Geology and evolution of the Capel and Faust basins

Geology and evolution of the Capel and Faust basins: petroleum prospectivity of the deepwater Tasman Sea frontier Hashimoto, T.1, Rollet, N.1, Stagpoole, V.2, Higgins, K.1, Petkovic, P.1, Hackney, R.1, Funnell, R.2, Logan, G.A.1, Colwell, J.1* and Bernardel, G.1 1

Geoscience Australia, GPO Box 378, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia (*formerly) Email: [email protected]

2

GNS Science, PO Box 30368, Lower Hutt 5040, New Zealand

Abstract The Capel and Faust basins are located on the northern Lord Howe Rise in water depths of 1300–2500 m. Geoscience Australia recently completed a geological study and assessed the petroleum prospectivity of the area, based on new seismic, potential field, multibeam bathymetry and rock sample data. The data sets were acquired under Australian Government initiatives aimed at providing pre-competitive information to industry. Existing data coverage in these remote frontier basins is sparse and the DSDP 208 drill hole provides the sole well control. The interpretation of seismic data has confirmed the existence of large depocentres containing a maximum total sediment thickness of over 6 km. The early syn-rift megasequence is inferred to comprise Early Cretaceous volcanics and volcaniclastic sediments, with possible coal and lacustrine sediments. The late syn-rift megasequence is likely to be a Late Cretaceous non-marine to shallow marine clastic succession. The post-rift megasequence is a Late Cretaceous to Holocene marine succession that becomes increasingly calcareous. In some areas, the syn-rift sediments overlie an older (?Mesozoic) pre-rift basin succession. Two major extensional episodes are recognised and appear to be related to distinct breakup stages of the eastern Gondwana margin. Potential source rocks may occur in the pre-rift and syn-rift sections. Basin modelling indicates that the deeper depocentres have reached the oil or gas window and that expulsion could have occurred from the Early Cretaceous onward. Fluvio-deltaic, shoreline and turbiditic sandstones may provide potential reservoirs in the syn-rift and the lower post-rift sections. There is considerable potential for stratigraphic and fault-related traps, and large anticlinal structures have been identified. Similar large depocentres appear to also occur over the central and southern Lord Howe Rise, highlighting the exploration potential of this vast frontier region.

Keywords: Capel Basin, Faust Basin, Lord Howe Rise, Tasman Sea, deepwater frontier, stratigraphy, prospectivity, seismic data, gravity modelling, basin modelling

1

Introduction The Capel and Faust basins are located over the Lord Howe Rise, a large continental fragment extending from the southwest of New Caledonia to the west of New Zealand (Figure 1). The petroleum prospectivity of these basins, located in 1,300–2,500 m water depth, has been assessed as part of Australian Government’s Offshore Energy Security Program (2006–2011). This initiative aims to promote offshore frontier exploration through delivery of precompetitive geoscience information to industry. Previous work in the region (e.g. Willcox et al. 2001, Stagg et al. 2002, Willcox and Sayers 2002, van de Beuque et al. 2003) was based mainly on a sparse coverage of 2D regional seismic data and indicated the existence of large sedimentary depocentres in the area. However, poor seismic imaging precluded an assessment of the total sediment thickness and, therefore, the region’s petroleum prospectivity. The only well constraint in the Capel and Faust basins is the Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) drill-hole 208 (Figure 1), which terminated at 594 m below the seabed in Late Maastrichtian nannofossil chalk (Burns et al. 1973). There are no petroleum exploration wells in the area.

Figure 1: Location of the Capel and Faust basins, recent Geoscience Australia data acquisition surveys and DSDP drill holes

2

Data acquisition Geoscience Australia completed a series of marine surveys over the Capel and Faust basins during 2006 and 2007 (Figure 1). The joint French–Australian AUSFAIR survey, using the French Polar Institute (IPEV) vessel RV Marion Dufresne, recovered shallow sediment cores to test for indications of gas hydrate deposits (Colwell et al. 2006). Heatflow data and rock samples were also collected. The results of this survey, in addition to work within the adjacent French (New Caledonian) maritime jurisdiction (Nouzé et al. 2009) have indicated that the occurrence of gas hydrates in the area is unlikely. The GA-302 survey acquired approximately 6,000 km of high-quality 2D seismic data along 23 lines with a typical spacing of 15–35 km (Figure 1). The survey filled a significant data gap in an area where the occurrence of large sedimentary depocentres was indicated by regional satellite gravity and previously acquired seismic data (Kroh et al. 2007). Data were recorded to 12 s two-way time (TWT) to reveal the total sediment thickness of the basins for the first time. The GA-2436 (RV Tangaroa) survey acquired 24,000 km2 of high-resolution multibeam bathymetry and 11,000 line km of gravity and magnetic data over the largest depocentres imaged by the GA302 seismic data (Figure 1). In addition, sediment, rock and biological samples and video footage were collected as part of a program to map Australian seabed environments (Heap et al. 2009).

Assessment methodology Base data used for the assessment of the Capel and Faust basins included 2D seismic reflection, sonobuoy refraction, gravity, magnetic and multibeam bathymetry data and rock samples. Seismic data were interpreted initially in 2D to identify sedimentary megasequences and faults. The lithology and age of the basin sediments were inferred from seismic character analysis and regional tectonic reconstructions. In addition, Bouguer gravity and magnetic data were used to infer the lithology of the basement. To optimise information output from limited data in a structurally complex region, 3D visualisation and modelling were used to analyse structural and stratigraphic relationships (Figure 2). Data sets were integrated in 3D using GOCADTM to identify relationships between the data sets, which were subsequently used to guide interpretations. Bouguer gravity anomalies were found to be a reliable indicator of basement topography. This relationship allowed gravity data to be used in the interpolation of faults and delineation of depocentres away from seismic lines, while taking into account of the structural discontinuities commonly occurring between seismic lines. Relationships between seafloor features identified on multibeam bathymetry and sub-surface geological structures identified in seismic data were used to map fluid migration pathways and identify their formative processes. The relationship between gravity data and basement topography was also utilised in 3D gravity modelling using the GeoModeller© software to validate sediment thickness distribution derived from seismic interpretations. Forward gravity modelling evaluated alternative scenarios of sediment thickness distribution by generating gravity responses from seismic interpretations underpinning the scenarios (together with assumed values of rock densities). The modelled gravity anomalies were compared with the actually observed Bouguer gravity data to identify the scenario that resulted in the closest match. The most ‘correct’ seismic interpretations could then be identified. By contrast, inverse gravity modelling used the relationship between gravity response and basement topography (and hence, the sediment thickness) to generate a ‘most likely’ probabilistic model of basement topography from the observed gravity data (Figure 3). The modelled basement topography was then compared with that derived from seismic interpretations to identify areas where the model diverges from the interpretation (Figure 3). Such deviations may indicate areas of 3

Figure 2. 3D visualisation of selected project data sets. Note the spatial relationship between seafloor domes seen on multibeam bathymetry, structural highs on seismic data, and magnetic highs indicated in red hues on reduced-to-pole (RTP) magnetic data. 3D analysis and modelling proactively utilised such data relationships to test and refine geological interpretations in a structurally complex frontier setting.

Figure 3. Profile along seismic line GA-302/19 showing the basement surface interpreted from seismic data (red) and the most probable position of basement surface based on 3D gravity inversion (dark blue). The light blue lines define the limits of the 90% confidence interval for the inversion result. A good match with the inversion result suggests that the seismic interpretation is a reasonable representation of the basement surface. The significant deviation between interpreted and modelled basement seen in the circled area may indicate a large proportion of volcanic rocks within the depositional sequence, i.e. a higher local rock density than that assumed in the inversion model.

4

basement misidentification on the seismic data and/or significant difference between actual and modelled rock densities (e.g. elevated density due to a high proportion of igneous rocks within the depositional sequence). The results of 3D geological and gravity modelling were fed back into the analytical environment in GOCADTM for iterative testing of geological interpretations, which were used to construct a 3D geological model. Potential trapping structures with closures were identified and their dimensions estimated from the 3D geological model. The likely stratigraphic positions of potential source, reservoir and seal formations were predicted from lithological inferences based on seismic character, basement topography and tectonic reconstructions. Hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from the inferred potential source rocks were tested using the 1D basin modelling software BASSIM developed by GNS Science, based on finiteelement conductive heatflow. Modelling was performed on map-based inputs, including stratigraphy (age, thickness and lithology), palaeo-bathymetry (a surrogate for palaeotemperature), heat flow history, source rock parameters including total organic carbon (TOC), hydrogen index (HI), gas oil generation index (GOGI) and saturation threshold (Sth). Modelling assumed a heatflow at the base of the model of 40 mWm-2 (60 mWm-2 at the surface), and rifting at 130–100 Ma and 95–80 Ma that resulted in a total crustal stretching factor (β) of two. Alternative scenarios to test the effects of erosion after each rifting episode and post-rift magmatism were also modelled. A coaly source rock interval with a mean bulk TOC of 3% and mean HI of 300 was assumed within the pre-rift succession and in the lower one-third of Syn-rift 1 and Syn-rift 2 megasequences across the entire study area. Temperature, transformation ratio, vitrinite reflectance, vertical source rock maturity distribution, petroleum phases and expulsion volumes were calculated at each cell within the map grid, and the cell values were then were aggregated across the study area using GNS Science’s multi-1D basin modelling code BM1D. Hydrocarbon migration pathways were modelled using the Trinity software of ZetaWare Inc., based on simple ray-tracing of structural surfaces and buoyancy effects. In the study area, buoyancy-driven upward migration was assumed from the source kitchen areas within the pre-rift and syn-rift successions to inferred reservoir sandstones within the lower post-rift (Campanian– Maastrichtian) interval. Within the reservoir interval, up-dip migration based on the top Synrift 2 structural surface was assumed.

Basin stratigraphy and structure The study confirmed the existence of several large depocentres within the Capel and western Faust basins with dimensions of up to 125 km by 35 km. Maximum total sediment thickness exceeds 6 km (Figure 4). A compositionally variable pre-rift basement appears to underlie the basins (Figure 4 and Table 1). The deeper depocentres are commonly underlain by an older sedimentary succession that may correlate with the Clarence-Moreton and/or Maryborough basins of eastern Australia. Restoration of the Lord Howe Rise to its inferred pre-rift configuration places the Capel and Faust basins in line with along-strike (NNW–SSE) continuations of the Clarence-Moreton and Maryborough basins (Norvick et al. 2008). Strong reflectors within the pre-rift succession in the Capel and Faust basins are suggestive of coal measures (Figure 4). Many basement highs bounding the basin depocentres have a bland seismic character, which may indicate a high degree of lithological heterogeneity and/or deformation. Tectonic reconstructions suggest that the offshore continuation of the New England Orogen extends through the northern Lord Howe Rise (Mortimer et al. 2008, Norvick et al. 2008). It is conceivable that the seismic character of the basement highs is due to a faulted and folded mix of intrusive, metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks that are typical of the orogen. 5

Figure 4. (a) Interpreted total syn-rift and post-rift sediment thickness based on seismic, gravity and magnetic data; (b) Seismic stratigraphy along line GA-302/09. Line location is shown in (a). Bright reflectors within the pre-rift and syn-rift sections may be volcanic flows, sills and/or coal.

6

Table 1. Seismic megasequences in the Capel and Faust basins. Age, lithology and depositional environment of the syn-rift and lower post-rift successions are inferred from regional tectonic reconstructions and analogue basins including the Gippsland, Maryborough and Taranaki basins. Seismic megasequence

POST-RIFT

Inferred age

Inferred lithology

Depositional environment

Oligocene– Recent Late Maastrichtian– Eocene ?Campanian– Late Maastrichtian

Calcareous chalk and ooze, volcanics and intrusives Siliceous and calcareous chalk, marl, chert, volcanics and intrusives Siliciclastic to calcareous sandstone, fining upward to mudstone

Potential petroleum system elements

Bathyal

Regional seal

Bathyal

Regional seal

Fluvio-deltaic and shallow marine (lower), bathyal (upper)

Reservoir, seal

SYN-RIFT 2

Sandstone, siltstone, ?Cenomanian– mudstone, minor coal, ?Campanian volcanics and intrusives

Fluvial and lacustrine (lower), deltaic, shoreline and shallow marine (upper)

Reservoir, seal, source (coal, lacustrine) in lower parts

SYN-RIFT 1

?Early Cretaceous– ?Cenomanian

Volcanics, intrusives, sandstone, siltstone, coal.

Fluvial, lacustrine and colluvial

Source (coal, lacustrine), reservoir

PRE-RIFT

PaleozoicMesozoic

E. Cretaceous volcanics, Mesozoic sedimentary, Paleozoic fold belt

Convergent margin, backarc rift, foreland and Source (coal) intracratonic basins

In the southern Capel and eastern Faust basins, basement surfaces are commonly capped by volcanic flows and sills, indicated by chaotic high-amplitude reflectors. These igneous rocks may be associated with magmatism marking the onset of rifting. They may be equivalent to the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous Grahams Creek Formation of the Maryborough Basin (Norvick et al. 2008). Two syn-rift and one post-rift seismic megasequence have been identified (Figure 4 and Table 1). Initial rifting appears to be related to the Early Cretaceous extensional magmatism along the eastern Gondwana margin (Bryan et al. 1997, Norvick et al. 2001, 2008). Gravity, magnetic and fault data suggest that a pre-rift basement with a dominant NW–SE structural fabric was extended along a ?ENE–WSW vector to form NNE–SSW en echelon depocentres in the Capel and western Faust basins (Figure 5). Crustal extension during this rifting episode was insufficient for the developing depocentres and their bounding faults to become extensively linked, leading to a high degree of structural segmentation. The Syn-rift 1 Megasequence, deposited during this time, appears to be dominated by volcaniclastic and fluvial sediments, volcanics and intrusives (Table 1). Areas of high-amplitude seismic reflectors suggest the presence of some coal, and lacustrine deposition may also have accompanied faulting during initial rifting. Syn-rift 1 deposition was probably terminated by the Cenomanian regional uplift and erosion that is widely documented in eastern Australia (e.g. Hill 1994, Raza et al. 2009). This event has been attributed to a major reorganisation of the Australia–Pacific plate boundary (Veevers 2000, Norvick et al. 2001, 2008; Willcox et al. 2001, Schellart et al. 2006, Rey and Müller 2010). Transpressional pop-up structures, gentle folding and basin inversion resulted within the Capel and Faust basins. These features were subsequently reactivated and developed further during the Late Cretaceous–Cenozoic uplift and structuring events. Rifting resumed during the Late Cretaceous in the lead up to the opening of the Tasman Sea to the west (Hayes and Ringis 1973, Gaina et al. 1998). The westerly locus of extension resulted in the formation of SW-dipping major faults and a substantial deepening of the Early Cretaceous depocentres in the western Capel Basin. Depocentres in this area developed a NW–SE trend, as the early NNE–SSW bounding faults became linked by new fault segments that followed the structural trend of the pre-rift basement. The apparent realignment of the faults may indicate a change to a NE–SW extensional vector during the Late Cretaceous, which would agree with the directionality of the Tasman Sea breakup. Alternatively, renewed 7

Figure 5. 3D model of the pre-rift basement surface beneath the Capel and western Faust basins showing the segmented fault-bounded depocentres. Purple to white hues correspond to depocentres and orange to green hues to structural highs. Major faults are indicated as cuts in the pre-rift surface.

ENE–WSW oblique extension of pre-stretched crust may have resulted in increasing alignment of propagating fault tips to the basement structural trend, as some rifting models depict (e.g. McClay and White 1995). However, in the eastern Capel and Faust basins, crustal extension and creation of additional accommodation was limited and depocentres largely retained their earlier NNE–SSW trends (Figure 5). The Syn-rift 2 Megasequence deposited during this rifting phase is likely to be mainly fluvial, with deltaic, shoreline and shallow marine sediments in the uppermost part of the succession (Table 1). Samples of Late Cretaceous volcaniclastic conglomerate with molluscan fossils, trachyte and latite were recovered to the southeast of the Faust Basin during the AUSFAIR survey (Colwell et al. 2006, Purvis and Pontifex 2006), indicating marginal to shallow marine conditions and episodic volcanism during this time. Deposition was terminated by another uplift and structuring event, most likely related to the separation of the northern Lord Howe Rise from eastern Australia during the Campanian (Norvick et al. 2008). Thermal subsidence of the Capel and Faust basins commenced with the Late Cretaceous opening of the Tasman Sea. Transform faults propagating from the seafloor spreading axis in the Tasman Sea resulted in further segmentation of the depocentres and deformation of the 8

depocentre margins. In the earlier part of this post-rift phase, shallow to deep marine clastic sediments were deposited (Table 1). Seismic data have revealed features that may represent deltaic, shoreline and turbidite sand bodies. Since the Late Maastrichtian, bathyal conditions have dominated, resulting in the deposition of chalk, marl and calcareous ooze (Table 1). This part of the post-rift succession is stratigraphically constrained by the DSDP drill holes. Regional structuring events during the Paleocene–Eocene and Eocene–Oligocene resulted in a depositional hiatus and the uplift and planation of structural highs. Igneous activity was widespread during the Maastrichtian–Paleocene or Eocene, the Late Oligocene–Miocene and the Pliocene, triggering fluid migration through the syn-rift and post-rift sediments. The occurrence of seafloor features such as mega-pockmarks, slumps and polyforms indicates that fluid migration has continued to the present (Figure 6). Magmatism has also driven neotectonism that has modified the seafloor through fault-scarp formation, doming and subsidence.

Figure 6 (a). Association of fluid migration features with igneous intrusions in the subsurface. Evolution of seafloor and fluid migration features in the study area appears to have been largely driven by Cenozoic magmatism and has continued to the present; (b) Megapockmarks and buried ?Eocene–Oligocene mud volcanoes resulting from fluid migration through post-rift bathyal sediments.

9

Petroleum prospectivity Given the predicted dominance of non-marine to fluvio-deltaic depositional environments, coal would be the most likely type of source rock within the syn-rift megasequences, if potential source rocks are present (Table 1). Lacustrine sediments may provide a supplementary hydrocarbon source but their occurrence is probably restricted. Tectonic reconstructions suggest that potential analogues of the Syn-rift 1 Megasequence in the Capel and Faust basins include the Grahams Creek Formation in the Maryborough Basin (Hill, 1994), Strzelecki Group in the Gippsland Basin (Norvick et al. 2001, 2008) and Eumeralla Supersequence in the Otway Basin (Krassay et al. 2004). Early Cretaceous coals are a gas source in the Otway Basin fields (Edwards et al. 1999, Boreham et al. 2004) and probably also in the Maryborough Basin (Lipski 2001, Norvick et al. 2008). The Syn-rift 2 Megasequence in the Capel and Faust basins may correlate with the Emperor and Golden Beach subgroups of the Gippsland Basin (Bernecker and Partridge 2001, Bernecker et al. 2001, Norvick et al. 2001), and the Taniwha and Rakopi formations of the Taranaki Basin (King and Thrasher 1996, Norvick et al. 2001, 2008; Uruski and Baillie 2004). Coals within the fluvio-deltaic Rakopi Formation are the source of most oil discovered to date in the Taranaki Basin (Uruski 2008). Seismic and rock sample data suggest that Late Cretaceous coals and organic marine sediments are also widely distributed in the Reinga Basin and the Norfolk Ridge area to the north of the Taranaki Basin (Herzer et al. 1997, 1999; Stagpoole et al. 2009). Other source rock analogues are found in the Great South and offshore Canterbury basins. Coaly sediments of the Turonian–Santonian Hoiho Formation in the Great South Basin (Killops et al. 1997, Cook et al. 1999, Lipski 2004, Norvick et al. 2008) and the mid-Cretaceous syn-rift succession in the Canterbury Basin (Killops et al. 1997, Mogg et al. 2008, Norvick et al. 2008) are a proven source of oil, condensate and gas. Coal is also likely within the pre-rift sedimentary rocks underlying parts of the Capel and Faust basins, if they represent the equivalent of the Clarence-Moreton and/or Maryborough basins. Both of these basins host Triassic–Jurassic coal measures and active petroleum systems onshore. In particular, the Lower to Middle Jurassic Walloon Coal Measures and the Koukandowie Formation of the Clarence-Moreton Basin contain abundant oil-prone organic matter (O’Brien et al. 1994). Potential reservoir sandstones would be expected in both syn-rift and lower post-rift successions (Table 1). Sandstones within the Syn-rift 1 and lower Syn-rift 2 Megasequences are likely to be mostly fluvial in origin, with variable potential as reservoir formations. A high input of volcaniclastic sediment may have affected reservoir quality, particularly in Synrift 1. However, well-sorted and chemically mature deltaic, shoreline and turbiditic sandstones are possible within the upper Syn-rift 2 and lower post-rift successions. These reservoirs may be sealed by fine-grained estuarine, pro-delta, shelf and bathyal mud deposited as part of a transgressive systems tract formed during the initial stages of marine transgression into the region. The fine-grained calcareous bathyal sediments of the upper post-rift succession may provide a potential regional seal given its lateral continuity and thickness (Table 1). Multi-1D basin modelling indicates that the pre-rift and Syn-rift 1 sections have reached the oil or gas generation window within the deeper depocentres of the Capel and western Faust basins (Figures 7 and 8). Maximum temperatures were likely to have been attained between the Eocene and the Miocene. A significant increase in palaeowater depth appears to have depressed the thermal gradient slightly since the Early Miocene. Coaly source rocks with a mean total organic carbon (TOC) content of 3% and a hydrogen index (HI) of 300 mg/g would generate and expel significant volumes of oil and gas from the pre-rift and Syn-rift 1 10

Figure 7. Estimated total oil and gas expulsion volumes, in MMbbl/km2 and BCF/km2 respectively, based on multi-1D modelling of a Syn-rift 1 coal source rock. The source rock interval was assumed to be located in the lower one-third of the Syn-rift 1 succession with an average bulk total organic matter content (TOC) of 3% and hydrogen index (HI) of 300. The results shown incorporate the effect of Cenozoic magmatism, modelled as heat pulses of 60– 80 mWm-2 (at 65 km depth) at 68–60 Ma and 27–18 Ma.

sections in the larger depocentres (Figure 7). Minor generation is expected from the Syn-rift 2 section in the deepest parts of the Capel Basin. 80% of total hydrocarbon expulsion is expected by the end of Paleogene, with maximum expulsion taking place between the Maastrichtian and the Late Eocene (c. 68–36 Ma; Figure 8). However, late-stage generation since the Late Eocene is also likely to have taken place over a wide area of the major depocentres, as shallowly buried parts of the Syn-rift 1 source rock interval finally entered the hydrocarbon generation window. Late-stage generation may have been significantly enhanced by post-rift magmatism, if accompanied by a significant increase in crustal heatflow such as that arising from a mantle plume. The addition of heat pulses to the basin models to simulate the possible effects of the Maastrichtian–Paleocene/Eocene and Late Oligocene–Miocene magmatic episodes increased the total volume of oil and gas expelled by over 10% (Figure 8). Multiple rifting has resulted in a range of potential fault-related trapping styles, including tilted fault blocks and drape over horsts. Cretaceous and Cenozoic deformation events have produced several anticlinal structures with potential four-way closure areas of up to 340 km2. Modelling of migration pathways indicates that some of these structures are located favourably in relation to the inferred source kitchen areas, with potential for charge from both up-dip migration within the lower post-rift interval and up-fault migration. Seismic data indicates lateral facies variability and numerous unconformities within the syn-rift and lower post-rift successions, suggesting that there is also considerable potential for stratigraphic traps. However, Cenozoic magmatism and the accompanying fluid migration and tectonic reactivation may have affected the integrity of the post-rift bathyal sediments as a potential regional seal.

11

Figure 8. Estimated cumulative oil (a) and gas (b) expulsion from the Capel and Faust basins based on multi-1D modelling of a Syn-rift 1 coal source rock. The source rock interval was assumed to be located in the lower one-third of the Syn-rift 1 succession with an average bulk total organic matter content (TOC) of 3% and hydrogen index (HI) of 300. The effect of Cenozoic magmatism was modelled as elevated crustal heat flow during 68–60 Ma (80 mWm-2 at 65 km depth) and 27–18 Ma (60 mWm-2 at 65 km depth).

Conclusions Results of the study suggest that potential source, reservoir and seal rocks are likely to occur in the Capel and Faust basins. Oil and gas generation and expulsion would be possible, if source rocks are present. Satellite gravity data suggests the existence of numerous large sedimentary depocentres in other parts of the Lord Howe Rise, which are likely to share a similar geological history with the Capel and Faust basins. The findings will guide future exploration and reduce risk in the vast deepwater frontier between Australia and New Zealand.

12

References Bernecker, T. and Partridge, A.D. 2001. Emperor and Golden Beach Sub-groups: the onset of Late Cretaceous sedimentation in the Gippsland Basin. In: Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium; a refocused energy perspective for the future, Hill K.C. and Bernecker T., eds. Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Special Publication: 391–402. Bernecker, T., Woollands, M.A., Wong, D., Moore, D.H. and Smith, M.A. 2001. Hydrocarbon prospectivity of the deep water Gippsland Basin, Victoria, Australia. APPEA Journal 41: 91– 113. Boreham, C.J., Hope, J.M., Jackson, P., Davenport, R., Earl, K.L., Edwards, D.S., Logan, G.A. and Krassay, A.A. 2004. Gas-oil-source correlations in the Otway Basin, southern Australia. In: Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II, Boult, P.J., Johns, D.R. and Lang, S.C., eds. Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Special Publication: 603–627. Bryan, S.E., Constantine, A.E., Stephens, C.J., Ewart, A., Schon, R.W. and Parianos, J. 1997. Early Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary successions along the eastern Australian continental margin: implications for the breakup of eastern Gondwana. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 153: 85–102. Burns, R.E. and Shipboard Party 1973. Site 208. In: Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 21, Burns R.E., Andrews, J.E. et al. eds, pp. 271–331, US Government Printing Office, Washington. Colwell, J., Foucher, J-P., Logan, G. and Balut, Y. 2006. Partie 2, Programme AUSFAIR (Australia– Fairway basin bathymetry and sampling survey) Cruise Report. In: Les rapports de campagnes à la mer, MD 153/AUSFAIR–ZoNéCo 12 and VT 82/GAB on board R/V Marion Dufresne, Institut Polaire Français Paul Emile Victor, Plouzané, France, Réf : OCE/2006/05. Cook, R.A., Sutherland, R. and Zhu, H. 1999. Cretaceous–Cenozoic geology and petroleum systems of the Great South Basin, New Zealand, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Monograph 21. Edwards, D.S., Struckmeyer, H.I.M., Bradshaw, M.T. and Skinner, J.E. 1999. Geochemical characteristics of Australia’s southern margin petroleum systems. APPEA Journal 39: 297–321. Gaina, C., Müller, D.R., Royer, J-Y., Stock, J., Hardebeck, J. and Symonds, P. 1998. The tectonic history of the Tasman Sea: a puzzle with 13 pieces. Journal of Geophysical Research 103(B6): 12413–12433. Hayes, D.E. and Ringis, J. 1973. Seafloor spreading in the Tasman Sea. Nature 243: 454–458. Heap, A.D., Hughes, M., Anderson, T., Nichol, S., Hashimoto, T., Daniell, J., Przeslawski, R., Payne, D., Radke, L. and Shipboard Party 2009. Seabed environments of the Capel and Faust basins and Gifford Guyot, eastern Australia, TAN0713 post-survey report, Geoscience Australia Record 2009/22. Herzer, R.H., Chaproniere, G.C.H., Edwards, A.R., Hollis, C.J., Pelletier, B., Raine, J.I., Scott, G.H., Stagpoole, V., Strong, C.P., Symonds, P., Wilson, G.J. and Zhu, H. 1997. Seismic stratigraphy and structural history of the Reinga Basin and its margins, southern Norfolk Ridge system. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 40: 425–451. Herzer, R.H., Sykes, R., Killops, S.D., Funnell, R.H., Burggraf, D.R., Townend, J., Raine, J.I. and Wilson, G.J. 1999. Cretaceous carbonaceous rocks from the Norfolk Ridge system, Southwest Pacific: implications for regional petroleum potential. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 42: 57–73. Hill, P.J. 1994. Geology and geophysics of the offshore Maryborough, Capricorn and northern Tasman Basins: results of AGSO Survey 91, Australian Geological Survey Organisation Record 1994/1.

13

Killops, S.D., Cook, R.A., Sykes, R. and Boudou, J.P. 1997. Petroleum potential and oil-source correlation in the Great South and Canterbury Basins. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 40: 405–423. King, P.R. and Thrasher, G.P. 1996. Cretaceous–Cenozoic geology and petroleum systems of the Taranaki Basin, New Zealand, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Monograph 13. Krassay, A.A., Cathro, D.L. and Ryan, D.J. 2004. A regional tectonostratigraphic framework for the Otway Basin. In: Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium II, Boult, P.J., Johns, D.R. and Lang, S.C., eds. Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Special Publication: 97–116. Kroh, F., Morse, M.P. and Hashimoto, T. 2007. New data on the Capel and Faust basins. Preview 130: 22–24. Lipski, P. 2001. Geology and hydrocarbon potential of the Jurassic–Cretaceous Maryborough Basin. In: Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium: a refocussed energy perspective for the future, Hill, K.C. and Bernecker, T., eds. Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Special Publication: 263–268. Lipski P. 2004. Evidence for an oil play fairway on the inner shelf of the Great South Basin. 2004 New Zealand Petroleum Conference Proceedings: 14. McClay, K.R. and White, M.J. 1995. Analogue modelling of orthogonal and oblique rifting. Marine and Petroleum Geology 12: 137–151. Mogg, W.G., Aurisch, K., O’Leary, R. and Pass, G.P. 2008. Offshore Canterbury Basin—beyond the shelf edge. 2008 New Zealand Petroleum Conference Proceedings. Mortimer, N., Hauff, F. and Calvert, T. 2008. Continuation of the New England Orogen, Australia, beneath the Queensland Plateau and Lord Howe Rise. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 55: 195–209. Norvick, M.S., Smith, M.A. and Power, M.R. 2001. The plate tectonic evolution of eastern Australasia guided by the stratigraphy of the Gippsland Basin. In: Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium: a refocussed energy perspective for the future, Hill, K.C., and Bernecker, T., eds. Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Special Publication: 15–24. Norvick, M.S., Langford, R.P., Rollet, N., Hashimoto, T., Higgins, K.L. and Morse, M.P. 2008. New insights into the evolution of the Lord Howe Rise (Capel and Faust basins), offshore eastern Australia, from terrane and geophysical data analysis. In: Eastern Australasian Basins Symposium III: Energy security for the 21st century, Blevin, J.E., Bradshaw, B.E. and Uruski, C. eds. Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Special Publication: 291–310. Nouzé, H., Cosquer, E., Collot, J., Foucher, J.-P., Klingelhoefer, F.Lafoy, Y. and Géli, L. 2009. Geophysical characterization of bottom simulating reflectors in the Fairway basin (off New Caledonia Southwest Pacific), based on high resolution seismic profiles and heat flow data. Marine Geology 266: 80–90 doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.07.014. O’Brien, P.E., Powell, T.G. and Wells, A.T. 1994. Petroleum potential of the Clarence-Moreton Basin. In: Geology and petroleum potential of the Clarence-Moreton Basin, New South Wales and Queensland, Wells, A.T. and O’Brien, P.E. eds. Australian Geological Survey Organisation Bulletin 241: 277–290. Purvis, A.C. and Pontifex, I.R. 2006. Mineralogical Report No. 8881. Pontifex and Associates Pty Ltd., unpublished report prepared for Geoscience Australia. Raza, A., Hill, K.C. and Korsch, R.J. 2009. Mid-Cretaceous uplift and denudation of the Bowen and Surat Basins, eastern Australia: relationship to Tasman Sea rifting from apatite fission-track and vitrinite-reflectance data. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 56: 501–531.

14

Rey, P.F. and Müller, R.D. 2010. Fragmentation of active continental plate margins owing to the buoyancy of the mantle wedge. Nature Geoscience NGEO825 doi:10.1038. Schellart, W.P., Lister, G.S. and Toy, V.G. 2006. A Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic reconstruction of the Southwest Pacific region: tectonics controlled by subduction and slab rollback processes. Earth-Science Reviews 76: 191–233. Stagg, H.M.J., Alcock, M., Borissova, I. and Moore, A. 2002. Geological framework of the southern Lord Howe Rise and adjacent areas, Geoscience Australia Record 2002/25. Stagpoole, V.M., Reid, E., Browne, G.H., Bland, K., Ilg, B., Griffin, A., Herzer, R.H. and Uruski, C. 2009. Petroleum Prospectivity of the Reinga Basin, New Zealand, GNS Science Consultancy Report 2009/251. Uruski, C. 2008. Exploring deepwater Taranaki Basin. 2008 New Zealand Petroleum Conference Proceedings. Uruski, C. and Baillie, P. 2004. Mesozoic evolution of the greater Taranaki Basin and implications for prospectivity. APPEA Journal 44: 385–396. Van de Beuque, S., Stagg, H.M.J., Sayers, J., Willcox, J.B. and Symonds, P.A. 2003. Geological framework of the northern Lord Howe Rise and adjacent areas, Geoscience Australia Record 2003/01. Veevers, J.J. 2000. Billion-year earth history of Australia and neighbours in Gondwanaland. GEMOC Press, Macquarie University, Sydney. Willcox, J.B., Sayers, J., Stagg, H.M.J. and van de Beuque, S. 2001. Geological framework of the Lord Howe Rise and adjacent ocean basins. In: Eastern Australasian Basin Symposium 2001: a refocussed energy perspective for the future, Hill, K.C. and Bernecker, T. eds. Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia Special Publication: 211–225. Willcox, J.B. and Sayers, J. 2002. Geological framework of the central Lord Howe Rise (Gower Basin) region, Geoscience Australia Record 2002/11.

15