Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013

The European Union’s EDF Programme Eastern, Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean

Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013 Lot 6 – Environment

Specific Contract No. 2015-362261 Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region

18/02/2016 National Environment Pollution Report – Ethiopia

CONSORTIUM SAFEGE FWC-Lot6

This project is funded by the European Union

A project implemented by Consortium SAFEGE

Report Control Path


Project title: Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region Specific Contract No: 2015-362261 Country: Eastern, Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean - IGAD Framework Contractor: Consortium SAFEGE Address: Gulledelle 92 – B-1200 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32-2-739.46.90 Fax: +32-2-742.38.91 E-mail: [email protected] Specific Contract Implementing Party: Safege Address: Gulledelle 92 – B-1200 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32-2-739.46.90 Fax: +32-2-742.38.91 E-mail: [email protected] Date of the Report: 30/11/2015 Reporting Period:

Authors of Report: Pierre Failler - Patrick Karani – Wondwosen Seide Specific Contract Implementing Party – Responsible Person: Barbara Becht Framework Contractor: SAFEGE Consortium Lot 6 The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the Contractor and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union.

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Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its Impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region

Ethiopia Country Report

February 2016

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Executive summary

With more than 80 million inhabitants in 2010, Ethiopia is the most populous nation in Eastern Africa and the second-most populous in Africa after Nigeria, and one of the world’s fastest-growing countries. Building on its positive recent development, it intends to reach middle-income status before 2025. Due to the multiples environmental challenges, including pollution, Ethiopia aims to do so by building a green economy. Despite the challenges of being one of the world’s poorest countries, Ethiopia has good prospects for growth and the International Monetary Fund forecasts for Ethiopia a real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of more than 8% p.a. over the next five years. Among countries with more than 10 million inhabitants, only China and India will grow at a faster pace. The main drivers of the sources of pollution in the country could be summarized on the following sectors: •

The sector of agriculture and livestock: the cattle population is expected to increase from close to 50 million today to more than 90 million in 2030. This will increase emissions from 65 Mt CO2e today to almost 125 Mt in 2030. The soil and agricultural crop production will increase from around 19 million tons today to more than 71 million tons in 2030. This is primarily due to the increased fertilizer usage and an increase in land used for agriculture. This will increase emissions from 12 Mt CO2e today to more than 60 Mt in 2030.

•

The sector of forestry: deforestation leads to CO2 emissions, and is mostly caused by the conversion of forested areas to agricultural land. Forest degradation leads to CO2 emissions, and is primarily caused by fuel wood consumption and logging in excess of the natural yield of the forests, with the major driver being population growth.

•

The sector of buildings – An increasing urban population drives increasing waste generation and (off-grid) energy consumption. Total buildings-related emissions are expected to increase from 5 Mt CO2e today to 10 Mt in 2030, with around 25% of the emissions in 2030 related to off-grid energy consumption, 75% to waste.

•

E-waste is an emerging solution to overcome challenges of solid waste. The approach to promote e-waste is to reduce consumption of paper and safeguard measures for disposal of electronic waste that may be hazardous to the environment. A lot more is required in terms of capacity building, education and awareness creation at local, national and regional levels to inform both the public and the private sector on the environmental, social and economic benefits of e-waste.

•

Plastic waste is an environmental nuisance, since it is not biodegradable and easily gets blown around by the wind. There are attempts to eliminate plastic from the market, but it is a challenge for local communities that have become dependent on plastic waste for economic survival. The use of plastic waste for wrapping goods and holding liquids in small quantities is affordable for local communities with low income, but the attitude has to change in the interest of promoting biodegradable materials that are environmentally friendly.

By the year 2015, the national water supply and sanitation program under its MDG planned to increase water supply coverage and sanitation by 64% and 54% respectively. The chances of achieving the MDG of halving the proportion of people without access to safe water by 2015 will be seriously questioned unless levels of sustainability can be greatly improved. Unsafe industrial waste disposal causes surface water contamination in many developing countries. This is particularly true for the peri-urban shanty towns and the rural hinterland villages downstream of cities that are reliant on rivers passing through an industrialized area. Discharge of untreated industrial waste is a major problem for many communities dwelling near river basins through causing different health problems. Presently most industries do not treat their wastes if it contains no recyclable product, which could be reprocessed or sold to generate additional revenue. As treatment would be more costly, industries are not interested to participate in safe waste disposal activities since there is no binding rule of how to dispose their 4


wastes without affecting the nearby exposed society. Poor storage of industrial and other waste products also result in ground and surface water pollution. In Ethiopia, most national and regional policies are broad and intended for some responsibilities of protecting the environment and human health, but, lack specific components for regulation, hence difficult to enforce. In some cases, relevant components of the laws that would help people and enterprises comply with their obligations are not regulated. This creates a challenge for effective and efficient implementation of the environmental standards and measures. For instance, tanneries and textiles are seen as most pollutant and non-compliant regardless of the Industrial Pollution Law and associated Proclamation in force. The regulatory part of the laws focus on allocation and exploitation of the natural resources for economic activities of production and consumption in the country. This creates a challenge for the sustainable management and rational use of the natural resources and implementation of regional policies and strategies. Instituting and reinforcing sanctions and administrative fines and penalties to impose environmental cost with reasonable impact on society should be promoted, but, it will be costly. However, the dilemma of the laws attributes to limitation in correcting or restoring the damage inflicted upon the physical environment. It is therefore, important to minimise, prevent and avoid environmental damage through effective and efficient national and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks. In this respect, the country has initiated a strategy on Climate Resilient Green economy to achieve zero carbon emissions by the year 2025. The new horticulture or flower industry is posing a great challenge to the environment because of the pollution as a result of the chemicals used in the flower industry. The chemical fertilizers and sprays to get better flowers are detrimental to both surface and ground water storages. The chemicals get discharged and washed away by running waters and some trickle down into ground water tables. Although, the flower industry is very lucrative and with ready market, there is a need to promote organically produced flowers. The challenge is of high production cost but environmentally friendly.

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Geographical location

The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is an eight-country trade bloc in Africa (see figure 1). It includes governments from the Greater Horn of Africa region, namely Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, Uganda and Eritrea). Its headquarter is located in Djibouti City.

Figure 1: IGAD countries Source: IGAD

Ethiopia, officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. It occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres (420,000 sq mi), and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa.

Figure 2: Map of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Source: CIA

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Table of contents

Executive summary _______________________________________________________________ 4 Geographical location _____________________________________________________________ 6 Table of contents _________________________________________________________________ 7 Acronyms _______________________________________________________________________ 9 Introduction ____________________________________________________________________ 10 1

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Method ____________________________________________________________________ 11 1.1

Definition of the environmental pollution ___________________________________________11

1.2

Environmental pollution assessment _______________________________________________11

1.3

Economic impact of environmental pollution_________________________________________11

1.4

Assessment of policies and strategies _______________________________________________12

Ethiopia profile ______________________________________________________________ 13 2.1

Geographic coverage ____________________________________________________________13

2.2

Population and Demography ______________________________________________________13

2.3

Climate and Environment_________________________________________________________13

2.4

Economic ______________________________________________________________________14

Assessment of environment pollution in the Federal Republic of Ethiopia _______________ 15 3.1

Introduction ___________________________________________________________________15

3.2

Key sources of environmental pollution _____________________________________________15

3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8

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Agricultural _________________________________________________________________________ 17 Industry Pollution ____________________________________________________________________ 18 Urbanization and pollution _____________________________________________________________ 19 Water pollution ______________________________________________________________________ 21 Outdoor Air pollution _________________________________________________________________ 23 Indoor pollution _____________________________________________________________________ 23 Other pollutions _____________________________________________________________________ 23 Summary ___________________________________________________________________________ 24

Link between environment pollution and economic development in Ethiopia ____________ 25 4.1 Current economic cooperation between the country and the other IGAD countries and regional integration ___________________________________________________________________________25 4.1.1 4.1.2

Overview ___________________________________________________________________________ 25 Economic cooperation with IGAD countries________________________________________________ 25

4.2 Impact of current environment pollution on domestic economy and economic cooperation and regional integration in the region _________________________________________________________26 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4

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Ethiopia’s economy ___________________________________________________________________ 26 Economic effects of air pollution ________________________________________________________ 27 Economic effects of land pollution _______________________________________________________ 28 Economic effects of water pollution ______________________________________________________ 28

Assessment of existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution _ 30 5.1

Introduction ___________________________________________________________________30

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5.2

National and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks _________________________30

5.3

National and regional institutional frameworks _______________________________________30

5.4 Status of implementation the policies, strategies, legal frameworks as well as the international MEAs 31

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Proposed actions for Environment Pollution Control ________________________________ 33

References _____________________________________________________________________ 36 Annex 1 ________________________________________________________________________ 38

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Acronyms AU : BIRA: CERD: CO2: CRGE: DSRP: EU: EIA: EIA: EPA: ESIF: FDJ: GDP: GHG: IGAD: IFC: INDS: IUCN: NGOs: MEAs : MDG: MHUEAT: NBI: PANE: OECD: STEP: ToR: WHO: USAID: UNFCCC: VOCs:

African Union Bureau for International Risk Assessments Centre d'Etude et de Recherche de Djibouti /Center for Studies and Research of Djibouti Dioxide of carbon Climate-Resilient Green Economy Document Stratégique de Réduction de la Pauvreté European Union Environment International Agencies Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Protection Agency Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework Franc of Djibouti Gross domestic product Green House Gases Intergovernmental Authority on Development International Finance Corporation National Initiative for Social Development International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Non Governmental Organizations Multilateral Environmental Agreements/MEAs Millenium Development Goals Ministère de l'Habitat, de l'Urbanisme, de l'Environnement et de l'Aménagement du Territoire Nile Basin Initiative Plan d’Action National pour l’Environnement Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Station of Water Recycling Terms of Reference World Health Organization United States Agency for International Development United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; Volatile Organic Compounds

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Introduction

The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is one of the regional African economic blocks which is composed of 8 countries in the Horn of Africa, namely Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, Uganda and Eritrea. According to the IGAD Environmental and Natural Resources Strategy, April 2007, the IGAD region is faced with a number of environmental challenges. One of these challenges is environment pollution. According to the Terms of Reference of this mission, the first objective of the study is to assess the status of environmental pollution in five IGAD member states as a basis for the status of environment pollution at regional level, and the second is to establish the negative impact of environmental pollution on the economic cooperation and integration agenda and to develop strategic plan to monitor and reverse it. The present National Environment Pollution Assessment of Ethiopia, is designed to highlight the country’s environmental profile, the key sources and status of environmental pollution by sectors, the link between environment pollution and economic development (impacts on the national economy and on economic cooperation and regional integration), the existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution (legal and institutional frameworks, the status of implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements/MEAs, and propose national measures to address environment pollution) including issues that are better addressed at national and regional levels.

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Method

1.1 Definition of the environmental pollution Following Marie-Louise Larsson of the Stockholm Institute for Scandinavian Law 1957-2009, the major cause of pollution and other environmental damage is the increased population in the world, and it is clear that most human activities have effects, which are negative and harmful, on the environment. In the 1960s, issues concerning oil casualties and the use of pesticides were on the agenda. During the 1970s, the major cause of damage concern was point sources, i.e. emissions from large industrial plants, and chemicals. During the 1980s, diffuse emissions from numerous small activities, came into focus. Transport, agriculture, industries, and trade in products for consumption were major components of the discussion. Further issues attended were the ozone layer and climate together with waste management. The protection of biological diversity, natural resources, and remedying contaminated land are being addressed by the relevant institutions. This change of direction could be due to the findings of the 1987 Brundtland Report (1) and progress in ecological economics. Before the publication of this report, the discussion focalized on an issue-by-issue approach and environmental threats were thought of as rather distinct. Other definitions of pollution tends to be broader and include almost every component of ecology and human value in order to gain flexibility. The term pollution, or pollution damage, is often used interchangeably with the term environmental damage, but could have a broader conceptual meaning (2). However, pollution could be defined under a range of approaches, as any alteration of the existing environment; as the right of the territorial sovereign; as damage; as interference with other uses of the environment; or as exceeding the assimilative capacity of the environment (3). A distinction should also be made between the terms contamination, i.e. the mere presence of a foreign - possibly harmless - substance, and pollution, which poses or causes harm. Damage to the environment is defined in the instruments of environmental law, and includes all adverse effects on man, his artefacts and the environment. Compensable damage is defined in schemes of restitution and liability, and embraces only economic losses, or rather harm expressed in economic terms. With all these distinctions in mind, we can now turn to definitions as they are enunciated in various instruments. (4) In the 1972 Stockholm Declaration and the 1992 Rio Declaration (5), the principles only refer to “pollution” to be prevented in order to protect the environment, but no an explicit definition is given. The OECD has suggested the following as a general definition of pollution: “the introduction by humankind, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the environment resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and eco-systems, impair amenities or interfere with other legitimate uses of the environment.” 1.2 Environmental pollution assessment The assessment of key environmental pollution sources in the country has been made by using the field interviews with key informants from the relevant ministries like Environment, Water, Transport and the likes. The assessment was also based on the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy, which is Ethiopian government’s environment and climate change strategic document, to establish a baseline understanding of the level of pollution and aspired reduction targets. The lack of well documented level of pollution and up-to-date recording of existing pollution types made the assessment work a bit difficult. However, the data or information gap was filled by having follow up interviews with some of the key informants and consulting key government experts and reviewing some documents and literature. 1.3 Economic impact of environmental pollution The assessment of the impacts of environmental pollution has been carried out by first of all making a typology of impacts and a review of studies that cover them. This was done at the national level by estimating the Growth Domestic Product (GDP) lost. As information was not enough detailed at sectorial and country levels, estimates were used, based on the existing literature, data and information collected during the country visits. 11


1.4 Assessment of policies and strategies The method used in preparing this national report is based on a desk-top study, interviews and discussions with selected institutions in Ethiopia. On reviewing of the literature using desk-top, a number of key documents on environmental pollution in Ethiopia were examined and assessed with the view of understanding national and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks. The interviews and discussions helped with verifying and validating information obtained from internet and also getting input from authorized institutions in managing and protecting the environment. .

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Ethiopia profile

Ethiopia is one of the old countries in the world which maintained its independence up to now and its monarchy up to 1974. In 1974, a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (the last emperor).The regime ruled the country up to 1991 where it was by a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Since 1991, the country is led by EPRDF and in August 2012, its long-time leader Prime Minister Meles Zenawi died in office and was replaced by his Deputy Prime Minister HAILEMARIAM Desalegn, marking the first peaceful transition of power in decades. 2.1 Geographic coverage At 1,126,829 square kilometres (435,071 sq. mi), Ethiopia is the world's 27th-largest country, comparable in size to Bolivia. It lies between latitudes 3° and 15°N, and longitudes 33° and 48°E.The major portion of Ethiopia lies on the Horn of Africa, which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. Bordering Ethiopia are Sudan and South Sudan to the west, Djibouti and Eritrea to the north, Somalia to the east and Kenya to the south. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley, which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands, steppes, or semi-desert. The great diversity of terrain determines wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation, and settlement patterns (Wikipedia, 2015). 2.2 Population and Demography During 2015 Ethiopia population is projected to increase by 3 219 617 people and reach 104 021 648 in the beginning of 2016. The natural increase is expected to be positive, as the number of births will exceed the number of deaths by 3 220 625. If external migration will remain on the previous year level, the population will be declined by 1 008 due to the migration reasons. It means that amount of people who leaves Ethiopia to settle permanently in another country (emigrants) will prevail over the amount of people who move into the country (to which they are not native) in order to settle there as permanent residents (immigrants). (Country meters, 2015). In 2050 the population is estimated to be 187 572 000 (Population Pyramid, 2015). 2.3 Climate and Environment The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. The Ethiopian Highlands cover most of the country and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital Addis Ababa is situated on the foothills of Mount Entoto, at an elevation of around 2,400 m (7,874 ft). It experiences a mild climate year round. With fairly uniform year round temperatures, the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall, with a dry season from October–February, a light rainy season from March–May, and a heavy rainy season from June–September. The average annual rainfall is around 1,200 mm (47.2 in). There are on average 7 hours of sunshine per day. The dry season is the sunniest time of the year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68.0–77.0 °F) throughout the year, and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41.0–50.0 °F). Ethiopia has 31 endemic species of mammals. The African Wild Dog prehistorically had widespread distribution in the territory. However, with last sightings at Fincha, this canid is thought to be potentially extirpated within Ethiopia. The Ethiopian wolf is perhaps the most researched of all the endangered species within Ethiopia. Ethiopia is a global center of avian diversity. To date more than 856 bird species have been recorded in Ethiopia, 20 of which are endemic to the country. Sixteen species are endangered or critically endangered. A large number of these birds feed on butterflies, like the Bicyclus anynana. 13


Deforestation is a major concern for Ethiopia as studies suggest loss of forest contributes to soil erosion, loss of nutrients in the soil, loss of animal habitats and reduction in biodiversity. At the beginning of the 20th century around 420 000 km² or 35% of Ethiopia's land was covered by trees but recent research indicates that forest cover is now approximately 11.9% of the area. Ethiopia is one of the seven fundamental and independent centers of origin of cultivated plants of the world. Ethiopia loses an estimated 1 410 km² of natural forests each year. Between 1990 and 2005 the country lost approximately 21 000 km² (Wikipedia, 2015) 2.4 Economic In 2013/14, Ethiopia’s economy grew by 10.3%, making the country one of Africa’s top performing economies and this strong growth is expected to continue in 2015 and 2016.Owing to a co-ordinated prudent fiscal and monetary policy stance, inflation has been contained to single digits since 2013. Federalism and devolution of power to the regions are paving the way to overcoming geographic and socio-economic barriers to inclusive growth and structural transformation (African Economic Outlook, 2015).

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Assessment of environment pollution in the Federal Republic of Ethiopia

3.1 Introduction Ethiopia’s economy is booming. African Development Bank’s Ethiopia Economic Outlook noted that the country has recorded a continuous unprecedented economic growth for the past decades, making Ethiopia one of the fastest growing economies in Africa 1. However, this economic growth is not without a price. As the old school development dilemma, the economic growth and environment have always interplayed. The ever population pressure which is currently estimated to be more than 90 million, the accelerated urbanization, the mushrooming of infrastructure development such as roads, railways, dams, and the likes, have implications on the environment. Environmental pollution is one of the major challenges in Ethiopia. Several pollution sources that pose threats to environment, and which consequently affect the social and economic activities (agricultural, industrial and other businesses) permeate the Ethiopian development landscape. Both natural and artificial/manmade factors are responsible for the pollution of water, air and land in the country. 3.2 Key sources of environmental pollution Ethiopia has been experiencing climate change and climate variability problems such as increase in average temperature or a change in rainfall patterns. Ethiopia is one of the IGAD countries where environmental problems such as deforestation, 2 desertification, soil erosion, land degradation and environmental pollutions like agricultural, industrial, air, water have reached a critical stage. To address these environmental problems, the Ethiopian Government has committed itself to make its encouraging economic growth, environmentally friendly and climate-smart. The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) enshrines that “every person has the right to live in a healthy environment.” One of the prominent steps undertaken in the right direction was to launch the “Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) 3 strategy to protect the country from the adverse effects of climate change and environmental pollution, as well as to build a green economy that will help realize the state’s ambition of reaching middle income status by 2025. The main objective of CRGE is to identify green economy opportunities that could help Ethiopia reach its ambitious growth targets while keeping greenhouse gas emissions low. Ethiopia has been employing business un-usual approach 4 and attempting to be a green economy front-runner (CRGE, 2011). The key environmental components are represented by air, water, and soil. (Kumie, Abera and Ali, Ahmed (2005: 89). The main sources of pollutions emanate from agricultural activities, industrial effluents, municipal wastes, domestic wastes, fuel wood burning and vehicle emissions. Environmental Policy of Ethiopia stipulates that “environmental and social costs (or benefits foregone or lost) that may result through damage to resources or the environment as a result of degradation or pollution shall be incorporated into public and private sector planning and accounting, and decisions shall be based on minimizing and covering these costs.” Ethiopia’s environmental problem is mainly a result of the Malthusian theory, which espouses that uncontrolled population growth leads to over use of environmental resources such that, it leads to unsustainable development and poverty. See, Ethiopia Economic Outlook, African Development Bank, http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/eastafrica/ethiopia/ethiopia-economic-outlook/. Accessed on October 2015. 2 Estimates of deforestation, which is mainly for expansion of rain-fed agriculture, vary from 80,000 to 200,000 hectares per annum (Environmental Policy of Ethiopia). 3 February 2011, the CRGE initiative, under the leadership of the Prime Minister’s Office, the Environmental Protection Authority, and the Ethiopian Development Research Institute, has been developing a strategy to build a green economy. (The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, FDRE, 2011, Climate-Resilient Green Economy, CRGE). 1

Under the business as usual approach the current greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions would more than double from 150 Mt CO2e in 2010 to 400 MtCO2e in 2030. But the country is aspiring to achieve its development goals while limiting 2030 GHG emissions to around today’s 150 Mt CO2e – around 250 Mt CO2e less than estimated under a conventional development path (The FDRE CRGE).

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Agriculture is the mainstay of the country. The sector has always remained dependent on the erratic and meager rainfall. Due to rampant land degradation, the soil fertility of the land has been deteriorating. This has accelerated the use of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides. This has diverse impacts on the environment. There are immense pollutions coming out of point and non-point pollution. Industrial pollution is one of the main sources of pollution identified in Ethiopia. The lack of industrial waste treatment in many of the factories, the rate of water pollution near and around the industries have been increasing alarmingly (Interview). In turn, these have been causing water-based, water-related and water-borne diseases, which has been major causes of morbidity and mortality in Ethiopia. This has led to unproductive society with imminent health problems.

Figure 3: Key sources of Environmental Pollution in Ethiopia Sources: own elaboration

Many of the communities in Ethiopia use unprotected water sources; especially rural communities who utilize unprotected springs and hand-dug wells. Other groundwater sources include shallow-drilled and boreholes, ponds, lakes, streams and rivers. Roof rain water-harvesting techniques are also used to capture rainwater. Nonetheless, it is easily exposed to contamination from human activities and naturally occurring events. The biological contamination usually originates from human and animal wastes. Unfortunately, there is no information on the quality of the effluent discharged into rivers, and also on the quality of the water on the river (interview). Such information would have played a paramount role for responsible institutions in their effort of taking actions against environmental pollutions sources. Another key source of environmental pollution is the lack of waste management system in the cities. Generally, the sewerage system of the city has made little progress while the urbanization processes has been growing by leaps and bounds. Thus, there is a need to gear the urbanization pace and the sewerage service in tandem, so as to avoid urban pollution.

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Figure 4: Impacts of environmental pollution Sources: Authors’

The country field visit found out that agricultural pollution is the top priority of Ethiopia, followed by industry, water, air and transport pollutions. The following section gives a brief exposé of these pollutions. 3.3 3.3.1

Status of Environmental Pollution Agricultural

Ethiopia is an agrarian country. The agriculture has remained and will continue to be the core sector of the economy. It contributes more than 60 % of the GDP, more than 80% of export and employs the lion’s share of the population (ECA, 2015). The upland parts of the country mainly inhabited by agrarian communities while the lowland society is predominantly pastoralist. Ethiopia’s economy has been struggling with nature for the past decades. The environmental problems have exacerbated the impoverishment of the poor. Moreover, environmental degradation of natural resources has also taken its toll on the population, particularly on the rural communities. The arid, semi-arid and dry-sub-humid areas of the country have always been exposed to extreme desertification, making a pastoralist livelihood at the edge. Both farming and livestock sectors have scored meager productivity. However, recently, there is a positive sign of productivity increase per hectare and per cattle. Due to government’s focus on the sector, there are improved agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, and the likes. This growth however, is not without environmental costs. Both sectors contribute to point and non-point pollutions. Most of the informants have put agricultural pollution at the top. It was noted that given the fact that there is an alarming environmental degradation such as soil and land degradation stressed with deforestation, the environmental pollution such as chemical, biological and physical pollutants (like pesticide 5, fertilizers, and herbicides) have contributed to decreased productivity of the land in many parts of the country. In response, the state initiated a mapping of soil

5 Over the last four decades, serious concerns have been expressed pertaining to the accumulation of poorly stored, banned and obsolete pesticides, which pollute the environment and affect human health. These stocks have accumulated for a number of reasons, including owing to lack of co-ordination in the donations and procurement of pesticides, inappropriate product supply, poor storage conditions and poor management, including oversupply and a poor registration system. With regard to industrial chemicals, the study conducted by EPA in 2006 in 28 organizations revealed that various types of chemicals and contaminated containers have been stored either as unwanted or obsolete chemicals. (The Federal Democratic republic of Ethiopia, Environmental Protection Authority, Global Environmental Facility, GEF Portfolio Identification Document, 2011, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia).

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nutrients throughout the country with a view of identifying the missing nutrients that needs to be replaced through fertilization inputs. The other prominent issues that the informants identified was the lack of awareness among the farmers and pastoralists, on pollution. The informant, noted that given the fact that everyone is not talking about climate change (mainly greenhouse gas emission), the causes and impacts of pollution have been glossed over; be it in the major strategic documents or at the practice level. Hence, there is a need to streamline pollution as a part of climate change. Livestock sector is also a significant contributor to the GDP of Ethiopia and is the main source of income for a large part of the society. However, according to the CRGE (2011) the sector contributes huge amount of greenhouse gas emissions. To address this problem, the government has embarked on different approaches such as enhancing and intensifying animal mix diversification (e.g., poultry, sheep, goats, fish, etc.), improving value-chain efficiency for livestock belonging to farmers and rangeland management, which result in a total abatement potential of 48 Mt CO2e in the Livestock sector (CRGE, 2011:117) 3.3.2

Industry Pollution

Industrialization has a direct relationship with the increment of pollution. Ethiopia has for long pursued an overarching development strategy entitled Agricultural Led to Industrialization (ADLI), ADLI, which aspires to make a transfer from agrarian economy to industrialization. In this regard, the state has placed its potential to establish different manufacturing and processing industries throughout the country, particularly around Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. In 2001, according to Ethiopia’s Central Statistics Agency, CSA, report, there were more than 105,832 6 manufacturing industries operating in Addis Ababa (cited in Tegegn, 2012). These industrialization processes in some instances, however, resulted in polluting the environment; mainly water bodies. These pollutants primarily change the water quality characteristics, like acidity, salinity, temperature and turbidity. In major cities of Ethiopia, particularly in Addis Ababa, industrial pollutions have been affecting the water quality 7. Scholars note that over 90% of untreated industrial wastes are discharged into water bodies (Zerayakob and Zeru, 1999; Mohammed, 2002; EPA, 2005; Tamiru et al., 2005) cited in Tegegn, 2012:2). Food processing industries on the other hand, often damp their waste on open land surfaces (Tegegn, 2012:23). Industries are often not interested in participating in safe waste disposal activities, as the monitoring and evaluation capacity of the city administrations are usually at infancy. During the Interview it was mentioned that the Addis Ababa environmental protection office has taken measures to address this gloomy problem. It has provided awareness creation platforms to the private sector and the district officials, so as to protect, manage and alleviate environmental pollutions. Ethiopia is in the process of setting up new industrial parks with the view of becoming the industrial hub of the Horn of Africa. The government plans to invest, with estimated budget of $10 billion 8, industrial zones across the country that will house textile, leather, agro-processing and other labor-intensive factories. Hence, there is a need to establish institutionalized environmental remedies in these industrial parks. An expert from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry noted that among the industries, the tannery manufacturing industries are the main pollutants in and near Addis Ababa. Other pollutant industries include leather, textile, diary, beverages and food processing. The industry sector also releases greenhouse gases. The major one is the increasing and expanding cement industry, which is producing cement for the booming construction and housing sectors. According to CRGE (2011:117) the industry sector is expected to grow at annual rate of up to 20%. This sector Of which 79 were state owned, 2674 were large and medium sized private enterprises, and the remaining 102,907 were micro to small-scale private enterprises (Tegegn, 2012). 7 Worldwide, it is estimated that industrial sector is responsible for dumping 300-400 million tons of heavy metals, solvents, toxic sludge, and other waste into water sources each year (UNEP, 2010). 8 Ethiopia is targeting $1 billion of annual investment in industrial parks over the next decade to boost exports and make it Africa’s top manufacturer (http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-05-18/ethiopia-plans-manufacturing-hub-with10-billion-factory-parks, Accessed on October 2015). Also see http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/07/04/uk-ethiopiaindustry-idUKKBN0F91DJ20140704 . 6

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shows the highest emission growth rates of all sectors, with overall industrial emissions being projected to grow by 16% p.a. from 4 Mt CO2e 2010 to 71 Mt in 2030. 3.3.3

Urbanization and pollution

Urbanization is on the rise in Ethiopia. So is its related pollution. Addis Ababa is one of the emerging cities in Africa. Its population has been increasing from time to time, mainly due to immigration. The same is true to other big cities in the country; such as Adama, Bahir Dar, Mekele, Hawassa, and Dire Dawa. On the contrary, the waste management system is either very old or does not properly function. The major problems in solid waste managements in urban centres encompass the poor infrastructure, lack of properly designed collection route system and time schedule; lack of proper collection and emptying containers, insufficient truck and poor maintenance, unacceptable condition of the final dumpsite, and the absence of waste reduction, recycling and composting (cited in Fikreyesus et al., 2011: 12 ). The per capita amount of waste generated in Ethiopia range from 0.17 to 0.48 kg/person/day for urban areas, and 0.11 to 0.35 kg/capita/day for rural areas (Environmental Protection Authority and World Bank, 2004 cited in Fikreyesus et al., 2011: 7). Table 1 : Source of Solid Waste in Addis Ababa Source of Solid Waste

Percent (%)

Domestic House Holds Commercial/Retail Street Sweeping (Soil & Refuse)

70.0 9.0 6.0%

Industrial Manufacturing Hotels Hospitals

5.0% 3.0% 1.0%

Source : Fikreyesus et al. 2011

Sewage system of Addis is based on a centralized system. It was estimated that out of the total population 12.4% use flush toilets, 56.3% use pit latrine, 29.9% have no facility, and 1.4 % are unknown (Said, 1999 cited in Tegegn, 2012:2) The primary solid waste collection is carried out by micro and small enterprises. There are a lot of youth groups who collect waste from households or business establishments and dump them in designated containers. However, these collection methods have remained unsuccessful in cleaning the city (interview). The secondary collection is done by the City Administration and transported from containers to the Sendafa dumping site (Fikreyesus et al. 2011).

Photo 1 : collecting garbage in Addis Ababa (Primary collection on the left and secondary collection on the right) Source: Authors

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The environmental impacts of urbanization in Ethiopia include the negative health consequences of crowding and increased exposure to concentrated waste, unsustainable resource consumption and settlement on environmentally fragile land. Urbanization does not have only local environmental impacts, but, it also has a large ‘ecological footprint’ beyond its immediate vicinity. Intensive and extensive exploitation of natural resources to support the urban economy include use of high amounts of energy resources (including fuel wood), quarrying and excavation of sand, gravel and other building materials on large scales, and over extraction and inefficient delivery and use of water. These contribute to degradation of the natural support systems and irreversible damage and loss of critical ecosystem functions, such as the hydrological cycle, carbon cycle and biological diversity in areas both near and far from the urban centres using the resources. In addition, conflicts can arise with rural users over access to such limited resources. Other effects can be felt further, such as pollution of waterways, long-range air pollution that have impacts on human health as well as on vegetation and soils at considerable distances (Edwards, 2010). There are also challenges coming from the producers of solid waste at all socio-economic levels as well as the industries and service producers. Box 1: Waste to Energy Koshe (Reppi) Waste - to -Energy Power Plant project

The Koshe area is well known for being Addis Ababa’s open waste dumping site for more than 40 years. Even though the site was first considered to be on the outskirt of the city, it is now drawn into part of the inner city where there are schools, residential neighborhoods and other facilities. Koshe has posed a serious health and environment hazards for the community that resides laround it. It was these concerns that led the Addis Ababa City Administration to close the Koshe site and relocate the city’s dumping site to Sendafa. The Sendafa site is currently under construction and it is 50 kilometers away from Addis.

The Reppie (locally known as Koshe an Amharic word meaning “dirty”.) waste-to-energy project is the first of its kind in Ethiopia as it produces green energy within city limits from municipal solid waste (MSW). It is implemented in the commonly known area as koshe. The site is over 37 hectares and 40 meters deep. It will be the first base load power in the country providing electricity 24 hours a day for over 330 days of the year. The facility will be a modern waste disposal system eliminating over 1,000 tons of waste every day and producing 185,000,000 KWh per year. This energy is put into the grid without long transmission lines required in remote hydro and wind projects. The project is completed more than 75%, and will be ready for energy generation

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soon. The project aims to provide the best environmental, cost effective and practical solution for energy generation within the vicinity of the city, and to provide an eco-smart management of waste in a growing city. This project not only avoids environmental pollution, but also produces clean energy with huge socio-economic benefits. The construction of the first ever waste to energy plant, a120 million USD deal project was signed by the Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCo) with Cambridge Industries , a United Kingdom based firm, in January 4, 2013. When completed, This will mark Ethiopia’s pioneering role in the development of the first Sub-Saharan Africa Waste-To-Energy facility. The project – known as the Koshe Waste-toEnergy facility - will be able to generate 50 megawatts of clean energy through a controlled combustion process consuming 350,000 tonnes of waste annually. Apart from producing green energy, an additional power source to the national grid, it will also be a solution in reducing municipal solid waste, embellishing the city and providing meaningful source of income for young people.

Source: authors’ compilation 9

3.3.4

Water pollution

Water pollution has become a serious environmental pollution throughout the country. “No water in nature is absolutely clean” (Tegegn, 2012:1). The droplets of rain interact with solid dissolved salts and aerosols in the air before it reaches the ground and joins the surface water (Ibid.). Both anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for the pollution of water 10. In the rural areas water pollution is related to non-point sources of pollution from agriculture and livestock sectors. Animals cause of faecal and parasitic larvae that are usually carried away to nearby rivers constitute the main sources of water pollution 11. Informants indicated that in rural areas, human and animal wastes which cause biological contamination, are very rampant. It is further noted that the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity has launched a nation-wide campaign to address hygiene related water pollutions and to create open-defection free community in the country. Given the fact that, rural people often use unprotected water sources like rivers, springs boreholes and handdug wells, the extent to which the rural community is affected by water pollution is very high. In the urban and peri-urban settings, the major sources of water pollutions derive from the industrial discharges and municipal wastes. Residential waste, industrial discharges and Human waste are often disposed to nearby surface water bodies. These pollutions have posed serious threats health problems to the urbanites (Ademe and Alemayehu, 2014) 12. Considering the surface water and ground water interaction, some of the water pollution result in the contamination of groundwater particularly in the areas where the porosity of the land is high. Informants from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry stated that there is a need to have detailed studies on the quality, quantity, type and nature of the effluent discharged into the water bodies and their multifaceted impacts on humans and animals. With regards to transboundary water pollution, informant from the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity noted that, as most of Ethiopia’s rivers are transboundary, the soil erosion in the Ethiopian highland has been causing sedimentation and siltation in the downstream countries. This, they assert, should be included in cross-border environmental pollution.

the information and pictures are gathered from these two websites-http://www.eepco.gov.et/project.php?pid=27&pcatid=9 and http://cleanleap.com/ethiopias-mountain-waste-becomes-new-energy-source) 9

The potential contamination also includes physical and chemical hazards. The physical impurities affect the palatability of the drinking water due to bad smell, odour and unsightliness of the water (Ethiopian Ministry of Health (EMH) 2011) National Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance Strategy. Addis Ababa). 11 The effect of open defecation is that faecal material would be washed into water sources during rainstorms, or transferred to the water source by wind, people or animals. Animals grazing in water catchment areas are also being carried into the water source (Ademe AS & Alemayehu M (2014) Source and Determinants of Water Pollution in Ethiopia: Distributed Lag Modeling Approach). 12 Ademe AS, Alemayehu M (2014) Source and Determinants of Water Pollution in Ethiopia: Distributed Lag Modeling Approach. 10

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This pollution is mainly generated from different sources but the lion’s share comes from food industries. This implies that expansion of the manufacturing sector would aggravate the pollution level of the country unless are remedial and protective actions are taken. Concerned governmental organs ought to advice and direct industries to consider their residual production, and to develop a system which can prevent releasing of waste to water. This will significantly reduce the serious ramifications which currently result from lack of proper management. Box 2: Akaki River Pollution Akaki River, a 71 km river, is one of the most critically polluted rivers in the capital city- Addis Ababa. While many inhabitants along the river utilize the water for drinking, backyard cultivation, animal husbandry and the like, the river has served as the predominant site for open waste disposal by numerous industries near and around the River. According to our informants, the Akaki river remain one of the main rivers found in the major cities of Ethiopia that are highly polluted and reached to critical stage.

Source: Guy Calaf 2008

1.2.5 Air Pollution: General sources of air pollution in Ethiopia are transportation, fuel wood, charcoals, industrial emissions, dust from arid areas of the country (for instance from Afar and Somali regions), construction dust, mining and extraction (Abate, n.d). Box 3: The main pollutants in Ethiopia Sulpher dioxide Nitrogen dioxide Carbon oxide Particulates Lead 22

Pesticides Asbestos and Dusts


Sources: Abate n.d

3.3.5

Outdoor Air pollution

Vehicle-related air pollution is a major source of outdoor air pollution in big cities of Ethiopia. The rapidly growing economy usually results with the booming of transportation. The road transport (particularly freight and passengers vehicles) is the main sources of transport pollution in Ethiopia. Furthermore, nowadays, with the thriving of the construction sector in the major cities of the country, the construction vehicle has become one sources of pollution 13. This has implication on the quality and quantity of air pollution in the country. According to the informant from the Ministry of Transport, the number and age of cars in the country has been increasing by leaps and bounds in the past years. This has a direct increase on the greenhouse gas emissions mainly CO2. As the CRGE (2011) predicted that emissions from transport would “grow from around 5 Mt CO2e in 2010 to 40 Mt CO2e in 2030. The increased emissions are driven first by higher emissions from freight transport (+13% per annum, p.a.) and also by higher emissions from passenger transport (+9% p.a.).” Traffic-related air pollutions result in chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis. Informants from the Ministry of Transport stated that Ethiopia needs to focus on non-motorized transportation systems like cycling and walking. Ethiopia has recently started a light rail transit system, which is environmentally friendly, and expected to transport millions of people in a week. The Addis Ababa city is also attempting to expand and upgrade the bus rapid transit systems. These would reduce the CO2 emission; contributing to healthy and productive society. In this regard, it was mentioned that, Bahir Dar, one of the big cities in the country, has a plan of having a cycling lane in the cities. This strategy should be emulated by other big cities that are convenient for cycling. This includes, but is not limited to cities such as Dire Dawa, Hawassa, Mekele and others. The import and export commodity transportation Ethio-Djibouit railway, which is currently being finalized will also contribute to reducing emissions as it uses electricity to power its locomotives. Industrial emission is another sources of outdoor pollution, albeit at insignificant level. Based on the Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation 300/2002 two standards are prepared: industrial emission standards and ambient environment standards. However, most of the industries have not met these basic standards (Interview). Even though the proclamation enumerates the necessary mechanisms to address industrial pollution (such as polluter pays principles, polluter cleans up, and in grave pollution scenarios, the closure or relocation of industrial sites) these can hardly be implemented. As compared to other industrial related pollution, the CO2 emission from the industry is at meager amount. 3.3.6

Indoor pollution

In Ethiopia, according to the Central Statistical Authority (CSA) 2007, over 99% of rural population use biomass fuel as source of household energy (cited in Kumie, 2009). They use a three-stoned traditional stove for their day to day in-house activities such as cooking, lighting, smoking etc (Ethiopia Environment Outlook, 2007). In spite of its grave health problems (such as respiratory problems) “there is no information on the level of indoor air pollution or its human health impacts for Ethiopia” (Ibid.). As a result, the level of indoor pollution impact has not been fully studied. 3.3.7

Other pollutions

The mining sector has been expanding in Ethiopia. Big international companies have been exploring and mining various natural resources. In these mining areas, there are hazardous materials that need special protection so as to avoid environmental problems and resultant health problems to the local communities. Other related The aviation transport also contributes for air pollution, though it is very difficult to quantify at the country level due to its global nature. 13

23


pollution is noise pollution; particularly in major cities. It is a day-to-day phenomenon to hear loud and deafening noises in some parts of Addis Ababa. It has emerged from the interviews that there is no noise related regulation in the country, though there are a lot of issues that have been discussed both in the print and electronic media. Since there is often power cut in the cities, there are diesel generators in many places, which in turn cause noise pollutions. However, nowadays, according to the government media, there will be more power generation from the dams in the country and the noise pollution will be resolved. 3.3.8

Summary

Ethiopia is a country where the old school of development dilemma persists. Concomitant economic growth and environmental pollution are visible. Pollution is at the center of Ethiopia’s growing economy. The government strategies like CRGE are mainly designed in the state’s endeavour to become a “green economy front-runner.” The country has been embarking on huge agricultural, industrial, infrastructure, urbanization, and other economic activities. These activities need highly scrutinized and well thought out environmental remedies. The recent step undertaken in this direction is the transformation of the Environment institution from the ‘Authority’ (Ethiopian Environmental Authority) level to the ‘Ministerial’ (Ministry of Environment and Forestry) level. As the field interview showed all informants believe that environmental pollutions is a serious concern of the state. However, there is still a need to create awareness about the different and sectoral environmental pollutions. There is a tendency of seeing environmental pollution only through the eyes of climate change. It is one thing to place climate change issues on the political agenda, but this should not be at the expense of other environmental problems like pollutions. Hence, there is a need to address environmental pollution both in the lenses of climate change and separately. Table 2: Synthesis table for Ethiopia Type of pollution Land

Water

Air

Moderate

Key Sources

Impacts

Agrochemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides Industrial effluents and municipal wastes Contamination of surface waters such as rivers, lakes and wetlands and groundwater Emissions of pollutant particles such as CO2 and others from indoor and outdoor sources such as vehicles, fuel wood, charcoals dusts, fumes and others

Reduce agricultural/crop production and productivity; Water-based-born and -related diseases; water quality deteriorates Causing health problems like respiratory illness and others

Source: own elaboration

24

Severe

Very Critical X

X

X


4

Link between environment pollution and economic development in Ethiopia

4.1

Current economic cooperation between the country and the other IGAD countries and regional integration

4.1.1

Overview

Ethiopia is the 121st largest export economy in the world and the 108th most complex economy according to the Economic Complexity Index (ECI). In 2013, Ethiopia exported $3.87B and imported $14.1B, resulting in a negative trade balance of $10.2B. In 2013 the GDP of Ethiopia was $47.5B and its GDP per capita was $505. The top exports of Ethiopia are Coffee ($732M), Other Vegetables ($550M), Other Oily Seeds ($465M), Cut Flowers ($346M) and Refined Petroleum ($260M), using the 1992 revision of the HS (Harmonized System) classification. Its top imports are Refined Petroleum ($1.6B), Delivery Trucks ($584M), Packaged Medicaments ($428M), Large Construction Vehicles ($405M) and Wheat ($390M). 450000 400000

thousand USD

350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Djibouti

Kenya

Sudan

2005

2006

2007

Djibouti

Kenya

Sudan

2008 Uganda

2009 Somalia

2010

2011

2012

2013

2011

2012

2013

Eritrea

700000

thousand USD

600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0 2003

2004

2008 Uganda

2009 Somalia

2010 Eritrea

Figure 5: Imports (top) and exports (bottom) trade partners of Ethiopia Source: UNCTAD Merchandise trade matrix (2015)

4.1.2

Economic cooperation with IGAD countries

Sudan is a major economic partner of Ethiopia. According to the Ethiopian Petroleum Supplier Enterprise, Ethiopia in April 2013 imported around $1.12 billion worth of oil from Sudan over the previous six months. In total, about 85% of Ethiopia's yearly oil consumption comes from Sudan via the Port of Djibouti. Ethiopia and Sudan are also in the process of linking their power grids. 25


In October 1991, the Ethiopian and Djiboutian governments signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation further solidifying relations 14. Since 1991, the two countries have signed over 39 protocol agreements. Djibouti remains a major economic partner of Ethiopia. On 13 April 2002, the two countries signed an agreement concerning the use of the Port of Djibouti and the transit of cargo, which was later ratified by the Ethiopian Federal Parliamentary Assembly on 4 June of the same year. About 70% of the Port of Djibouti's activity consists of imports to and exports from neighbouring Ethiopia, which depends on the harbour as its main maritime outlet. The port also serves as an international refuelling centre and transhipment hub. Additionally, both countries share ownership of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railroad 15. At the IGAD region level, the pastoral economy and livestock trade form a critical platform for economic interdependence linking Ethiopia’s Somali Region to Djibouti, Somaliland and Puntland. Cross-border livestock trade represents perhaps the highest growth area for regional trade in the Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia border areas. Well facilitated cross-border livestock trade serves as a critical strategy for poverty alleviation for the majority of pastoralists who are the predominant livelihood group in these border areas. This trade activity is largely unofficial and unrecorded. Hundreds of thousands of all types of livestock and bulk of coffee, vegetables and chat originating from Ethiopia are smuggled to neighbouring countries. In return, a wide range of manufactured goods is imported illegally. This illicit cross-border trade has been there for a long time (Tegegne Teka and Alemayehu Azeze, 2002). 4.2 4.2.1

Impact of current environment pollution on domestic economy and economic cooperation and regional integration in the region Ethiopia’s economy

Agriculture is the main industry in Ethiopia and it is the main source of environmental pollution. However, as standard of living increases, and contribution of manufacturing increases, especially in developed urban areas, other industries will become a major source of environmental pollution. Nevertheless, environmental quality and sustainable management of natural resources will play important roles in increasing well-being and economic growth in Ethiopia. Ethiopia’s economy is fast developing and population growth is estimated to keep growing at 2 percent per year (Megquier and Belohav, 2014). In terms of population, Ethiopia is the second largest African nation. This, combined with strong economic growth in Ethiopia, which is expected to be over 10 percent in the coming years (African Economic Outlook, 2015) has led to Addis Ababa, the countries capital and largest city, fast becoming one of Africa’s political and economic centres. As a result, the age old argument of economic growth, which links pollution and environmental degradation with the process of industrialisation, is fast becoming a prominent one in the country. Thus the economic effects of pollution are key considerations to Ethiopia’s development plan and mitigation of these effects will be required to enable pro-poor growth to develop in the country. The following table highlights the main economic effects and estimates potential GDP loss regarding the main sources of air, land and water pollution in the country.

Diplomatic relations between Ethiopia and Djibouti were established in 1984. The border between the two countries is based on the Franco-Ethiopian convention of 20 March 1897, which was later finalized in a protocol dated 16 January 1954 and rendered effective on 28 February of that year.

14

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Table 3 : Main economic effects of air, land and water pollution Type of pollution Land


Key Sources

Impacts

Agrochemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides Industrial effluents and municipal wastes

Reduce Main economic impacts – decreased labour productivity, agricultural/crop self-pollution e.g. pesticides polluting drinking water. production and Industrial waste pumped into water sources and productivity; inadequate waste disposal system (Anonym, 2002). . Land pollution is most significant source of pollution in the country, resulting in a GDP loss (estimated) of up to 0.2 percent. Water-based-born Main economic impacts – reduced labour productivity, and -related increased health care costs, lost productivity through ecosystem damage. Estimated GDP loss of 0.1 percent. diseases; water quality deteriorates Causing health Main economic impacts – productivity loss, health care problems like costs from industrial and private (eg. car ownership) air respiratory illness pollution. Health care costs and lost labour productivity and others from indoor fuel wood burning is a growing problem (Dahlberg and Ekbom, 2008). Estimated loss of GDP in the region of 0.05 percent.

Water

Contamination of surface waters such as rivers, lakes and wetlands and groundwater

Air

Emissions of pollutant particles such as CO2 and others from indoor and outdoor sources such as vehicles, fuel wood, charcoals dusts, fumes and others

Economic Impacts

Source: own elaboration

4.2.2

Economic effects of air pollution

The poorest segments of society are the most dependent on natural resources for their survival. Poverty, starvation, disease and poor quality of living is severe in Ethiopia and an economic effect of environmental pollution. Much of the population is indeed deprived of decent livelihoods manifested by very low access to safe water, sanitation, reliable energy sources and other essential environmental goods and services. Only limited knowledge exists, empirical analyses are needed to better understand exploitation and related economic consequences of environmental pollution in order to formulate appropriate action plans for future growth. The economic effects on the poor can be devastating as they are unable to protect themselves adequately against environmental pollution and are unable to take sufficient remedial actions to engage in alternative livelihoods (Dahlberg and Ekbom, 2008). Thus the self-polluting effects of some processes, e.g. agricultural livestock contaminated potable water supplies. Further destruction of natural resources, e.g. forest renders those resources unable to support other livelihoods, such as timber for construction. Energy production in Ethiopia is a significant source of environmental pollution, having immediate short term effects on human health and also longer term effects with regard to exacerbating climate change through deforestation. Deforestation in Ethiopia has increased at a rapid rate, with less than 3 percent of the country remaining forested, down from initial cover estimated to be around 40 percent. The rate of deforestation is directly linked with increases in population growth as Ethiopia’s energy supply comes from woody biomass, with fuelwood accounting for over 75 percent of total energy production (Dahlberg and Ekbom, 2008). The impact of deforestation for energy production has direct implications of soil fertility, since animal waste and crop residues are also collected for fuel rather than left as natural fertilisers and stabilisers to allow regeneration. Furthermore, the effect of pollution has a societal economic impact. This impact is quantifiable in increased health care costs as well as productivity loss due to ill health. Such costs have been estimated in developed countries, e.g. in Europe and the USA, but it appears that no such data exists in Ethiopia. However, data available in other countries should provide the impetus to reduce levels of pollution. Further, biomass burning, as well as the resultant deforestation accelerates climate change, which Ethiopia is very susceptible to.

27


Industrialisation, particularly in Ethiopia’s urban areas, is contributing to environmental pollution. In particular, air pollution and water pollution are increasing as the economic centres shift from rural agricultural locations to cities and urban areas and to manufacturing and service sectors. With current government proposals to generate industrial parks and an industrial hub in the horn of Africa, the economic effects of environmental pollution will increase. It is estimated that industrial emissions will grow at 16 percent per year until 2030 and therefore serious consideration needs to be given to produce environmental legislation to mitigate/prevent the environmental impacts of industrialisation. Otherwise, health costs and lower output from workers will increase as a result of increased industrialisation. Transport is an essential component of life. Positive effects of transport result from providing access to education, employment opportunities, services, goods, leisure activities and other amenities and by contributing to economic development and the logistics of production and distribution (Boesch et al., 2008). Transport, particularly in developing urban areas, e.g. Addis Ababa, is however a growing pollution concern. Currently, the single largest source of urban air pollution in Ethiopia is the emissions from motor vehicles, with transportation being the largest contributor (over 52 percent in 1999) of total CO2 emissions, followed by construction and residencies. The trend is upwards, with vehicle imports increasing by 17.2 percent in the last three years. The economic effects of transport air pollution largely relate to health, both mortality and morbidity, leading to increased hospital admissions, long term respiratory diseases, restricted activity (decreased productivity) and lost working days. These effects all represent economic costs (Boesch et al., 2008), although in Ethiopia there is a lack of studies quantifying the economic costs and effects of pollution, not only with regards to transport but also other sources of pollution. Nonetheless, it is important to note that there are broader positive economic effects of increased transportation, where the increase facilitates business expansion, additional job creation and additional tax revenues, reflecting a combination of productivity benefits (Litman, 2010). However, in Ethiopia, there is a need to further develop low carbon transportation systems, and progress is currently being made in terms of public transportation (such as the light railway system in Addis Ababa). Further progress is however required in terms on incentivising carbon neutral forms of travel, such as walking and cycling. 4.2.3

Economic effects of land pollution

The value of production of goods and services of Ethiopia is less than a quarter of the Sub-Saharan average, with a GDP per capita of only US$ 160 (World Bank, 2007). The Ethiopian economy is largely dependent of rainfed low productivity agriculture, with as much as 85 percent of employment dependent on agriculture. Compared with international standards, productivity is very low and is aggravated by environmental degradation and pollution. Agricultural runoff is responsible for water pollution, with only some urbanised areas receiving sanitised water supplies, which causes a major source of vulnerability to economic sustainability at the national level, but is particularly problematic in rural areas, where economic development has been seriously undermined by environmental degradation and pollution (World Bank, 2007). Further, the World Bank (2007) estimates the cost of pollution and environmental degradation arising from agricultural activity to amount to 4 percent of GDP. The main economic effects of agricultural pollution relates to loss of earnings through selfpollution, e.g. impact of agriculture polluted water on farm yields, diseased livestock etc. Production of ozone gases as a result of increased livestock production, economic impacts of deforestation and impacts on human health through agriculture pollution e.g. runoff into water sources (in terms of increased health care cost and loss of productivity) have economic consequences. 4.2.4

Economic effects of water pollution

Water pollution is a major source of environmental pollution in Ethiopia. Agriculture is both large consumer of water and a large polluter of water sources, through run-off, animal waste which causes waterborne disease. Human waste is also a major source of water pollution. In urban areas, industrial activity is the main source of water pollution, posing serious threats to human health, but also to natural resources e.g. through effluent discharge in rivers. 28


The main economic effects of water pollution are losses to agricultural production, human health and livestock and can be quite substantial in monetary terms. Compensation principles may be productive in reducing environmental pollution if estimates of damage are realistic (Reddy and Behera, 2006). Policies should be implemented and institutions and frameworks to manage water pollution are essential. Currently, rural poverty is strongly associated with unsustainable land use practices, soil loss and degradation, deforestation, poor access to sanitised water and poor unreliable energy production. Increased agricultural activity and exports, along with further industrialisation of urban centres, are seen as the main engine for Ethiopia’s economic development (European Commission, 2008). There is a need to ensure sustainable production through the use of appropriate technologies and sustainable land management (World Bank, 2005). It is important that growth in these sectors integrates environmental pollution concerns, so that economic development does not continue at the expense of the country’s natural resources, which are needed for economic growth and poverty reduction.

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5


Assessment of existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution

5.1 Introduction Environmental Laws in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia focus mostly on the management and utilization of its land resources. Arable land contributing about 40% is limited and overexploited by subsistence farmers resulting in land degradation in addition to about 60% of the land classified as semi-arid and arid. However, increasing social transformation and industrial expansion have resulted in high air pollution, contaminated water and large volumes of solid waste in Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. Over several years, Ethiopia has enacted laws to protect, manage and conserve the environment. These laws are of national and regional context with strategies to provide basic standards for measurements, prohibit activities with adverse impact on the environment and human health. 5.2 National and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks Ethiopia has developed a number of laws, policies, strategies and legal frameworks. The effort is recognized since 1943 general rule on environmental management and development; 1948 Penal Code prohibiting adverse effect on environment and human health. The perception and commitment on protection, management and conservation have ever increased over the years. In order, to address environmental problems, in 1994, Ethiopia adopted a three stage-approach: first, Constitutional Measure, second Policy Measures and third, Legislative Measure. Of national importance are the Environmental Policy, Industrial Pollution Law and the Waste Management Law. These are supplemented by international conventions that Ethiopia has ratified. Some of these include: • The Convention on Biological Diversity; • The Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes; • The United Nations Framework on Convention of Climate Change; • The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and or Desertification Particularly in Africa; • The Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol on the Protection of the Ozone Layer; • The Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, and • Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. The mechanisms adopted by Ethiopia for environmental protection, incorporates environmental issues into the Law of the Land. In this context, the 1994 Constitution of Ethiopia under Articles 44 and 92 protect human lives in a clean and health environment. In consideration of the environmental situation in a prevailing economic, cultural and social transformation, a number of policies and strategies have been developed to amplify the Constitutional provisions of environmental protection, Environmental Policy and Conservation Strategy. These measures are of legal framework in nature and require institutional frameworks for effective and efficient implementation. 5.3 National and regional institutional frameworks The national and regional frameworks established in Ethiopia include the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that has now been reorganized and scaled up to the Ministry of Environment and Forest, and establishment of Environmental Protection Organs including directorates in key ministries of Water, Irrigation and Energy, Agriculture, Transport and Housing. The institutional frameworks are charged with abilities to contain environmental crisis and promote sustainable development. This effort includes incorporating environmental rights under the Constitution, adopting Environmental Policy and the Conservation Strategy and 30


ratifying multilateral environmental Conventions. The institutions also formulate and implement laws, standards and guidelines. EPA now under the Ministry of Environment and Forest, has a legal mandate to coordinate environmental functions and assign responsibilities to other institutions with objective of reducing duplication and promoting environmental protection, regulation and monitoring. The legal powers invested in the institution are to enforce and spearhead enforcement and ensure compliance with environmental laws, standards and guidelines. The institution promotes use of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and among other tools to predict and manage environmental effects of intended development without jeopardizing sustainable development agenda. The use of EIA enhances public participation prior to a decision on development is undertaken. EIA harmonizes and integrates environmental, economic, cultural and social considerations into decision making process supporting sustainable development. Some development may cause harm to the environment and human health through pollution. In order to eliminate and or mitigate this effect, Ethiopia has developed Environmental Pollution Law, Industrial Pollution Control Law and Waste Management Law to protect the environment, in general, and safeguard human health in particular. 5.4

Status of implementation the policies, strategies, legal frameworks as well as the international MEAs The main multilateral environmental agreements have been ratified. This provides space for established institutions and organs to implement Laws on Pollution Control, Impact Assessment, Urban Waste Management and Biosafety. The policies, strategies and legal frameworks are supplemented by the establishment of Environmental Units and Sector Agencies, The Environmental Council comprising of members from various stakeholders and issuance of environmental regulations and guidelines to prevent industrial pollution and emissions. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is pursuing partnership development to build capacity necessary to use environmental technologies, creating awareness on environmental protection, developing strategies to achieve zero carbon emissions by 2025, strengthening and creating new institutions to enhance implementation process, supporting regional governments to establish environmental offices, preparing and disseminating environmental information and mobilizing financial resources to support environmental protection and management. In addition, polluting tanneries and textiles have been given a grace period of up to 5 years to implement pollution control equipment and technologies, waste water treatment plants and safe guard measures. The effort includes relocating industrial activities to the new industrial site away from the city and to ensure full compliance with the Law. Enforcement of and ensuring compliance with environmental laws are strategic to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. In order to reinforce implementation of policies, strategies and legal framework in the context of international MEAs, the following strategies have been put in place since 2011. • The regional and federal municipalities are tasked to ensure that there is full compliance with the provisions of the Federal Urban Waste Management Law; • Industries ensure full compliance with the provisions of the Industrial Pollution Law and Emission Standards; • Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) establish provisions for ensuring mainstreaming, integration and incorporation of environmental activities into development; • Conservation laws are developed to support and facilitate implementation of Environmental Policy in Ethiopia; • Ensure that issuance of Environmental Permits are restrictive and abide by the Laws.

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In order to achieve these strategic objectives, effective and efficient implementation must be supported by the federal agencies, Regional Governments, NGOs and the private sector in collaboration with the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) now being housed at the Ministry of Environment and Forestry of Ethiopia. Strengthening and building capacity of the implementing agencies and providing financial, technical and technological resources are important to the success of Environmental Policy in Ethiopia. Of regional interest, emphasis is placed on air pollution and water in the context of transboundary issues. The Greenhouse Gas Emission Strategy promotes clean technology, electronic railway system and infrastructure development. In Ethiopia, most national and regional policies are broad and intended for some responsibilities of protecting the environment and human health, but, lack specific components for regulation hence difficult to enforce. In some cases relevant components of the laws that would help people and enterprises comply with their obligations are not regulated. This creates a challenge for effective and efficient implementation of the environmental standards and measures. For instance, tanneries and textiles are seen as most pollutant and non-compliant regardless of the Industrial Pollution Law and associated Proclamation in force. The regulatory part of the laws focus on allocation and exploitation of the natural resources for economic activities of production and consumption in the country. This creates a challenge for the sustainable management and rational use of the natural resources and implementation of regional policies and strategies. Instituting and reinforcing sanctions and administrative fines and penalties to impose environmental cost with reasonable impact on society should be promoted, but, it will be costly. However, the dilemma of the laws attributes to limitation in correcting or restoring the damage inflicted upon the physical environment. It is therefore, important to minimise, prevent and avoid environmental damage through effective and efficient national and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks. In this respect, the country has initiated a strategy on Climate Resilient Green economy to achieve zero carbon emissions by the year 2025.

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6


Proposed actions for Environment Pollution Control

Over the last two decades, the Ethiopian government has put in place a number of policies, strategies and laws that are designed to support sustainable development. The country has developed and implemented a wide range of legal, policy and institutional frameworks on environment, water, forests, climate change, and biodiversity. However, there is need for action to reinforce implementation of these instruments. The EIA procedures should be applied to plans according to the EIA proclamation No: 299/ 2002.The Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has been introduced recently to supplement the EIA, but, there is no SEA proclamation or guidelines on SEA in place to reinforce the actions. Ethiopia is signatory to number of multilateral agreements that have support for the sustainable development efforts of the country within the context of International obligations. Two environmental issues are of particular relevance and importance to Ethiopia from an international perspective. This include: regionally shared water resources and climate change. Regarding regional water resources, Ethiopia is home to the Blue Nile and Ethiopia’s role as a major upstream water source constitutes an opportunity as well as a potential source of international conflict. Generally, the downstream countries are vulnerable to changes in water flows induced by action in the upstream countries. Consequently, Ethiopia is a member of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) and participates together with the governments of Egypt and Sudan in the Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Programme (ENSAP). National priorities include the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) focused on a broad-based development in a sustainable path to achieve all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The action to increase agricultural production to ensure food security should be in tandem with environmental pollution control. The increase to economic growth from the industrial sector (mainly production in sugar, textiles, leather products and cement) will impact environment and pollution must be addressed. The roads network and increased maritime export should internalize pollution in the same way power generation is capturing carbon tax and carbon credits. Currently, the main objective of the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, is to prevent the pollution of land, air and water in the most cost-effective way so that the cost of effective preventive intervention would not exceed the benefits. In order to mitigate the adverse of pollution impacts of the various wastes generated, there is a need to implement both preventive and curative mitigation measures. The aim of the preventive mitigation measures is generally to minimize the generation of wastes at source and it will be implemented during the production operation phases, particularly: •

Setup operational procedures for good housekeeping;

•

Effective maintenance and efficient production operation.

•

Optimize use of water during industrial operation.

and

cleaning

chemicals

and

efficiently

used

The other pollutants of concern are oil and lubricants used for agricultural machineries, such as tractors, etc. Maintenance of agricultural machineries should be undertaken in a designated area and used oil and lubricants should be effectively managed. The collected used oil should be appropriately stored in barrels and be sold to buyers in line with Performance Standards. In accordance with Article 55(1) of the Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, the environmental pollution control proclamation highlight that the protection of the environment, in general, and the safeguarding of human health and wellbeing, as well as the maintaining of the biota and the aesthetic value of nature, in particular, are the duty and responsibility of all. However, it appropriate to eliminate or, when not possible, to mitigate pollution as an undesirable consequence of social and economic development activities. There is a high level of political commitment to address environmental and climate change problems in the country. Ethiopia is one of a very few countries in Africa to develop CRGE. There are a lot of investments and 33


economic activities in many sectors in the country. These encouraging economic development are sometimes at odds with the environment. Hence, there is a need to have ‘workable’ environmental pollution assessment and monitoring mechanism. In that regards, the following policy recommendations are forwarded: • Ethiopia is establishing industrial zones in different parts of the country. These industrial zones need to have ‘a state-of-the art’ solid and waste treatment plants; • Ethiopia’s government has given more or less equal attention to both small scale and large scale farming in the country. There is a high level use of agricultural input such as fertilizers, pesticide, herbicides and the likes. Hence, there is a need to quantify the input of these chemicals and its impact on the soil, animals, ground and surface water. Currently, there is only uncoordinated and sporadic documentation method of agricultural inputs and its impacts. • Given the fact that some of the major cities in the countries like Addis Ababa, Adam, Mekele, Bahir Dar and Dire Dawa are going through booming constructions, there is a need to identify the nature and type of pollutions related to these sites such as chemicals, fumes, noise and dust pollutions. • Adequate planning and resources has to be assigned for urban waste management services. As stands now the urban waste management systems are way behind the pace of urbanization and rapid population growth. Budgeting for urban waste management should be allocated. • It is crucial to minimize pollution vulnerabilities and disaster risks through appropriate and targeted risk reduction and management interventions that are well integrated with sustainable development strategies. The fact that the impacts of environmental pollution is linked to poverty requires integration of poverty reduction policies and programs in order to enhance the role and contribution of non-state actors as the intensity and wide spatial coverage of the problem of pollution. • Non-state actors could, therefore, play a fundamental role in developing appropriate programs and action plans that respond to the environmental pollution impacts. Enhanced cooperation and concerted efforts are needed among the non-state actors. Pollution is considered as major problem with a growing concern as industries and urban areas grow. Many rivers around Addis Ababa are polluted with urban and industrial wastes. There is also high level of air pollution in urban areas. The landfills are not well developed and properly managed. Pollution has become health threat, for people and livestock. Ethiopia has made assessments and finalized report on health and environment in 2010. The need for prevention of industrial pollution is crucial. Concerns were also raised on pollution from Electrical and Electronic wastes which is recently becoming a pressing national issue. It is suggested to elaborate a national strategy on management of e-wastes like batteries, mobile phones, computer parts, out of use radios, refrigerators and the like. Regarding e-waste, the authority finalized the preparation of a regulation on electrical and electronic wastes. The objective of the regulation is to prevent the hazards to human health and environmental wellbeing posed by electrical and electronic wastes and also to design a system that will set the collection, management and disposal of electrical and electronic wastes to be based on the precautionary principle in accordance with recognized best management practices. The Ethiopian government spends around 60% of its total expenditure on poverty oriented sectors, such as agriculture, education, health, water, and road development. Mainstreaming of environment and climate change in the policy framework according to African Development Bank (AfDB) the Ethiopian government’s existing policy and institutional framework for natural-resource management and the environment is adequate and sound. Policies are mainstreamed in sectoral programmes which are implemented at the federal, regional and district (Woreda) levels. The Growth and Transformation Plan recognizes poverty-environment linkages and the importance of sound environmental management in sustainable development. The Ethiopian government continues to make efforts to mainstream environmental issues in development processes. In Woredas preparations and implementation of environmental management plans is on-going, including the scaling up of the protection and conservation practices (water, forestry) though community 34


participation. Although progress has been made and environmental issues are stated as priority in many policies, there is lack of implementation, and enforcement needs to be strengthened. Increasing economic growth and attaining middle-income country status by 2025 might result in improvements for some environmental problems but might increase pressure on some resources (such as water an energy) and increase emissions of some pollutants, typically those linked with urban traffic, transport and industrial production. Environmental degradation and climate change hampers Ethiopia’s economic growth. To reach its vision Ethiopia needs to speed up mainstreaming of environmental issues and institutions needs to be strengthened to attain sustainable development and a green economy. Improving environmental outcomes is thus not only dependent on legal frameworks and the capacities of the environmental authorities and sector ministries, but also largely on external factors that provide the ‘enabling environment’. Ethiopia has during the last years developed many policies and laws that link to improving the environment. Environmental authorities are in place and many international environmental agreements have been signed. However, there are gaps between the environmental commitments made and the actual implementation to improve environmental outcomes. During the past decade Ethiopia has made progress in decentralizing authority and service delivery which has contributed to improved access to basic services and to more effective decision-making bodies. However, there is still a lack of capacity, law enforcement remains weak and implementation and follow up needs to be strengthened. Capacity constraints, weak capacity in environmental management and enforcement are key challenges. Pollution control is lacking and monitoring, reporting and verification of abatement measures is weak. There is need to strengthen capacity (for analysis, monitoring, reporting and verification) at all level and invest in human resources development.

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References Andualem Abate.n.d. Air Pollution in Ethiopian Perspective.

A. L Springer (1977). Towards a meaningful concept of pollution in international law, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol 26, p 531 Anonyme (1987). Our common future. The World Commission on Environment and Development. Stockholm. Anonyme (2002). Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation. Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Addis Abeba Anonyme (1992). The Declaration of the UN Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED), 31 ILM 876. Arega Shumetie Ademe* and Molla Alemayehu* Dahlberg, E and Ekbom, A. (2008). Ethiopia environment and climate analysis. Goteburg University. Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Report. Tigray Region Raya Azebo District Unifruit Ethiopia Environmental Forum for Ethiopia (EFE), Nongovernmental Organization, 2005, Traffic Air Pollution in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Environmental Impacts Assessment Proclamation. Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. No. 299/2002 Environmental Policy of Ethiopia Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation No. 300/2002. Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, July 2010, Environmental Management Programme of the Plan for Accelerated Sustainable Development to Eradicate Poverty 2011-2015 Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy. Green economy strategy Ethiopia Environment Outlook: Environment for Development. 2007. Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority EPA and UNEP Ethiopian Economic Association, Report on the Ethiopian Economy. 2015. Ethiopian Environmental Review. 2010. Fikreyesus, Daniel, Turpeinen, Mika, Gebre, Getane, Nebsu, Bayu and Ermias, Mahlet. 2011. Ethiopia Solid Waste and Landfil. Community Development Research. The Global Methane Initiative Haramaya University; College of Business and Economics, Department of Economics, Ethiopia Kumie, Abera. 2009. AIR POLLUTION IN ETHIOPIA: Indoor Air Pollution in a rural Butajira and Traffic Air Pollution in Addis Ababa. A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Public Health Kumie, Abera and Ali, Ahmed (2005). An overview of environmental health status in Ethiopia with particular emphasis to its organization, drinking water and sanitation: A literature survey. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development Vol 19, No.2 .p89-103. Litman, T. (2010). Evaluating transportation economic development impacts. www.vtpi.org/econdev.pdf Magnitude and variation of traffic air pollution as measured by CO in the City of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Abera Kume, Keil Charles, Yemane Berehane, Emmelin Anders, Ahmed Ali. 36


Megquier, S and Belohav, K. (2014). Ethiopa’s key: yound people and the demographic dividend. www.prb.org Ministry of Environment and Forest, Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, 2014, Environmental Policy of Ethiopia Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), June 2013, Environment and Social Policy Reddy, V.R and Behera, B. (2006). Impact of water pollution on rural communities: an economic analysis. Ecological Economics, 58(3): 520-537 Solid Waste Management Proclamation. Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. No. 513/2007 Source and Determinants of Water Pollution in Ethiopia: Distributed Lag Modeling Approach. Tegegn,Ferezer Eshetu (2012) Physico-chemical pollution pattern in Akaki River basin, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. MA thesis, Stockholm University. The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, The Constitution, 1994: Article 44 and Article 92, focus on Land Management, Environment and Human Safety and Citizens Access to Clean Environment The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, 2015, Ethiopia’s ClimateResilient Green Economy: Green Economy Strategy The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Industrial Pollution Regulation The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Waste Management Regulation The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Proclamation of Establishment of Environmental Organs The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Proclamation on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management

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Annex 1 Table 4: List of people interviewed in Ethiopia Name Addisu Gebremedhin

Organization Ministry of Environment and Forest

Asnake Fikre, PhD

Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa Ministry of Environment and Forest Forum of Environment

Yonas Tekelemichael Yoseph Arega

Position Senior Expert: Environmental Conservation at the Directorate of Strategic Planning and Resource Mobilization Director Crops Research Directorate Senior Legume Breeder

Email [email protected]

Phone no. +251-912-066239

Fikreasnake@yahoo .com

+251-912 260 420

Advisor to the Environment Sector

Yonastekelemicchae [email protected]

+251-911 770 414

Team Leader

Yosepharega1@gm ail.com Yoseph_arega@yah oo.com Yosepharega1@gm ail.com

+251-911 668 669

Yonas Gebro

Forum of Environment

Executive Director

Atnafseged Kifle Fekadu Skumet

Ministry of Transport Ministry of Transport

Advisor to the State Minister

[email protected]

+251-911 663 792

[email protected]

+251-913 064 662

Tsehaye Gebrekidan Mehari

Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Environment and Forest Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Director Strategic Planning Management Directorate IGAD Focal Point Director Compliance, Monitoring and Control Directorate Director Impact Assessment and Social Development Office Director Natural Resources Management

[email protected] m

Belaynesh Birru Aragaw (Ms) Tefera Taddesse

38

+251-911 668 669

+251-929 352 001

Yulbel_2008@yahoo .com

+251 116 63 6909 or Mob. +251 912 15 93 92

[email protected] m

+251 911 37 35 82

Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013

Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013

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