Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013

The European Union’s EDF Programme Eastern, Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean

Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013 Lot 6 – Environment

Specific Contract No. 2015-362261 Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region

18/02/2016 National Environment Pollution Report - Kenya

CONSORTIUM SAFEGE FWC-Lot6

This project is funded by the European Union

A project implemented by Consortium SAFEGE


Report Control Path Project title: Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region Specific Contract No: 2015-362261 Country: Eastern, Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean - IGAD Framework Contractor: Consortium SAFEGE Address: Gulledelle 92 – B-1200 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32-2-739.46.90 Fax: +32-2-742.38.91 E-mail: [email protected] Specific Contract Implementing Party: Safege Address: Gulledelle 92 – B-1200 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32-2-739.46.90 Fax: +32-2-742.38.91 E-mail: [email protected] Date of the Report: Reporting Period:

Authors of Report: Pierre Failler - Patrick Karani – Wondwosen Seide Specific Contract Implementing Party – Responsible Person: Barbara Becht Framework Contractor: SAFEGE Consortium Lot 6 The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the Contractor and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union.

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Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its Impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region

Kenya Country Report

February 2016

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Executive summary Kenya is located in the Greater Horn of Africa region, which is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. More than 80% of the country’s landmass is arid and semi-arid land (ASAL) with poor infrastructure, and other developmental challenges. The country’s economy is highly dependent on climate sensitive sectors; such as, agriculture that is mainly rain-fed, energy, tourism, water and health. Climate hazards have caused considerable losses across the country’s different sectors over the years. The main climate hazards include droughts and floods, which cause economic losses estimated at 3% (Kenya Economic Survey June 2015) of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Kenya has one of the most dynamic economies in Africa, yet it is facing a number of pressing economic, environmental and social challenges. Natural resource depletion, environmental pollution, high poverty rates, and rising unemployment; the country is addressing these concerns through its commitment to a resource-efficient development pathway. Human activities and settlements have brought unprecedented change to Kenya’s ecosystems. At the same time, extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, are increasingly affecting food security and agricultural production and have contributed to high vulnerability, degradation of land and desertification. Concerns about environmental degradation and sustainable development have grown steadily over the last few decades, especially as economic growth becomes increasingly dependent on the exploitation of natural/biological resources. The main characteristics of such environmental degradation include overexploitation, industrial pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, loss of biodiversity, water scarcity and degraded water quality, poaching, and domestic and industrial pollution. Human conflict and human-wildlife conflict are becoming increasingly common in resource-scarce areas, mainly in northern and north-eastern Kenya, where there have been instances of clan clashes over water resources and grazing lands. The sources of pollution of e-waste and compel industries that generate e-waste, such as manufacturers and distributors of electrical and electronic equipment is increasing and need to be managed undertake-back programmes and, offer fiscal incentives to encourage entire lifecycle e-waste handling encompassing the transportation, sorting, fraction recovery and disposal stages. In the past years, there was a belief among policy makers, community and even some scholars that environmental pollution is the inevitable consequence of economic growth. Hence, they show reluctance to address the issue of pollution. However, the informants noted that the Government of Kenya has now committed to address the problem of pollution squarely and quickly so as to build a climate smart and middle-income economy by the year 2030.Industrial waste has caused the major pollution in the country. The industrial waste has been polluting the nearby rivers and caused serious illness to the local community. Rapid urbanization has been going on in the country. The amounts of wastes in these expanding cities are much higher than the cities’ waste collection and treatment systems. The everincreasing cars have been crowding the streets of Nairobi causing huge traffic jams and intense CO2 emission. Port cities like Mombasa have also caused marine pollution. A range of factors has contributed to the gradual deterioration of the country’s coastal and marine resources and unless effective mechanisms are undertaken to address each of the factors enumerated above, the associated environmental, cultural and socio-economic impacts threaten to more than cancel out the benefits accruing from these unique resources. Ground the concept of IWRM, which takes cognizance of the multi-faceted nature of water problems and calls for comprehensive management of water resources based on an ecosystem approach and an appreciation of the needs of the diverse users and the broad range of potential impacts of water use. This is an especially useful notion given that some of the vital sources of the country’s freshwater, such 4


as Lake Victoria and the Mara River, are transboundary and the IWRM concept would help to foster targeted regional cooperation. Kenya has the potential to be one of Africa’s great success stories from its growing and youthful population, a dynamic private sector, a new constitution, and its pivotal role in East Africa. Addressing challenges of poverty, inequality, governance, low investment and low firm productivity to achieve rapid, sustained growth rates that will transform the lives of ordinary citizens, will be a major goal for the country. However, similarly to other IGAD countries and other growing economies, Kenya is suffering from increasing levels of industrial pollution, which must be managed to ensure further controlled economic development The rate of natural resource depletion is concerning in Kenya, as well as the increased potential for the uncontrolled rate of industrialisation, particularly foreign companies utilising cheap resources, e.g. labour, and setting up their businesses in Kenya with disregard to environmental pollution. There is need to intensify enforcement of the 2005 Forests Act by enhancing the capacity of Kenya Forest Service (KFS) to implement the logging ban. In addition, afforestation efforts particularly in the considerably degraded Mau Forest Complex need to be drastically scaled up. Despite these admittedly enormous challenges, the forestry sector provides unique opportunities to help realize the poverty reduction aspirations. There is a need to institute a regulatory framework for management of e-waste and compel industries that generate e-waste, such as manufacturers and distributors of electrical and electronic equipment to establish take-back programmes and, offer fiscal incentives to encourage entire lifecycle e-waste handling encompassing the transportation, sorting, fraction recovery and disposal stages. .

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Geographical location The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is an eight-country trade bloc in Africa (see figure 1). It includes governments from the Horn of Africa, Nile Valley, and the African Great Lakes (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, Uganda and Eritrea). Its headquarters are in Djibouti City.

Figure 1: IGAD countries Source: IGAD

Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Africa and a founding member of the East African Community (EAC). Kenya's territory lies on the equator and overlies the East African Rift covering a diverse and expansive terrain that extends roughly from Lake Victoria to Lake Turkana (formerly called Lake Rudolph) and further south-east to the Indian Ocean. It is bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers 581,309 km2 (224,445 sq. mi).

Figure 2: Kenya Source: CIA

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Table of contents Executive summary __________________________________________________________ 4 Geographical location _______________________________________________________ 6 Table of contents ___________________________________________________________ 7 Acronyms__________________________________________________________________ 9 Introduction ______________________________________________________________ 10 1

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Method ______________________________________________________________ 11 1.1

Definition of the environmental pollution ____________________________________ 11

1.2

Environmental pollution assessment ________________________________________ 11

1.3

Economic impact of environmental pollution _________________________________ 12

1.4

Assessment of policies and strategies ________________________________________ 12

Kenya profile __________________________________________________________ 13 2.1

Political overview ________________________________________________________ 13

2.2

Geographic coverage _____________________________________________________ 13

2.3

Population and Demography _______________________________________________ 13

2.4

Climate and Environment _________________________________________________ 14

2.5

Economic _______________________________________________________________ 14

Assessment of environment pollution in the Republic of Kenya _________________ 15 3.1

Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 15

3.2

Key sources of environmental pollution ______________________________________ 15

3.3

Status of environment pollution by sector ____________________________________ 16

3.4

Land Pollution ___________________________________________________________ 16

3.5

Air pollution ____________________________________________________________ 19

3.6

Water Pollution _________________________________________________________ 21

3.7

Other pollutions _________________________________________________________ 22

3.8

Summary _______________________________________________________________ 22

3.4.1 3.4.2 3.5.1 3.5.2

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Industry _____________________________________________________________________ 16 Municipal waste _______________________________________________________________ 17 Outdoor pollution______________________________________________________________ 19 Indoor Pollution _______________________________________________________________ 20

Link between environment pollution and economic development in Kenya ________ 23 4.1 Current economic cooperation between the country and the other IGAD countries and regional integration _____________________________________________________________ 23 4.1.1 4.1.2

Overview ____________________________________________________________________ 23 Economic relationships between Kenya and other IGAD countries _______________________ 23

4.2 Impact of current environment pollution on domestic economy and economic cooperation and regional integration in the region ___________________________________ 25 4.2.1

Kenya’s economy ______________________________________________________________ 25

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4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4

Economic effects of air/land pollution______________________________________________ 26 Economic effects of water pollution _______________________________________________ 27 Summary ____________________________________________________________________ 28

5 Assessment of existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution _________________________________________________________________ 29 5.1

National and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks __________________ 29

5.2

National and regional institutional frameworks _______________________________ 31

5.3 Status of implementation the policies, strategies, legal frameworks as well as the international MEAs _____________________________________________________________ 32

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Proposed actions for Environment Pollution Control __________________________ 35

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References ____________________________________________________________ 37

Annex 1 __________________________________________________________________ 39

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Acronyms AU : BIRA: CO2: CRGE: DSRP: EU: EIA: EIA: EPA: ESIF: GDP: GHG: IGAD: IFC: INDS: IUCN: NGOs: MEAs : MDG: NBI: PANE: OECD: STEP: ToRs: WHO: USAID: UNFCCC: VOCs: WIO:

African Union Bureau for International Risk Assessments Dioxide of carbon Climate-Resilient Green Economy Document Stratégique de Réduction de la Pauvreté European Union Environment International Agencies Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Protection Agency Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework Gross domestic product Green House Gases Intergovernmental Authority on Development International Finance Corporation National Initiative for Social Development International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Non-Governmental Organizations Multilateral Environmental Agreements/MEAs Millennium Development Goals Nile Basin Initiative Plan d’Action National pour l’Environnement Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Station of Water Recycling Terms of Reference World Health Organization United States Agency for International Development United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; Volatile Organic Compounds Western Indian Ocean

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Introduction The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is one of the regional African economic blocks which is composed of 8 countries in the Horn of Africa, namely Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, Uganda and Eritrea. According to the IGAD Environmental and Natural Resources Strategy, April 2007, the IGAD region is faced with a number of environmental challenges. One of these challenges is environment pollution. According to the Terms of Reference of this mission, the first objective of the study is to assess the status of environmental pollution in five IGAD member states as a basis for the status of environment pollution at regional level, and the second is to establish the negative impact of environmental pollution on the economic cooperation and integration agenda and to develop strategic plan to monitor and reverse it. The present National Environment Pollution Assessment of Kenya, is designed to highlights the environment country profile, the key sources and status of environmental pollution by sectors, the link between environment pollution and economic development (impacts on the national economy and on economic cooperation and regional integration), the existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution (legal and institutional frameworks, the status of implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements/MEAs, and propose national measures to address environment pollution) including the better issues to be addressed at national and regional levels. Because agriculture is the backbone of the economy and is pivotal to ensuring food security and to providing millions of Kenyans with a means of subsistence, higher growth rates are needed to set the country firmly on the path to actualizing Vision 2030 of the National Environment Management Authority of Kenya. The challenge will be to ensure that the country’s forests, wetlands, marine resources and freshwater quality are not sacrificed in the pursuit of the increased agricultural production that will be necessary to accelerate the attainment of the Vision 2030 goals. Numerous intricate feedbacks exist between the environment and other sectors of the Kenya’s economy. Rural livelihoods and the production that stimulates economic growth are dependent on extraction or use of natural resources and ecosystem services as well as waste disposal into the environment. However, excessive harvesting could lead to resources’ depletion while the accumulation of waste and pollutants could overwhelm the environment’s carrying capacity, aggravating environmental degradation and imperiling the citizens’ well-being and the country’s economic development.

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1

Method

1.1 Definition of the environmental pollution Following Marie-Louise Larsson of the Stockholm Institute for Scandinavian Law 1957-2009, the major cause of pollution and other environmental damage is the increased population in the world, and it is clear that most human activities have effects, which are negative and harmful, on the environment. In the 1960s, issues concerning oil casualties and the use of pesticides were on the agenda. During the 1970s, the major cause of damage concern was point sources, i.e. emissions from large industrial plants, and chemicals. During the 1980s, diffuse emissions from numerous small activities, came into focus. Transport, agriculture, industries, and trade in products for consumption were major components of the discussion. Further issues attended were the ozone layer and climate together with waste management. The protection of biological diversity, natural resources, and remedying contaminated land are being addressed by the relevant institutions. This change of direction could be due to the findings of the 1987 Brundtland Report (1) and progress in ecological economics. Before the publication of this report, the discussion focalized on an issue-byissue approach and environmental threats were thought of as rather distinct. Other definitions of pollution tends to be broader and include almost every component of ecology and human value in order to gain flexibility. The term pollution, or pollution damage, is often used interchangeably with the term environmental damage, but could have a broader conceptual meaning (2). However, pollution could be defined under a range of approaches, as any alteration of the existing environment; as the right of the territorial sovereign; as damage; as interference with other uses of the environment; or as exceeding the assimilative capacity of the environment (3). A distinction should also be made between the terms contamination, i.e. the mere presence of a foreign - possibly harmless substance, and pollution, which poses or causes harm. Damage to the environment is defined in the instruments of environmental law, and includes all adverse effects on man, his artefacts and the environment. Compensable damage is defined in schemes of restitution and liability, and embraces only economic losses, or rather harm expressed in economic terms. With all these distinctions in mind, we can now turn to definitions as they are enunciated in various instruments. (4) In the 1972 Stockholm Declaration and the 1992 Rio Declaration (5), the principles only refer to “pollution” to be prevented in order to protect the environment, but no an explicit definition is given. The OECD has suggested the following as a general definition of pollution: “the introduction by humankind, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the environment resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and eco-systems, impair amenities or interfere with other legitimate uses of the environment.” 1.2 Environmental pollution assessment The assessment of key environmental sources in the country has been made by using the field interviews with key informants from the relevant ministries like Environment and Natural Resources; Water and Irrigation; Transport and Public Works; Agriculture, Mines; Energy and Petroleum an the likes. The assessment also used the Green Growth Strategy CRGE, which is environment and climate change strategic document, to establish a baseline understanding of the level of pollution and aspired reduction targets. The lack of well documented level of pollution and up-to-date recording of existing pollution types made the assessment work a bit difficult. However, the gap was filled by having a follow up interviews with some of the key informants and consulting key government documents and grey literatures.

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1.3 Economic impact of environmental pollution The assessment of the impacts of environmental pollution has been carried out by first of all making a typology of impacts and a review of studies that cover them. This was done at the national level by estimating the Growth Domestic Product (GDP) lost. As information was not enough detailed at sectorial and country levels, estimates were used, based on the existing literature, data and information collected during the country visits. 1.4 Assessment of policies and strategies The method used in preparing this national report is based on a desk-top study, interviews and discussions with selected institutions in Kenya. On reviewing of the literature using desk-top, a number of key documents on environmental pollution in Kenya were examined and assessed with the view of understanding national and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks. The interviews and discussions helped with verifying and validating information obtained from internet and also getting input from authorized institutions in managing and protecting the environment. .

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2

Kenya profile

2.1 Political overview Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo Kenyatta led Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, when President Daniel Moi took power in a constitutional succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969 until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made itself the sole legal party in Kenya. Moi acceded to internal and external pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. The ethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge Kanu from power in elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence and fraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of the Kenyan people. In 1992, Section 2a of the Old Constitution was repealed allowing a multiparty democractic system in Kenya. President Moi stepped down in December 2002 following fair and peaceful elections. Mwai Kibaki, running as the candidate of the multi-ethnic, united opposition group, the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC), defeated Kanu candidate Uhuru Kenyatta and assumed the presidency following a campaign centred on an anticorruption platform. Kibaki's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over a constitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANU to form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM), which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popular referendum in November 2005. Kibaki's reelection in December 2007 brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila Odinga and unleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 people died. African Union-sponsored mediation led by former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in late February 2008 resulted in a powersharing accord bringing Odinga into the government in the restored position of prime minister. The power sharing accord included a broad reform agenda, the centre piece of which was constitutional reform. In August 2010, Kenyans overwhelmingly adopted a new constitution in a national referendum. The new constitution introduced checks and balances in the context of Constitutional provisions on multipartism, election cycles managed by Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IIEBC), two levels of Governments, separation of powers consisiting of Executive, Legislature and Judiciary. In addition, a significant devolution of power and resources to 47 newly created County Governments. It also eliminated the position of prime minister following the first presidential election under the new constitution, which occurred on 4 March 2013. Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of founding President Jomo Kenyatta, won the March elections in the first round by a close margin and was sworn into office on 9 April 2013 (CIA, 2015). 2.2 Geographic coverage At 580,367 km2 (224,081 sq. mi), Kenya is the world's forty-seventh largest country (after Madagascar). It lies between latitudes 5°N and 5°S, and longitudes 34° and 42°E. From the coast on the Indian Ocean, the low plains rise to central highlands. The highlands are bisected by the Great Rift Valley, with a fertile plateau lying to the east. The Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. The highlands are the site of the highest point in Kenya and the second highest peak on the continent: Mount Kenya, which reaches 5,199 m (17,057 ft.) and is the site of glaciers. Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895 m or 19,341 ft.) can be seen from Kenya to the south of the Tanzanian border (Wikipedia, 2015). 2.3 Population and Demography During 2015 Kenya population is projected to increase by 1 143 013 people and reach 47 588 092 in the beginning of 2016. The natural increase is expected to be positive, as the number of births will exceed the number of deaths by 1 143 013. Most probably the difference between immigrants and emigrants is not significant and is close to zero. That means the population of Kenya is changing mainly due the natural reasons only (births and deaths). In 2050 the population is estimated to be 97 172 000 (Population Pyramids, 2015). 13


2.4 Climate and Environment The climate of Kenya varies by location, from mostly cool every day, to always warm/hot. The climate along the coast is tropical. This means rainfall and temperatures are higher throughout the year. At the coastal cities, Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi, the air changes from cool to hot, almost every day (see chart below). The further inside Kenya, the more arid the climate becomes. An arid climate is nearly devoid of rainfall, and temperature swings widely according to the general time of the day/night. For many areas of Kenya, the daytime temperature rises about 12 C (corresponding to a rise of about 22F), almost every day. Elevation is the major factor in temperature levels, with the higher areas, on average, as 11 °C (20 °F) cooler, day or night. The many mile-high cities have temperature swings from roughly 50–79 °F (10.0– 26.1 °C). Nairobi, at 1,798 m (5,899 ft.) or 1.798 km (1.12 mi), ranges from 49–80 °F (9.4–26.7 °C),[4] and Kitale, at 1,825 m (5,988 ft.) or 1.825 km (1.13 mi), ranges from 51–82 °F (10.6–27.8 °C).[5] At lower altitudes, the increased temperature is like day and night, literally: like starting the morning at the highland daytime high, and then adding the heat of the day, again. Hence, the overnight low temperatures near sea level are nearly the same as the high temperatures of the elevated Kenyan highlands. However, locations along the Indian Ocean have more moderate temperatures, as a few degrees cooler in the daytime, such as at Mombasa (see chart below). There are slight seasonal variations in temperature, of 4 °C or 7.2 °F, cooler in the winter months. Although Kenya is centered at the equator, it shares the seasons of the southern hemisphere: with the warmest summer months in December–March and the coolest winter months in June–August, again with differences in temperature varying by location within the country Natural hazards include recurring drought and flooding during the rainy seasons. There is limited volcanic activity in the country. The Barrier (elev. 1,032 m) last erupted in 1921. South Island is the only other historically active volcano. Current issues that threaten the environment at the moment include water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from the increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; deforestation; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; soil erosion; desertification; and poaching. (Wikipedia, 2015). 2.5 Economic GDP growth amounted to 6.9% and 5.7% in 2012 and 2013, respectively, while the 2014 estimate and the 2015 projection show economic expansion of 5.3% and 6.5%, respectively. In 2013 and 2014, the economy experienced a stable macroeconomic environment with single-digit inflation, whereas the political scene was dominated in 2014 by calls to amend the constitution. Reforms have been introduced in Kenya since 1990 to address critical differences in access to economic, political and social services, culminating in the introduction of 47 county governments in 2010 ( African Economic Outlook, 2015).

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3

Assessment of environment pollution in the Republic of Kenya

3.1 Introduction Kenya has shown encouraging economic growth in the past decade. Its development has been recorded as one of the fastest growing economy in the continent. The economic performance has been appreciated for its effort to extricate its people from the quagmire of poverty. Its economy has been heavily dependent on the utilization of the environment and natural resources. The poor management and utilization of environment has led to the environmental degradation and depletion and environmental pollution. The State of the Environment and Outlook 2010 report of the National Environment Management Authority, NEMA, states that the development challenge is to ensure sustainable use of the valuable natural capital of the country by striking a balance between its utilization and conservation, particularly the attenuation of the sources of pollution that jeopardize the sustainability of the environmental resources of the country. The government acknowledges that a healthy environment is crucial to delivering Vision 2030, which is Kenya’s long-term development blueprint (NEMA of KENYA: 2011). 3.2 Key sources of environmental pollution Environmental pollution is the most critical problem in Kenya. The most developmental challenge in Kenya is to strike a balance between sustainable development and environmental management and utilization. The main environmental problems in Kenya are land and soil degradation, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem, deforestation, overgrazing, decline of agricultural productivity and water scarcity. Climate change and climate variabilities have been causing grave socio-economic problems. Lack of proper waste collection and disposal systems from urban domestic sources have become a real menace. Industrial wastes are causing major critical diseconomies creating unproductive societies. Water and air pollutions have also become major sources of public health problems. Domestic and industrial wastes and water and air pollution are some of the critical diseconomies that have resulted from the process of industrialization, urbanization and economic growth in the country (Kamau, 2010).

Figure 3: Key sources of environmental pollution Source: Authors’

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The Kenyan Government has designed different measures to address the impact of environmental problem in general and that of environmental pollution in particular. The Kenya Vision 2030 1 is the country’s development plan to transform Kenya into a “middle-income country providing a high quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030” (Kenya Vision, 2030:19). The vision has put the environmental conservation in its agenda. It also aspires to have clean, secure and sustainable environment by 2030. The vision aims to improving pollution and waste management through the design and application of economic incentives. In addition, the country will harmonize environment-related laws for better environmental planning and governance (Ibid). 3.3 Status of environment pollution by sector 2 The level of environmental pollution has been identified as a serious concern of the country (interview). The anthropogenic activities have led to the pollution of the land, water and air. As per the informants’ responses, three main priorities have been identified. The main environmental concern of Kenya includes industrial sources of pollution, solid and liquid wastes and open-air pollution from vehicles. The country field visit found out that industrial pollution is the top priority of Kenya, followed by municipal wastes, transport and water pollutions. The following figure summarizes the status of the environmental pollution in the country. From the diagram below: air pollution from the industries (Priority 1) and air pollution from transport as another source (Priority 3). This implies air quality is at high risk and requires urgent attention.

Figure 4: Priority of Environmental Pollutions in Kenya Source: Authors’

3.4 3.4.1

Land Pollution Industry

Kenya has a relatively large industrial sector 3. Industrialization is considered as an engine of growth in transforming Kenya to middle income country by 2030. The current “industrialization strategy aims to transform the economy into that of a newly industrializing country by the year 2020. 4” The Industry 1 Kenya Vision 2030, covering the period 2008 to 2030, has been developed through an all-inclusive and participatory stakeholder consultative process, involving Kenyans from all parts of the country. 2 Source: NEMA of KENYA (2011). State of the Environment and Outlook 2010 Supporting the Delivery of Vision 2030 Summary For Decision Makers 3 4

Ministry of Industrialization, 2010, Kenya National Industrialization Policy Framework. Ronge, Eric E. and Nyangito, Hezron O., 2000, A Review of Kenya’s Current Industrialization Policy, Productive Sectors

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sector constitutes the manufacturing, quarrying and mining and construction activities. Of the aforementioned, the manufacturing sector accounts for approximately two-thirds 5. As a driver of economy growth, the sector has been expanding by leaps and bounds in the past years. There are a lot of new industries throughout the country. Several firms have carried out renovation and plant expansion activities. However, the current industrialization strategy of the government places little emphasis on environmental pollution issues. An informant in Ministry of Water and Irrigation noted that the burgeoning industries in the country have been causing immense pollutions. Some industries do not have appropriate and adequate waste and sewage disposal systems .The industrial waste has been polluting the nearby rivers and caused serious illness to the local community. It is not uncommon to hear about water based and related diseases near the industrial areas. Although it’s generally stated that progress has been made in reducing sanitation related diseases like diarrhea in the sub-Saharan countries like Kenya, little has been done to halt the negative health effects of increased industrialization and resultant pollution. 6 Omanga et. al. (2014) argued that the studies and impact of Industrial pollution on the urban population have gotten much attention and documented very well. On the contrary, its impact on rural areas is not known. Moreover, the literature on the impact of industry on the rural community is scanty. This, therefore, calls for a concerted effort to investigate the impact of industrialization on the health and living situation of rural people. Another informant further indicated that, even if there are environmental rules and regulations, enforcement mechanisms are not in place. As such, people are nowadays getting used to live with dust, fumes, smoke and particulates from industrial establishments in major towns. 3.4.2

Municipal waste

Studies show that there is a direct link between urbanization and environmental pollution. Whenever there is urbanization there will be an increase of population in the area, which translates into an additional pressure on the environment. Urban waste can cause non-point source pollutants such as sediment and nutrients related pollutions 7. In Kenya, rapid urbanization has been going on in Nairobi and other big cities. These have caused more number of vehicles to be used for transportation, which in turn, result in air pollution. Forests have been cleared to expand cities; causing the release of greenhouse gases in the air. With the construction boom, there is much air pollution; even from dust. These kinds of pollution are new to the city and those who are responsible for pollution control can hardly prepared for. Waste management has become another critical environmental issue in the country’s urban areas. Inadequate waste and sewage disposal systems as well as lack of monitoring by the government and self-monitoring by industries, has resulted in high rates of garbage-generated diseases, disabilities and deaths, especially among children. In other words, basic infrastructures i.e., clean water, sewage and drainage systems, sanitation and waste disposal facilities are at the lower level (Ibid).

Division, Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis, KIPPRA Discussion Paper No. 3. 5 According to the 2010 Economic survey, the contribution of the industrial sector to GDP in 2009 was 9.5% - Manufacturing; 4.4% - Construction; and 0.5% - Mining and Quarrying. (Ibid.) 6 Omanga, Eunice, Ulmer, Lisa, Berhane, Zekarias and Gatari, Michael (2014: 2) Industrial air pollution in rural Kenya: community awareness, risk perception and associations between risk variables, Omanga et al. BMC Public Health. 7 http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/gctext/Inquiries/Inquiries_by_Unit/Unit_9a.htm. Accessed on October 2015.

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Box 1: Dandora dump site in Nairobi

Dandora dump site was set up in 1981, and since then, garbage has been burnt in the open, which is environmentally unfriendly. The City Council of Nairobi has said that Dandora dump site will be turned into a recreation park at a cost of Shs.600 million. The site will be relocated to Ruai as per the new plans, but, Environmnetal Impact Assessment has indicated to NEMA that the Ruai site is said to be on the aeroplane flight path and may pose challenges due to attraction of birds. However, the Nairobi City County argues that the site will be a land fill and odour and trash will be buried hence birds will not be attracted to the site as argued by the EIA report. The makeover and the decommissioning is expected to cost about Shs.600 million. Indiscriminate waste disposal practices take place at the site at the moment. All types of waste are disposed without proper separation which is a health hazard to residents. The Nairobi County has launched Waste Management Energy Generation Project at cost of Shs.28 billion by engaging a German company Strabag to change the ‘garbage site into energy source. However, there is an ongoing problem related to the land title and ownership of the site for the project and the project has not progressed as planned. Source: compiled from different sources 8

One informant also noted that urbanization is the dominant form of land-use change in the country, particularly in and around major cities. This has caused serious environmental pollution. For instance, the waste and sewerage system of Nairobi cannot cope with the rate of the expansion of the city. This has caused waste pollution in many parts of the city. There is a need to upgrade the city’s sewerage 8

http://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2000151196/title-deed-hinders-sh28-billion-dandora-power-projectthe picture is taken from http://www.demotix.com/news/6145669/dandora-dumpsite-nairobi-kenya#media-6145533 . Dandora dump site to be turned into Leisure Park http://www.nation.co.ke/news/regional/Dandora-dumpsite-to-be-turned-into-leisure-park-/-/1070/1051912/-/bglh6m//index.html

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and waste system. The 200 Water Act solely focuses on water supply as it overlooks the drainage and sewerage system. According to the informant from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, this has caused a problem in addressing the municipality waste. Rapid and often uncontrolled urbanization of port cities like Mombasa has been causing marine pollution. Municipal wastewater, municipal solid waste and atmospheric emissions (e.g. from burning of fossil fuel and vehicular traffic) are causing coastal pollution in the Mombasa city (UNEP/GEF/CSIR, 2009). For instance, studies conducted in “Mombasa showed that microbial pollution levels in aquatic environments near urban centers were several orders of magnitude higher than in aquatic environments in rural areas (Mwanguni 2002, cited in UNEP/GEF/CSIR, 2009) 9.

Figure 5: Proportion of Urban population served with Improved Sanitation (%)-Kenya Source: WHO/UNICEF water supply statistics, 2015 10

3.5 3.5.1

Air pollution Outdoor pollution

Air pollution has also become a major environmental problem recently as compared to other types of pollutions. In the past, pollution used to be considered as a limited and localized problem. However, nowadays, air pollution in Nairobi has gotten considerable attention. The rapid industrialization and urbanization has created increasing dust, fumes, smoke open burning of waste and particulates coming from manufacturing industries areas, construction sites and vehicular traffic in major cities in Kenya. The increasing number of cars in cities intensifies traffic and pollution problems. The vehicles emit significant levels of air pollutants, including greenhouse gases and precursors of smog. Road transport is one of the key sources of air pollution in Kenya. As can be seen from the figure below, the number of cars has been increasing tremendously. Consequently, in major cities and towns road traffics contribute

9 2009. Regional Synthesis Report on the Status of Pollution in the Western Indian Ocean Region, UNEP/GEF WIO-LaB Technical Report Series No. 2009/2 and CSIR Report Number: CSIR/NRE/CO/ER/2010/0001/C. 10 http://knoema.com/atlas/Kenya/topics/Water/Sanitation-Urban-Population/Improved-Sanitation-percent

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the lion’s share of the emission 11. These pollutants include: pollutants: particulates (fine dust and soot particles – PM, usually causes asthma), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx, increase the body’s susceptibility to viral infections), benzene (causes leukemia.) and hydrocarbons (HCs). There is a huge traffic jams in Nairobi city, which increases the CO2 emission. There is, therefore, a need to cut down the volume of traffic on the Roads. An informant from Ministry of Transport noted that the Government has issued a law to import cars manufactured on 2010 and onwards, so as to reduce the greenhouse gas emission and improve the quality of life of its residents. However, this law can hardly be enforced as car importers use other ways of importing cars by avoiding the Kenya custom authority. Car smugglers bring old cars through neighboring countries. The same informant emphasized the need to have bilateral and multilateral cooperation among the IGAD countries to avoid illegal car importation. He noted that unless we cooperate together, we couldn’t address the issue of pollution single handedly. He also indicated that another measures to avoid road pollutions is by changing the public transport from small to big buses, then to mass rapid bus transport and finally, to light trail transport. He also suggested having non-motorized transport systems in the major cities and towns of the country.

Figure 6: Road transport - Motor vehicles per 1,000 people Source: Source: World Development Indicators (WDI), 2015 12

3.5.2

Indoor Pollution

The major indoor atmospheric pollution has come from the use of charcoal and firewood, both from the rural and urban residents. The charcoal burning, prevalent energy source for the majority of the population emits methane (CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO) and sends tiny particulates into air. It is noted that CO2 emissions from residential buildings and commercial and public services contain all emissions from fuel combustion in households. However, in comparison to the CO2 emission forty years ago the CO2 emission rate has been decreasing.

Globally, road transport is also the main cause of ozone (summertime smog). Ozone does not come directly from vehicles or factories but is created by chemical reactions between other nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (Road Transport, Air Pollution and Health (1999) Friends of the Earth). 11

12

http://knoema.com/atlas/Kenya/topics/Transportation/Road-transport/Motor-vehicles-per-1000-people

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Figure 7: CO2 emissions from residential buildings and commercial and public services (% of total fuel combustion) in Kenya Source : World Development Indicators (WDI), 2015 13

3.6 Water Pollution “Our rivers/waters are not as the same as they used to be,” informant in the Ministry of Water and Irrigation said. If there is any natural environment, which is paying the price for development, it is the water system. Agriculture products and inputs, industry waste, municipal disposal, and other pollution one way or another end up polluting the water system. That is why water pollution is considered to be a fatal pollution. It has a direct impact on the health of the society. Every human being needs water on a daily basis, and there is a high chance of being affected by water pollution. Kenya is not an exception. It is estimated that 85% of Kenya’s rural population depends exclusively on natural sources for water supply (Kamau, 2010). Millions of Kenyans are without access to clean water and sanitation. In addition to this, industrial and municipality wastes have been exacerbating water pollution and water scarcity issues. “The data gathered over the years indicate that the levels of pollution in Nairobi River, for instance have not changed over the last ten years or so. The river is still heavily polluted beyond acceptable levels for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes” (Ibid.). Given the linkages between water and human and environmental health, as well as the major sectors of the economy, access to clean and safe water in adequate quantities is a prerequisite for the attainment of Vision 2030. These collectively exert enormous pressure on the country’s natural resources and trigger a breakdown of the water, sewerage, waste disposal and transport infrastructure, leading to higher levels of water-borne and respiratory illnesses. Following the National Climate Change Response Strategy, malaria, diarrhea and respiratory illnesses were the leading causes of morbidity in 2008 (GoK 2010). This is an especially useful notion given that some of the vital sources of the country’s

13

http://knoema.com/atlas/Kenya/topics/Environment/Emissions/CO2

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freshwater, such as Lake Victoria and the Mara River, are transboundary and the IWRM concept would help to foster targeted regional cooperation. 3.7 Other pollutions The mining and quarrying sectors has been another sources of pollution in Kenya. These extractive industries usually left the used pits unprotected and there are a lot of incidents where small children fell into it and the left over chemicals has caused different health and physical damages. It is also stated that the Cement industry usually produces a huge amount of dust, which affects the neighboring communities’ eyes and nostrils. 3.8 Summary In the past years, there was a belief among policy makers, community and even some scholars that environmental pollution is the inevitable consequence of economic growth. Hence, they show reluctance to address the issue of pollution. However, the informants noted that the Government of Kenya has now committed itself to addressing the problem of pollution squarely and quickly so as to build a climate smart and middle-income economy by the year 2030. Industrial waste has caused the major pollution in the country. The industrial waste has been polluting the nearby rivers and caused serious illnesses to the local community. Rapid urbanization has been going on in the major cities of Kenya. The amounts of wastes in these expanding cities are much higher than the cities waste collection and treatment systems. The ever-increasing cars have been crowding the streets of Nairobi causing huge traffic jams and intense CO2 emissions. Port cities like Mombasa have also caused marine pollution. Table 1: Synthesis table of Kenya Type of Key Sources pollution Land Industrial effluents and municipal wastes Water Contamination of surface waters such as rivers, lakes and wetlands and groundwater Air

Emissions of pollutant particles such as CO2 and others from indoor and outdoor sources such as vehicles, fuel wood, charcoals dusts, fumes and others

Impacts

Moderate

Causing different fatal illness Water-based-born X and-related diseases; water quality deteriorates Causing health problems like respiratory illness and others

Source: Authors’

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Severe

Very Critical X

X


4

Link between environment pollution and economic development in Kenya

4.1 4.1.1

Current economic cooperation between the country and the other IGAD countries and regional integration Overview

Kenya maintains relations with various countries around the world. Its closest ties are with its fellow Swahili-speaking neighbours in the African Great Lakes region. Relations with Uganda and Tanzania are generally strong, as the three nations work toward economic and social integration through common membership in the East African Community (see figure below). As Kenya and Uganda discovered valuable oil deposits in the past years, they're now working together on a pipeline that's going to be 1500 kilometres long. They also signed off in 2014 on a bilateral trade agreement which includes other economic sectors.

Figure 8: top 5 export partners of Kenya in 2014 Source: UNCTAD 14

Kenya's relations with other states vary. The government of Ethiopia established political links in the colonial period with Kenya's then British administration, and today it is one of several national bodies with a diplomatic presence in Nairobi. On 7th December 2015, Kenya and Ethiopia strengthened their relationship further by signing a hisotoric trade deal supporting infrastructure, resolution of conflict and promoting peace between the two countries (Kenya Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade). Relations with Somalia have historically been tense, although there has been some military coordination against insurgents. Kenya works hard to prevent the clan and militia fighting in Somalia from spreading across the border, which has long been open to nomadic pastoralists; the boundary that separates Kenya's and Sudan's sovereignty is unclear in the "Ilemi Triangle," which Kenya has administered since colonial times. Kenya served as an important mediator in brokering Sudan's north-south separation in February 2005. It provides shelter to an estimated 580 000 refugees, including Ugandans who flee across the border periodically to seek protection from Lord's Resistance Army rebels. Elsewhere, the Kenyan government has political ties with China, India, Russia and Brazil. It also maintains relations with Western countries, particularly the United Kingdom, although political and economic instabilities are often blamed on Western activities. 4.1.2

Economic relationships between Kenya and other IGAD countries

Kenya is the economic and transport hub of East Africa. The two African Great Lakes countries of IGAD, Kenya and Uganda, are partners in many areas, particularly in the trade, infrastructure, security (military), education, agriculture and energy sectors. Their trade relationships, both imports and exports 14

See: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/CountryProfile/404/fr404GeneralProfile.html

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are most the important ones of Kenya with IGAD countries (see figure below). For many years Uganda was the largest export destination for Kenyan goods. However, due to the lifting of trade restrictions within the EAC, Tanzania has become a major export destination, beating Uganda in 2014. 250000

thousand USD

200000 150000 100000 50000 0 2003

2004

2005 Sudan

2006 Somalia

2007 Ethiopia

2008

2009

2010

Uganda

Eritrea

Djibouti

2009

2010

Eritrea

Djibouti

2011

2012

2013

2011

2012

2013

1400000

thousand USD

1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0 2003

2004

2005 Sudan

2006 Somalia

2007 Ethiopia

2008 Uganda

Figure 9: imports (top) and exports (bottom) of Kenya from/to IGAD countries 15 Source: UNCTAD

Oil discovered in Uganda in 2006 and four years later in Kenya, despite being still in the planning stage of commercial development, has led recently to the agreement in 2015 on the route of a planned oil pipeline (see figure below).

15

Data for South Sudan are not available

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Figure 10: Path of the pipeline

Source: Kenya Ministry of Transport

The UK oil company Tullow has found oil in both countries, with Uganda estimating finds at 6.5 billion barrels and Kenya at 600 million barrels. The planned $4.5 billion pipeline to the Indian Ocean will allow the U.K. Company to start exports from joint ventures with Africa Oil Corp. and Total SA. China’s Cnooc Ltd. is also a partner in Uganda. In addition to the pipeline, a new trade pact was concluded in August 2015, which ends a ban on Ugandan sugar imports in Kenya 16. Both countries are currently building a standard gauge railway link that would go through MombasaNairobi-Kampala-Kigali. Work began on the Kenyan section of the rail line in December 2014. There have been proposals to have the Mombasa-Nairobi-Kampala-Kigali route expanded to a motorway all the way. The standard gauge rail link will boost efficiency in delivering goods to the landlocked country from Kenya. Uganda will also be included in the Lapsset 17 project in which a pipeline will link both Kenya's and Uganda's oilfields to a new port city in Lamu, Kenya. In 2014, Toyota's parent company Toyota Tsusho got the contract design the pipeline. On completion this will be the world's longest heated pipeline, covering a distance of 1380 km. Relationships with Somalia are limited to the exports and re-exports of goods to the southern regions of this county such a as the ones with Ethiopia. Both Djibouti and Eritrea have a very limited economic cooperation with Kenya: their trade flow is very low and didn't show any signs of increase over the last decade. 4.2 4.2.1

Impact of current environment pollution on domestic economy and economic cooperation and regional integration in the region Kenya’s economy

Kenya’s real GDP growth has averaged around 5% for the past several years. According to recently rebased national statistics, Kenya’s GDP for 2013 was $55.3 billion, placing Kenya among the low middle income countries with per capita income of $1,300. Agriculture remains the backbone of the 16 The prohibition on sugar imports from Uganda has been in place since 2012, when claims emerged that Ugandan manufacturers were violating “rules of origin” requirements for sugar product sales in Kenya. 17 The Lamu Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET) Corridor project is a transport and infrastructure project in Kenya that, when complete, will be the country's second transport corridor.

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Kenyan economy, contributing 25% of GDP. About 80% of Kenya’s population of roughly 42 million work at least part-time in the agricultural sector, including livestock and pastoral activities. Over 75% of agricultural output is from small-scale, rain-fed farming or livestock production. Inadequate infrastructure threatens Kenya's long-term position as the largest East African economy, although the Kenyatta administration has prioritized infrastructure development. International financial lenders and donors remain important to Kenya's economic growth and development, but Kenya has also successfully raised capital in the global bond market. Kenya issued its first sovereign bond offering in mid-2014, generating $2 billion at 6% interest; the funds are slated to be used for infrastructure projects 18. The country has chronic budget deficits and is in the process of devolving some state revenues and responsibilities to the counties. Inflationary pressures and sharp currency depreciation peaked in early 2012 but have since abated following low global food and fuel prices and monetary interventions by the Central Bank. Recent terrorism in Kenya and the surrounding region threatens Kenya's important tourism industry. Environmental issues in Kenya include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, water shortage and degraded water quality, flooding, poaching, and domestic and industrial pollution. The following table highlights the main economic effects and estimates potential GDP loss regarding the main sources of air, land and water pollution in the country. Table 2 : Main economic effects of air, land and water pollution Type of pollution Land

Key Sources Industrial effluents and municipal wastes

Water

Contamination of surface waters such as rivers, lakes and wetlands and groundwater Emissions of pollutant particles such as CO2 and others from indoor and outdoor sources such as vehicles, fuel wood, charcoals dusts, fumes and others

Air

Impacts Causing different fatal illness Water-based-born andrelated diseases; water quality deteriorates Causing health problems like respiratory illness and others

Source: own elaboration

4.2.2

Economic effects of air/land pollution

Industrial pollution is becoming a growing concern for Kenya. Some of the growing urbanised area e.g. Nairobi are seeing dramatic increases in industrial activity. While agriculture activity remains the backbone of the Kenyan economy and it by far the country’s largest employer, other industrial activities are starting to develop quickly in the country’s growing economic centres, including gearing of port activities to explore the country’s oil potential. Trade induced industrialisation can yield structural transformation in Kenya through inclusive growth, efficient utilisation of resources and economic diversification (Omanga et al., 2014). African countries exhibit huge potential to develop their economies to middle income status, perhaps more so than some eastern Asian countries, although the creation of employment for the working age population lags far behind a country that aims to achieve such middle income status. The relation of trade policies favourable to industrialisation in oil, gas, mining, agroprocessing, fisheries, leather and textiles will be important. There are, however, challenges faced to ensure that the continued process of industrial activity both uses resources efficiently and is mindful of environmental pollution, which is becoming a real menace in the country’s industrial areas. Air/atmospheric pollution are a growing problem in Kenya, particularly, 18 Nairobi has contracted with a Chinese company to begin construction of a new standard gauge railway, but the project allegedly has been beset by corruption and fraud. Unemployment is high at around 40%.

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environmental hazards and the resultant adverse health effects on humans and the environment. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimate the burden of air disease due to air pollution puts premature deaths attributed to air pollution at over 2 million, with residents of developing countries, including Sub Saharan Africa, bearing half this burden (WHO, 2014). Pollution from industries negatively impacts of health of employees and local communities in both urban and rural areas, but if often worse in rural areas where business and government reaction to pollution is lower than in urban centres. Scientific studies in Kenya have shown that air pollution has, and continues to adversely affect human health and the built environment and the ecosystem in general. Industrialisation is often the beginning of the urbanisation process, as economic areas and centres develop in the capital and big cities. This is often because trade routes are better developed and the wealthier segments of society move to the economic areas. There are several key factors that link urbanisation to pollution, as put forward by the World Bank (2015) which result from: the Kenyan population is traditionally rural, but further growth in the population, estimated to double by 2045, will be linked with growth in urban areas. Further, both population growth and urbanisation go together and urbanisation and growth go together, no county has before achieved high economic growth with low urbanisation and industrialisation. A knock on effect of increased industrialisation in a growing economy is increased transportation, both in terms of trade routes and increased use of private vehicles. Traffic congestion in the main cities in Kenya is becoming a major concern, as the rate of private car ownership increases leading to localised health problems, disease, lower worker productivity, high health costs and associated problems related to increased levels of atmospheric pollution. It is estimated by the World Bank (2015) that over 250,000 Kenyans are moving from rural to urbanised areas each year, partly a result of increased wage rates in Asia lading to factories being located in Africa, although better port facilities and transport is required in order for further relocation of industry from Asia and other areas to Africa. This would also be beneficial to other IGAD countries in terms of economic growth, but it is important that Kenya developes policies to prevent further economic growth completely disregarding environmental pollution, which has plagued other countries in their quest for economic growth. Kenya has already a relatively large industrial sector. Industrialization is considered as an engine of growth in transforming Kenya to middle income country by 2030. The current industrialization strategy aims to transform the economy into that of a newly industrializing country by the year 2020. The Industry sector constitutes the manufacturing, quarrying and mining and construction activities. Of which the manufacturing sector accounts for approximately two-thirds. As a driver of economy growth, the sector has been expanding by leaps and bounds in the past years. There are a lot of new industries throughout the country. There was also mega expansion and updating of existing industries. However, the current industrialization strategy of the government has little emphasis on the environmental pollution issues. 4.2.3

Economic effects of water pollution

An informant in Ministry of Water and Irrigation noted that the burgeoning industries in the country have been causing immense pollution. Some industries do not have appropriate and adequate waste and sewage disposal systems .The industrial waste has been polluting the nearby rivers and caused serious illness to the local community. It is not uncommon to hear about water based and related diseases near the industrial areas. Generally, it’s stated that progress has been made in reducing sanitation related diseases like diarrhoea in the sub-Saharan countries like Kenya, but little has been done to halt the negative health effects of increased industrialization and resultant. Omanga et. al. (2014) argued that the studies and impact of Industrial pollution on the urban population have gotten much attention and documented very well, on the contrary, the impact on the rural areas are not known. There is also a scanty of literature on the impact of industry on the rural community. This is, therefore, calls for the concerted efforts to investigate the impact of industrialization on the health and situation of rural people. Another informant also indicated that, even if there are environmental rules and regulations, enforcement mechanisms are not in place. 27


The economic impacts of a country not providing a clean source of fresh drinking water are fairly well understood in terms of associated health problems. However, there are also other linkages that are less clearly developed, such as the disproportionate effect on women and children, especially girls, whose primary household task in normally water collection, at the expense of education. This demographic challenge means that the employability of women is largely concentrated to high labour intensive activities such as agriculture, or restricted to household duties. The coastal and marine environment possesses and range of natural resources that support livelihoods, from small scale fishing to support local communities to port development to support oil exploration. There are several threats to these resources in terms of overexploitation, uncontrolled development, coastal erosions, climate change and pollution (Janssen, 2013; Wegener and Degger, 2012). There is a lack of data and information of the state of the coastal and marine ecosystem in Kenya, including the type of distribution of contaminants and their impact on man and the environment. The marine environment offers significant potential for further developing the economy of Kenya, but in the lack of an integrated policy framework, and a general lack of scientific studies and understanding of the marine environment in Kenyan waters, it is difficult to estimate the economic effects of marine and coastal pollution. 4.2.4

Summary

Kenya has the potential to be one of Africa’s great success stories from its growing and youthful population, a dynamic private sector, a new constitution, and its pivotal role in East Africa. Addressing challenges of poverty, inequality, governance, low investment and low firm productivity to achieve rapid, sustained growth rates that will transform the lives of ordinary citizens, will be a major goal for the country. However, similarly to other IGAD countries and other growing economies, Kenya is suffering from increasing levels of industrial pollution, which must be managed to ensure further controlled economic development The rate of natural resource depletion is concerning in Kenya, as well as the increased potential for the uncontrolled rate of industrialisation, particularly foreign companies utilising cheap resources, e.g. labour, and setting up their businesses in Kenya with disregard to environmental pollution.

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5

Assessment of existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution

The Government of Kenya has developed guidelines, policies and strategies to address environmental pollution through integration of environmental concerns into key sectors of development including and not limited to: agriculture, water, land, forests, wildlife, industry, energy and petroleum, mining and conservation of genetic resources. The Kenyan Constitution 2010 stipulates provisions in particular, Chapter 5 on Land and Environment which elevated environmnetal issues. In addition, several sectoral laws have or are being aligned to the Constitution e.g Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), Forest Act, Wildlide Act, Water Act etc. Vision 2030 in the context of national legislation, limits the transfer of productive arable land to other uses especially human settlement for commercial development. However, enforcement of this legislation is weak as population pressure on land has been increasing in the recent years. Despite enacting environmental legislations, there are continuous problems of environmental pollution related to industrial discharge of waste water, water logging and salinization of agricultural land, urban solid waste, traffic air and noise pollution. Although, Kenya has a strong legislation to reduce pollution from importing vehicles more than 5 years old or high mileage of 50,000km, it is not practical to reinforce this legislation since the neighboring countries in IGAD and EAC region have no such limitations. Old vehicles imported through IGAD and EAC member countries find their way into Kenya because of high market price (interviews with informants in Naiorbi, October 2015). Indeed, Kenya has become a dumping ground for cheap and polluting vehicles due to lack of regional pollution control policies and legislation. 5.1 National and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks There are a number of well-developed national, regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks to step up reduction of environmental pollution. The Government put in place among others legislation to address the problem of environmental pollution. This far, primary environmental legislation include: • National Environmental Policy, 2013 • Mining Act 2014 • Energy Act 2012 • Environmental Management and Coordination (Noise and Excessive Vibration Pollution) Control Regulations of 2009; • Environmental Management and Coordination (Wetlands, Riverbanks, Lake Shores, and Sea Shore Management) Regulations of 2009; • Environmental Management and Coordination (Air Quality Standards) Regulations of 2007; • Environmental Management and Coordination (Controlled Substances) Regulations of 2007; • Environmental Management and Coordination (Waste Management) Regulations of 2006; • Environmental Management and Coordination (Water Quality) Regulations of 2006; • Environmental Management and Coordination, Conservation of Biological Diversity (BD) Regulations of 2006; and • Environmental Management and Coordination (Fossil Fuel Emission Control) Regulations of 2006.

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• To this listing add Wetlands Managment and Coordination Policy, Education for Sustainable Development Policy, Wildlife Policy and Act, Forest Policy and Bill, Climate Change Policy and Bill and the Intercoastal Zone Management Policy, among others Despite the above legislation and Regulations, the new constitution acknowledges that existing legislation is inadequate, and that additional legislation is required to adequately effect provisions of the Constitution. The country is also signatory to international treaties and conventions including Biodiversity, Climate Change, Montreal Protocol, Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste, and International Waters that supplement the national policies, strategies and legal frameworks. The country has undertaken a multifaceted approach in utilizing various strategies and policies to address environmental pollution. Some of the strategies such as the Kenya Rural Development Strategy recognizes that agriculture and rural development sectors have a critical role to play in achieving poverty reduction and economic growth, while, at the same time impact on the environment can be costly. In addition, the country has signed up a number of regional policies such as ‘Single Entry Visa between Kenya and Uganda; One Border Stop and Single Custom Territory’ that allow easier and quicker movement of people and enhanced trade. These treaties have no pollution control mechanism hence cannot contribute to control of environmnetal pollution on regional basis. Therefore, the government has initiated efforts through policies and strategies, in particular, in EAC regional context that will revamp agriculture through increased production and productivity with managing and restoring the environment and reducing pollution. Management of Lake Victoria Basin and Nile Basin with specific emphasis on water catchment, protection, management and conservation. Environmental and surcharge taxes have been introduced to limit pollution from vehicles and vehicles with foreign registration pay higher fees and not allowed in the country for a given period of days. In addition, some of these strategies and policies include : • Polluter Pays Principle, as environmental tax ; • Establishment of an early warning system to monitor the weather conditions and advice farmers appropriately; inspection and quality control of farm inputs; improved agricultural technology development and transfer system through participatory extension, private sector participation and farmer training with increasing focus on women farmers ; • Sectoral policies and priorities being realigned to take care of the development needs of the country across the board ; • Provision of well-maintained physical infrastructure are some of the strategies. These include rural and urban roads, but especially rural feeder roads; • Provision of energy to rural areas in form of electricity; • Exploration and development of indigenous energy resources is ongoing in geothermal energy resources to produce energy competitively; • Provision of adequate water supply is a major priority for the government and National water policy has been developed and take the concerns of water need for the country including the rural areas; and, there are various processes, that are institutional, legal and policy reforms which are currently being undertaken to harmonize the sectoral operations with the main objective of improved service delivery for economic growth, development and environmental management. Measures Kenya has adopted for addressing environmental pollution and promoting economic diversification at the farm, industrial and commercial levels including agriculture, commercial and industrial land use zoning are in accordance with agro-ecological conditions, removal of agriculture subsidies, differential land tax systems for promoting crop diversification, differential water pricing 30


according to the crop types and seasons or income support, polluter pays principle, payment for environmental and ecological services, waste management and waste collection rates encouraging ewaste practice and water and garbage fees, and industrial clean technologies and production centres established to provide guidelines and technical support. Agricultural land use is more-less according to obtaining agro-ecological one. High potential agroecological zones are more intensively used compared to the less potential ones which tends also to be bigger in relative size. Market liberalization policies removed agricultural subsidies and include some of the following: Beef (1987); Animal Feeds (1989; Fertilizer (1990); Domestic marketed tea, rice, wheat (1992); Dairy (1992); Cotton (1992); Sugar (1992); and Maize (1993); Parastatal Reform Programme: Restructuring of parastatals, Rationalization of the public sector to allow for more private sector involvement in agricultural marketing. Land lease indicates measures that the Government has adopted for sustainable intensification of productive lands. Kenya is currently undertaking bold initiatives in environmental management, industrial development, ewaste management, agriculture policy review, land reform, planning and integration programmes in the light of multifunctional aspects of sustainable development. Objective of the review of policies is to enhance Internal self-sufficiency in environmental protection, basic foods; strategic reserve of basic foods; and production for export. The revisions are funded through the national budget and major activities to implement the policies and strategies include: • Decentralization of decision making to the local levels through County Governments to ensure local level participation. • Infrastructure rehabilitation through repair and maintenance of rural access roads is being undertaken in major agricultural areas, rural electrification programme is an ongoing process where electricity is provided to markets, coffee and tea processing factories, desalting and rehabilitation of dams and water pans in the Arid, Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL) areas; • Mainstreaming of Gender issues in governance, sustainable economic development and environmental management; • Participation of youth through an enabling environment, appropriate technologies and information that make agriculture ecological, sustainable and rural life attractive and profitable to the youth. • Include high yielding seeds and livestock, disease and pest resistant crop varieties and livestock that are vital and rural development and sustainable agriculture; The Government is currently undertaking policy review of the National Livestock Policy and Soil Managment Policy in order to improve service delivery in livestock production, conservation of livestock genetic resources and marketing: included are cattle, sheep, goats, camels, fowls and rabbits. Sustainable agriculture concerns are addressed through integrated pest management, soil and water conservation, environment management, rehabilitation of degraded lands and conservation of plant and animal genetic diversity. 5.2 National and regional institutional frameworks Strengthening institutions and coordination mechanisms for land, resources and environmental management have gone a considerably long way. Kenya put in motion a policy change for sustainable management of land and land resources by enacting a Land Degradation and Rehabilitation Act. A programme on National Soil and Water Conservation was started by the government under the Ministry 31


of Agriculture and Rural Development through a bilateral assistance from the Swedish government. The programme involves conservation of soil and water in degraded water catchment areas and sloppy areas. It includes capacity building for agricultural extension services personnel and farmers who are involved in the implementation. Specific intervention measures are also undertaken for degraded lands outside the designated catchment for rehabilitation, example include the Integrated Soil and Water Conservation Component of the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme which deals with environmental management of the Lake Victoria catchments. It also includes conservation of biological diversity at the landscape level. The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources provides the coordination for all the environmental matters. Integrated plant nutrition management is undertaken as part of household crop husbandry practice where use of both farmyard manure and commercial fertilizers are used as sources of nutrient to the cultivated crops. Advisory services in these areas are provided by the agricultural extension personnel who trains the local farmers on how to make compost and green manure and what levels of fertilizer to apply to the growing crops. Plant and animal genetic resources conservation gained importance sometimes back. However, concentrated efforts gained stream under the global programme of conservation of genetic resources under the auspices of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Conservation is undertaken at the farm level, in-sites and ex-site at the National Gene Bank and public arboreta. All these are reflected in the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAP) and the National Environmental Action Plans. Local Communities and Indigenous people are involved in national decision making through community leaders, local members of parliament (MPS), NGOs and other civil society organizations. In the recent years, some of their concerns have been incorporated in national decisions. Women concerns have been the most articulated with regard to sustain environmental management and agriculture decision making process since they provide most of the labor in agricultural production and are actually the major food producers. Actions such as prudent and deliberate measures to promote gender equity and greater participation of women in social, political and economic processes. Youth groups are involved in environmental management and agricultural production. They collect waste, plant trees and grow crops, raise livestock and undertake agro-forestry activities by establishing agro-forestry tree nurseries. The setting up of the Presidential Commission on the Land Laws in Kenya (1999), and the stakeholder process on National Land Use Policy, establishment of County Governments (2012) supported by Kenyan Constitution 2010 support policies, strategies and legal frameworks required to address environmental pollution. 5.3

Status of implementation the policies, strategies, legal frameworks as well as the international MEAs The responsibility is with the Ministries of Environment and Natural Resources, Energy; Water, and Agriculture. The Environmental Management Act, Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Multilateral Environmental Agreements are within the custody of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. However, decisions on energy, petroleum and gas related issues are made by the Ministry of Energy in close consultation with other relevant government bodies and stakeholders. Same applies to transport and mining issues managed under the respective ministries. Where necessary especially on legislation, the Parliament must give an approval. For example, integrated pest management and control in agriculture was in response of addressing environmental pollution. The Government in the early 1990’s initiated a programme called Safe Use of Pesticides Project with the main goal of ensuring safety in application and disposal of pesticides. It involved training of agricultural extension services personnel and pesticides dealers and retailers on safe and effective use of pesticides. Integrated Pesticide Management has always been conducted as part of genesis crop pest and disease management where use of pesticides and cultural measures such as crop rotation, mulching, closed 32


season and also biological control are integrated in this process. Policy changes in National Agricultural Extensions Guidelines where field extension workers are expected to deliver to farmers’ appropriate information regarding use of appropriate technologies incorporates the issue of integrated pesticide management. Additionally, the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999) and Environmental Audit (2003) now embrace all environmental aspects of use of agricultural chemicals, including pesticides, water, and land and air pollution. Remedial measures undertaken on the effect of ultraviolet radiation on plants and animal life as well as on agricultural activities include ban on use of ozone depleting substances in agricultural production and commercial use as stipulated in the Montreal Protocol. Where banning is not done and the use of substances such as methyl bromides is substantially reduced through regulation. Relevant actions of status of implementation of the policies, strategies, legal frameworks as well as the international MEAs take into consideration the following: • Ensuring a functional early warning system in all drought prone districts and monitoring to include NGOs and local communities; • Inspection and quality control of farm inputs through improved legislation and empowerment of farmers associations; • Control of crop and livestock pests and diseases; • Improving the technology development and transfer system through participatory group extension, private sector participation and farmer training with increasing focus on women farmers; and • Developing specific interventions to monitor and combat the impacts of pollution, HIV/AIDS on family food security using modern and village level approaches and extension service personnel. The Government works in collaboration with bilateral and multilateral agencies to secure funding for MEAs, research, and empowerment of women where there is high relative dependence upon subsistence in order to ensure household food security thus reduce under nourishment, provision of cheaper credit in the rural areas, competitive input prices, improvement of rural infrastructure, adequate food sector coordination and national food reserve, among other plans, are being addressed by the Government of Kenya. In relation to Communities and the Environment, key aspect of avoiding the oil resource ‘curse’ is to ensure that companies engage effectively with their host communities. Detailed guidelines and best practice for community engagement are vital, but are substantiated by effective use of local knowledge: different areas in Kenya have different social and cultural situations and require a context-specific approach. Beyond engagement, communities are empowered to at the very least by participating in development planning. In terms of environmental planning, critical is a holistic strategic assessment of the potential social and environmental impacts of planned extractive industry activities and subsequently monitoring operations across the extractive lifecycle, with an emphasis on public disclosure and public engagement, as well as the health, safety and social impacts on workers and host communities. Artisanal mining is a significant issue for local communities, as it is often one of the only means of livelihood (especially for those who have been moved away from farming land). The government plays a supportive role in regulating the small-scale mining sector, ensuring that there are no resource, conflicts with larger-scale mining operations and that artisanal miners are trained on environmental management, health and safety, given access to finance and markets. 33


The Government of Kenya has fairly comprehensive national and regional policies and strategies and legal institutional frameworks necessary to address environmental pollution. It is vital that both a transformative and inclusive approach is taken to the development of the economic sectors: agriculture, water, forest, energy and extractive (oil, gas and mining) from the outset. This approach would link communities, the low skilled, excluded groups (such as young men and women) and factor in the need for development in remote rural settlements and enhance environmental management, conservation and protection. The main aim is the development of an efficient and equitable system for environmental management. On a regional basis, Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme is an integrated environmental management encompassing an array of activities. It involves integrated soil and water management of the lakes catchment, management of the aquatic resources, control of water weeds and pollution control amongst others. The enactment of the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999), Environmental Audit (2003), Environmental Policy (2013), Vision 2030, Green Growth Strategy (2015) are major instruments necessary for prudent management of environment, including the land resources. Prevention of adverse effects of agriculture in water quality - Levies on effluent discharges are introduced based on the quantity of effluent whose quality must conform to prescribed requirements of the standards in force. Additionally Environmental Impact assessments are carried out where new agricultural, industrial, commercial and infrastructure projects are to be undertaken prior to commencement of the project. The Government has already put in place an Act on Environment Management and Coordination. This legislation is now the main basis of preventing adverse effects of agriculture on water quality, industrial pollution, urban waste, air and noise pollution because it also provides for judicial intervention where any adverse effects are realized.

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6

Proposed actions for Environment Pollution Control

Kenya has identified key environmental sources of pollution. There are different studies in various sectors. There is a need to have IGAD-wide ‘environmental pollution guideline’ at regional level in different sectors like transportation and industry. For instance, the environmental pollution guidelines on vehicles can help the trans-country road connection and economic cooperation and regional integration. But, as stands now, the IGAD country has different road/ vehicle inspection and this would compromise the pollution control the countries. This case was explained in the Kenya’s vehicle regulation that is not being followed and enforced by neighboring countries and this is having a negative effect on Kenya’s part to enforce the regulation. There is also rapid urbanization in the country. Hence, there is a need to improve the sewerage and garbage collection system in the major cities. The public is a very useful tool in a situation where the law is unable to apply resolved restraints on industries. In the past, public engagement in Kenya was hampered by a number of factors, among them: 1) Ignorance. Many Kenyans thought that industrial pollution was an unavoidable consequence of growth and creation of job opportunity; 2) Don’t-care-attitude. Many Kenyans were not concerned about the activities of industries as long as their interests were not interfered with; 3) Lack of knowledge. Most Kenyans had not experienced the impacts of pollution on a personal basis as many industries were concentrated in big cities away from their flocks, houses, families, water sources, cultivating lands and other vegetation; 4) Frustration. Public lobbying lacked political backing as many politicians owed their support to industries; 5) Suppression. The use of the police force to quash demonstrations and confrontations against polluting acts of industries; 6) Locus standi. Individuals had no right to file a suit for public interests; and 7) Biased judiciary. Most judgements favored industries. Some of these factors still hamper strict enforcement of the law and monitoring of industrial activities. Opportunities created by urbanization, availability of ports and harbors and various coast-specific development processes have attracted high concentrations of people in some areas. In addition, a significant percentage of coastal communities in the WIO region depends directly on nearby coastal and marine resources for their livelihood and income generation. The main forms of land and sea use are fisheries, tourism, agriculture, industry, forestry, shipping/ports, mining, conservation, housing and infrastructure. Land-based sources of marine pollution in the WIO region are primarily associated with urban areas and river discharges from larger catchments into the sea. At present urban centers in the WIO region are still several hundred kilometers apart, creating distinct hotspots. However, it is likely that rapid urbanization in the region will result in ‘strip development’ of coastal areas, when smaller coastal towns and suburban areas eventually join up with the main cities, creating larger continuous urban zones along the coastline. Hotspots of land-based sources of marine pollution were identified based on previous studies as well as work conducted as part of the WIO-LaB project (National Pollution Status Reports and WIO-LaBsupported monitoring programmes). There is need to intensify enforcement of the 2005 Forests Act by enhancing the capacity of Kenya Forest Service (KFS) to implement the logging ban. In addition, afforestation efforts particularly in the considerably degraded Mau Forest Complex need to be drastically scaled up. Despite these admittedly enormous challenges, the forestry sector provides unique opportunities to help realize the poverty reduction aspirations. There is also a need to institute a regulatory framework for management of e-waste and compel industries that generate e-waste, such as manufacturers and distributors of electrical and electronic equipment to establish take-back programmes and, offer fiscal incentives to encourage entire lifecycle e-waste handling encompassing the transportation, sorting, fraction recovery and disposal stages.

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The above recommendations can be supplemented through established information networks for information exchange and dissemination. Additional support through research and development could generate new information that will benefit policy making process and strategies required for pollution control at national and regional levels. Capacity building both institutional and human require financial and technological resources. This could be leveraged with private partnership and strengthened by regional initiatives through IGAD.

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7

References

Adam Smith International, June 2013, Recommendations for Kenya’s Extractive Industry Development, UK Department for International Trade Africa Conservation Tillage Network. March 2011. Conservation Agriculture in Kenya, A case study of Bungoma District. African Conservation Tillage Network (ACT), March 2011, Conservation Agriculture in Kenya A case Study of Bungoma: An Activity of EU Funded CA2Africa Project African Conservation Tillage Network (ACT), March 2011, Rainwater Harvesting Supplementary for Irrigation: A case Study of Mwala District Kenya Angela Mwenda and Thomas N. Kibutu, ‘Implications of the New Constitution on Environmental Management in Kenya’, 8/1 Law, Environment and Development Journal (2012), p. 76, available at http://www.lead-journal.org/content/12076.pdf Angela Mwenda and Thomas N. Kibutu. 2012. Implication of the New Constitution on Environmental Management in Kenya. LEAD Journal (Law, Environment and Development Journal) 2012 Anonyme (1987). Our common future. The World Commission on Environment and Development. Stockholm. Anonyme (1992) The Declaration of the UN Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED), 31 ILM 876. Conservation agriculture as practised in Kenya: two case studies Evanson Chege Kamau. 2010. Pollution Control in Developing Countries with a case study on Kenya. A need for consistent and stable regimes. Funding Opportunities for Climate Change Adaptation and REDD+ The Constitution of Kenya, 2010 Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan for Kenya - 2011-2015. National Environment Management Authority, Nairobi Kenya. ISBN-9906-7460-6-4 Janssen, C. (2013). Marine pollution along the East African coast: problems and challenges. University of Ghent, Belgium. Kaumbuth Pascal and Kienzle Josef (eds), 2007, Conservation Agriculture as Practiced in Kenya: Two Case studies of Laikipia and Siaya Districts, Published by African Conservation Tillage Network (ACT), Westlands, Nairobi, Kenya Kenya Country Fact Sheet Dec. 2011. Kenya National Environment Plan Framework 2009-2013 Kenya Power, September 2012, Kenya Electricity Expansion Project-KPLC Distribution and Transmission Component (ESRP & KEEP) Environmental & Social Management Framework for Kenya Power Distribution and Transmission Projects Kenya State of the Environment and Outlook 2010. Supporting the Delivery of Vision 2030 Kenya Vision 2030. The popular version. KENYA WATER TOWER AUTHORITY, Nairobi Kenya, 24-25th June 2013 Author: Vinay Singh & Patrick Karani Kenya’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) 37


Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Kenya’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) 23 July 2015 National Council for Law Reporting, Laws of Kenya, The Constitution of Kenya 2010 Omanga, E., Ulmer,C., Berhane, Z., and Gatari, M. (2014). Industrial air pollution in rural Kenya: community awareness, risk perception and associations between risk variables. BMC Public Health. 14:377-392 Pascal Kaumbutho, Josef Kienzle, editors Regional Synthesis Report on the Status of Pollution in the Western Indian Ocean Region. Final report. 2009. Republic of Kenya, 2007, Vision 2030 Republic of Kenya, December 2011, Commission on Revenue Allocation: Kenya County Fact Sheet Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, 22 September 2014, State Department of Environment and Natural Resources: Sessional Paper No. ** of 2014 on National Climate Change Framework Policy Republic of Kenya, National Environment Policy 2013 Selected studies: Rainwater harvesting A L Springer (1977). Towards a meaningful concept of pollution in international law, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol 26, p 531 UK Department for International Development. June 2013. Recommendations for the Development of Kenya's Extractive Industries UNEP 2014: Green Economy Assessment Report of Kenya UNEP, (2014), Green Economy Assessment Report – Kenya UNEP/AU/SIDA/Output 3.2a 1, Report on Kenya’s Policy, Legislation and Institutional Arrangements in relation to the Protocol for the Protection of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Western Indian Ocean from Land- Based Sources and Activities (LBSA Protocol) UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat and WIOMSA (2009). Regional synthesis report on the review of the policy, legal and institutional frameworks in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region, UNEP, Nairobi Kenya, 104p. University of Nairobi, Department of Geography &Environmental Studies, Center for Sustainable Urban Development: June 2013, How Well Do Environmental Regulations Work in Kenya?: A Case Study of the Thika Highway Improvement Project University of Nairobi, Lecture 10, Institutional and Legal Frameworks for the Management of Natural Resources in Kenya Vinay Singh & Patrick Karani, Funding Opportunities for Climate Change Adaptation and REDD+ Kenya Water Tower Authority, Nairobi Kenya, 24-25th June 2013 West Indian Oceans Regional State of Coastal Report, Akunga Momany, Chapter 34, Overview of National Policy Frameworks: Policy Analysis and Options World Bank. (2015). Kenya emerging as one of East Africa’s http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kenya/publication/kenya-economic-update

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Annex 1 List of names interviewed: KENYA No. 1.

Name John K. Maina

Organization Ministry of Energy and Petroleum

2.

Erick F.N. Akotsi

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources

3

Dan Kithinji Marangu

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources

4

Michael Obora

5

Paul N. Mbuthi

Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Energy and Petroleum

6

Karanja Samuel

7

Eng. Bernard Wanyonyi Gladys Wekesa

8 9 10

Ministry of Transport Air Transport Department Ministry of Water and Irrigation Ministry of Water and Irrigation Kenya Chamber of Commerce Ministry of Mining

Position Principal Renewable Energy Officer Director Urban Rivers Restoration Programme Senior Assistant Director Multilateral Environmental Agreements Assistant Director of Agriculture Principal Renewable Energy Officer Energy, Environment and Health and Management Air Transport Officer

Email [email protected]

Phone no. +254 722 655 161

[email protected]

+254 721 367 601

[email protected] [email protected]

+254 729 461 664

[email protected]

+254 722 624604

[email protected] [email protected]

+254 722 894 155

[email protected]

+254 724 366 499

Engineer

[email protected]

+254 717 683 887

Head of Transboundary Waters

[email protected]

+254 723 706 692

39