYHODQGRUKDYHOHVVWKDQ¿YHDFUHVRIODQG,QXUEDQ0DKDUDVKWUDWKRXJKWKH chance of experiencing food insecurity among households other than the richest class is 13
IIPS Working Paper No. 12
QRWWKDWKLJK+RZHYHURWKHUKRXVHKROGVFRPSDUHGWRSHUFHQWULFKHVWVKRZVLJQL¿FDQWO\ higher level of reported food insecurity. Households with other religious groups (mainly 0XVOLPVDQG%XGGKLVWQHR%XGGKLVW KDYHH[SHULHQFHGWKHUHPDUNDEO\KLJKHUFKDQFHRI food insecurity in comparison to Hindus at both rural and urban areas. A similar situation is REVHUYHGDPRQJWKRVHQRWKDYLQJDUDWLRQFDUG7KHXUEDQSDUWRI1DVKLNGLYLVLRQQHHGV special attention in this regard as the reported food insecurity is substantially higher in this division as compared to Amravati division. Table 4: Odds ratios of food insecurity in rural and urban Maharashtra Control variables Religion
Wealth Quintile
Type of house
Exp(B)
**
6&
ST
1.299
2%&
1.108
1.012
**
9-17
0.916
**
Richest® Poorest
**
**
Second
*
6.929
***
0LGGOH
*
***
Fourth
***
1.002
.DFKKD Yes® 1R
Amount of landholding
Exp(B)
Others®
Pucca/semi-pucca Household has ration card
Urban
Hindu® Others
&DVWH
Rural
**
***
**
DFUHV ! DFUHV Amravati®
Region
Aurangabad
.RQNDQ
0.712
1DJSXU
*
0.601
1DVKLN
1.126
Pune
1.212
**
1: Dependent variable is '0' when household is food secure or mildly insecure, '1' when household is moderately RUVHYHUHO\LQVHFXUH
OHYHORIVLJQL¿FDQFH
OHYHORIVLJQL¿FDQFH OHYHORIVLJQL¿FDQFH
14
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
b)
Child nutrition and food insecurity Stunting, which refers to low height-for-age, is considered an irreversible outcome of chronic nutritional deprivation. On the other hand, underweight refers to low weight-forDJHWKDWUHÀHFWVDFRPELQDWLRQRIFKURQLFDQGDFXWHPDOQXWULWLRQ7KHQXWULWLRQVXUYH\ RI0DKDUDVKWUD &160 IRXQGWKDWLQ0DKDUDVKWUDRIFKLOGUHQPRQWKVRIDJH ZHUHVWXQWHGDQGZHUHVHYHUHO\VWXQWHGDQGDSSUR[LPDWHO\ZHUHXQGHUZHLJKW RIZKLFKZHUHVHYHUHO\XQGHUZHLJKW0RUHFKLOGUHQLQWKHUXUDOWKDQXUEDQDUHDV were stunted (26% vs. 21%) and underweight (26% vs. 20%). The prevalence of under nutrition among children varied widely among administrative divisions, ranging from LQ1DJSXUWRLQ1DVKLNIRUVWXQWLQJDQGLQ3XQHWR LQ$PUDYDWLIRU XQGHUZHLJKW 7DEOH Table 5: Percentage of children aged 0-23 months according to anthropometric indices of nutritional status by Place of residence and administrative division, Maharashtra, 2012 Height-for-age1
Weight-for-age
Percentage EHORZ6'
Percentage below-2 SD
Percentage EHORZ6'
Percentage below-2 SD
1XPEHU of children
7.8
23.3
6.6
22.6
2,662
Rural
8.2
6.9
8UEDQ
20.6
6.2
Amaravati
6.9
6.7
29.7
261
Aurangabad
26.0
7.1
20.9
.RQNDQ
19.8
Total Place of residence
Administrative Division
1DJSXU
2.7
1DVKLN
11.8
29.1
Pune
18.1
1RZWKHTXHVWLRQLVZKHWKHUWKHUHLVDQ\DVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQKRXVHKROGIRRGVHFXULW\ZLWK WKHQXWULWLRQDOVWDWXVRIFKLOGUHQ"$PSOHVFLHQWL¿FDQGSURJUDPPDWLFHYLGHQFHVXJJHVWVWKDW PDUNHGUHGXFWLRQVLQFKLOGXQGHUQXWULWLRQFDQEHDFKLHYHGE\LPSURYLQJZRPHQ¶VQXWULWLRQDO status before and during pregnancy, optimizing breastfeeding and complementary feeding SUDFWLFHV GXULQJ WKH ¿UVW WZR \HDUV RI OLIH DQG SUHYHQWLQJ LQIHFWLRXV GLVHDVHV WKURXJK increased access to health services. All such conditions can be attained if and only if the KRXVHKROGLVIRRGVHFXUHKDYLQJSURSHUNQRZOHGJHDQGDFFHVVWRQDWDODQGSRVWQDWDOFDUH 15
IIPS Working Paper No. 12
As revealed in Figure 2, there exists an adverse association between household food insecurity status with child nutrition, i.e., with the increase in food insecurity, child undernutrition also increases. For example, 22% children under two years are stunted ZKHQ WKH\ EHORQJ WR IRRG VHFXUH KRXVHKROGV DJDLQVW ZKR EHORQJV WR VHYHUHO\ insecure households. When 6% children faced severe stunting in food secure households, LWLQFUHDVHGWRFKLOGUHQLQVHYHUHO\LQVHFXUHKRXVHKROGV6HYHUHXQGHUZHLJKWUDQJHV from 6 % to 12% in secure to severely food insecure households. In underweight too, differences by the level of food security are very prominent. Table 6 shows the effect of selected variables on nutritional status of children (underweight, stunting and low birth weight) less than two years. We have incorporated series of EDFNJURXQGFKDUDFWHULVWLFV OLNHUHOLJLRQUXUDOXUEDQUHVLGHQFH PRWKHUDQGFKLOGUHODWHG YDULDEOHV OLNHELUWKRUGHUVH[RIFKLOGPRWKHU¶VHGXFDWLRQPRWKHU¶VKHLJKW IRRGUHODWHG YDULDEOHV OLNH KRXVHKROG IRRG VHFXULW\ IRRG FRQVXPSWLRQ GLYHUVLW\ PLQLPXP GLHWDU\ diversity of child) and geographical region. 7KHDQDO\VLVLQGLFDWHVWKDWFRPSDUHGWR+LQGXVRWKHUUHOLJLRXVJURXSVDUHPRUHOLNHO\WR have low birth weight, while religion has no effect on underweight and stunting. Place of residence has no relevance on nutritional status of children under two years. The children IURP KRXVHKROG ZLWK VHYHUH IRRG LQVHFXULW\ DFFHVV DUH PRUH OLNHO\ WR EH VWXQWHG WKDQ FKLOGUHQZLWKIRRGVHFXUHKRXVHKROG*HQGHUKDVVLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWRQQXWULWLRQDOVWDWXVRI FKLOGUHQ JLUOVDUHPRUHOLNHO\WREHXQGHUQRXULVKHGWKDQER\V&KLOGUHQZLWKKLJKHUELUWK RUGHUDUHPRUHOLNHO\WREHXQGHUZHLJKWDQGH[SHULHQFLQJORZELUWKZHLJKWWKDQ¿UVWRUGHU ELUWK7KRVHFKLOGUHQZKRVHVWRROVDUHQRWVDIHO\GLVSRVHGRIDUHPRUHOLNHO\WREHVWXQWHG and underweight than. 0RWKHU¶VHGXFDWLRQKDVVLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWRQQXWULWLRQDOVWDWXVRIFKLOGUHQOHVVWKDQ\HDUV &KLOGUHQ RI LOOLWHUDWH PRWKHU DUH PRUH OLNHO\ WR EH XQGHUQRXULVKHG WKDQ WKRVH PRWKHUV ZLWK\HDUVDQGDERYHHGXFDWLRQ1XWULWLRQDOVWDWXVRIPRWKHUKDVVLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWRQ FKLOG¶V QXWULWLRQ &KLOGUHQ ZKRVH PRWKHUV DUH OHVV WKDQ FPV DUH PRUH OLNHO\ WR EH XQGHUQRXULVKHGWKDQWKHLUFRXQWHUSDUWFKLOGUHQZKRVHPRWKHUVDUHUHODWLYHO\WDOOHU&KLOGUHQ RI PRWKHUV FRQVXPLQJ RU PRUH IRRG JURXSV DUH OHVV OLNHO\ WR EH XQGHUQRXULVKHG WKDQ WKRVHZKRDUHQRWFRQVXPLQJRUPRUHIRRGJURXSV
16
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
Table 6: Odds Ratios of stunting and underweight among children under 2 years: Maharashtra &KLOGUHQPRQWKV Underweight
Stunting
Low Birth Weight
Exp(B)
Exp(B)
Exp(B)
1.022
0.660
0.918
0LOGO\IRRGLQVHFXUH access
0RGHUDWHO\IRRG insecurity access
Severely food insecurity access
1.198
1.776
**
***
***
0.786
**
Control variables
Religion
Hindu® Others
Type of residence
Gender of child
Food secure®
Boy® Girl
Birth order
Height of mothers
Mother's food diversity
Region
**
0.666
$
0.879
-
**
**
-
1R Yes
Mother's education
**
1R Yes
Safe disposal of child's stool
1st order® 1+ order
Minimum dietary diversity (MDD)
**
Rural® 8UEDQ
Household food insecurity access
&KLOGUHQPRQWKV
-
1RHGXFDWLRQ 8SWR \HDUV
**
0.912
10 years and above
***
***
***
FPVRUDERYH
***
***
***
'LGQRWFRQVXPHRU more food groups®
-
-
&RQVXPHGRUPRUH food groups
-
-
**
FPV
Amravati® Aurangabad
0.722
1.022
.RQNDQ
1DJSXU
1.018
1DVKLN
Pune
**
$
**
1.207
1.662
***
0.618
1.707
**
Constant
1.018
0.373
0.349
Cox & Snell R Square
0.067
0.055
0.038
µ YDULDEOHVQRWLQFOXGHGLQWKHPRGHO5HIHUHQFHFDWHJRU\
17
IIPS Working Paper No. 12
Conclusions Studies on the prevalence of household food security in India are sporadic. This study KLJKOLJKWV WKH FRQGLWLRQ RI IRRG VHFXULW\ LQ WKH VWDWH RI 0DKDUDVKWUD 7KH UHVHDUFK LV VLJQL¿FDQWLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHULVHLQWKHIDUPHUVXLFLGHVZKHQRYHUDOOSHUFHQW UXUDO SHUFHQW ZRUNIRUFHFRQVLVWLQJRIFXOWLYDWRUVDQGDJULFXOWXUDOODERXUHUV &HQVXVRI,QGLD 2011). In this study, household level food security is examined separately for rural-urban DUHDVDVIDFWRUVLQÀXHQFLQJLWPD\EHGLIIHUHQWLQERWKWKHDUHDV 2OVRQHWDO 5XHO HWDO 0RWLXUHWDO $EDOR 7KLVVXUYH\ZDVFRQGXFWHGGXULQJ)HEUXDU\ April, 2012, a period is supposed to be better in the availability of food as it tallys with KDUYHVWLQJ 2YHUDOO IRRG LQVHFXULW\ LV IRXQG LQ SHUFHQW KRXVHKROGV DQG RXW RI HYHU\ seven household, one is facing severe food security during last one-month reference SHULRGRIWKHVXUYH\$FFRUGLQJWR1RUGHWDO IRRGVHFXULW\LQODUJHFLWLHVDQGWKH VXEXUEDQDUHDVRIELJFLWLHVDUHPRUH+RZHYHULQFDVHRI0DKDUDVKWUDLWLVPRUHLQWKH rural areas in comparison to urban. Households without agricultural land and farmers with OHVVWKDQ¿YHDFUHVODQGKDYHKLJKIRRGLQVHFXULW\,WKDVEHHQIRXQGLQ0DKDUDVKWUDWKDW DYHUDJHODQGKROGLQJLVKHFWDUHV DFUHV DFFRUGLQJWR$JULFXOWXUDO&HQVXV 0RUHRYHULWLVIRXQGWKDWWKRVHZKRDUHFXOWLYDWLQJFRWWRQIDFHGPRUHIRRGLQVHFXULW\ FRPSDUHGWRWKRVHZKRJURZFHUHDOVIUXLWDQGFDVKFURSV6LPLODU¿QGLQJVZHUHREVHUYHG DVXUYH\LQ$PUDYDWLGLVWULFW %KDJDWHWDO 0DKDUDVKWUDLVKDYLQJORZODQGKROGLQJ size and high dependence on agriculture. Therefore, there is an urgent need to examine WKH FURSSLQJ SDWWHUQ DQG SURGXFWLYLW\ RI WKH DYDLODEOH ODQG -RGKD VXJJHVWHG WKDW LQWHQVL¿FDWLRQ RI ODQG XVH SUDFWLFH DQG DGMXVWPHQW ZLWK PXOWLSOH FURSSLQJ ZLWK GLIIHUHQW maturation will help the problem of food security in the dry land areas. As expected, poverty (wealth index) and food insecurity are highly correlated in rural and urban areas. Eradication of poverty is possible only with the creation of jobs in household and development of food-based industries. It will also help the farmers to have a better SULFHIRUWKHLUSURGXFWV .HQQHG\ 2WKHUIHDWXUHVWKDWKDYHEHHQQRWHGLQWKLVVWXG\ are that those with no ration card have a higher chance of food insecurity. In the rural areas, LWZLOOEHIHDVLEOHWRLGHQWLI\WKHKRXVHKROGVZLWKRXWUDWLRQFDUGVVRWKDWWKHEHQH¿WVRI3'6 system can be extended to the needy. In comparison to Hindus, other religious groups QDPHO\0XVOLP%XGGKLVWDQG1HR%XGGKLVWKDYHDKLJKHUOHYHORIIRRGLQVHFXULW\LQUXUDO as well as in urban areas. It is often said that parents maintain normal or near normal diets and meals for their children, HYHQZKHQWKH\DUHIDFLQJIRRGLQVHFXULW\ %KDWWDFKDU\DHWDO &ROHPDQ-HQVHQHW 18
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
DO +RZHYHU LQ WKLV VWXG\ WKH VLJQL¿FDQW QHJDWLYH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH IRRG LQVHFXULW\OHYHODQGQXWULWLRQOHYHORIXQGHUWZRFKLOGUHQDUHIRXQG7KHVH¿QGLQJVDUHVLPLODU WRWKHVWXGLHVLQ1HSDODQG%DQJODGHVK 6DKDHWDO 2VHLHWDO 0RUHRYHU XQGHUWZRFKLOGUHQ VQXWULWLRQDOVWDWXVLVYHU\PXFKGHSHQGHQWRQWKHPRWKHU VIRRGLQWDNH during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Food security is essential for the betterment of nutritional status of children. Acknowledgements: :H DUH WKDQNIXO WR WKH DQRQ\PRXV UHIHUHHV IRU WKHLU YDOXDEOH FRPPHQWV RQ WKH SDSHU$OVRZHH[SUHVVRXUVLQFHUHDSSUHFLDWLRQWRWKH81,&()WHDPRI0XPEDL for funding and technically supporting this project. Lastly, the merit of the paper goes to the respondents for answering a sensitive issue. References $EDOR .RGMD 3RYHUW\ DQG WKH DQWKURSRPHWULF VWDWXV RI FKLOGUHQ $ FRPSDUDWLYHDQDO\VLVRIUXUDODQGXUEDQKRXVHKROGLQ7RJR$(5&5HVHDUFK3DSHU 1DLUREL $IULFDQ(FRQRPLF5HVHDUFK&RQVRUWLXP $EGXO&$ 3HUHUD/ 8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKHLPSDFWRIWKHHFRQRPLFFULVLV RQFKLOGDQGPDWHUQDOKHDOWKDPRQJWKHSRRU 2SSRUWXQLWLHVIRU6RXWK$VLD7RN\R $VLDQ'HYHORSPHQW%DQN,QVW %DNHU)UHQFK 6RSKLD )RRG VHFXULW\ DQG QXWULWLRQDO VWDWXV LQ ¿VKLQJ FRPPXQLWLHVLQ%ROLYLD V1RUWKHUQ$PD]RQ UHVXOWVRIDKRXVHKROGVXUYH\8QLYHUVLW\ RI%ULWLVK&ROXPELD %KDJDW5% 8QLVD6 1DJGHYH'$ )XOSDJDUH3 )RRGVHFXULW\VWDWXV DPRQJWULEDODQGQRQWULEDOKRXVHKROGVLQ0DKDUDVKWUD $PUDYDWL'LVWULFW 5HSRUW 0XPEDL ,QWHUQDWLRQDO,QVWLWXWHIRU3RSXODWLRQ6FLHQFH %KDWWDFKDU\D - &XUULH - +DLGHU 6 3RYHUW\ IRRG LQVHFX¤ULW\ DQG QXWULWLRQDORXWFRPHVLQFKLOGUHQDQGDGXOWV-+HDOWK(FRQ ± %URXJKWRQ0$ -DQVVHQ36 +HUW]PDQ& ,QQLV60 )UDQNLVK&- Predictors and outcomes of household food Insecurity among inner city families ZLWK SUHVFKRRO FKLOGUHQ LQ 9DQFRXYHU &DQDGLDQ -RXUQDO RI 3XEOLF +HDOWK
19
IIPS Working Paper No. 12
&DPSEHOO&& )RRGVHFXULW\ $QXWULWLRQDORXWFRPHRUDSUHGLFWRUYDULDEOH" -1XWU &RDWHV-HQQLIHU$QQH6ZLQGDOH$ %LOLQVN\3 +RXVHKROG)RRG,QVHFXULW\ Access Scale (HFIAS) for measurement of households food access: Indicator guide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insecurity is associated with adverse health outcomes among human infants and WRGGOHUV-1XWU ± 'HDWRQ$ 'UH]H- )RRGDQGQXWULWLRQLQ,QGLD )DFWVDQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQV (FRQRPLFDQG3ROLWLFDO:HHNO\ 'HSDUWPHQWRI6FKRRO$JHQF\DQG/LWHUDF\ QG 0LG'D\0HDO6FKHPH0LQLVWU\ of Human Resource and Development, Government of India. Retrieved from http:// mhrd.gov.in/mid-day-meal. FAO.(2012). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012: economic growth is QHFHVVDU\ EXW QRU VXI¿FLHQW WR DFFHOHUDWH UHGXFWLRQ RI KXQJHU DQG PDOQXWULWLRQ Rome: FAO. )$2 QG 3XEOLF GLVWULEXWLRQ V\VWHP LQ ,QGLDHYROXWLRQ HI¿FDF\ DQG QHHG IRU UHIRUPV 5HJLRQDO 2I¿FH IRU$VLD DQG 3DFL¿F 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZIDRRUJ docrep/x0172e/x0172e06.htm. )$2 :RUOGIRRGVHFXULW\ DUHDSSUDLVDORIWKHFRQFHSWVDQGDSSURDFKHV Director General's Report. Rome: FAO. 20
Food Security and Nutritional Status of Children in Maharashtra
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