Geodynamics of heterogeneous gold mineralization

GR-01809; No of Pages 26 Gondwana Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

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Geodynamics of heterogeneous gold mineralization in the North China Craton and its relationship to lithospheric destruction Sheng-Rong Li a,b,⁎, M. Santosh b,c a b c

State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences Beijing, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China Department of Earth Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 18 January 2017 Received in revised form 23 April 2017 Accepted 13 May 2017 Available online xxxx Handling Editor: J.G. Meert Keywords: Gold deposits Lithospheric destruction Magmatism Geodynamics North China Craton

a b s t r a c t The North China Craton (NCC) hosts some of the world-class gold deposits on the globe, which can be classified into distinct types as the “Jiaodong type”, explosive breccia type and skarn type. The “Jiaodong type” gold deposits were formed at ca. 120–130 Ma both in the margins and interior of the NCC. Two explosive breccia gold deposits formed at ac. 180 Ma and 120 Ma and are located in the southern margin and the interior of the NCC. Important skarn gold deposits of ca. 128 Ma formed within the interior of the NCC. Although the formation and distribution of these gold deposits are temporally and spatially heterogeneous, they are commonly related with the lithospheric destruction of the NCC. The interplay of several factors such as basement architecture, inhomogeneous decratonization, crust-mantle interaction, mantle dynamics, magmatic characteristics, high heat flow and massive flux of deep-derived ore-forming fluids operated in generating the gold endowment. All the three types of gold systems are closely related with granitoid plutons and different types of dykes, the magmas for which were sourced from the lower crust near the Moho discontinuity and involved the mixing and mingling of felsic and mafic magmas. The ore forming fluids display prominent magmatic signature and were largely derived from deep domains, with probable input from the asthenosphere mantle. The heterogeneous distribution of the giant gold systems in the NCC was geodynamically controlled by the destruction of the craton. The regions at the confluence of two or three Precambrian micro-continental-blocks are generally characterized by thinned lithosphere and high heat flow, constituting the potential sites of giant gold deposits. The mantle beneath these regions shows EM2 characteristics implying the involvement of subducted oceanic components. The magmatic intrusions associated with the gold systems crystallized under high oxygen fugacity conditions and were rich in volatiles. © 2017 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2.

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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tectonic framework and destruction of the NCC 2.1. The basement architecture . . . . . . 2.2. Sedimentary cover . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Lithospheric destruction . . . . . . . Giant gold systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. The “Jiaodong type” gold deposits . . . 3.1.1. Distribution and characteristics 3.1.2. Timing of mineralization . . . 3.1.3. Related magmatism . . . . . 3.1.4. Ore-fluids . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.5. Isotopic systems . . . . . . . 3.1.6. Mineralogical features . . . .

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⁎ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.-R. Li).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.05.007 1342-937X/© 2017 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Li, S.-R., Santosh, M., Geodynamics of heterogeneous gold mineralization in the North China Craton and its relationship to lithospheric destruction, Gondwana Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.05.007

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S.-R. Li, M. Santosh / Gondwana Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

3.2.

The explosive breccia type gold deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1. Spatial - temporal distribution and characteristics . . . . . . . 3.2.2. Magmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3. Ore-fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4. Isotopic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. The skarn gold deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1. Spatial - temporal distribution and characteristics . . . . . . . 3.3.2. Magmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3. Ore-fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4. Isotopic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Mantle contribution to gold metallogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Magmatism derived from crust-mantle mingling . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Ore-forming fluids of deep origin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Gold-associated metals of mantle affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Geodynamics controlling the formation of giant gold deposits . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Triple-boundary junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Strongly thinned lithosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. EM2 mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4. High oxygen fugacity, volatile-rich magmas and magma mixing-mingling 5.5. High heat flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction The North China Craton (NCC) hosts some of the world-class gold deposits on this planet and contributes to more than two thirds of the gold production in China (Groves et al., 2016; Groves and Santosh, 2016). Some of the richest gold endowment in the NCC occurs in the Jiaodong Peninsula along the eastern part of the craton, defining one of the major gold fields in Asia (Goldfarb et al., 2014). Within an area of 26,333 km2, about 0.27% of China's land, N100 lode gold deposits, including 7 world-class giants, have been discovered and explored in the Jiaodong peninsula. With a total proven and predicted gold reserve reaching N5000 t, the Jiaodong region ranks as the largest gold producer of China, as well as one of the important gold provinces in the world (Zhu et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2014; Goldfarb et al., 2014). Gold deposits geologically similar with those in the Jiaodong peninsula, classified as the Linglong-style which occur as extensional massive gold-quartz-pyrite veins, and the Jiaojia-style that occurs as veinlets and altered rock disseminations along fracture zone (Deng et al., 2015; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Li and Santosh, 2014; Goldfarb et al., 2014), are broadly found in other areas in the NCC and elsewhere in China. The most important among those are found in the Xiaoqinling region in the southern margin of the NCC, the Taihangshan region in the central NCC and the Yanliao region in the northern margin of the NCC (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015). Different types of gold deposits with economic importance (such as for example the Guilaizhuang and Qiyugou explosive type, and the Yinan skarn type gold deposits) also occur in the NCC (Deng et al., 2015; Li and Santosh, 2014; Li et al., 2013). Although several models have been proposed for the origin of the giant lode gold deposits of the NCC, the topic remains controversial (Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014). Previous researchers emphasized the occurrence of amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks in the gold fields, and considered the gold deposits as greenstone type, assigning the metamorphic rocks as the source for the metallic ores. However, there is almost two-billion-year time gap between metamorphism and gold mineralization (Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014). The spatial and temporal relationship between the gold deposits and associated magmatic intrusions led to the suggestion that gold metallogeny is linked to the many granitoid plutons and mafic dykes (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016). Based on the structural setting, mineralization styles, and fluid geochemistry, some researchers classified the lode gold deposits in the Jiaodong peninsula and eastern NCC as orogenic type or

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intrusion-related orogenic type (e.g., Zhou and Lu, 2000; Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2014; Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Mao et al., 2011; Chen, 2006). However, the tectonic environment, metamorphic setting and mineralogical characteristics, as well as the vertical zoning of the lode gold are unique and different from the accepted models of global orogenic gold deposits (Groves et al., 1998). This has evoked the proposal of a new type of the lode gold deposits in the NCC, namely the “Jiaodong type” (e.g., Li and Santosh, 2014; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2015; Deng and Wang, 2016; Li et al., 2016). On the basis of a comparative analysis of typical orogenic gold and the gold deposits in the NCC, including the lode gold, skarn and explosive breccia types, Zhu et al. (2015) argued that the gold deposits in the NCC belong to the “decratonic gold deposits” (Zhu et al., 2015). In this overview, we focus on the heterogeneous distribution of gold deposits in the North China Craton. We have identified regions of lode gold deposits and investigated their relationship with the decratonization of the NCC, especially in the context of lithospheric thinning. 2. Tectonic framework and destruction of the NCC 2.1. The basement architecture A craton is described as a part of the Earth's crust with a thick lithospheric root (N 150 km), a refractory lithospheric mantle (harzburgite with a Mg#, [Mg# = 100 × Mg/(Mg + Fe2 +)] of N 92, high 87Sr/86Sr, and low 143Nd/144Nd), strong mechanical and chemical coupling between the crust and mantle, and which has been subjected to little crustal deformation, magmatism and seismicity for a prolonged period since its formation (Pollack, 1986; Zhu et al., 2015). Most cratons are characterized by ancient cratonic nuclei, or micro-continents (Zhai and Santosh, 2011 and references therein; Santosh et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2016; Yang and Santosh, 2017). The basement architecture and evolutionary history of the NCC have been well studied and documented since 1990s (e.g., Bai et al., 1993; Wu et al., 1998). The popular framework of the NCC basement envisages two discrete blocks, the Western and Eastern Blocks, developed independently during the Archean and finally collided along the central zone (Trans North China Orogen) to form a coherent craton during the global Paleoproterozoic collisional event at 1.85 Ga (Zhao et al., 2005). However, others argue that the NCC was developed from several



ancient cratonic nuclei, dominantly composed of orthogneisses and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks with ages at ca. 3.0–4.1 Ga (Wu et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2016). These nuclei further grew into seven micro-continental blocks by crustal accretion, termed as the Alashan (ALS), Ji'ning (JN), Ordos (OR), Fuping (FP or Xuchang, XCH), Qianhuai (QH), Xuhuai (XH) and Jiaoliao (JL) blocks from west to east of the NCC (Zhai and Santosh, 2011; Santosh et al., 2009, 2012; Yang et al., 2016; Yang and Santosh, 2017). These micro-continental blocks did

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not amalgamate into a coherent craton and define the unified tectonic architecture of the NCC until ca. 2.5 Ga as demonstrated by the Neoarchean volcanism and magmatism at ca. 2.9–2.7 Ga and 2.6–2.45 Ga, and granitic magma invading the basement rocks in all these micro-blocks during ca. 2.5–2.4 Ga (Wu et al., 1998; Zhai and Santosh, 2011). All the micro-blocks in the NCC were probably welded by greenstone belts of island arc or back-arc basins at the end of late Neoarchean (Fig. 1a,b,c; Zhai and Santosh, 2011; Santosh et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2016).

Fig. 1. (a) Major tectonic units of the North China Craton (Modified after Xu et al., 2009); (b) Geological and tectonic map of the North China Craton (Modified after Zhao et al., 2005; Zhai and Santosh, 2011; Santosh, 2010); (c) Mosaic map of the early Precambrian micro-continental blocks (after Zhai and Santosh, 2011) and distribution of gold deposits (Li and Santosh, 2014).


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Several models have addressed the geodynamics of the NCC, among which the vertical accretion with multi-stage cratonization (Zhao et al., 2005) and marginal accretion – reworking (Jin and Li, 1996) are popular. Arc–continent, arc-arc or continent–continent collision models have also proposed to explain the early Precambrian evolution of this craton (Zhai and Santosh, 2011). The amalgamated craton had been reworked during the Paleoproterozoic with a pull-apart stage at 2300–2000 Ma, and a tectonic compressional stage from subduction to collision at 2010–1970 Ma (Zhai and Santosh, 2011). A mantle plume was suggested to be responsible for the rapid uplift of the crystalline basement, retrograde metamorphism and migmatization, the birth of a large igneous province, and intrusion of anorogenic magmatic rocks and rifting at ca. 1.8 Ga (Zhai and Santosh, 2011). The pull-apart stage of the incorporated blocks at 2300–2000 Ma might have been triggered by mantle plume activity. The rapid assembly of the dispersed continental fragments was promoted probably with the model of opposing subduction regime (Santosh, 2010; Fig. 2). It is interesting that the rift and extension of the ancient remnant ocean basins during the Paleoproterozoic were all along the boundaries between the microblocks, which implies that these boundaries are eternal fragile “wounds” in a craton with multiple zones of welding. 2.2. Sedimentary cover From the late Paleoproterozoic to the end of the Paleozoic, the NCC received relatively continuous deposition of shallow-marine carbonate platform sediments, which became suitable for the formation of skarn gold deposits. The sedimentary cover of the NCC is mainly composed of Middle to Late Proterozoic (the so-called “Jiningian Cycle”) sediments composed of one third carbonates and two third terrigenous rocks (Fig. 3; Mei and Li, 1994). The lithological constitution of the sedimentary cover in the NCC is similar with those in other platforms of the Laurasia except for the slightly lesser volume of evaporite (Table 1). Compared with the earth's sedimentary shell (Ronov, 1983), the terrigenous

Fig. 3. a, Volume variation of the sedimentary cover in the NCC; b, Lithological composition of the sedimentary cover in the NCC in different periods. (after Mei and Li, 1994).

sediments of the NCC are rich in clastic rocks (41% in volume, as compared to 23.12% global average) and poor in argillaceous rocks (26.7% in volume, as compared to 48.43% for the earth's shell) (Mei and Li, 1994). In the Taihang Mountains area and the Luxi area, well within the interior of the NCC, Paleozoic carbonate units are developed well, and carry skarn iron and gold deposits.

Fig. 2. Geological map of the North China Craton showing the proposed subduction zones and inferred subduction polarity (thick arrows) (Santosh, 2010).



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Table 1 Constitution of the sedimentary covers of the NCC, Laurasia, North America, Europe and global Platforms. Area

NCC Laurasia North America Europe Global Platform

Volume

Mass

Lithology (in volume %)

106km3

1022g

Terrigenous

Carbonatite

Evoparite

9.58 136.4 29.7 106.7 220.8

0.25 3.36 0.73 2.63 5.43

67.75 65.15 67.15 64.57 71.75

31.32 30.82 27.9 31.6 25.42

0.93 3.62 4.87 3.3 2.61

2.3. Lithospheric destruction Since the final constitution of the NCC at the end of Paleoproterozoic, the craton largely remained unaffected with little crustal deformation, weak magmatism and seismicity, and a lithosphere of ca. 200 km thick, refractory lithospheric mantle strongly coupled with crust until the onset of the “Yanshanian movement” during the early Jurassic. During this prolonged tranquil history of the NCC extending from Paleoproterozoic to Early-Mesozoic, there was only small scale magmatism. In the Mesoproterozoic, correlating with the rifting event of the Columbia supercontinent, magmatic events was recorded in the northern margin of the NCC, such as the mafic dyke swarms, the Miyun rapakivi granite, the Damiao anorthosite and K-rich volcanics in the Dahongyu Formation (Zhang et al., 2009). During the Paleozoic, following the intrusion of the Early Ordovician diamond – bearing kimberlite pipes of ca 480 Ma in the Mengyin and Fuxian areas in the northeastern margin of the NCC (Chi and Lu, 1996; Xu, 2001), a series of carboniferous calc – alkaline, I – type granitoids of 324–300 Ma invaded into the northern margin of the NCC and are correlated with the southward subduction of the paleo Asian plate (Zhang et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2009). In the early Mesozoic, some alkaline and calc-alkaline igneous rocks of Late Triassic and Jurassic ages invaded into the northern and eastern margins of the NCC (Yang et al., 2007, 2009). The Tongshi alkaline complex of ca. 180 Ma and the Linglong calc-alkaline granite of ca. 150–160 Ma are examples from the Luxi and Jiaodong regions along the eastern margin of the NCC (Lan et al., 2012; D.B. Yang et al., 2012; K.F. Yang et al., 2012; Guo et al., 2014; Li and Santosh, 2014; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015). One of the most prominent criteria for craton destruction is magmatism. In this sense, the NCC started its journey towards destruction from the intense magmatic activity during Carboniferous. However, the pace towards destruction was very slow at the early stage and the fundamental framework of the NCC remained unaffected until the early Cretaceous when magmatism flared up and attained its peak, characterized by a wide range of felsic and mafic intrusive and extrusive rocks not only in the marginal areas, but also in the interior of the NCC. The granitoid plutons (e.g., the Mapeng, Chiwawu, Sunzhuang, Wang'anzhen, Dahenan plutons) and the intermediate-acid dykes in the Taihang and Hengshan Mountains, as well as the Yinan intrusive complex in Luxi region in the interior were emplaced at ca. 130– 140 Ma (Li et al., 2013; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014; Dong et al., 2013; Li and Santosh, 2014; Q. Li et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2015; Sun et al., 2014; Song et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2014). The granitoid plutons (such as the Guojialing, Sanfoshan plutons) and the closely coupled dyke swarms in the Jiaodong region were also emplaced in the early Cretaceous (120–130 Ma, D.B. Yang et al., 2012; K.F. Yang et al., 2012; L. Li et al., 2015, 2016; Y.J. Li, 2015). The distribution of Mesozoic magmatic suites in the NCC, combined with structural, geochronological and geophysical data suggests that the western part of the NCC was largely unaffected as compared to the eastern part which underwent heavy destruction. The central zone, in contrast, experienced modification to various degrees. Although the initiation of the lithosphere thinning in the NCC is not later than the Carboniferous and Triassic respectively in the northern and eastern margins (Xu et al., 2009), the lithosphere thinning and decratonization of

Ref.

Mei and Li, 1994 Ronov, 1983 Ronov, 1983 Ronov, 1983 Ronov, 1983

the eastern NCC and modification of the central zone culminated in the Early Cretaceous at ca. 125 Ma. Geophysical data prove that more than half of the thickness of the lithosphere in the eastern NCC has been lost during the decratonization. A recent study suggested that regional thermal–chemical erosion by vigorous mantle convection within the big mantle wedge (BMW), possibly together with local delamination, played a key role in the Mesozoic thinning, whereas the Cenozoic thinning is probably related to rifting and/or mantle plume activity (He, 2015). The present architecture of the lithosphere shows marked differences in thickness in different locations of the eastern and the central NCC. In the neighboring areas around the NNE trending Tanlu fault, namely along the eastern margin of the NCC, the thickness of the lithosphere ranges from 60 to 90 km, whereas in the Central zone along the Taihang Mountains, the thickness increases to 110–160 km. Within a gradual changing lithospheric framework of the eastern and central NCC, in some locations such as in the Northwestern Jiaodong and Liaodong areas in the eastern side of the Tanlu fault, the Pingyi-Yinan areas of the Luxi, western side of the Tanlu fault, and the Fuping-Hengshan areas in the central zone, the lithosphere is obviously thinner than in the neighboring regions. The crust of the eastern and central NCC also shows significant variation in thickness from place to place. The present architecture of the lithosphere and crust of the NCC has largely been established in the early Cretaceous when the decratonization of the NCC reached its peak. This inference is also supported by previous petrological and geochemical data of the magmatic suites (Zheng, 1999; Xu, 2001; Wu et al., 2008). The source of oreforming materials and magmatism related to the gold, iron and copper deposits in the interior and margins of the NCC (Cao et al., 2011; Shen et al., 2013; Dong et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2013a, 2013b; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2015), combined with published geophysical data (Wei et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2011), suggest that the heterogeneity in the decratonization of the NCC was partly controlled by the zones welding the crystalline basement, especially the triple points of the Precambrian micro-continental blocks (Li et al., 2013; Li and Santosh, 2014). 3. Giant gold systems The NCC as one of the major producers of gold in China is characterized by several gold provinces and world-class gold deposits most of which belong to the Mesozoic. Some of these in the eastern part of the craton are classified as large or super-large deposits, particularly those belonging to the “Jiaodong type” (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015), “crypto-explosive breccia type” and “skarn type”. All these types of gold deposits are also included in the “decratonization gold” category (Zhu et al., 2015). 3.1. The “Jiaodong type” gold deposits 3.1.1. Distribution and characteristics The Jiaodong type of gold deposits is the most important supplier of gold resource in China. The name follows the location of the most important gold province of China, the Jiaodong gold province. These gold deposits are largely distributed in the Jiaodong peninsula in the eastern


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part of the NCC, the Xiaoqinling Mountains and the Jibei region, in the southern and northern margins respectively, forming several worldclass gold provinces (Fig. 1c). The term “Jiaodong type” is also applied to some gold deposits with potential for exploration elsewhere, such as the Shihu and Yixingzhai gold deposits in the interior of the NCC, the Qiyiqiu and Jiaochagou gold deposits in the northern margin of the Tarim plate, the Woxi gold deposit in the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton, and the Mojiang gold deposit in the Yunnan province, among others (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2015; Deng and Wang, 2016). The “Jiaodong type” gold provinces are largely associated with Precambrian metamorphic basement which was intruded by Mesozoic granitoids and various dykes. The metamorphic basement is characterized by Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic TTG (tonalite – trondhjemite – granodiorite) gneisses, felsic and mafic volcanics and volcano- sedimentary successions (Li and Santosh, 2014; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016). Voluminous volcanic sequences represented by (trachy-) andesites also occur in some of these regions, and have been correlated to an Early Cretaceous magma flare-up event (Yang and Santosh, 2014). The structures associated with the Jiaodong type gold deposits are characterized mainly by faults and fractures of different order, scales, and different ductile–brittle deformation features. The gold orebodies are dominantly localised within these faults and fractures and the related alteration zones. These faults and fractures were formed dominantly under compressive shear stress with their depths generally greater than their lengths (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015). The Jiaodong type gold mineralization occurs as two styles with one as quartz – vein hosted and another as fracture controlled and altered rock hosted. Traditionally, the former is called Linglong style and the latter is called Jiaojia style. The orebodies of the Linglong style are generally confined within steeply faults (N60°) and those of the Jiaojia style are mainly controlled by gently dipping fractures (b 45°). The ore structures are dominated by massive and banded for the Linglong style deposits, whereas those of the Jiaojia style comprise disseminated and veinletstockwork structures. The mineral compositions and assemblages of the ores are complex with about 30 metallic and 20 nonmetallic minerals identified so far. The common metallic minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, native gold, electrum, kustelite, hessite and minor amounts of specularite, cerussite, wulfenite, scheelite, wolframite and arsenopyrite. The gangue minerals are mainly quartz, microcline, albite, sericite, chlorite, ankerite, calcite, and barite (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015). The primary hydrothermal alteration is microclinisation, hematitisation, silicification, sericitisation, chloritisation, and pyritisation. Hydrothermal alteration is prominently zoned with strong silicification, sericitisation and pyritisation in the inner domain (SSP zone) and microclinisation, hematitisation and chloritisation in the outer (KHC zone). The thickness of the SSP zone is generally b2 m for the Linglong style deposits and N 10 to several hundred meters in the Jiaojia style deposits. Field and laboratory observations reveal that the KHC alteration represents the onset of the ore fluid activity in the fracture systems and SSP alteration is the first stage of gold precipitation. Following the SSP alteration, the later process witnessed quartz, pyrite, poly-metallic and carbonate stages. The carbonate stage marked the end of gold mineralization (Figs. 4, 5). 3.1.2. Timing of mineralization Several isotopic geochronological methods have been applied to constrain the timing of the Jiaodong type gold metallogeny. Among of these, the 40Ar/39Ar method was used to date the microcline and biotite of the KHC alteration zone, the sericite of the SSP zone and quartz (with trapped fluid inclusions) associated with pyrite and polymetallic minerals (e.g., Li et al., 2012a, 2012b; Xue et al., 2013; Fan et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2014; Li YJ et al., 2015; Zhang JQ et al., 2015). The Rb-Sr isochron method was employed to date the pyrite and fluid inclusions in quartz of main mineralization stage (e.g., Fan et al., 2012; Sun WY et al., 2014; Zhang JQ et al., 2015). The U-Pb method

was used to date the hydrothermal zircon in the auriferous quartz vein (e.g., Hu et al., 2004) and Re-Os method was used for dating the molybdenite associated with auriferous pyrite (e.g., Li et al., 2007). The geochronological data show that the ages in the northern and southern margins of the NCC vary in relatively large ranges from 387 to 112 Ma and from 232 to 123 Ma, respectively, whereas the ages of gold deposits in other districts show a relatively small range from 140 to 111 Ma (see the age data in Table 2, L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015). These data suggest that the gold mineralisation in the northern and southern margins possibly witnessed a primitive gold enrichment during the collision-orogenesis between the North China Craton and the Siberian Craton in the north and the Yangtze Craton in the south before the Early Cretaceous. However, large scale gold mineralisation in the whole eastern NCC occurred during the Early Cretaceous tectonic transformation at about 110–140 Ma (Fig. 6). According to other workers, the gold deposits in different provinces of the NCC were in general formed during the time interval from 130 to 120 Ma (Zhu et al., 2015), and the formation of the gold in the “Western Belt” (including Xiaoqinling-Xiong'ershan and the central Taihangshan gold districts) was ca. 10 Ma later than the formation of the “Eastern Belt” (including the Jiaodong and Liaodong-Ji'nan gold districts). 3.1.3. Related magmatism Gold orebodies in the “Jiaodong type” gold provinces are accompanied by extensive magmatic suites. Outcrops observation shows that most of the “Jiaodong type” gold orebodies are located generally at distances less than several kilometers (b 5 km), and a few of them are found at distances N10 km from the plutons. The giant orebodies of the Sanshandao, Jiaojia, Dayingezhuang and Linglong gold deposits in the Jiaodong region, for example, closely occur at the boundary of a Cretaceous granodiorite pluton and the Jurassic granitic pluton (L. Li et al., 2015; Y.J. Li et al., 2015; Li et al., 2003, 2006). The auriferous quartz veins of the famous Dongchuang, Wenyu, Yangzhaiyu, Dongtongyu gold deposits are located 3–5 km south of the Early Cretaceous Wenyu granitic pluton in the Xiaoqinling region (L. Li et al., 2015; Li et al., 2012a, 2012b). The gold orebodies of the Shihu and Yixingzhai gold deposits in the central NCC are about 1 km away of the Mapeng and Sunzhuang granitic plutons respectively (Zhang JQ et al., 2015; Li et al., 2013, 2014). The gold-bearing quartz veins of the Jinchangyu, Yu'erya, and Huajian deposits are distributed 0–1.5 km away from granitic stock or plutons in the well-known Jidong gold district. The Dabaiyang gold deposit of the Jibei area occurs partly within the Xiangshuigou granitic pluton, similar to the Huajia deposit (L. Li et al., 2015). It is noteworthy that the gold deposits in the northern margin of the NCC show close spatial relation with their coeval granitic plutons, with most of them at a distance of about 0–2 km from the intrusions. Various types of dykes, especially lamprophyres, occur proximal to the auriferous quartz veins, and some of them occupy the same structural spaces with the gold orebodies such as the same faults or fractures in Jiaodong. A similar situation also occurs in other gold fields of the NCC, such as those of Xiaoqingling, Jibei, Jidong, Liaoxi, Fuping, and Wutai Hengshan (Li et al., 2016; Zhang JQ et al., 2015; Li et al., 2012a, 2012b). Most of the granitoid plutons and different dykes in the gold provinces have been dated by zircon U-Pb and Ar-Ar or K-Ar methods. The results show broadly similar range of ages for the magmatic suites and the gold deposits in different districts in the NCC. In the northern margin of the NCC, magmatism occurred in nearly four periods from 230 to 140 Ma (220–230 Ma, 270–280 Ma, 170–180 Ma, 130–150 Ma), reflecting the complex history of the northern margin of the NCC related with the southward subduction of the Siberian plate and the westward subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate. The ages of magmatism in the southern margin demonstrate two periods at 240–210 Ma and 140– 120 Ma, correlating with the collision between the NCC and the Yangtze plate and the westward subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate. The eastern margin records two periods of magmatism at ca. 150–160 Ma and 110–130 Ma which are all related with the destruction of the NCC



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Fig. 4. Linglong style gold ores from the Jinchiling deposit, Jiaodong peninsula. a, Highly altered granite from the KHC zone; b, Highly altered granite from the SSP zone; c, Pyrite-bearing quartz vein; d, Quartz-pyrite vein; e, Quartz-polymetallic sulfide vein; f, Quartz-calcite vein.

triggered by the westward subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate. During the Early Cretaceous, the interior of the NCC also witnessed strong igneous activity during130–140 Ma with associated gold mineralization (L. Li et al., 2015, 2016; Y.J. Li et al., 2015; Li et al., 2003, 2006, 2012a, 2012b; Li et al., 2013; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014; Q. Li et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2015; Li and Santosh, 2014; Yang et al., 2014). The plutons or stocks associated with the Jiaodong type gold system in the NCC show a large variety of different rock types including granodiorite, monzogranite, quartz-monzodiorite and alkaline granite with granodiorite and monzogranite as the dominant ones. The Early Cretaceous stocks associated with the giant gold deposits in the Jiaodong region, eastern margin of the NCC, for example, are porphyritic granodiorite with large K-feldspar phenocrysts. The gold-related plutons in the Xiaoqingling region, southern margin of the NCC are biotite monzogranite with magnetite and sphene as the main accessory minerals. These plutons or stocks are generally accompanied by dykes of various compositions, especially lamprophyre and diabase and contain mafic microgranular enclaves (MME), resulting from magma mixing and mingling through the intrusion of mafic magmas into felsic magma chambers (Fig. 7). At places, the granitoid plutons associated with gold shows hornblende- and sphene-bearing granitic pegmatite and sulfide- bearing quartz druse or amygdule. Based on mineralogical thermometers, the formation temperature of these plutons was constrained to be in the range of 500 °C to 800 °C, which suggests a volatile-rich magma. Both the phenocryst and matrix microcline crystals in

the plutons contain BaO, Fe2O3, Cr2O3, TiO2, Ga2O3, GeO2 and Au, Ag, indicating the involvement of mantle-derived materials in the magmas (L. Li et al., 2015; S.R. Li et al., 2014). The granitoid plutons associated with the Jiaodong type gold system are high potassium, calc-alkaline, magnetite series and I type with SiO2 ranging from 56 wt% to 75 wt%, Mg# and Fe2O3 N50 and 4 wt%, respectively. The initial Sr values of these rocks are low and their εNd(T) values are variable. Their lower crustal or orogenic lead isotopic compositions are similar with those of the Jiaodong type gold ores. Their δ18Ovsmow values (ca. 10.77‰) are consistent with the values for quartz from the Jiaodong type gold ores (ca. 10.67‰), and ca. 3‰ greater than those for the coeval intermediate-mafic dikes (ca. 7.88‰) and the Precambrian basement rocks (ca. 8.8‰), suggesting a highly oxidized mineralizing fluid (L. Li et al., 2015; Fig. 10). 3.1.4. Ore-fluids Principally three types fluid inclusions have been identified in quartz and carbonate minerals associated with the Jiaodong type gold system, namely H2O, CO2, and CO2 + H2O (Fig. 8). In the early mineralization stage (quartz stage), mixed H2O-CO2 and minor CO2 inclusions are dominant in milky quartz with minor CH4 and/or N2 components. The total homogenization temperature (ThTOT) of the low salinity mixed H2O-CO2 inclusions varies from 420 °C to 280 °C,and the densities of CO2 phase (ρCO2) and the total density of the inclusion (ρ) are of 0.3 ± 0.2 g/cm3 and 0.85 ± 0.15 g/cm3 respectively. The salinity of the


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Fig. 5. Native gold in Jiaojia style ores from the Shangzhuang deposit. Au-Native gold; Q-Quartz; Py-Pyrite.

aqueous phase varies from 4 to 7 wt% NaCl. The main mineralization stage (pyrite and polymetallic stages) is characterized by coexisting CO2 and H2O inclusions in smoky gray quartz. The ThTOT values of the CO2 - H2O inclusions vary from 250 to 150 °C, the ρCO2 and ρvalues are of 0.5 ± 0.3 g/cm3 and 0.25 ± 0.15 g/cm3 respectively. The salinity ranges from 3 to 8 wt% NaCl. The fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite of the late stage (carbonate stage) are characterized mainly by small sized H2O type with low VH2O/LH2O, and the homogenization temperature and salinity of the H2O inclusions are lower than those of the main mineralization period, with 200 ± 50 °C and 1 to 3 wt% NaCl, respectively (L. Li et al., 2015 and references therein; Table 2).

On the 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb tectonic diagram (Zartman and Doe, 1981), most of the data for Jiaodong type gold ores from the whole NCC are plotted in the area between the mantle and orogeny curves, and on the 208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb diagram, all the data points are distributed in the area between the lower crust and orogeny curves. Besides, the lead isotopic compositions of the sulfide minerals from the Jiaodong type gold deposits and those of the wallrocks including the basement, coeval granite and the dykes are also highly consistent (Fig. 10; Li et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2015; L. Li et al., 2015 and references therein). These results suggest that the lead isotopic

3.1.5. Isotopic systems The sulfur isotopic composition of the Jiaodong type gold systems shows variation in different districts. The δ34SCDT values of the gold ores in Jiaodong, along the eastern margin of the NCC, mainly concentrate within a narrow range from + 6‰ to + 9‰. Most of the δ34SCDT values for the gold ores from the southern and northern margins and the interior of the NCC vary from −2‰ to +4‰. Notably, the sulfur isotopic composition of Jiaodong type gold systems in most of the areas in the NCC shows meteoritic signature, except that from the Jiaodong region which is slightly heavier than that of the meteoritic sulfur. The sulfur isotopic data for the gold ores in the whole of NCC are consistent with those of the neighboring coeval granitoid plutons and intermediate-mafic dykes as well as the metamorphic basement, suggesting significant inheritance (L. Li et al., 2015 and references therein) (Fig. 9). Except for minor variations, most of the lead isotopic data for the Jiaodong gold systems in different regions show similar characteristics. Table 2 Summary of the fluid inclusion characteristics for the “Jiaodong type” gold deposits. Stage

Type

Th (°C)

Quartz Pyrite & polymetallic Carbonate

H2O-CO2 CO2 & H2O H2O

420–280 250–150 200

Density (g/cm3) CO2

Total

0.3 0.5

0.85 0.25

Salinity (wt% NaCl equi.)

4–7 3–8 3

Fig. 6. Histogram showing the age distributions of the Jiaodong type, crypto-explosive breccia type and skarn type gold deposits.



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Fig. 7. Photographs (a–d) and photomicrographs (e–h) of the intrusive rocks linked with the gold mineralization in Fuping region. a & e, Quartz monzodiorite; b & f, Diorite porphyrite; c, d & h, Monzogranite; g, Mafic microgranular enclave in the monzogranite (d). Pl, Plagioclase; Hbl, Hornblende; Bt, Biotite; Kfs, Potassic feldspar; Py, Pyrite.

composition of the Jiaodong type gold mainly correspond to a mixture of those from the mantle, lower and upper crust (Zartman and Doe, 1981). Most of the hydrogen-oxygen isotopic data of the Jiaodong type gold ores are concentrated within the range of −92‰ to −65‰ for δD and − 3‰ to + 8‰ for δ18O, showing characteristics of juvenile and magmatic water and consistent with the hydrogen-oxygen isotopic composition of the coeval granite (Li et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2015; L. Li et al., 2015 and references therein). The δ13CPDB and δ18OV-SMOW values of the calcite from the Jiaodong type gold systems are largely clustered within ranges from −6.5‰ to

−0.6‰ and +8‰ to +14‰ respectively (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015), suggesting magmatic and mantle carbon and oxygen source (− 9‰ ~ − 3‰ and − 5‰ ~ − 2‰, Ohmoto, 1972) for the carbonate minerals. The 3He/4He and 40Ar/36Ar values measured from the mixed fluid inclusions in pyrite crystals of the “Jiaodong type” gold system ranges from 0.1 to 2.36 Ra and from 310 to 1148 (Zhang LC et al., 2002; Shen et al., 2013). Among these deposits, the interlayer slip zone controlled, such as the Pengjiakuang, Fayunkuang and Dujiaya gold deposits, yield 3 He/4He values b 1.0 Ra and 40Ar/36Ar values of 393–310,which are much close to the crustal helium and meteoric argon (40Ar/36Ar =


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Fig. 8. Fluid inclusions in quartz from the Jinchiling gold deposit. a, c and f, Two phase liquid-liquid CO2-H2O inclusions; b and d, Halite-bearing liquid-vapor inclusions; e:CO2 vapor inclusions.

295.5). Most of the data from the Jiaodong type gold systems, however, show prominent input of mantle helium and argon with 3He/4He N 1.0 Ra and 40Ar/36Ar N 500. Plots of these data on the 3He-4He diagram and 40Ar/36Ar-Rc/Ra, show that the Jiaodong type gold systems are within the area between the crust and mantle, displaying mixing of crustal and mantle fluids. Calculation based on crust-mantle -end members shows that nearly 30 wt% of the inert gas was derived from the mantle. 3.1.6. Mineralogical features 3.1.6.1. Cr-Al mica. Emerald phyllosilicate minerals were found in the phyllic alteration zone from the Sanshandao and its northern seabed part, Jiaojia, Linglong, Jinchiling, Zhaodaoshan, Jinqingding, Sanjia, Shihu, Yixingzhai gold deposits. These minerals are identified as Cr-Al mica such as chromium sericite (Fig. 12), chromium illite, and a small amount of fuchsite, and mariposite (Lu and Chen, 1995; Li et al., 2013; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015). The contents of these minerals are not high, although their occurrence suggests the presence of mafic-ultramafic rocks in the ore source area

or the pathway of the ore fluids. Several hydrothermal deposits bear Cr-Al mica in their alteration zones. The Mojiang gold deposit in the northeast margin of the Indian plate (Southwest China), the Hemlo gold deposit and Outokumpu copper-nickel deposit in Canada, for example, are typical examples with large amounts of chromium sericite, chromium illite, fuchsite and mariposite in their alteration zones. These deposits occur adjacent to or within large mafic-ultramafic complexes. The Cr2O3 and SiO2 contents of the Cr-Al mica are good fingerprints for mafic-ultramafic materials involved into gold mineralization. The Cr-Al mica is characterized by low-Si high-Cr (Cr2O3 = 8–25, SiO2 = 42–47, wt%) in the Outokumpu copper-nickel deposit which occurs within a mafic-ultramafic complex. The Cr-Al mica shows low-Si and low Cr signature (Cr2O3 = 1–7, SiO2 = 41–46, wt%) in the Hemlo gold deposit which occurs in an intermediatemafic meta-volcanic complex. The Cr-Al mica in the Jiaodong gold deposits, which occurs within granite and close to the metamorphosed intermediate-mafic volcanic and TTG rocks of the Jiaodong Group, displays high Si and low Cr characters (Cr2O3 = 0–3 wt%, SiO2 = 46– 59 wt%).



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oxygen contents of Au-Ag series minerals ranges up to 75.83 at.%, boron up to 97.85 at.%, chromium up to 26.23 at.%, and tellurium up to 33.4 at.% (Yang et al., 2013a, 2013b). The HFSE enrichment including chromium (Cr) and niobium (Nb) in the gold and silver grains indicate that the ore-forming fluids were derived from high temperature magmas sourced from depth. The enrichment of low temperature Te in the native gold and silver grains, combined with the typical features of fluid ‘boiling’ as inferred from fluid inclusion studies indicate that the ore-fluids derived from depth migrated upwards rapidly, and metal precipitation occurred as a result of fluid-fluid immiscibility caused by decompression (Yang et al., 2013a, 2013b).

Fig. 9. Sulfur isotopic histogram of the Jiaodong type, crypto-explosive breccia type and skarn type of gold systems. Data source: Li et al., 2016; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Zhu et al., 2015; Li and Santosh, 2014;Liu et al., 2014.

3.1.6.2. Au-Ag series minerals. Our recent studies revealed dark domains with Au-Ag series minerals and Ag-Te grains form the Linglong gold deposit which bear complex element assemblage with oxygen (O) –boron (B) –chromium (Cr) – tellurium (Te) –niobium (Nb) (Fig. 13). The

3.1.6.3. Sulfide minerals. According to the compilation of the chemistry of ca. 200 pyrite samples from 25 gold deposits in the Jiaodong peninsula (Yan et al., 2015), it is noticed that the trace elements in the pyrite include Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, Co, Ni, Cr, Ti, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te, Hg, Mo, Sn, Tl, Pt, Pd. Among these elements, the average contents of Cu, Pb, Zn and As in pyrite are N1000 ppm, the average contents of Au, Ag, Co and Ni are of 680, 300, 297 and 169 ppm, respectively. Although the concentration for each element varies largely, the average content for the total of Ti + Cr + Co + Ni is 836 ppm, implying prominent involvement of mantle materials in the formation of the pyrite in the Jiaodong gold deposits. In addition, total concentrations of (As + Se + Sb + Te) and (Co + Ni) show sympathetic trends with Au concentrations from the top at ca. +200 m level downward till ca. −1100 m level (Fig. 14), implying similar a deep crustal-upper mantle source. Also, the trace element data of the pyrite from Jinqingding gold deposit in the eastern Jiaodong gold province plot within the volcanic and magmatic hydrothermal regions in the Co-Ni and As-Co-Ni diagrams (Fig. 14) for pyrite in the deep samples, whereas the data for samples from the shallow level are partly plotted in the MVT area, showing the influence of meteoric fluid carrying arsenic at the upper part of the auriferous vein.

Fig. 10. Lead (a) and oxygen (b) isotopes of the gold and related rocks (revised from L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015).


12


3.1.6.4. Telluride minerals. Mineral assemblages characteristic of deep origin are common in the Jiaodong type gold system including various telluride minerals. In the Jiehe gold deposit along the northwestern Jiaodong gold province, tetradymite Bi2(Te1.28S2)3.28 was found with Au 0.14 wt% and Pt 0.33 wt% adhere with native gold grains (Chen et al., 1993). Assemblages of telluride minerals were found from the Jiaodong type gold deposits (L. Li et al., 2015; Zhou QF et al., 2011), such as the hessite and tsumoite overgrowing on pentlandite, tsumoite overgrows on tetradymite, hessite and tsumoite associated with ferrodolomite, hessite, tsumoite, tetradymite associated with ferrodolomite, dolomite and quartz (Fig. 15). Considering the high abundance of Te in mantle compared with its lower abundance in crust, the common occurrence of the telluride minerals may imply the addition of mantle materials in the auriferous fluid. 3.2. The explosive breccia type gold deposits 3.2.1. Spatial - temporal distribution and characteristics Several explosive breccia type gold deposits have been identified in the NCC, including the Chenjiazhangzhi porphyry-breccia type gold deposit, Inner Mongolia, the Puzhiwan crypto-explosive breccia type gold deposit in Shanxi province, Songxian crypto-explosive breccia type gold deposits in Henan province, the Qibaoshan fluid-explosive breccia type gold deposit and Tongshi porphyry-explosive type gold deposits in Shandong province (Ge et al., 2013). Only few localities in the NCC host large scale explosive breccia (or cryptoexplosive breccia) type gold deposits (Fig. 1c). These locations are distributed in the southern margin and eastern part of the NCC including the Xiong'ershan region, Henan province, and the Tongshi region, Shandong province. The two localities with large explosive breccia type gold are located at the junction of three micro-continental blocks, and composed of Precambrian basement rocks, Proterozoic and Paleozoic supracrustal volcanic – sediment cover, and Mesozoic intrusions. The basement of Xiong'ershan region records characteristics of the Fuping (or Xuchang) micro-block, the Qianhuai micro-block and the Xuhuai micro-block, and is composed of the Late Archean Taihua Group of gneiss with Proterozoic Xiong'er Group of meta-andesite as the cover. Three auriferous explosive breccia zones occur in the southeastern part of a Cretaceous monzogranitic intrusion body named as the Huashan pluton. Several mafic to felsic dykes are clustered in the breccia zones where N15 breccia pipes were found in the north – westerly extending Qiyugou valley, eight of which are auriferous with N 100 t of gold reserve (Li, 1994, 1995). The Tongshi region is located at the junction of Qianhuai, Xuhuai and Jiaoliao micro-blocks with a basement of Late Archean (2.75 Ga to 2.5 Ga) amphibolites, granulites and TTG gneisses, called Taishan Group, and a sedimentary cover of Paleozoic carbonate. Monzonitic diorite porphyrite, monzonitic porphyrite and syenite porphyry form the mainstay of the 32 km2 Tongshi intrusive complex. Scattered aplite, felsite and explosion breccia rocks are common in this region (Guo P et al., 2014). Several auriferous breccia pipes are found around the Tongshi complex and associated with small scale gold deposits of limestonehosted dissemination type, quartz vein type and porphyry altered rock type (Zheng, 1999). Among the auriferous breccia pipes, that in Guilaizhuang, where the gold ores occur within a fault-controlled breccia, is the richest with a gold reserve of ca. 40 t. According to recent exploitation reports, the total gold in the Tongshi region reaches ca. 70 t. The explosive breccia type gold orebodies generally occur within single fault-controlled breccia belt such as those in the Guilaizhuang, Zhuojiazhuang gold deposits in the Tongshi region (Fig. 16), or in crossfault-controlled breccia pipes such as those in the No.2 pipe, No.4 pipe, No.5 pipe and No.8 pipe in the Qiyugou gold belt in the Xiong'ershan region. The gold orebodies within and surrounding explosive breccia show lentiform, tube-like or irregular forms. Hydrothermal alteration such as potassium-feldspathization (notably adularization), biotitization, silicification or quartzification, fluoritization and calcitization (mainly calcitization) are common in the center of the breccia pipes, potassium-

feldspathization (particularly microclinization), albititization, quartzification or silicification, chloritization, epidotization, actinolitization, and various carbonitization (magnesitization, sideritization, dolomitization, calcitization) are common in the margin of the pipe and in the andesitic (such as in the Qiyugou gold belt) or dolomitic (for example in the Guilaizhuang, Zhuojiazhuang gold deposits) wallrocks. The gold mineralization processes are characterized by the early oxide mineral stage represented by quartz with less gold minerals, and the intermediate sulfide-telluride stage represented by pyrite, native gold, calaverite, and less chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite, and the late carbonate-halide stage represented by calcite, fluorite and less gold minerals. The mineralogical assemblages of different stages in the explosive breccia type gold deposits in the Xiong'ershan region and in the Tongshi region are markedly distinct, with richer in telluride content in the latter than in the former (Li and Santosh, 2014). The 40Ar/39Ar, Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic methods were used to constrain the timing of the explosive gold metallogeny. The 40Ar/39Ar dating of the hydrothermal K-feldspar yielded formation ages of the Qiyugou gold deposit in the range from 115 to 125 Ma (Wang et al., 2001). Rb-Sr dating of single grain pyrite from the No.4 auriferous pipe yields an age of 126 Ma (Han et al., 2007). Rb-Sr dating of the pyrite and Sm-Nd dating of the fluorite-calcite pair from the Guilaizhuang gold deposit yield ca. 180 Ma (Zhu, 2014; Xu et al., 2015). The above results show that the explosive type gold mineralization in the Xiong'ershan region at the southern margin of the NCC is consistent with the peak time of the decratonization of the NCC at ca. 120–130 Ma (Fig. 6; Li and Santosh, 2014). The alkaline explosive breccia type gold-forming event at the eastern margin of the NCC occurred much earlier than the peak decratonization event of the NCC, which is considered to be related to the post-collisional setting associated with the collision of the NCC and Yangtze Craton during Late Triassic to Early Jurassic (Xu et al., 2015). This event can also be recognized as the early phase of the NCC decratonization (Li and Santosh, 2014). 3.2.2. Magmatism The magmatic rocks related with the explosive breccia type gold in the Xiong'ershan region and Tongshi region are remarkably different with respect to their lithology. In the Xiong'ershan region, the Early Cretaceous igneous rocks include a giant-porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite dominated pluton, usually called “Huashan complex”, a monzogranitic porphyry apophysis at the Motianling area, a fine grained granitic porphyry stock associated with Mo-Au ore mineralization at the Leimengou area, and many intermediate-acid dykes such as porphyritic granite, granitic porphyry, quartz porphyry, granodioritic porphyry and monzonitic porphyry. A comparison of the granitoid pluton and the neighboring intermediate-acid stocks, apophysis and dykes reveals that these rocks are closely linked in time, formation depth, mineralogical assemblage, lithological characteristics, trace elements and REE patterns, genetic types and tectonic environment (Li, 1994). Based on field observation, the giant-porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite in the “Huashan complex” is the earliest, and the quartz porphyry and granodioritic porphyry represent the intermediate and latter ones of the series. Isotopic dating shows that the giant-porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite, the quartz porphyry, and granodioritic porphyry formed at ca. 125 Ma, 115 and 113 Ma, respectively (Li, 1995). The crystallization temperature (T) and pressure (PH2O) of the pluton and stocks are estimated as 720 to 770 °C, and 300 to 500 MPa, corresponding to formation depths of ca. 12 to 20 km. The PH2O values for the quartz porphyry and fine grained granitic porphyry range from 50 to 100 MPa, corresponding to depths of 2 to 4 km (Li, 1994). The mineral assemblages of these rocks are similar and characterized by quartz + orthoclase + plagioclase ( + biotite + hornblende) + magnetite + sphene + apatite + zircon. The presence of corundum in the CIPW norm calculations with a Rittman index σ of b3.35, suggests an aluminum supersaturated calc-alkaline series. These rocks comprise both mantle and crustal elements such as Ti, Cr, Co, Ni, Sr, Ba and Be, and ore-forming



elements, such as W, Sn, Mo, Bi, Cu, Pb, Zn which increase slightly from the early to the final stage. The gold concentration increase from 1.01, 1.4, 1.92 to 2.98 ppb with variation coefficient changing from 33 to 111. Compared with other rocks, the granitic porphyry and quartz porphyry bear relatively low ΣREE and (La/Yb)N, the REE patterns of these rocks, however, are all of LREE rich showing right inclined lines with small Eu abnormal and Tb, Yb and Lu slightly rich. The concentration of total iron (Fe3 + + Fe2 +) is N 0.3 for all rocks, and the δ18O data range from 5.57‰ to 10.0‰ averaging 7.84‰ for whole rock analyses of the Huashan granitoid complex. The Rb/Sr mass ratios are only 0.133 to 0.4 with an average of 0.36 for 53 samples of the giant-porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite with an initial 87Sr/86Sr value of 0.7077. These data imply that the igneous rocks including the Huashan complex, stock and dykes are of I-type characterized with mantle materials involved in the magmatism associated with the Qiyugou explosive breccia type gold mineralization (Li, 1994). The magmatism related with the Guilaizhuang explosive breccia type gold is characterized by the diorite-monzodioritic porphyrite in the marginal zone of the Tongshi complex, monzonitic-syenitic porphyry in the center of the Tongshi complex, and crypto-explosive breccia in Baogushan, Zengjiashan, the central part of the Tongshi complex and Guilaizhuang, Zhuojiazhuang in the periphery of the Tongshi complex (Figs. 16, 17). Several NE and NW trending dykes of coarse, intermediate and fine grained monzonitic porphyry, giant grained monzonitic porphyry, and dioritic porphyrite are common along the regional NNWSSE directed Yan-Gan fault. The thickness of the dykes varies generally from 2 to 5 m and reaches up to 25 to 30 m. According to field relationship of the porphyritic rocks, dykes, hydrothermal alteration, and stratigraphy, the emplacement of the porphyritic rocks, most of the dykes and gold mineralization appears to be earlier than the formation of the Later Jurassic strata, and gold mineralization was later than the emplacement of the monzonitic and syenitic magma. Recent U-Pb dating of the Tongshi complex yields ages of 175.7 ± 3.8 Ma for the dioritic porphyrite (Hu et al., 2007), 180.1 Ma–184.7 Ma for the quartz monzonite and syenitic porphyry (Lan et al., 2013). The isotopic geochronological data show that the magmatism was contemporaneous with the gold formation. Chemical analyses indicate that the igneous rocks in the Tongshi area are mainly of potassium-rich alkaline series, with right-inclined REE pattern and weak Eu anomaly, rich in large iron lithophile elements such as Cs, Rb, Ba, U, Th, and deficit in Ti, Nb and Ta. These data suggest that the Tongshi complex rocks were produced through fractionation crystallization of a magma involving a mixture of enriched mantle and juvenile crustal sources (Guo et al., 2014; Lan et al., 2013). The Tongshi complex and the Guilaizhuang gold ore deposit are related with the continental rifting after the collision between the NCC and the Yangtze Craton and the onset of the decratonization of the NCC. The SrNd-Pb isotopic data of the Tongshi complex indicate that the magma of these intrusive rocks was derived from mantle with EM1 and DM mixed signature (Guo et al., 2014). 3.2.3. Ore-fluids The ore-fluid in the explosive gold deposit has been characterized by fluid inclusions and isotopic systems (Li and Shao, 1991; Shen et al., 2001; Fan et al., 2011). Four types of fluid inclusions are recognized in the quartz and calcite crystals from the Qiyugou and Guilaizhuang auriferous pipes, including halite-bearing high-salinity, vapor-rich twophase, liquid-rich two-phase, and two/three-phase carbonic. Three stages of mineralization are characterized by relatively high temperature (from the early to later mineralization stage, the homogenisation temperatures vary from 470 to 298 °C, 315–201 °C to 240–130 °C for the Qiyugou gold deposit, and from 370–280 °C, 270–190 °C to 180– 100 °C for the Guilaizhuang gold deposit) and a wide salinity range (NaCl equivalent of 47 wt%, 7–16 wt% and 0.7–1.5 wt% for the three stages of the Qiyugou gold deposit, and 20.76 wt% to 1.22 wt% for the Guilaizhuang gold deposit) (Table 3). The homogenization temperatures of the fluid inclusions in the quartz and co-existing solid-

13

Table 3 Summary of the fluid inclusion characteristics for the “explosive breccia type” gold deposits. Stage

Th (°C)


Early Middle Later

470–280 315–190 240–100

47–21 7–16 0.7–1.5

bearing high-salinity type and vapor-rich two phase type of fluid inclusions in the middle parts of the breccia pipes suggests fluid boiling or immiscibility, and that the fluids were dominantly derived from a magmatic-hydrothermal system involving variable amounts of boiling, cooling and mixing with meteoric water in the breccia pipes. Laser Raman analyses of the gaseous phase of the fluid inclusions trapped in fluorite from the Guilaizhuang gold deposit show that CO2 and CH4 are the dominant gaseous components with additional H2 and H2S (Fig. 18). 3.2.4. Isotopic systems The δ34S values for the ores from Qiyugou and Guilaizhauang gold deposits range from − 3.5 ~ + 3.6‰ (Li, 1994; Fan et al., 2011) and +0.71 ~ +2.99‰ (Hu et al., 2007) respectively, suggesting that mantle or magma derived sulfur contributed a major part to the formation of the sulfide minerals. The lead isotopic analyses of the galena crystals from the Qiyugou gold deposit show ranges for Pb206/Pb204, Pb207/ Pb204 and Pb208/Pb204 of 17.282 to 18.530, 15.481 to 16.620 and 37.776 to 40.760, respectively (Li, 1994). Pyrite crystals yield Pb206/ Pb204, Pb207/Pb204 and Pb208/Pb204 values for the Guilaizhuang gold deposit of 18.207 to 18.908, 15.575 to 15.757 and 38.313 to 39.252, respectively (Zhu, 2014). Compared with the lead isotopic data of the basement and igneous rocks, the ore lead isotopes are closer to those from the igneous rocks, suggesting that magmatism contributed lead for the sulfide minerals of the explosive gold deposits both in the Xiong'ershan and Tongshi regions. Plots of the lead isotopic data in tectonic discrimination diagrams indicate that the lead was possibly sourced from lower crust derived magma. The δD (−101.7 to −60.1‰ and −73.3‰ to − 51.6‰ for Qiyugou and Guilaizhuang, respectively) and δ18O values (+ 0.3‰ to + 7.5‰ and −4.3‰ to +7.7‰ for Qiyugou and Guilaizhuang, respectively) of the inclusion water in quartz and calcite crystals from the Qiyugou and Guilaizhuang explosive gold deposits show predominantly magmatic water in the early stages which mixed with surface-derived fluids (meteoric water) in the later stage (Fan et al., 2011; Cao, 1996; Hu et al., 2007; Niu et al., 2009) (Fig. 19a). The δ13CPDB and δ18OV-SMOW data for the calcite crystals from the Guilaizhuang gold deposit range from −3.3‰ to +0.9‰ (Yu, 2010; Zhu, 2014) and +11.1‰ to +21.3‰ averaging +16.1‰ (Zhu, 2014), respectively, implying mantle or magmatic carbon, in addition to some lighter carbon, contributed to the formation of the calcite in the Guilaizhuang explosive gold system (Fig. 19b). 3.3. The skarn gold deposits 3.3.1. Spatial - temporal distribution and characteristics The Yinan gold deposit is the only one economic “skarn type” gold deposit exploited in the NCC with N20 t of gold reserve. This deposit is located ca. 90 km northeast of the Guilaizhuang gold deposit, at the western part of the Tancheng-Lujiang trans-lithosphere fault zone (Fig. 1c). The deposit is composed of three sectors named as Tongjing, Jinlong and Jinchang, which are confined by three groups of cross-faults directed NNE and NW (Fig. 20). The gold ore-bodies occur at the boundary between the Cambrian carbonatite and the Mesozoic monzogranite and granitic porphyry in the Jinchang sector characterized by various skarnization textures and structures. The mineralogy of the ores is characterized by native gold, chalcopyrite, pyrite and magnetite as the main metallic minerals, and garnet, diopside, quartz and calcite as the major nonmetallic minerals. Bornite, molybdenite, specularite and chlorite,


14


phlogopite are also common (Fig. 21). The hydrothermal alteration related with gold mineralization includes skarnization, hornstonization, marbleization, chloritization and gaolinization, and local silicification, K-feldspathization, albitization, and sericitization. The hydrothermal process can be divided into dry- and wet-skarn stages, as well as oxide and sulfide stages. Anhydrous silicate minerals such as grossularite, andradite, and diopside formed in the dry-skarn stage, whereas hydrosilicate minerals including epidote, actinolite and tremolite formed in the wet-skarn stage. The oxide stage is characterized by iron oxide minerals including magnetite and hematite/specularite with minor quartz and epidote. The occurrence of metallic minerals like native gold, chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite and minor molybdenite with non-metallic minerals like quartz and calcite mark the sulfide stage, which is the major gold mineralization stage. In the surficial part of the ore bodies, supergenetic minerals like azurite, malachite and limonite are present locally in small amounts. The Re-Os isotopic analyses of seven molybdenite samples from the Jinchang sector of the Yinan skarn gold deposit yield model ages ranging from 126.96 ± 1.82 Ma to 129.49 ± 2.04 Ma with weighted mean age of 128.08 ± 0.75 Ma (MSWD = 0.84) (Liu et al., 2014). 3.3.2. Magmatism The intrusive rocks related with the skarn gold metallogeny in the Yinan region are mainly of intermediate-fine grained pyroxene diorite, hornblende dioritic porphyrite and quartz dioritic porphyrite with minor coarse phenocrystic hornblende-quartz dioritic porphyrite and granodioritic porphyry (Fig. 22). Among of these intrusive rocks, the quartz dioritic porphyrite is the major source rock of the gold, which yield a zircon U-Pb age of 128.0 ± 5.4 Ma (Guo et al., 2013). This age is markedly consistent with the peak timing of the Early Cretaceous magmatism associated with the destruction of the NCC (Li and Santosh, 2014). The geochemical features show that these (intermediate-acid) intrusive rocks are of mainly high-potassium calc-alkaline and metaluminous, with steep LREE to HREE patterns, lack of prominent Ce and Eu anomaly, enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs) such Rb, Sr, and Ba, and deficient in high field strength elements (HFSEs) Th, Nb, Ta, P, Ti and Zr. The Mg# and Na2O/K2O mass ratios of these dioritic rocks are relatively high ranging from 52.19 to 67.13 and from 1.34 to 2.83 (average 2.12), respectively,indicating them to be of high magnesium diorite with parent magma possibly derived from an upper mantle source. The Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic system of the dioritic intrusive rocks in the Tongjing complex indicate that the magma source is characterized by mixed EM1 and EM2 signature, different from that of the Tongshi complex which shows an EM1 and DM mixed mantle source. These features are also remarkably different from the Jiaodong intermediate-mafic intrusive rocks of EM2 type mantle affinity (Guo et al., 2014). 3.3.3. Ore-fluids Fluid inclusions trapped in garnet, epidote, quartz and calcite collected from the skarn of the Yinan gold system (Dong, 2008) show that melt inclusions, with opaque and transparent daughter minerals together with two phase vapor-liquid water inclusions coexist in garnet of the dry skarnization stage and epidote of the wet skarnization stage. The oxide and sulfide stages are characterized by co-existence of abundant two phase vapor-liquid water inclusions, minor CO2-H2O inclusions and multiphase inclusions with daughter minerals (mainly halite) in quartz crystals. The fluids of carbonate stage of the ore system are characterized by pure vapor and two phase vapor-liquid water inclusions trapped in the calcite. From the skarn stage, oxide stage to sulfide stage and carbonate stage, the homogenization temperature changes from 520–430 °C, 430–340 °C, to 250–190 °C and 190–100 °C; the salinity of the fluids (NaCl equiv,) varies from 22.2–23.1 wt%, 6.5–17.3 wt%, and 2.1–15.8 wt%. The density and pressure of the fluids change gradually from 0.87–0.88 g/cm3 and 33.1–44.2 MPa of the skarn-oxide stages, 0.87–1.08 g/cm3 and 22.0–35.6 MPa of the sulfide stage to 0.87–

0.98 g/cm3 and 17.0–27.4 MPa of the carbonate stage, corresponding to ore-forming depths under lithostatic pressure to be 1.3–1.7 km, 0.8–1.3 km and 0.6–1.0 km (Dong, 2008; Table 4). In the quartz crystals of oxide and sulfide stages, co-existence of vapor-liquid inclusions with nearly the same homogenization temperatures and vapor/liquid values changing from N 65% to b10%, and the common presence of CO2-H2O inclusions and multiphase inclusions with various daughter minerals suggest extensive ore fluids immiscibility or boiling as the major cause for the precipitation of the ore materials (Dong, 2008). 3.3.4. Isotopic systems Sulfur isotopic analyses of 29 pyrite and chalcopyrite samples yield δ34S values of + 0.70‰–+5.60‰ with an average of + 2.70‰ (Liu et al., 2014; Dong, 2008), close to mantle and meteorite sulfur. Lead isotopic analyses of 8 pyrite and chalcopyrite samples yield 206Pb/204Pb values ranging from 18.375 to 18.436 with an average of 18.405, 207 Pb/204Pb values from 15.694 to 15.800 with average of 15.736, and 208 Pb/204Pb values from 38.747 to 39.067 with a mean of 38.876. These data show both mantle and crustal sources for lead, implying mixing between mantle and upper crustal lead (Liu et al., 2014). The δ13C and δ18O values of the hydrothermal calcite associated with the Yinan skarn gold ores range from − 0.2‰ to − 0.5‰ (mean − 0.36‰), and from + 9.4‰ to + 12.6‰ (mean + 10.5‰), respectively. The δ13C and δ18O values of the marble, a wallrock of the Yinan gold, range from − 0.3‰ to − 0.6‰ (mean − 0.5‰), and from + 18.9‰ to + 19.2‰ (mean + 19.1‰), respectively. The δ13C and δ18O values of the limestone, another host rock of the Yinan gold, vary from − 0.1‰ to −0.2‰ with mean at − 0.2‰, and from + 18.5‰ to + 19.7‰ with mean at 19.1‰, respectively. The δ13C and δ18O values of the hornstone, a not common wallrock of the Yinan gold, are −0.4‰ and +19.3‰, respectively. In the δ18O versus δ13C diagram (Fig. 19), four data of the calcite fall in the granite source and one occupies in the area between granite and marine carbonate, suggesting magmatic dominated orefluids. The data of the wallrock samples, including two marbles, two limestones and one hornfels, fall between granite and marine carbonate fields, suggesting the interaction of magmatic hydrothermal fluids and the wallrocks of the ore bodies (Liu et al., 2014). The 3He/4He and 40Ar/36Ar ratios of the fluids trapped in pyrite form the Yinan skarn gold system are in the range of 0.27–1.11 Ra (with a mean value of 0.62 Ra) and 439.4–826, respectively. In the 3He-4He diagram (Fig. 11), these data plot between crust (0.01–0.05 Ra) and mantle (6–7 Ra) values, much close to the crustal region, whereas in the 40 Ar/36Ar-Rc/Ra diagram, the data plots are much close to the mantle region. Calculation based on crust-mantle two-end member method (taking 3He/4He values for the crust and mantle end-members to be 2 × 10−8 and 1.1 × 10−5 respectively (after Stuart et al., 1995) indicates that crustal helium is the major component in the ore-fluids with the mantle-derived proportion ranging from 3.25% to 14.03% (mean 7.74%) and atmosphere argon ranging from 35.8% to 67.3% (Liu et al., 2014). 4. Mantle contribution to gold metallogeny 4.1. Magmatism derived from crust-mantle mingling Magmatism is an integral component of the mineralization in various giant gold systems, and involves both mantle and crustal Table 4 Summary of the fluid inclusion characteristics for the “skarn type” gold deposits. Stage

Type

Th (°C)

Density (g/cm3)

Skarn Oxide & Sulfide Carbonate

Daughter mineral, H2O H2O, CO2– H2O & daughter mineral H2O

520–430 0.87–0.88 430–190 0.87–1.08

23.1–22.2 6.5–17.3

190–100 0.87–0.98

2.1–15.8




15

4.2. Ore-forming fluids of deep origin

Fig. 11. He-Ar isotopic composition of the fluid trapped in pyrite grains from the Jiaodong type and skarn type gold deposits. Data source: Shen et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2014.

components mixed in various proportions. The granitoids associated with the “Jiaodong type”, the explosive breccia and skarn gold deposits are mostly high-potassium calc – alkaline and I type, magnetite series or high – potassium A1 type which are recognized to have mantle affinity. The granitoids generally contain abundant mafic microgranular enclaves, reversely zoned feldspar, magnesium – rich amphibole and biotite phenocrysts. Further both mantle and crustal elements such as Ti, Cr, Co, Ni, Sr, Ba and Be, and ore-forming elements W, Sn, Mo, Bi, Cu, Pb, Zn and Au are present in the granitoids, which implies input of mantle-derived magmas to the granitic magma chamber (Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2007; Li and Santosh, 2014; Li, 1994, 1995; Lan et al., 2013). In the intermediate – mafic stocks, apophyses and dykes associated with the “Jiaodong type”, explosive breccia and skarn gold systems, serpentinized peridotite enclaves and sulfide “amygdules” were found from various gold fields (Li et al., 2016), suggesting the contribution of mantle components to both the magmas and the related ore-forming materials.

Fig. 12. Chromium-sericite-bearing sample (a) and X-ray diffraction spectrogram (b).

In the hydrothermal alteration zones of the “Jiaodong type”, chromium sericite, chromium illite, fuchsite, and mariposite are common, even in the gold deposits with granitic wallrocks. The chromium sericite and illite have been found not only in small amounts in the granitic wallrocks in the Jiaodong gold system, including the Sanshandao, Jiaojia, Linglong and Qingchengzhi gold deposit in Jiaodong region (Li et al., 2013; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015), the Yixingzhai gold deposit in Hengshan region (Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014), the Shihu gold deposit in Fuping region (Li et al., 2013), but also in large quantity in the sandstone - siltstone wallrocks of the Mojiang gold deposit in the northeastern margin of the Indian plate, southwest China (Jiang and Li, 2004). This suggests that the fluids associated with the ore system also carried mantle elements including Cr. The hydrogen-oxygen isotopic systems for not only the “Jiaodong type” gold, but also the skarn and explosive breccia gold show strong primary magmatic affinity, especially during the major ore-forming stages. According to the genetic analysis of the igneous rocks associated with the gold systems, the fluids might have been sourced mainly from magmas derived through crust-mantle mingling. Although sulfur isotopic compositions of the gold systems are related with geological setting, they show closer affinity with the associated granitoids. The C-O isotopic measurements of the carbonate minerals from the gold ores show that deep sourced carbon (between mantle carbon or magmatic carbon and sedimentary carbon) played an important role in the ore-fluids activities (Mao et al., 2003, 2005). The large data base on helium and argon isotopes from the pyrite of different types of gold systems provide further evidence that at least a part of the ore-forming fluids were from the mantle. For some of the gold systems occurring in the region with strongly thinned lithosphere such as in the Jiaodong peninsula and the Fuping region, a substantial volume of mantle helium and argon were involved into the auriferous fluids (Mao et al., 2003, 2005; Li et al., 2013; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014; Li and Santosh, 2014). 4.3. Gold-associated metals of mantle affinity As mentioned previously, several species of tellurides were found in the Jiaodong type gold deposits. Telluride minerals are much common in the explosive gold deposits in the NCC. Available data show that in the Guilaizhuang and Zhuojiazhuang explosive gold deposits in Tongshi region, the metallic mineral assemblage includes not only Au-Ag series minerals such as native gold, electrum and kustelite, but also many telluride minerals such as petzite, bezsmertnovite, hessite, savodinskite, altaite, coloradoite, and minor selenide and stibnide minerals such as antimony fahlore and naumanniteund. The Qiyugou explosive gold deposits in the southern margin of the NCC also comprise several telluride, selenide and stibnide minerals (Shao et al., 1992). The abundance of Te is 8 ppb in primitive mantle (Palme and O'Neill, 2004) and 15.1 ppb in depleted mantle (Salters and Stracke, 2004), implying affinity of Te with refractory (mafic) materials. Therefore, we infer that the co-existence of Te and Au in the “decratonic gold” (Zhu et al., 2015) in the NCC (including the “Jiaodong type” (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015) and explosive breccia gold deposits in the NCC) is evidence for either direct contribution from mantle or through recycling of mantle materials. The finding of anomalous enrichment of oxygen (O), boron (B), niobium (Nb) and chromium (Cr) in native gold and Ag–Te grains from the Jiaodong gold deposit (Yang et al., 2013a, 2013b) is also significant in tracing the source of gold-related materials. Based on the composition estimation of primitive mantle (Palme and O'Neill, 2004) and depleted mantle (Salters and Stracke, 2004), boron and niobium values are 0.26 ppm and 0.588 ppm for primitive mantle, and 0.060 ppm and 210 ppb in depleted mantle, suggesting that B and Nb tend to enter into fusible components. According to Rudnick and Gao (2004), the abundances of boron and niobium in the upper, middle and lower crust are 17, 17 and 2 ppm, and of 12, 10 and 5 ppm, respectively.


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Fig. 13. Surface (A–D) and line (E) scanning image of native gold grains in the Jiaodong type gold system from Linglong ore deposit (Yang et al., 2013a, 2013b). (A) Oxygen element surface scanning image. (B) Gold surface scanning image. (C) Silver surface scanning image. (D) Niobium surface scanning image. C – carbon; N – nitrogen, O – oxygen, L – the trajectory of line scanning, Nb – niobium, S – sulfur, Ag – silver, Fe – iron.

Fig. 14. A, Vertical variation of trace elements in pyrite from the Denggezhuang gold deposit, Jiaodong type gold system (Xue et al., 2013). B & C, Plots of Co vs. Ni diagram (after Bajwah et al., 1987) and As-Co-Ni ternary diagram (Brill, 1989) of pyrite from the Jinqingding gold deposit, Jiaodong type gold system.



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Fig. 15. Assemblages of telluride minerals in the Jiaodong type gold deposits. a. Hessite and trumoite overgrow on pentlandite; b. Tetradymite associated with trumoite; c. Hessite and trumoite associated with ferrodolomite and dolomite; d. Hessite, tsumoite, tetradymite associated with pentlandite, dolomite and quartz.

These data indicate that boron and niobium are of crustal affinity. The abundances of chromium in primitive and depleted mantle are 2520 (Palme and O'Neill, 2004) and 2500 ppm (Salters and Stracke, 2004), and chromium concentration in the upper, middle and lower crust are 92, 76, and 215 ppm (Rudnick and Gao, 2004). These data reveal that chromium bears strong lower crust and mantle affinity. Considering that the abundances of boron, niobium and chromium in ultra-basic rocks, basalt, diorite and granite are 2, 5, 15, 15 ppm, 9, 20, 20, 20 ppm, and 1800, 185, 50, 25 ppm respectively (Faure, 1998), we infer that high temperature magmas (granitoid plutons and intermediate – mafic dykes) sourced from lower crust mingled with mantle magmas to contribute to the ore-forming fluids (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016). The lead isotopic data of the sulfide minerals from the “Jiaodong type”, explosive breccia and skarn gold systems in the NCC plot dominantly in the region between the lower crust and orogenic belt evolution lines on the 208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb tectonic model diagram or in the area between the mantle and orogenic belt evolution lines on the 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206 Pb/204Pb tectonic model diagram (Zartman and Doe, 1981), also suggesting mixing of lead from the lower crust, mantle and upper crust (Mao et al., 2005; Shen et al., 2013; Li et al., 2013; Li and Santosh, 2014; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015). All the mineralogical, geochemical and isotopic data from the igneous rocks, ore-forming fluids and ore minerals suggest that mantle fluids and metals substantially contributed to the formation of the decratonic gold systems including the “Jiaodong type”, the explosive breccia type, and the skarn type gold deposits in the NCC. 5. Geodynamics controlling the formation of giant gold deposits 5.1. Triple-boundary junction An evaluation of the spatial distribution of the “Jiaodong type”, explosive breccia type and skarn type gold deposits in the NCC shows

that although most of these deposits are located at the margin of the NCC, several major deposits occur within the cratonic interior. The most important “Jiaodong type” gold province in China is located in the Jiaodong peninsula along the eastern margin of the destructed NCC. Considering the Jurassic sinistral shearing of the Tancheng-Lujiang trans-lithosphere fault which shifted the primitive Jiaodong peninsula northward for a long distance, its original location should be at the southeastern margin of the NCC. The second important “Jiaodong type” gold province is located at Xiaoqingling region, at the southern margin of the NCC. Some important “Jiaodong type” gold deposits are also found in Zhang-Xuan, Jidong-Liaoxi and Liaodong regions close to the northern margin of the NCC. In the interior of the NCC, the Shihu and Yixingzhai gold deposits are of “Jiaodong type” with important potential for deep exploitation. Among the explosive breccia type gold systems, the Chenjiazhangzhi porphyry-breccia gold deposit is located at the northern margin of the NCC, the Songxian and Qibaoshan crypto-explosive breccia gold deposits are at the southern margin of the NCC, and the Puzhiwan crypto-explosive and Tongshi porphyry-explosive gold deposits are within the interior of the NCC. The only economically important Yinan skarn type gold deposit is also located at the interior of the NCC. Although the southern and northern margins of the NCC are rich with both the “Jiaodong type” and explosive breccia type gold deposits and the interior of the NCC also bears all the three genetic types of gold systems, their distribution is markedly heterogeneous. An evaluation of the distribution of the gold deposits with respect to the Precambrian basement of the NCC reveals that most of the important gold deposits belong to metallogenic provinces along zones of amalgamation of two or three paleo micro-blocks. There is a clear correlation between the location of the ore provinces and the suture boundaries of two crustal fragments (when the ore provinces are close to the margins of the NCC), or three paleo-micro-blocks (where they are located within the cratonic interior) (Fig. 1c). The “Paleo-Jiaodong” gold province is at the junction of Xuhuai (XH) and Jiaoliao (JL) blocks along the southern


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Fig. 16. Geological map of Tongshi region and the locations of the Guilaizhuang and Zhuojiazhuang crypto-explosive breccia type gold deposits (revised from Yu, 2010).

margin of the NCC. The Xiaoqinling-Xiong'ershan gold province is at the confluence of the Xuhuai (XH) and Xuchang (XCH) micro-blocks at the southern margin of the NCC. The Zhang-Xuan ore province is the locale where the Jining, Ordos and Fuping blocks were welded. The Jidong ore province occurs at the junction of the Jining, Fuping and Jiaoliao blocks. The Fuping-Heshan ore province marks the confluence of the Fuping, Ordos and Xuchang blocks. The Luxi ore province (including Tongshi and Tongjing regions) is along the join among the Fuping, XH and Jiaoliao blocks. Thus, the “triple junctions” of Precambrian micro-continental blocks appear to be favorable locates for the formation of giant gold province in the NCC. 5.2. Strongly thinned lithosphere The boundaries between Precambrian micro-continental blocks, as well as the sutures between the larger crustal fragments that incorporate these blocks are weak zones along which cratonic destruction and reactivation can occur during subsequent tectonothermal regimes. In this context, the relationship between lithosphere thickness and the basement architecture of the NCC (Fig. 23) provides some important

clues. The lithospheric thicknesses beneath several micro-block boundaries and junctions in the NCC are remarkably less than that beneath their central domains and neighboring areas. This is particularly clear in areas such as Xiaoqinling region, marking the zone of confluence of the Xuchang, Xuhuai and Fuping micro-blocks, the Fuping-Hengshan region that marks the boundaries of the Xuchang, Ordos and Fuping micro-blocks, the Jidong region, which marks the junction of the Fuping, Jining and Jiaoliao micro-blocks, the Luxi region along the boundary of the Xuhuai, Fuping and Jiaoliao micro-blocks, and the Jiaodong region along the Paleoproterozoic suture of the Xuhuai and Jiaoliao microblocks. Within a general increasing trend of lithosphere thickness from the east to the west in the NCC, and the surrounding region showing a ca. 150 to 180 km lithospheric thickness, the lithosphere thickness beneath the Xiaoqinling and Fuping-Hengshan areas is only ca. 90 to 100 km. With a regional lithospheric thickness of ca. 80 km in the eastern NCC, the lithosphere thickness beneath the Jidong and Luxi areas is only ca. 60 km. Several lines of evidence show that the thickness of the lithosphere beneath the eastern NCC has strongly diminished since the Early Cretaceous (Zhu et al., 2011) and the present lithosphere framework has



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Fig. 17. Photomicrographs of the Tongshi intrusive rocks. A, Monzodioritic porphyrite; B, C & E, Monzonitic porphyry; D & F, Orthophyre; Q-Quartz; Hbl-Hornblende; Pl-Plagioclase; KfsPotassium feldspar; Ep-Epidote.

been established without remarkable modification from the earlier ones (Li et al., 2013). The areas we mentioned above with strongly thinned lithosphere, including Xiaoqinling, Fuping-Hengshan, Jidong, Luxi, and Jiaodong, are the locales of important gold deposits. On this basis, we suggest that the areas with strongly thinned lithosphere are geodynamically potential settings for formation of gold deposits and for predicting giant gold provinces. 5.3. EM2 mantle Studies on the isotopic data of Sr-Nd-Pb system from the intermediate and mafic intrusive rocks reveal that the Mesozoic mantle beneath the Jiaodong peninsula was predominantly EM2 type, whereas that beneath the Luxi area, west of the Tancheng-Lujiang trans-lithosphere fault (“Tanlu fault”), was EM1 + EM2 type. An EM1 signature is detected in areas far away from the Tanlu fault (Li et al., 2016; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2014; D.B. Yang et al., 2012; K.F. Yang et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2006). In Jiaodong peninsula, both the Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoid rocks, such as the Linglong granite and the Guojialing granodiorite, are thought to have been derived from partial melting of ancient crust generated by underplating of EM2 type mantle magma. The Jurassic granitic rocks, however, were mixed with substantial mantle magma of EM2 signature (L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et

al., 2015; Guo et al., 2014). Mafic dyke swarms in the Jiaodong peninsula originated from the mantle also display EM2 characteristics (Li et al., 2016). In Luxi area, close to the Tanlu fault, the Tongshi and Tongjing plutons (Xu et al., 2004b; Lan et al., 2012), which are linked with the Guilaizhuang and Yinan gold deposits, show clear Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic characteristics of EM1 + EM2 type mantle, whereas the “Luxi gabbro” (Xu et al., 2004a; Li et al., 2007) and “Luxi diorite” (Yang et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2011), located far away from the Tanlu fault where there are no gold deposits so far discovered, show strong EM1 type mantle signature (Guo et al., 2014; Li et al., 2016). It is interesting to correlate the strength or scale of gold mineralization in the Jiaodong peninsula and Luxi region with their mantle types speculated from Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic studies. The variation of the characteristics of the mantle beneath Luxi region and Jiaodong peninsula implies that areas with EM2 type mantle might be potential for gold mineralization, as against the possible lack of potential regions underlain by EM1 mantle. This is reasonable considering that EM1 type mantle is related to decompression melting of ancient enriched lithosphere mantle whereas the EM2 type is the product of ancient lithosphere mantle reworked by oceanic subduction components. The EM2 mantle beneath Jiaodong peninsula, for example, was the product of ancient lithosphere mantle reworked first by the subduction of the Yangtze plate and then by the paleo Pacific plate. The EM2 mantle is rich in fluids


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Fig. 18. Fluid inclusions in fluorite grains and their vapor compositions showing by laser Raman spectrums.



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Fig. 19. Hydrogen-oxygen (a) and carbon-oxygen (b) isotopes of the Jiaodong type, explosive breccia type and skarn type gold systems. Data source: present study, Li et al., 2016; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Li and Santosh, 2014; Yu, 2010.

whereas the EM1 mantle is relatively poor in such fluids (Tang et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2003). 5.4. High oxygen fugacity, volatile-rich magmas and magma mixingmingling The regions characterized by “Jiaodong type”, explosive breccia type and skarn type gold deposits show coeval granitoid plutons and mafic dykes. The plutons show diverse compositional features, including granodiorite, monzogranite, quartz–monzodiorite and alkaline granite, among which, the granodiorite type is the most important. The plutons and dykes often contain mafic microgranular enclaves (MME), resulting from magma mixing and mingling through the intrusion of mafic magmas into felsic magma chambers (e.g., He et al., 2016), and are rich in K2O, Mg# and Fe2O3 (Li et al., 2016; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014). Detailed mineralogical studies of the plutons and dykes indicate that both their hornblende and biotite in the plutons are magnesian and show crystallization under high

oxygen fugacity conditions (Li et al., 2016; L. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2015; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014). Studies on the crystal form of microcline phenocrysts in the Cretaceous granodiorite associated with the Jiaodong gold system suggest a formation temperature ranging from 500 to 800 °C. The hornblende-biotite (mineral inclusions in the microcline phenocrysts) and K-feldspar-oligoclase (in the matrix) thermometers yield formation temperature range of 515 °C to 750 °C of the Guojialing granodiorite (Chen et al., 1993). The wide range in formation temperature suggests volatile-rich composition of the magma. The presence of elements like Ba, Fe, Cr, Ti, Ga, Ge, Au and Ag in the phenocryst and matrix microcline crystals in the Cretaceous granodiorite was interpreted to indicate the involvement of mantle and ore-forming materials into the magmas from which the granodiorite was formed (Chen et al., 1993). The zircon crystals from the quartz diorite associated with the gold system in the Hengshan region yield crystallization temperatures of ca. 850 to 550 °C (Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014), again implying volatile-rich composition of the magma. The wide variation and high contents of Th and U, and elevated Th/U values (from 0.5 to 2.7,

Fig. 20. Geological map of the Tongjing region (revised from Gu et al., 2008).


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Fig. 21. Photomicrographs of the skarn ores from the Yinan deposit. Ccp-Chalcopyrite; Mot-Molybdenite; Grt-Garnet; Ad-Andradite; Di-Diopside; Ep-Epidote; Chl-Chlorite; Cal-Calcite; Phl-Phlogopite; Fl-Fluorite; Sch-Scheelite.

average 1.2) of the zircon grains from the quartz diorite also suggest abundant water and alkalis in the magma (Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014).The strong positive Ce and weak negative Eu anomalies displayed by the REE pattern of the quartz diorite suggest that the magma crystallized at relatively high fO2 conditions with plagioclase fractionation (Hoskin and Ireland, 2000; Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014). The occurrence of hydrothermal zircon rim (Q. Li et al., 2014; S.R. Li et al., 2014) further indicates volatile-rich composition of the magma in its advanced evolution stage. We believe that mingling of mafic magma with felsic magma was an important step for gold-bearing mantle components to enter into the magmatic-metallogenic system. The volatile-rich and high fO2 magma served as an effective medium for transporting of Au and other oreforming materials and kept the elemental gold in ionic state with + 1 or +3 valences, thus meeting the adequate conditions for the effective metal transportation and deposition of the metal in suitable structural locales when the physicochemical conditions changed. 5.5. High heat flow The thermal structure is an important factor for the formation of ore deposits. Terrestrial heat flow has been used to evaluate the lithospheric thermal structure, geodynamic processes and the potential of

geothermal resources (Jiang et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2012; Wang, 2006 and references therein). Heat flow values observed in the surface of the earth reflects the present thermal state of the crust and upper mantle, derived from radioactive elements and magmatic chambers in the crust. Since the temperature of asthenosphere is ac. 500 to 700 °C higher than lithosphere, the heat flow values of the earth's surface are mainly controlled by the asthenosphere. In areas with upwelling asthenosphere beneath neotectonic belts and in areas of extensive modern magmatic activities, the surface heat flow values are generally higher than those in areas with old thick stable blocks such as in cratons (Jiang et al., 2016; Guo et al., 2013). The heat flow pattern in the continental area of China was compiled based on 1230 heat flow data updated to 2011 (Wang et al., 2012). The data show significant difference between the eastern and western China regions in terms of heat flow. Divided by 105°E meridian, heat flow values in eastern China show westward decreasing trend; and a northward decreasing is observed in western China. The lateral variation in lithospheric strength corresponds to the heat flow variation, showing reverse relation between heat flow and lithospheric strength (Wang, 2006). Some workers suggested that the thermal field in eastern China, where the high heat flow province extends from southeastern China to Songliao Basin and Changbai Mountains, is mainly a relic of Cenozoic tectonicmagmatic events (Wang, 2006), whereas others argue that it is



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Fig. 22. Photomicrographs of the intrusive rocks from the Tongjing and Jinchang complexes. A, Diorite; B, Quartz dioritic porphyrite; C, Hornblende dioritic porphyrite; D, Granitic porphyry; E, Granodioritic porphyrite; F, Felsite; Q-Quartz; Hbl-Hornblende; Pl-Plagioclase; Kfs-Potassium feldspar; Ep-Epidote.

Fig. 23. Topography of the lithosphere and asthenosphere boundary (http://www.craton. cn/data).

Fig. 24. Map of heat flow in the continental area of China (Data updated to 2011; after Wang et al., 2012) and major gold provinces.


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inherited from Mesozoic - Cenozoic tectonic-magmatic activities and affected by the far-field effect of the westward subduction of the Pacific plate (Jiang et al., 2016). Considering that early Cretaceous witnessed large-scale tectonic-magmatic events and the peak stage of the destruction of the NCC (Xu et al., 2009; Li et al., 2013; Li and Santosh, 2014), we suggest that the thermal structure of the sub-continental lithosphere in the NCC is largely inherited from the late Mesozoic events. The thermal structure in western China prominently records the collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate with the high heat flow province distributed in a belt along the Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone in E-W direction and rift zones in S-N direction (Jiang et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2012; Wang, 2006). Correlating the distribution of gold provinces and the thermal structure, including the heat flow pattern and temperature profile at 10 km depth in the continental area of China, we note that most of the gold provinces are broadly seated at the centers or the neighboring areas of high heat flow fields (Fig. 24). In the southern margin of the NCC, the Xiaoqinling, Xiong'ershan gold provinces and Yindongpuo gold deposit are all located at the centers of high heat flow fields. In the interior of the NCC, the Fuping-Hengshan gold province, the Tongshi gold field and the Jidong gold field are also located at the centers of high heat flow fields. In the southeastern margin and the northern margin of the NCC, the Jiaodong and Zhang-Xuan gold provinces are located at the neighboring area of the centers of high heat flow fields. In other areas outside the NCC, some important gold deposits, such as the Mojiang gold deposits in southwest China, the Zhijinshan gold deposit in southeast China, and the Jiama Au-Cu-Pb-Zn deposit in Tibet, are all located in the center of high heat flow fields. The Jinchang gold deposit in northeast China is located at the neighboring area of the high heat flow field. These features imply that the heterogeneous gold mineralization was largely controlled by high heat flow and the distribution of modern high heat flow fields can be utilized for gold prospecting. 6. Conclusions (1) Three types of gold systems are identified in the NCC: the “Jiaodong type”, explosive breccia type and skarn type. The Cretaceous “Jiaodong type” gold deposits of ac. 120–130 Ma are the most important gold supplier in China and are located both in the margins and interior of the NCC. Two explosive breccia gold deposits are of economic importance located in the southern margin and interior of the NCC, formed at ac. 180 Ma and 120 Ma. Important skarn gold deposit formed in the interior of the NCC at ca. 128 Ma. The formation of all the three types of gold systems are closely related with the destruction of the NCC lithosphere and the distribution of these gold deposits are temporally and spatially heterogeneous. (2) All three gold systems are closely related with extensive magmatism including granitoid plutons and various types of dykes. These magmatic suites formed mainly from magmas generated in the lower crust near the Moho discontinuity and also show evidence for mixing and mingling between felsic and mafic magmas. The ore forming fluids were of prominent magmatic signature and largely derived from deeper domains, probably with input from the asthenosphere mantle. The ore materials were mainly from the lower crust mixed with mantle materials. (3) The heterogeneous distribution of giant gold systems in the NCC was geodynamically controlled by the destruction of the NCC. Areas at the conjunction of two or three Precambrian micro-continental-blocks generally bear thinned lithosphere, high heat flow and served as important locales for the formation of giant gold deposits. The mantle beneath these areas shows EM2 characteristics implying involvement of oceanic subduction-related components. The intrusive rocks of the gold systems crystalized at high oxygen fugacity and were rich in volatiles.

Acknowledgements Our thanks are due to the guest editor Dr. Joseph Meert, and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive suggestions and corrections. We are also grateful to Dr. Lin Li, post-graduates Yongjie Zeng, Maowen Yuan, Xiaojing Suo, Jingting Li and Yuan Ma for preparing part of the manuscript and help in figure drawing. This work is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China for the State Key Research and Development Plan of China (2016YFC0600106), Scheduled Program of China Geological Survey (grant no. 1212011220926), and the PhD. Student Supervisor Fund from Ministry of Education of China (20130022110003). This study also contributes to the support to M. Santosh as Foreign Expert at the China University of Geosciences Beijing, China and Professor at the University of Adelaide, Australia. References Bai, J., Huang, X.G., Dai, F.Y., Wu, C.H., 1993. The Precambrian Evolution of China. 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M. Santosh is Professor at the China University of Geosciences Beijing (China), Specially Appointed Foreign Expert of China, Professor at the University of Adelaide, Australia and and Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Science, Kochi University, Japan. PhD (Cochin University of Science and Technology, India), D.Sc. (Osaka City University, Japan) and D.Sc. (University of Pretoria, South Africa). He is the Founding Editor of Gondwana Research as well as the founding Secretary General of the International Association for Gondwana Research. Research fields include petrology, fluid inclusions, geochemistry, geochronology, metallogeny and supercontinent tectonics. Published over 800 research papers, edited several memoir volumes and journal special issues, and co-author of the book ‘Continents and Supercontinents’ (Oxford University Press, 2004). Recipient of National Mineral Award, Outstanding Geologist Award, Thomson Reuters 2012 Research Front Award, Thomson Reuters High Cited Researcher 2014, 2015, 2016, and Global Talent Award.
