GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION: A

GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

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Abstract UN Women, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality defines gender equality or equity as “[e]quality between women and men (gender equality): refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men and girls and boys” (2013). The study aims to address the thesis statement: Gender equality in education is a fundamental human right, and specific steps should be implemented in order to empower women to be full and equal partners and contributors in any society. This comparative study explores and examines the status of gender equality and equity in education in three countries, namely Germany, Egypt and the United States. In order to base the criteria for comparison, a historical and cultural background which focuses on the experience of women in the three societies in provided. Political developments and their effects on women are reviewed. The criteria for comparison that are used are: political development, economy and socio-cultural norms and biases. After juxtaposing the information and comparing the three countries recommendations that can contribute to change are proposed.


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Gender Equality in Education: A Comparative Study Between the United States, Germany and Egypt Human civilization in general, has throughout history been, and still is very patriarchal and male-dominated. From the earliest human history there has been a role assignment and division of responsibility between men and women. Men were regarded as the main breadearners and financial supporters of the family, while women were regarded as the homemakers, mothers and nurturers. Because of this view, as human civilization progressed, and education became a part of the personal and professional grooming of citizens, with a mindset that regards men’s’ role as more essential for survival, most societies placed more emphasis on educating males. Women’s education was very limited and concentrated on skills which would prepare girls to be wives and homemakers. What was unfortunately overlooked at that point of history is that women were expected to nurture and raise the next generation of productive citizens, yet failed to realize that an educated mother is more capable of raising healthy and educated children. Women constitute half of humanity, and education is a first step towards empowering half of humanity to assume their full role in human civilization. Although much progress has been achieved in many places around the world, the latest reports still indicate that in many parts of the world, especially Third World countries, the gap between men and women is still large (United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF], 2007, p. 3). Until the present time women around the world still suffer from gender inequality in different ways and in different fields. The thesis statement for this research paper is the following:


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Gender equality in education is a fundamental human right, and specific steps should be implemented, in order to empower women to be full and equal partners and contributors in any society. This paper will explore and compare the experiences of Germany, the United States and Egypt with gender equality and will attempt to identify effective approaches to addressing this problem. A noted Egyptian poet wrote a verse of poetry that has become etched in eternity in the consciousness of all Arabic-speaking peoples. It translates roughly into:” The mother is a school; and if you prepare her, you prepare a people which are deep-rooted in goodness”. Growing up and receiving my primary, secondary and tertiary education in Egypt, which is a third world country, I personally have only experienced gender inequality in very indirect and subtle ways in the workplace but never in school. I grew up in a home with two PhD holding parents whose main concern was to make sure I got an excellent education. The time period, during which I was growing up in Egypt, namely the mid-sixties and seventies of the twentieth century, was a time when the government of Egypt was striving towards modernity, industrialization and rapid progress and subsequently adopted very progressive policies, especially towards women. Women and men were granted free public education through tertiary education, with academic performance being the only standard for how far a person could get on the educational ladder. Primary education was and still is compulsory up until graduation from middle school, and placement in colleges was not determined by any measure except grades in a nationwide, standardized high school exit exam, which all students take in Grade 12. Many students received achievement based scholarships, which provided for books, boarding and expenses. When I was


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an engineering student at Cairo University, roughly half of the students in my cohort were women. However, although the government encouraged girls to go to school and provided free education, which is still the case in public universities, sometimes girls, especially in rural and economically disadvantaged areas were deprived of those opportunities by their families, despite the best efforts of the government. This happened mainly because of economic and cultural pressures on the family. Adolescent girls would find themselves having to go to work in farming or other in order to help support their parents and siblings, others were married off at a young age in order to relieve their poor families of their living expenses. Egypt is currently suffering from a population explosion, and with limited resources, girls are the first to suffer. Egypt has also been in political turmoil for the past two years since the eruption of the revolution in Egypt, which had the previously unexpected consequence of Islamist political parties coming to the forefront of the political scene. An unfortunate result is that some hardline conservative politicians are working to shrink the role of women in politics and society in general. I find this very troubling that women’s rights may erode due to the political strife in Egypt. It concerns many social and human rights activists that women may lose some of the rights that were taken for granted even in earlier generations of women, beginning in the late nineteenth an early twentieth century, when public education was institutionalized in Egypt. I would like to examine the issue of gender equity in education in terms of accessibility and opportunity, and the underlying circumstances. Another country which will be researched for comparison with Egypt and the United States is Germany. Germany has gone through stages and milestones in women’s education beginning in the eighteenth century (Stubig, 2004). Both the United States and Germany are


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developed, first world countries, which have two of the strongest economies in the world, and in which the education system receives a lot of attention and funding. Yet it is a known fact that even in Germany and here in the United States women still have to struggle with issues of gender inequality, such as stereotypical role setting, which is resulting in a shortage of women’s enrollment in programs specializing in STEM which is an acronym for science, technology, engineering and mathematics, and subsequently their presence in these professional fields. Women in the workplace encounter inequality in many forms, including, among others, unequal pay and the notorious glass ceiling when they compete for leadership positions. Even in government, women are persistently underrepresented. In the case of Germany however, the current Chancellor is a woman. This study will examine how the United States and Germany have addressed and continue to deal with gender equity in education, and determine if there are any lessons to be learned from the experiences of these two developed and progressive countries in instating and sustaining gender equity and what can be done to replicate successes in the case of Egypt. Description According to the Central Intelligence Agency [CIA] World Factbook, Germany has a population of 81,305,856 (2012). Germany is not very ethnically diverse with ethnic groups present 91.5% German, 2.4% Turkish, and 6.1% other (made up largely of Greek, Italian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Spanish). Germans or Turkish decent are the largest ethnic minority due to an influx of Turkish immigrants to Germany which began in the late sixties of the twentieth century. The age structure is 13.2% (male 5,499,555/ female 5,216,066) in the 0-14 year range, 66.1% (male 27,173,860/ female 26,587,068) in the 15-64 year range, which also indicates an almost equal number of males to females in the education-seeking age range.


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Germany is the 5th largest economy in the world and the strongest economy in the European Union with a per capita GDP of $38,100, with education expenditure amounting to 4.5% of GDP, and ranking 82nd in the world. Egypt has a population of 83,688,164 (CIA, 2012) and has a very ethnically homogenous society, with a population that is 99.6% Egyptian, and 0.4% others, mainly Nubians in Southern Egypt and Amazighi tribes in the oases of the Western Sahara (2006 census). The age structure is 32.5% (male 13,917,469/ female 13,298,009) for the 0-14 years range, 62.8% (male 26,710,597/ female 25,869,016) in the 15-64 years age range, which also indicates equal numbers of males to females in the education seeking age range. In contrast to the United States and Germany, Egypt, is a third world or developing country, which has a per capita GDP of $6,600 and education expenditure amounting to 3.8% of GDP, making it taking 109th place in the world in terms of funds allocated to education as a percentage of GDP. According to the CIA’s World Factbook (2012), the United States is the world’s largest and most technologically advanced economy in the world. The total population of the United States is 313,847,465 (2012), which is very ethnically diverse. The population is 79.96% white, 12.85% black, 4.43% Asian, 0.97% Amerindian and Alaska native, 0.18% native Hawaiian and other Pacific islander, 1.61% two or more races (July 2007 estimate). The population structure is 0-14 years: 20% (male 32,050,686/ female 30,719,945, 15-64 years: 66.5% (male 104,156,828/ female 104,442,302), 65 years and over: 13.5% (male 18,424,785/ female 24,052,919) (2012 est.), which makes the United States a young nation. The population growth rate is 0.9% (2012 est.). The sex ratio is 1.04 male(s)/female in the under 15 years range, and 1 male(s)/female in the 15-64 years range, so there is an equal number of girls and boys within the typical education


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eligible age range. The United States has a per capita GDP of $48,300 and education expenditure amounting to 5.5% of GDP, ranking 43rd in the world. These preliminary figures clearly indicate the huge gap between the US and Germany, in comparison to Egypt in terms of government funding for education. With a high population growth rate estimated at 1.922% (2012 est.), and a population currently closing on 85 million, and a high birth rate of 24.22/1000 of population, in addition to a young population, resources are stretched very thin. Germany has a school system which was first established in the beginning of the nineteenth century. According to the website German Culture (2013), education is free in public schools and is compulsory for a minimum of nine years (or in some provinces for ten years), beginning at age six. In the unified FRG, the educational system is largely decentralized to the Lander (provinces) level, but adheres to principles of equality of opportunity for all students. The federal government’s only involvement is through the Council of the ministers of education and culture of the provinces. The role of the federal government is very limited (Kubow &Fossum, 2007, p. 191-192). This leads to great variations among schools in the different provinces in terms of school calendar, basic policies, age-grade assignments and school structure (Kubow & Fossum, 2007, p. 199). According to the Legatum Prosperity Index (2012), the boy to girl school enrollment ratio is 1.00, indicating equal enrollment for both genders. Although women have equal access to education in modern day Germany, they have still not achieved full parity with men. Girls still tend to stay away from science, engineering and mathematics, with fewer women entering this track in secondary and tertiary education. There are greater numbers of young women who choose to specialize in the literary track. This occurs because of the traditional stereotypical


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gender assignments that are prevalent in man societies. According to Stubig (2004, p. 14), research has established that even teachers in the classroom give more recognition to boys, thus perpetuating the classic gender roles and undermining girls’ self-confidence. Classroom materials consistently over represent men in leadership positions. Men are underrepresented as primary school teachers, and women as natural science teachers in secondary schools (Stubig, 2004, p.16). Girls, he contends “are obviously at a disadvantage in the educational system as regards their self-confidence…” (Stubig, 2004, p. 16). Although there is equal access and girls score higher than boys in German schools, more boys than girls decide to study science and math in advanced levels of high school, and that represents inequity of opportunity, since girls end up being less successful in tertiary education and careers. Egypt has a public education system that is very centralized. Education is compulsory up until the end of middle school, which is ninth grade for all Egyptian children, boys and girls. There are two central ministries of education. The Ministry of Education for K-12, and which governs all public schools, and sets curricula for public schools and curricula of Arabic language, Social Studies and Religion for private schools as well. According to the Ministry of Education website (2013), the ministry is committed to providing quality pre-university education as a human right, based on principles of democracy and justice. One of the objectives of future education is “[t]o provide equal educational opportunities for all children of Egypt through support of school construction and attention to people with special needs to increase educational opportunities for girls and support early childhood literacy” (Egyptian Ministry of Education, 2013).


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Although the statement also promises a decentralized system in the future, the current reality is that funding and all decisions relating to public education are still controlled at the central level, with no authority or autonomy afforded to provinces or school districts or schools. Evaluation and assessment is implemented through mid-term and end or year exams which are designed at the district level. However, promotion from one level to the next, namely elementary to middle, and middle to high school, as well as high school graduation is all assessed by national exams at the end of elementary, middle and high school. Scores on theses exams are the only criteria for promotion to the next level of education. Students with low scores on the middle school graduation exams are funneled into vocational high schools, and higher scoring students move on to general high schools in which they follow one of three tracks, literary studies, natural sciences and mathematics. The Ministry of Higher Education governs tertiary education, including private universities. However, it does not control curricula, except for outlining general policies and general standards of content and achievement and assessment. Although access for girls is guaranteed in all stages of education, in a system that is grossly underfunded and overcrowded, many girls fall between the cracks. They are rarely brought back to school when they drop out because of family pressure caused by poverty or social circumstances. According to the Legatum Prosperity Index (2012), boy to girl enrollment ratio is one, indicating equal access to schooling for girls. This may be the case in cities and well-developed urban areas of the country. However, actual attendance is a different issue in rural and underprivileged areas. Education in the United States is compulsory, with age of compulsory school age being decided by individual states and ranging between six to eighteen years of age. “[t]he


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Constitution of the United States does not address education,…”(Mazurek & Winzer, 2006, p. 309). Therefore education became largely the responsibility of states and local authorities. The federal government dispenses limited funding to public schools and the funding is tied with implementing certain regulations regarding national issues such as poverty, teacher shortages and global competitiveness and sets broad guidelines for achievement standards. State governments are responsible for policies and funding, standards and benchmarks, teacher certification, curriculum guidelines, as well as standardized high stakes assessments. Meanwhile depending on the state, school districts may have the autonomy to design curricula (Mazurek & Winzer, 2006, p. 309). Public education is free for all students K-12, while there are also private and parochial schools which charge tuition fees. Each state has a state university system, which provides college education to residents of the state at reduced fees compared to out-of-state students. Public universities are supported largely by the state and through their endowments. Because the United States is a very diverse country which also receives immigrants on a regular basis from around the world, the concept of a multicultural education emerged for the K12 stages of education. Multicultural education was defined by three aims, namely reforming schools so that they provide education to all students of diverse ethnic and economic background equitably. The second aim is to provide an education that guarantees gender equity, and the third aim is to understand how the interplay of class, race and gender influence education (Mazurek & Winzer, 2006, p. 311). The other philosophy of education is standard-based education, which came to the forefront as a result of a report evaluating U.S. education in 1983, entitled A Nation at Risk. As a result, states were required to adopt stringent content and performance standards and benchmarks, and to instate high-stakes standardized testing. This reform movement reached


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an epoch with the signing of No Child Left Behind by President George W. Bush in 2001 (Mazurek & Winzer, 2006, p. 314). As stated by Mazurek and Winzer, “[s]tandards based reform has also found support outside the formal policymaking arena by many business leaders and parents, as well as key segments of the educational community” (2006, p. 315). Education is accessible to all, with no gender discrimination in access. According to the Legatum Prosperity Index (2012), boy to girl ratio for school enrollment ratio for 2010 is 1.10, indicating more boys enrolled in schools than girls. However, there are still problems with gender equity in America’s schools. According to Fry (2003, p. 11), girls are largely uninspired to pursue careers beyond marriage and child-bearing, which are traditional gender roles still entrenched in our American culture. Girls are also viewed as uninterested or not qualified for STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) subjects, and are underrepresented in these classes in high school and university. Although access is secured, opportunity to enter and thrive in these areas is diminished for girls and women in general. Fry (2003, p. 12) states that women are even ignored and not integrated into curricula as partners and equal contributors as men, thus perpetuating the stereotypical gender roles. She quoted a famous Egyptian feminist leader of the early twentieth century criticizing the fact that when women are mentioned, only women of outstanding stature are brought forward as separate from men, because men choose to ignore the capabilities of all women (Fry, 2003, p.12). Interpretation Germany has one of the oldest formal education systems in modern times. The schooling system was first institutionalized in the beginning of the nineteenth century (Stubig, 2004, p. 5). The system stipulated that education was compulsory for all children. Upper class children were tutored at home, while lower class children were taught in schools. In the beginning of the


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nineteenth century the path to university education was instated to provide bureaucrats to fill a few jobs. Girls were ignored, because they were not allowed to work, and so were not eligible for the university-track education (Stubig, 2004, p.7). Upper class girls were the focus of education for girls, which focused on perpetuating the traditional gender roles and hierarchy. An increase in public schools for girls took place in the second half of the nineteenth century, yet they did not offer any qualification. Education was aimed at providing boys with the knowledge to earn a living, and to reinforce the domicile nurturing roles of girls. In the beginning of the twentieth century girls were finally allowed to earn A-level high school diplomas, which qualified them for tertiary education. This access however was limited to girls from the middle and upper classes, and not for working class girls. Working class girls were geared towards seeking work (Stubig, 2004, p. 10). Girls who graduated from university were not offered jobs except in education and nursing, and only as long as they were not married. However, with the onset of the industrial revolution the state could no longer do without women’s work, so improvements were introduced to tertiary education for women. Throughout the next sixty years, although there was an expansion of education for girls, there was a discriminatory differentiation between girls’ education, and boys’ education, which was much more developed and specialized, especially in the areas of science-oriented schools, which were not accessible for girls. Stubig (2004, p. 13) asserts that equal access to education was not practically attained until 1960. Germany is currently a strong democracy, which has the strongest economy in Europe and is the fifth strongest economy in the world. Women have played an integral role in the German economy since the era of the industrial revolution. With the partition of Germany after WWII, the two Germanys took different economic paths. East Germany embraced the Soviet


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socialist model, in which it was essential and necessary for women to fully participate in the workplace, causing educational opportunities to be made accessible to women, while women in West Germany made slower progress towards equity still conforming to a largely patriarchal culture, which defines gender roles. However, women’s rights movements were very active in advocating equal rights for women in West Germany, while East Germany instated programs to support women’s education and opportunity in the workplace. When the two Germany’s were reunited in 1989, there was a discrepancy between women’s participation in higher education and the workforce between East and West Germany. Women in East Germany were ahead of women in West Germany in terms of attaining higher education, especially in traditionally male-dominated field like science, engineering and mathematics. According to the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (1996, para. 8) a national office for women's affairs has been active since 1980 in West Germany, and a similar entity was created after the two Germanys were united to serve the new additions to the federation. Strides have been made by German women, but according to Stubig (2004, p.15) girls are still being discriminated against by the German educational system. Germany is well on its way to achieving gender equity in all areas, including education, but although Germany represents one of the most progressive societies in the developed world, with tremendous economic capabilities, gender equity in education has still not been fully achieved. Access to education is available to girls and women, but opportunity is limited by stereotypical attitudes in education and the workplace. It is worth noting however, that a woman is currently at the helm of the German government, namely Chancellor Angela Merckel, who is originally an East German.


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Egypt is the longest lasting state, having a history which goes back more than six thousand years. The fact that Egypt has always been a very centralized state, with all power in the hands of the central government has helped Egypt weather numerous invasions and wars, and either expel or embrace its invaders. Egypt has always also been ruled by one central ruler, a king or more recently a president. The current political system is a presidential system, in which the president has the most power. Egypt has lately undergone a tremendous amount of political turmoil and upheaval since the popular revolution in January 2011 against the dictatorship of the former president, Hosny Mubarak. Although the current administration in Egypt is led by a president who is a member of the ultra-conservative Islamist movement the Muslim Brotherhood, and although there are wellfounded concerns about this group’s patriarchal interpretations and subsequent effects on their vision of women’s rights, the Egyptian constitution clearly emphasized the equality of all Egyptians, including women and religious and ethnic minorities. One of the major influences on Egyptian culture is the religion of Islam, which came to Egypt in 640 CE. Egyptians were predominantly Christians belonging to the Eastern Egyptian Orthodox Church established by Saint Mark. Egypt was then ruled by the Romans, who belonged to the Catholic Church founded by Saint Peter, and thus differed from the indigenous Egyptians. The roman military occupation persecuted the local Egyptians and hindered their religious freedom. Driven by the Islamically-inspired values of justice, the Arab Muslim armies conquered the Roman ruled Egypt in order to lift religious persecution and to introduce Islam. Once they defeated the Roman armies, many Arabs settled in Egypt, and Egypt was annexed to the Islamic state. Gradually the religion and the language took hold, but for another 400 years Egypt remained majority Christian and Arabic, although being the language of government, was


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not the language spoken by the majority of citizens. Islam has become the religion of the majority of Egyptians, about 90% of Egyptians today are Muslim, and 10% are Christians, mostly Coptic orthodox. It is therefore, that Islam is a strong influence on Egyptian culture. Islam as a system is very progressive towards women. According to Islamic teachings, women and men are equal and have equal rights and obligations. Women are entitled to education at the highest levels, and have complete financial autonomy from their parents, siblings or spouses. The reality in majority Muslim countries may however be quite different due to the influence of indigenous and local cultural norms and gender roles on interpretation of religion (Megahed & Lack, 2011, p. 403). Religious texts have been largely interpreted by male scholars in male dominated societies, and thus are biased against women. This actually has caused many women’s rights which Islam has granted, to be stripped away from women throughout the past 1400 years. This is more evident in rural and remote areas that in major cities and urban areas. In recent history, formal education of women was instated in 1832 with the opening of a nursing school (Egyptian State Information Service, 2013), which was the advent of women’s access to education and opportunities in the workplace. Subsequently public girls’ school were established in the major metropolitan areas, and were attended by middle-class and upper-class girls who came from backgrounds in which fathers were educated and valued education for girls, while many girls continued to receive tutoring in foreign language and home and family-oriented subjects at home. The first women students entered Cairo University and graduated in 1933. One of the graduates of this cohort was the first Egyptian girl to earn a PhD in Literature. Although girls in major cities were being educated, with some continuing on to tertiary education, the situation in poor and rural areas was still very different. Access to education was


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very limited, in addition to cultural norms and very male-dominated mindset; poor and rural girls were not afforded the opportunity to an education. Poverty and early marriage, as well as preference towards male children also contributed to depriving these girls from the opportunity. The military coup of July 1952, which overthrew the king and established Egypt as a republic and which a few years later espoused the socialist system, caused a leap in women’s rights. Women’s equality was asserted, more schools and Literacy Centers to educate girls in rural areas were built, and awareness campaigns advocated equality and women’s education. In a socialist society that was striving to modernize and grow its poor economy, women were needed in the workplace, and schooling became essential in the new order. Education up to the college level became free, and equality across social classes was emphasized. The government undertook large propaganda campaigns to promote equality and the full participation of women in the economy. Women in rural and poor areas began to aspire to education, and many families became more accepting of the idea, realizing that education may be an alternative path to unskilled work or early marriage, out of poverty. They also began to realize that girls can be an asset to the family instead of a burden. Although progress was made, rural areas still lagged behind the cities in terms of women’s education. By the mid-seventies women were well-represented in tertiary education, with women constituting half of students in universities, including traditionally male-dominated disciplines like engineering, science and medicine. Laws were instated banning gender discrimination in pay, although not banning gender and age discrimination in hiring. Nonetheless, substantial progress was made for educated women and opportunities became widely available.


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The growing population of Egypt resulted in hundreds of thousands of young people taking advantage of the free public education. Under the rule of Anwar Sadat (1972-1981) government moved away from the socialist ideology and embraced to a capitalist market-driven economy which encouraged free enterprise. Government jobs became scarce and private sector jobs, which were largely service industries based on affiliations with Western business interests, were limited and required additional qualifications such as fluency in one or more foreign language. As educational institutions continued to graduate students to a limited job market, unemployment rose exponentially, with overall unemployment estimated at 12.5%, and 24.8% in the 15-24 year age range in 2012 (CIA, 2013). Many college graduates turned to vocational jobs and jobs in the service sector, for which they were grossly overqualified, more stayed unemployed. This situation has also adversely affected women’s opportunities for education and work. As unemployment rose, educated women were seen as limiting men’s opportunities in the workplace, and men are seen as the breadwinner, and subsequently some ultraconservative circles began calling for women to stay home and take care of the family, thus expanding men’s opportunities in the job market. Overall literacy rates are 80.3% for men, 63.4% for women. College attendance is almost split in accordance to the general population percentages at 48.9% for women compared to 52.1% men in 2008(Egyptian State Information Service, 2013), but there is a great discrepancy between the genders at lower levels of education, which manifests itself in high illiteracy, which is higher for women. Egypt is currently undergoing a tremendous political and ideological transformation. Although the current president was elected to office by a very small majority of the popular vote,


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in the absence of a legislative body, he issued a constitutional decree granting him wide executive and legislative powers. He has been taking drastic measures to facilitate the domination of all centers of power by members of his own political party and ideological group, the Muslim Brotherhood. The Muslim Brotherhood is an ultra-conservative politically motivated group, which bases its principles on very male-oriented archaic interpretations of Islamic scriptures. With a faltering economy at hand, the current situation in Egypt signals to many the possibility of infringing on women’s rights including their rights of access and opportunity to education in favor of allowing men more opportunity and control. In the meantime, rural and disadvantaged women are still seriously lagging behind urban women in terms of education. Soon after the first colonists arrived to America on the Mayflower, they established schools, including Harvard College (Madigan, 2009, p. 11). Women were also involved in business and commerce, and therefore education became important for both genders. The public school system was established in the 1800s, and so were schools dedicated to teaching women subjects relating to caregiving and domestic duties. Although education became gradually co-ed, there was still discrimination in education, as girls’ education served to steer girls towards certain professions such as teaching, nursing and secretarial work (Madigan, 2009, p. 12). The United States is a republic, built on democratic values where men and women have equal rights and obligations according to the law. Being the world’s largest economy, the United States federal government contributed to the education budgets of the states, in order to address issues of national concern. One of these is obviously issues of equality, and in particular gender equality. Despite its principles of equality, not until Title IX legislation was enacted in 1972 has it been illegal to limit girls’ opportunity in education in public schools. Title IX was enacted to


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remedy the gender inequities in the public school system. Unfortunately Title IX legislation was mainly applied to girls’ participation in athletic programs, with minimal effect on other subjects. In 1974 another act, entitled the Women’s Educational Equity Act (WEEA) was passed in order to encourage the enrollment of girls in math, science and athletics (Madigan, 2009, p. 12). A 1992 study published by the American Association of University Women [AAUW] caused a major shift in education, resulting in more girl-friendly educational practices (Krommer, 2006, p. 247). Despite all efforts by the government, the bias remained deeply ingrained in the schooling system, and girls were underrepresented in STEM classes. According to the Department of Education, the Women's Educational Equity Act of 2001 was enacted to expand many educational opportunities for girls. Although progress has been made, the educational system today still lacks gender equity, and girls are not adequately represented in STEM classes and professions. Juxtaposition Examining the historical background and information regarding Germany and Egypt, although there is a great difference in the historical context and socio/cultural implications, and comparing to the situation and struggles of the United States, it seems that there are many things they have in common. Economy, socio-cultural norms and biases, as well as political developments seem to play an integral role in the development of women’s causes in all three countries, and therefore I will consider these three factors the main criteria for comparison. Germany is a strong democracy and economic power, ranking fifth in the world and first in Europe with an estimated GDP of $3.194 trillion (2012). In fact, Germany seems to be the only solid economy in Europe today, bailing out failing economies in Greece, Spain and Italy.


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Although Germany has a growing economy which is very robust, education expenditures only amounts to 4.5% of GDP, ranking Germany at 82nd in the world. Education is largely decentralized and the different provinces (Lander) manage their own education systems. This policy was intentionally instated to avoid the possibility of centralized indoctrination of students reminiscent of the Nazi era. The strong economy of Germany makes it necessary to include women as an integral part of society and the workforce. The differences in political and economic systems between East and West Germany resulted in higher equality and equity in education for women in East Germany. After the reunification of Germany and the stabilization of the political system in both parts of the country, special entities were created to advocate for equality and equity in education for women, and to encourage women to study STEM disciplines and enter these professions. Although Germany is a very progressive modern society, patriarchal attitudes still persist (Stubig, 2004) and women’s opportunities are still hampered by these prevailing social and cultural trends. Studies have indicated that teachers tend to give more attention to boys in the classroom, thus undermining girls’ self-confidence (Stubig, 2004, p. 14). Curricula and materials used also perpetuate gender roles (Stubig, 2004, p. 15). Although the political system assets equality between genders, women still trail in STEM areas and are not afforded equal opportunity in hiring careers associated with these disciplines. Egypt is considered a Third World country with a struggling economy that has been extremely weakened by political unrest in the past two years. Therefore expenditure on education is dismal at 3.8% of its GDP, which is estimated at only $537.8 billion (2012), causing it to rank 109th worldwide in terms of expenditure compared to GDP. The system is centralized, with all authority concentrated in the hands of the central government. Lack of proper funding is


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resulting in very slow education reform and modernization, huge class sizes, which can reach 6070 students per class in public elementary schools. Although access equality is stipulated by law, an extremely overstretched educational system causes oversight on implementation of equal access to be almost non-existent. Prevalent cultural and social attitudes, especially in poor and rural areas put less value on women’s education and favor males, who are regarded as the traditional breadwinner. Poverty and social attitudes contribute to girls falling through the cracks and being deprived from education. Disadvantaged and rural girls are sometimes forced to either seek unskilled work to help support their families, or to be married off young in order to alleviate the family of their burden. Despite these factors, girls are adequately represented in tertiary education, including traditional STEM disciplines, and discrimination in pay is illegal and is generally enforced. Employers however are not banned from discrimination in hiring by advertising jobs with a gender or age preference. Employers sometimes prefer to hire males because they are perceived as being more consistent and reliable, because they do not take maternity leave and family related time off. In the current political environment, unemployment has reached 15% according to the latest government figures. Under the post revolution political system dominated by ultraconservative Islamists, and with unemployment numbers on the rise, resentment towards women competing in the job market is increasing. So, although access is equal by law, educational and professional opportunities for women are limited by economic, social and political factors. Recent accounts from women’s rights watchdog organizations have also alerted to changes in school curricula being introduced by the current government, which are undermining and minimizing the contributions of prominent Egyptian women in politics, economy and science.


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The United States has been a stable democracy and is the strongest economy in the world, with a GDP of $15.66 trillion (2012 est.), and education expenditure amounting to 5.5% of GDP, ranking 43rd in the world as a percentage of GDP. The educational system is decentralized and the federal government only contributes approximately 8% of education expenditure, while state and local governments primarily fund education. Education policy clearly stipulates equality between genders, and free access is guaranteed to all through compulsory education in public schools. Recently, the economic crisis affecting the United States and the whole world has resulted in cuts in education budgets across the nation. These cuts have mainly affected programs and teachers; however access has not been jeopardized. In 1972 Congress enacted the Education Amendments of 1972, which included Title IX, which addressed gender inequality in the educational system. Title IX made it illegal for any school receiving federal funds to discriminate against girls in assignment of classes and in participation in athletics. Unfortunately Title IX remained largely confined to athletic programs and did not reflect on participation of girls in academic programs, especially STEM disciplines. Civic organizations like the American Association of University Women [AAUW] also championed the cause of gender equity in American schools (Krommer, 2006, p. 247). The federal government followed with subsequent legislation to reinforce and elaborate on the principles of Title IX such as the Women’s Educational Equity Act of 1974, which later suffered serious cutbacks (Madigan, 2009, p. 12). These measures had the positive result that, “[a]t both public and private nonprofit 4-year institutions, the 6-year graduation rates of first-time, full-time female students who sought a bachelor's degree in fall 2004 were higher than those of males” (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012, para. 3). However, because of prevalent cultural


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attitudes, women are underrepresented in STEM disciplines, and this affects women’s educational opportunities in general. Studies show that some teachers favor boys over girls in class, and that women’s contribution as equal partners in society are understated in school and college curricula (Fry, 2003, p. 12). General attitudes reinforce misconceptions about girls’ inadequacy for STEM disciplines and result in girls’ underrepresentation in these classes in secondary education and a shortage of female enrollment in these disciplines in tertiary education. Comparison There are many differences, yet also similarities between the three educational systems of Germany, Egypt and the United States in how they have dealt and are dealing with the question of gender equality and equity. All three countries have laws which clearly guarantee equality in educational access of the genders. They also have undertaken measures to stipulate compulsory education for both males and females. The United States has vigilantly protected the rights of women and instated several pieces of legislation aimed at banning any discrimination against females in the education system, including STEM and athletic programs. This legislation has been quite successful in providing opportunities for women in athletic programs, but has fallen short in other areas. While Germany has not introduced legislation to enforce gender equality and equity, the federal government has created the National Office for Women’s Affairs in 1980, and expanded its presence to all provinces of the federation, including the new provinces after the reunification in 1998. The function of these offices is to promote women’s equality including in education. Women have made many strides in Germany, in terms of equity in education, yet studies show that women have not reached complete parity with men.


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Egypt on the other hand, has not introduced additional legislation to insure gender equality and equity beyond the legislation stipulating compulsory education for both genders. Under the Socialist system, the Egyptian government promoted gender equality and female education in its attempts to build the economy. Currently, compulsory education laws are not enforced in large because of lack of financial means and an overstretched educational system, which is not able to cope with the increasing number of students. Funding for education compared to GDP is much bigger in the United States and Germany compared to Egypt. Although the United States has a better percentage of education expenditure than Germany, both countries do not rate high on education expenditure compared to GDP. Financial cutbacks in the United States have caused cuts to funding of the Women’s Educational Equity Act (WEEA) of 1974. This act provided funding to schools to help them attract girls to STEM classes, and provided teachers with “training to increase awareness of gender bias in curriculum and pedagogy”(Madigan, 2009, p. 12). Funding for schools in Egypt is dismal, resulting in huge class sizes in public schools, including public universities, and many students, disproportionally more girls not attending or dropping out without being detected. In addition, both the United States and Germany are wealthy countries, which have well established social services programs designed to help the disadvantaged and both countries also observe strict labor laws which ban child labor. Children do not enter the workforce as is the case with Egypt, which does not generally enforce child labor laws. Extreme poverty forces children to forgo schooling or drop out and work to support their families. Young girls may be forced to enter the workforce or get married so that their poor families do not have to support them.


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Another aspect of gender equality and equity which all three countries face to varying degrees are cultural and social stereotypes. Although much progress has been made in the West regarding gender equality, stereotypical gender roles still seem to persist in the most progressive societies. This is evident in both the United States and Germany in their failure to accomplish full parity in education in the traditionally male dominated STEM disciplines. Although girls have equal access and are outperforming boys in both educational systems, girls are still underrepresented in STEM classes in schools, and the respective disciplines in American and German universities. This represents the systems inability to overcome the prevailing cultural norms and to provide equal opportunity for girls in education. The problem is much more complex in Egypt, which in the past had been able to achieve many gains for women in education and the workplace. In recent years poverty, more pronounced cultural practices, mixed with skewed religious interpretations have exasperated the struggle for gender equity. In the face of all these challenges the government is unable to control lack of attendance and dropout rates, which affect girls more than boys, as well as enforce child labor laws. In recent years the government has been unable to hold onto women’s rights, and has found itself compromising with extremist elements in Egyptian society (Megahed & Lack, 2011, p. 408). All these factors contribute to gender inequity in the educational system and society in general, which are feared to be on the rise under the current rule. Conclusion Gender equality and equity are fundamental human rights, which unfortunately remain largely unaccomplished in many parts of the world. Nowhere is it more unaccomplished than in the educational systems of many countries, including some of the most advanced countries in the world. Many factors play a role, but the common factor between rich and poor, First World and


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Third World are the stereotypical, patriarchal gender roles. Although the intensity and nature of the influence may vary, this factor is at the bottom of all forms of gender inequality and inequity. In order to reach full equality, attitudes need to be changed. At the root of this desired transformation is education itself, since education sometimes can contribute to maintaining the status quo and in perpetuating social and cultural stereo types. Education can also be an agent of change and it is the key to gender equality. We do not only need to ensure equal access to education and opportunity for women, but we also need to educate the males in their lives on the justice of this cause as a basic human right, and the benefits and necessity of gender equality and equity in education, and how this can help improve quality of life for everyone. Approaches to education definitely have to take into consideration a society’s own history and cultural context. Education, as suggested by Fry (2003, p. 12), can include revamping curricula to include women as equal partners and contributors to societies across history. She contends that it is not enough pointing out the accomplishments of prominent women, but that it is important to include women as equals to men in the human story. Training teachers to raise their own awareness of gender biases in curricula and practices, as was one of the goals of the Women’s Educational Equity Act can be part of a comprehensive approach. This option would also be beneficial for Germany, where studies show that gender bias is still embedded in curricula and teacher attitudes in the classroom (Stubig, 2004, p. 14). In the case of Egypt, where religion plays an integral role in everyday life, one way to educate and change the male biased mindset is to reintroduce Egyptians, especially boys and men to the original teachings of Islam, which strongly advocate gender equality. Understanding these teachings can help lessen the impact of the cultural baggage which has distorted religious teaching over the years.


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It is evident that gender inequities still exist in most parts of the world, even in the most advanced and progressive societies. As stated in the UNICEF report on the state of women and children, (UNICEF, 2007), gender equity presents a double dividend. “[g]ender equality will not only empower women to overcome poverty, but will also assist their children, families, communities and countries as well” (UNICEF, 2007, p. 2). Gender equality is a basic human right, as well as a necessity for the future of humankind. In order to ensure healthy and thriving societies the issues of inequities have to be addressed and equity in educational access and opportunities is one basic element of gender equality in general. The comparison in this study between Germany, Egypt and the United States indicates that, although these three countries have differences in political systems, economic resources and cultural norms, all three still have prevalent cultural norms which impede the advancement of women. Change can come through educating both men and women and confronting the hidden curriculum which is embedded in the educational systems, and which reflects deeply ingrained cultural biases and injustices.


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