Generational Distance in Teaching and Learning

Generational Distance in Teaching and Learning Dr. Caroline Ritchie, Elspeth Dale, Mike Flynn and Dr. Sarah Lawson University Wales Institute, Cardiff

This project has been supported by the Higher Education Academy Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Pedagogic Research and Development Fund 2006/07

Generational Distance in Teaching and Learning

Contents Page No Summary Introduction Project Aims Literature Review Methodology Results Quantitative Qualitative Conclusion References

2 3 5 5 7 9 9 10 12 13

Tables and Figures Table 1: Profile of the Student Participants. Figure 1: Age versus Grade Achieved

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Generational Distance in Teaching and Learning

Summary In accordance with the Leitch Report (2005) and as a vocational university, UWIC encourages students to acquire professional qualifications as appropriate to their undergraduate programme. As part of this process the Wine and Spirit Education Trust (WSET) courses are available to full time undergraduates as well as parttime students. Contradicting most accepted academic research, the part-time cohorts persistently achieve significantly higher grades than the full-time cohorts. Using the WSET Intermediate course in Wines and Spirits as a vehicle, this pedagogic research project investigates how acquisition of a technical vocabulary, to accommodate industry demands via professional qualification, can be influenced through linguistic and paralinguistic communications. The project examined factors affecting the way different groups of students are taught the same course by the same lecturers, looking for explanations for differing examination results between them. The project aimed to enable practitioners to deliver necessary factual, fictional and metaphorical knowledge in a more appropriate way increasing technical knowledge, success rates and thereby encouraging life long learning. The project was intended to understand how students of technical subjects handle the language used to educate them and identify good pedagogy associated with the completion of this liminal state, then moving on to the next chunk of knowledge or higher qualification. Evidence of teachers’ self-reported accommodation of and convergence or divergence to their audience may also enable better understanding of how inevitable intergenerational distance can affect outcomes of any course of study, particularly vocational courses. As part of the methodology, during all lectures both staff and students were recorded on video and then analysed in “studiocode” to help establish the significance of non-verbal communications within the classroom. Using this method the researchers were able to establish different words were used for the two cohorts. More significantly, however, the results showed that whilst the parttime classes seemed to have less interaction, in fact a significant part of all interaction in the full-time cohort was student-to-student. This may help to explain the disparity of results between cohorts; however, actually seeing and comparing the verbal and non-verbal communication enables analysis of teaching techniques and the identification of best practice teaching behaviours. Results also identified that part-time students, who are usually older, have more experiential knowledge and a wider vocabulary. Amongst full-time students increasingly age appeared to have a strong negative effect. Those full-time students who identified that they had some prior knowledge of wine (whether or not they actually had any) achieved higher grades than others in their cohort although the pass rate was still low. Self reported prior knowledge did not influence results amongst part-time students. 2 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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Since the number of participants is small and the subject of the lecture very specific, it is difficult to say whether or not these results could be replicated across all teaching and learning situations. However, the concept that self-perception of knowledge before starting a course of study could significantly increase the likelihood of successful completion is important. Therefore one of the recommendations of this report is to undertake a longitudinal study over a much larger population to establish the validity of the findings indicated here. In addition the researchers intend to develop a ‘book of words’, a diary of wine tasting notes which will include only key tasting terms and encourage students to develop their own, individual lexicon of wine terminology. While it is intended that this will facilitate individual learning it is accepted that, paradoxically, this may generate conflict with traditional ‘winespeak’. As the culture of wine drinking spreads into new cultures, i.e. China and India, and new generations of consumers start to consume wine, the final recommendation is that the wine trade should be encouraged to review its own traditional terminology to reflect actual linguistic practice, both for examination and marketing purposes.

Introduction As the UK Government places a greater emphasis on vocational undergraduate courses, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are increasingly liaising with professional and trade bodies to identify means of promoting industry specific knowledge and understanding within professional disciplines, and establishing how it can be demonstrated in a practical manner. Diverse student populations, both nationally and internationally, encourage HEIs to embrace both formal and informal approaches to teaching and delivery to ensure recognisable achievement. Current educational initiatives identify the need to either fulfil employers’ demands, stimulate employer demands or provide sector specific qualifications of a bespoke nature which are mandatory legislative requirements in some areas of employment within the Hospitality, Tourism and Events (HTE) sectors. Examples of such areas are: the sale and consumption of alcohol, the security industry and food safety. Enhanced employability is key to these qualifications. With Dearing (1998) encouraging lifelong learning, the benefits of work-based learning and the need to ‘bridge the gap’ between education and employment professional subject specific qualifications give graduates added value within the labour market. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education in the UK (QAA) have the responsibility to ensure all educational institutions place emphasis on graduate employability qualifications of this vocational nature and therefore emphasise the need for them to be embedded into our curriculum. In classroom situations, communication between teachers and students is generally influenced by two main considerations: the need to cover the course 3 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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content and the need to present this in a way which is accessible to all students. This pedagogic research project examines factors influencing the way two different groups of students are taught the same course by the same lecturers and looks for explanations for the differing results between them. At the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC) the Wine and Spirit Education Trust (WSET) courses are taught to both mature adult part-time and younger fulltime students. At Intermediate level the two groups of students are taught separately for reasons including timetabling, student number considerations, physical and attitudinal reasons. Although for consistency and external validity the content, tasting samples and externally-set, multiple-choice exam are the same for both cohorts, the exam results differ widely, with the adult learner cohort consistently averaging higher grades. At its most extreme in the academic year 2005 /2006 a 100% pass rate was achieved by the adult part-time cohort and only 20% by the younger full-time cohort. The WSET courses are internationally recognised professional qualifications which enhance employability within both the hospitality and wine retail trades. The Intermediate is the second of four qualifications (Foundation, Intermediate, Advanced and Diploma) which can lead onto the Master of Wine qualification. Whilst some part time students take the Intermediate to increase their social wine knowledge (Ritchie, 2006) the majority take the qualifications in order to develop their career prospects. During the course students are expected to acquire a technical vocabulary to describe their wine-tasting experiences so as to be able to communicate these experiences to others i.e. peers and consumers. Teachers are thus constantly endeavouring to train students to make consistent links between olfactory and gustatory sensations and linguistic descriptions of these sensations. To a large extent the vocabulary of wine-tasting is laid down by the wine establishment which is subject to the same ‘inertia of language practices [which] encourages people to say what they no longer perceive or experience’ (Corbin 2005, p. 137) as every other cultural community. The teachers of the Intermediate course at UWIC observed that the different student cohorts appeared to be using different descriptors for the same wines as well as achieving differing results. The team also believed that they were using different language to the two groups and that they were therefore teaching them in two different ways. Thus they speculated that there may be a twofold communication issue occurring; the learning of a new vocabulary of wine and an intergenerational aspect in which different frames of linguistic reference were being used to identify unfamiliar concepts / objects. While acquisition of technical vocabulary is a feature of many domains of learning this double abstraction arguably creates a barrier to learning for the younger generation of students and is reflected in the results achieved.

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Project Aims Initially the project was set up to investigate two aims - however initial data analysis suggested that there might be further issues involved. The third aim was, therefore, incorporated into the project part way through and the life of the project extended (see Research Methods) to enable further data to be gathered in relation to the impact of perceived or actual prior knowledge. 1. To investigate via pedagogic research how intergenerational linguistic issues can impact upon teaching and learning processes amongst diverse groups of students using the WSET Intermediate Certificate course as a case study. 2. To investigate via pedagogic research how generational, professional and cultural norms impact upon the delivery of learning, the relevance of the learning delivered to new generations and acquisition of current appropriate knowledge using the WSET Intermediate Certificate as a case study. 3. To investigate the impact of self-perceived knowledge / level of expertise prior to the start of a course of learning upon successful completion of that course amongst diverse student populations using the WSET Intermediate Certificate course as a case study. Literature Review Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT; Giles, Coupland and Coupland, 1991; Giles, Mulac, Bradac and Johnson, 1987) states that people tend to alter the way they speak along a variety of linguistic (e.g., vocabulary, register, choice of language) and paralinguistic (e.g., speech rate, pitch, pause length) dimensions according to interlocutor characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, gender or, in this case, age), their orientation towards the interlocutor (like, dislike, and so on), and their desired outcome for the interaction. People can converge to adopt a communication style which is more similar to their interlocutor or diverge to adopt a different style. Convergence generally takes place when speakers seek approval from, or better communication with, their interlocutor and/or perceive similarities between themselves and their interlocutor. Divergence, on the other hand, is often used as a distancing strategy, for instance in the expression of identity through accents. As wine educators, the English language is the most important tool to facilitate learning but proves time and time again to be inadequate for the job (Gluck, 2003). This is partly because those who lack a professional language to describe wine flavours and aromas often describe themselves as “not knowing about wine” (Brochet and Dubourdieu, 2001:187) whether or not this is true, and thus, see themselves as outsiders to the Community of Practice. However as Aitchison 5 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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(1999), Peynaud (2005) and Goode (2005) confirm even amongst professional tasters: it is actually quite unlikely that, in any real case, the physical and psychological conditions of any two tasters are the same’(Goode 2005: 26). Thus professional tasters often use different terms to describe the same wine, even during the same competition (Hodgson, 2008). As Ritchie (2006) shows, this does not mean that there is not an accepted, exclusive, professional wine vocabulary, but rather that the vocabulary is very subjective even amongst professionals. It is this subjectiveness of individual taste and smell which makes understanding of wine language both challenging for the learner and problematic for the teacher and vice versa. Caballero and Suarez-Toste (2007) speculate that: a conspicuous characteristic of ‘winespeak’ is its highly figurative nature…..without metaphor wine would be practically undiscussable (Caballero and Suarez Toste, 2007:379) suggesting that the very act of describing the flavours of wine may be creating a barrier to learning. Meyer and Land (2006) recognise these barriers by exploring the concept of troublesome knowledge and the use of ritual knowledge. The coded, shorthanded terminology ‘winespeak’ – which is used by experts in this disciplines’ field - can both create misunderstandings and what is recognised as ‘conceptually difficult knowledge’; the exclusivity suggested by Gluck (2003), or the useful metaphors suggested by Caballero and Suarez-Toste (2007). Pedagogically, the use of metaphors causes problems as, in order to gain full insight into the metaphor, students must first be able to correlate it with their own experiential learning, their own world picture. The learner with limited experiential reference points, stereotypically from the younger full-time cohort, is likely to find it more difficult to identify with imagery and metaphor than a learner with more varied life experience. In addition, as Ritchie (2009) shows, cultural interaction with wine varies within different age and social groups and is often gender biased. With this in mind and given how fast idiomatic English changes, do those industries with a strong traditional / historical interpretation of particular meanings from particular phrases (such as the wine trade and therefore the hospitality industry ) inhibit the development of both a new generation of learners, employees and ultimately consumers? Is the necessary conceptualisation of wine and use of metaphors as descriptive terms to aid understanding of smell and taste, facilitating learning or is liminality affected due to the gender of the student? If so, does this affect all age groups and cohorts and to what degree? Anecdotally, teachers on the WSET courses at UWIC report tailoring their presentation of the course material to their different audiences i.e. encouraging each cohort to develop their own sensory / linguistic memory map. Thus, a possible contributory factor to the difference in examination results is the fact that the mature students are much closer in life experience to the lecturing team and wine industry mentors than the full-time students and therefore that levels of convergence are greater. While there is a considerable body of research into intergenerational communication at certain stages of the lifespan e.g., 6 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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communication with senior citizens or adolescents (e.g., Nussbaum and Coupland, 2004; Williams and Nussbaum, 1999) little work has focused on communication between middle-aged people and young adults in an educational context or elsewhere. Methodology No unusual methods were used to recruit the two cohorts and, as frequently happens, the full-time cohort was significantly larger than the part-time cohort. Both cohorts completed a personal questionnaire enabling the make-up of the two cohorts to be established (see table 1). It should be noted that some students gave two reasons for taking the course and for their intended outcomes.

Total Number of Students Age

47

18 – 24 25 – 29 30 – 34 40 – 44 45 – 49 Gender Male Female Reason for taking Social interest the course Work related Only option module available Intended Increase in general knowledge Career development outcomes if Assist with career change specified Self assessment Non existent of level of Quite limited knowledge at start Good in some areas and of course limited in others Quite good

Part- Time Cohort 13

Full -Time Cohort 34

3 4 3 2 1 8 5 6 8 N/A 8 7 1 1 4 6 2

34

13 21 17 23 0 13 27 5 5 23 6 0

Table 1: Profile of the Student Participants

As Table 1 shows, age, gender and initial self-perceived knowledge level were also collected at the start of each course so that they could be analysed against each students’ actual result. It was accepted that this would be an indicative correlation of the student’s learning progression rather than a precise measurement (such as an exam would provide). The team took the view that asking students to sit a (mock) exam which they would fail during their first lecture would be an abuse of power. Lee et al (2007) identify that compromising social credibility would have been likely to cause significant emotional harm to many of

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the students, since they would be bound to ask what their ‘results’ were. Deliberate exam failure or the withholding of the ‘results’ would almost certainly have damaged the relationship between the students and lecturer and between the students themselves, particularly in the part-time group where students met one another for the first time in the initial lecture. There would have been great potential for this perceived loss of self image at the start of the project to inhibit oral and other paralinguistic communication development. This might have also reduced the motivation to achieve, so undermining the validity of the qualitative results. To investigate empirically how the reported intergenerational accommodation manifests itself in class, the lecturing team and the two groups of students were recorded (audio and video) during lectures throughout their eleven-week courses. Recordings were transcribed throughout the year but members of the teaching team did not have access to the transcriptions until the end of the teaching year to avoid influencing their behaviour during the remainder of the course/s. An in-depth semi-structured interview was also held with each member of the teaching staff by the linguistic member of the team before the teaching team were able to review the transcripts and first data analysis. This was to establish their naïve reflective impressions of their teaching and the students learning experiences. This data is included as part of the final data analysis. All 22 lectures were recorded, giving 44 hours of data, (two hours per lecture for eleven weeks, twice). While this generated an enormous amount of data, the minimum amount of recording time was 24 hours, each teaching lecturer twice on each course. The project team considered that limiting the number of lectures recorded would have been detrimental to the project for two reasons. Firstly, because of the structure of the course, it would not be possible to introduce all of the terminology which the students must learn for their exam in these six sessions. Had it been attempted just for the sake of the project, it would have created a false learning environment and almost certainly been detrimental to the entire learning experience. The second reason for recording all lectures was the fact that the teaching team were aware, historically, that the time frame for each individual student to start communicating verbally and non-verbally with the lecturing team differed from student to student and cohort to cohort. Some might respond in the first week but others may take up to six weeks. It was considered better practice to collect all possible data rather than risk missing a significant event as all communication can exhibit the development of leaning olfactory and gustatory sensations and the acquisition of ‘winespeak.’ Once the teaching programme had finished the analysis of this data set began. A discourse analytic approach (Jaworski and Coupland, 1999) was used to examine and compare the two sets of recordings, not only for content, but also for any linguistic and paralinguistic evidence of teachers’ self-reported accommodation or convergence to their audience. Many theorists ( Foucault,1972; Hall,1996; Mayne,1993 cited Rose 2007) place the notion of discourse centrally within their 8 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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methodologies. It is conceived of as having a ‘specific meaning’ (Rose 2007) as it refers to groups of statements which structure the way a thing (i.e. wine) is thought of and therefore in conjunction with that thought the reaction to that thinking ( i.e. the development of ‘winespeak’). Discourse therefore helps to shape the researcher’s world and to gain understanding of particular knowledge within that world and how things are done. The means of communication, via olfactory and gustatory sensations and the acquisition of ‘winespeak.’ is paramount in establishing understanding and ensuring that learning has taken place in both the education context and the ‘wine world.’ Nead (1988:4 cited Rose 2007:142) identifies “A particular form of language [winespeak] with its own rules and conventions [tasting techniques] and institutions [the (exclusive or illusive) wine world] within the discourse is produced and circulated”. Rose (2007:146) suggests that discourse analysis has two different distinctions and that discourse analysis pays particular attention to visual images and verbal texts and it is therefore relevant to acknowledge it within the context of this research. The results of the original quantitative data analysis raised many questions about what the real barriers to attaining professional qualifications in diverse student cohorts are. Are they classroom based, industry based or does it vary between cohorts or age groups? (See Results and Conclusions) Given the statistically small number of students in the original cohorts, the research team identified that a larger sample population would be necessary to give statistical significance to the results. Therefore the same quantitative data was collected from the 2007 – 2008 cohorts, which were of a similar size and demographic profile. This additional data supported the original results. To the authors’ knowledge, little empirical research has focused on teacher perceptions of communication with their students. Therefore, as part of this project, the teachers’ reflective perceptions of their interactions with their students were also elicited and analysed. Results Quantitative Results An initial set of demographic data (see Figure 1) was collected from both full time and part time cohorts of students. By analysing age versus grade, as shown in figure 1, and by using both the UWIC and WSET pass mark as variables, new questions separate from the original hypnosis emerged. Starting from a lower age and experiential base the full-time cohort appear to progress as well as the parttime cohort, and yet they are unable to achieve the WSET pass mark (56% as opposed to the 40% required by the university). It was questioned whether ‘young’ people should be accepted onto this course or if accepted should they be given a longer period in which to learn so that they could achieve more? Deeper analysis showed that this was a very simplistic view because in the parttime cohort, age appeared to have a positive correlation whilst it had a negative 9 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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one in the full–time cohort. A five year age increase in the part-time group appeared to increase grade potential by 7.5% whilst in the full-time group a 22 year old student had a 15% lower grade potential than an 18 year old student. Interestingly while prior knowledge had no significant effect in the part-time cohort, reported prior knowledge was a significant positive indicator in the full-time cohort.

100

90

80

70

60

Score WSET pass mark

50

University pass mark

Full-time Part-time

40

30

20

10

0 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Age

Figure 1: Age versus Grade Achieved for Part-time and Full-time Students

Qualitative Results The semi-structured interviews conducted established that all the lecturers reported finding the explanation of their teaching material easier in the classes of part-time students, and attributed this to the greater life experience of this cohort. They also reported differences in the two groups of students’ attitudes to learning, in that, for the part-time group, the WSET course was the only formal learning they were doing, while for the full-time group, this was just one of several courses they were taking. One lecturer reported that teaching the two parallel courses had made them more aware of some of the language they were using. They also suggested that if the lecturers are perceived as showing off their specialist knowledge this can become a barrier to learning. The lecturers recognised that the acquisition of the canonical language of wine is essential at the higher levels of wine study, but reported accepting unconventional descriptions from younger students studying at intermediate level. Such unconventional descriptions were influenced by the age and life experience of the 10 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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students. Lecturers also reported altering their own terminology as a function of their audience. Thus, whereas the part-time students are generally more mature and have greater life experience so can relate to technical terminology, the fulltime students may have more difficulty. For example, in likening fruity white wine to oriental fruits, such as lychees, one informant reported feeling confident that the part-time students would be familiar with the fruit and thus able to understand the analogy. However, the same informant reported that with the full-time students, she might also discuss such wine in terms of bubble gum or that the aroma of acetate would be communicated as nail polish. In addition cultural adaptations have to be recognised since, for example, not every part of the world experiences ‘autumn leaves’ and the connotations of ‘farmyard aromas’ are also likely to vary. In addition, the lecturers also reported that they would try and tap into the parttime students’ life experience in their teaching, asking students, for example, if they had ever visited the Loire when discussing wines from that region. This technique would also get the students talking, so that they relaxed and felt more comfortable contributing to other parts of the class. Many of these observations were supported in the recordings of the lectures. With the older, part-time students, lecturers were observed making more reference to their life experience. For example, when discussing German wines with the parttime group, the lecturer referred to Hock as “probably one of the wines you might be familiar with”. Similarly, when explaining the difficulty for English speakers in understanding German wine labelling, the lecturer assumed knowledge of other famous French wines: “You see Chateauneuf du Pape on a bottle of red wine so you have some association of what it is and where it’s come from”. The same inclusive technique was used when talking about Australian wines: “names that you might be familiar with from the Barossa valley, names like Coonawarra”. Another difference observed was that lecturers tended to adopt a more didactic style with the full-time students, using techniques such as repetition of the main points. The tone of the lectures’ voice could also be described as more didactic, as in the following extract: Lecturer: sweet, dry, medium? Student: medium Lecturer: it’s off dry (laughter from fellow students) Lecturer: OK but we’re getting there (.) don’t worry about it Lecturers reported that the part-time students took longer to begin to contribute to class. They attributed this either to their being less used to the classroom setting or to their greater consciousness of their lack of knowledge. Analysis of the classroom supported the view that the part-time cohort took longer to contribute than the full-time cohort, however it also demonstrated that they tended to ask

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more sophisticated questions, presumably as a result of their greater experience with wine. Once they got used to the classroom setting, part-time students appeared to be more at ease with accepted tasting vocabulary, to be more confident of their opinions in tasting discussions and to seek less confirmation from lecturer. In contrast, full-time students, at least initially, were more likely to talk to each other and discuss the wines as they were being tasted, rather than make a comment to the whole class. As a result, they tended to rely more on their lecturer to lead discussions, although some begin to contribute more as the course progressed. Conclusion Both the qualitative and quantitative results indicated many factors which could be identified as potential barriers to learning. Resulting from this: Part-time students; • Appear more confident of opinions in tasting discussions. • Seek less confirmation from the lecturer. • Appear more at ease with tasting vocabulary. • Whilst having less classroom discussion per se tend to engage in more discussion with the lecturer than most full-time students and take more notes.

Full-time students; • Rely more on the lecturer to lead discussion. • Tend to echo the first comment made by a fellow student. • Tend to engage in more classroom discussion, but mainly with their peers. • Only gain in confidence to hold a discussion with the lecturer as the course goes on. Age, be it a positive or a negative, influenced the learning experience. The time allowed for the completion of the course is seen to be a factor that could affect absorption of information, understanding the concept of wine conventions and the necessity of learning ‘winespeak’ (jargon). Prior knowledge may or may not be beneficial as it is not necessarily the ‘winespeak’ that is needed in order for understanding to take place, but people’s experiential learning and the life experiences which help them to interpret the metaphors and analogies used, are beneficial. Therefore background may be significant. Classroom interaction and teaching techniques are also influencing factors as evidenced implicitly by proactive participation in a discussion or the echoing of another’s view. Whilst the age and background of the students cannot be influenced by the teaching staff, the learning environment can. In the academic year following this research the room in which these classes are taught has been changed from lecture style to 12 Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Network, May 2009

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horseshoe. This enables the lecturer to come into much closer contact and have individual discussion with all of the students. The (exam) results of this change are awaited. References Aitchinson, J. (1999). Tasting Terms. In J. Robinson (ed), The Oxford Companion to Wine (pp 691-692) Oxford, Oxford University Press Broadbent, M. (2007). Wine Writing: Cant, Kant and Can’t. Decanter (pp17) London Caballero, R. & Suarez-Toste, E. (2007). Translating the Senses: Teaching the Metaphors in Winespeak. In F. Boers and S. Lindstromberg (Eds.), Not So Arbitrary: Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary and Phraseology, (pp379 – 396). Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter Corbin, A. (2005). Charting the Cultural History of the Senses. In D.Howes, (Ed),. Empire of the Senses; The Sensual Culture Reader (pp 128 – 139). Oxford, Berg Eckert, P. (2000) Linguistic Variation as Social Practice. Oxford: Blackwell., P. and MCCONNELL-GINET, S. (1999) New Generalisations and Explanations in Language and Gender Research. Language in Society 28: 185-201 Giles, H., Coupland, N. & Coupland J. (1991) Accommodation Theory: Communication, Context, and Consequence. In H. Giles, J. Coupland, and N. Coupland (Eds.) Contexts of Accommodation: Developments in Applied Sociolinguistics (pp. 1-68). Cambridge: CUP Giles, H., Mulac, A., Bradac, J. J., & Johnson, P. (1987). Speech Accommodation Theory: the First Decade and Beyond. In M. McLaughlin (Ed.), Communication Yearbook (pp. 13-48). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Gluck, M. (2003). Wine Language: Useful Idiom or Idiot Speak? In J. Aitchison and D. M. Lewis (Ed), New Media Language (pp107 – 115). London, Routledge Goode, J. (2005). All in the Mind. Harpers, The Wine and Spirit Weekly. 25 April 2005: 22 – 29 Hodgson, R., T. (2008). An Examination of Judge Reliability at a Major US Wine Competition. Journal of Wine Economics. 3[2] 105 – 113

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Holmes, J.& Meyerhoff, M. (1999). The Community of Practice: Theories and Methodologies in Language and Gender Research. Language in Society, 28: 173-183 Jaworski, A. & Coupland, N. (1999) (eds.) The Discourse Reader. London: Routledge Lee, Y-Y., Kam, C., C-S. & Bond, M. H. (2007) Predicting Emotional Reactions After Being Harmed by Another. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 28(2): 85 – 92 Meyer, J. H. F. & Land, R. (2006) Overcoming Barriers to Students Understanding: Threshold Concepts and Troublesome Knowledge. London and New York: Routledge Peynaud. E.(2005) Tasting Problems and Errors of Perception. In C. Korsmeyer, (Ed), The Taste Culture Reader: Experiencing Food and Drink (pp 272- 278). Oxford, Berg Ritchie, C. (2006) Identifying the UK Wine Consumer. PhD thesis, University of Wales, Cardiff Ritchie, C., (2009) The Culture of Wine Buying in the UK off Trade. International Journal of Wine Business Research. In Press Rose, G. (2007 )Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials (pp142-146) Sage Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of Practice. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press Williams, A. & Ussbaum, J. (1999) Intergenerational Communication Across the Lifespan. New York: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates

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