Global Issues and Trends in Tourism
Editors Cevdet AVCIKURT Mihaela S. DINU Necdet HACIOĞLU Recep EFE Abdullah SOYKAN Nuray TETİK
ISBN 978-954-07-4138-3
ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS SOFIA 2016
Editors Prof. Dr. Cevdet AVCIKURT Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism Balıkesir-Turkey
Prof. Dr. Recep EFE Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir-Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mihaela S. DINU Romanian American University School of Domestic and International Tourism Economics Bucharest, Romania
Prof. Dr. Abdullah SOYKAN Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir-Turkey
Prof. Dr. Necdet HACIOĞLU Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism Balıkesir-Turkey
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nuray TETIK Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism Balıkesir-Turkey
St. Kliment Ohridski University Press ISBN 978-954-07-4138-3
The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher. © 2016 Recep Efe All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the editors and authors Cover Design: İsa Curebal Back Cover Photo: Recep Efe ii
CONTENTS Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 1 Research into the International Tourism Movements on the Basis of Destination: The Case of Turkey Necdet HACIOĞLU, Füsun ESENKAL ÇÖZELİ Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 19 Emotional Labor Behaviors in Tourism: A Study on the Students of Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism Cevdet AVCIKURT, Pelin YAGCI Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 33 Gastronomy and Tourism Osman ÇALIŞKAN, Gökhan YILMAZ Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 51 The Thermal Tourism Services Provided by Five Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar Gonca KILIÇ, Asuman PEKYAMAN, Engin AYTEKİN Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 68 The Role of Gastronomy Tourism in Slow Cities: Case of Turkey Mehmet SARIOĞLAN, Cevdet AVCIKURT Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 73 Interpretation of Zeugma Museum by Tourist Guides Uysal YENIPINAR Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 87 Job Insecurity from a Multi-faceted Perspective of the Tourism Sector Aziz Gökhan ÖZKOÇ, Nurgül ÇALIŞKAN Chapter 8 ......................................................................................................................................... 103 Leadership in Service Enterprises Ahmet BAYTOK, Hasan Hüseyin SOYBALI Chapter 9 ......................................................................................................................................... 120 The Role of Rural Tourism in Rural Development Gülay ÖZDEMİR YILMAZ Chapter 10 ....................................................................................................................................... 134 An Ideal Example for Sustainable Tourism Development: Kaiserwinkl, Austria Barış ERDEM, Eray POLAT, Sami Sonat ÖZDEMİR Chapter 11 ....................................................................................................................................... 149 Innovative Planning in Thermal Tourism Destinations: Balikesir-Güre Thermal Tourism Destination Case Study Melike GÜL, Kudret GÜL Chapter 12 ....................................................................................................................................... 163 Attitudes of University Students towards Mobile Marketing of Food and Beverage Goods and Services Nuray TETİK, Göksel Kemal GİRGİN
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Chapter 13 ....................................................................................................................................... 176 Management of Special Interest Tourism in Terms of Sustainable Tourism Zeki AKINCI, Murad Alpaslan KASALAK Chapter 14 ....................................................................................................................................... 191 A Curriculum Proposal for Recreation Programs in Faculties of Tourism Pelin YAGCI, Ahmet KOROGLU Chapter 15 ....................................................................................................................................... 203 Tourist Guiding: “Cinderella” of the Tourism Feray İRİGÜLER, Mehmet Emre GÜLER Chapter 16 ....................................................................................................................................... 217 Consumers and Tourists’ Restaurant Selections Gökhan YILMAZ, Selami GÜLTEKİN Chapter 17 ....................................................................................................................................... 231 Ayvalık, in Terms of Sustainable Tourism Hüsniye DOLDUR Chapter 18 ....................................................................................................................................... 242 Opinion Mining to Analyze Perception of a Touristic Destination Valentina Erminia ALBANESE Chapter 19 ....................................................................................................................................... 255 Sustainability of City Destinations: A Case Study of Mersin City Council Uysal YENİPINAR, Elif BAK Chapter 20 ....................................................................................................................................... 269 Motivation and Involvement as Antecedents of the Perceived Value of the Festival Experience: A Study on Burhaniye Bicycle Festival Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ, Volkan ÖZBEK, Mustafa GÜNALAN Chapter 21 ....................................................................................................................................... 282 A New Trend in the Turkish Tourism Industry: Halal Tourism Hüseyin PAMUKÇU, Özgür ARPACI Chapter 22 ....................................................................................................................................... 296 Destination Management in Culture Tourism: The Case of Safranbolu Nurettin AYAZ, Özhan DEMİRKOL Chapter 23 ....................................................................................................................................... 309 Travel and Accommodation Preferences of Public Employees: A Case Study in Aksaray (Turkey) Burak Murat DEMİRÇİVİ, Sait DOĞAN, Mehmet TUNCER Chapter 24 ....................................................................................................................................... 323 Festivals as Cultural Heritage: The Mesir Festival of Manisa Uysal YENİPINAR, Erşan YILDIZ Chapter 25 ....................................................................................................................................... 335 The Rising Trend of Tourism: Cruise Tourism V. Rüya EHTIYAR
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Chapter 26 ....................................................................................................................................... 348 Evaluation of Potential Wellness & SPA (Thermal) Tourism in Aydın Province GülserenYURCU Chapter 27 ....................................................................................................................................... 360 A View to Tourism Investment Policies in Turkey in the Context of Globalization Process and Sustainability Düriye BOZOK, Özge GÜDÜ DEMIRBULAT Chapter 28 ....................................................................................................................................... 372 A Comparison of Depression and Turnover Intentions of Hotel Employees in All- Inclusive and Non All-Inclusive Hotels Hakan BOZ, Özer YILMAZ, Aytuğ ARSLAN, Erdoğan KOÇ Chapter 29 ....................................................................................................................................... 383 Wine Tourism Ozlem GUZEL, Elena GROMOVA Chapter 30 ....................................................................................................................................... 394 Gastronomy Tourism: Motivations and Destinations Berrin GUZEL, Müge APAYDIN Chapter 31 ....................................................................................................................................... 405 Expectations and Satisfaction Perceptions of Tourists, Who Travel For Purpose of Culture: Case Study of Bergama S. Banu YILDIZ & Sultan Nazmiye KILIÇ Chapter 32 ....................................................................................................................................... 417 Social Security Rights of Tourist the Guides and Taxation of Their Earnings in Turkey Ö. Hakan ÇAVUŞ Chapter 33 ....................................................................................................................................... 429 Sustainable Practices at Tour Operators: Case of Kuoni Group Halil KORKMAZ, Lütfi ATAY, Serdar SÜNNETÇİOĞLU Chapter 34 ....................................................................................................................................... 439 Dynamic Capabilities: A Theoretical Framework for Tourism Destinations Emre ERBAŞ Chapter 35 ....................................................................................................................................... 449 The Effect of Work Related Smartphone Use during Vacation on Recovery Experience: Mediating Role of Work-Travel Interference Mustafa C. ALTUNEL, Ebru ULUCAN Chapter 36 ....................................................................................................................................... 459 Event Tourism Ömer ÇOBAN Chapter 37 ....................................................................................................................................... 470 Potential of Gastronomy Tourism within Culture Tourism and Developing Neslihan ONUR & Fatih ONUR Chapter 38 ....................................................................................................................................... 480 Economic Impacts of Tourism and Its Place In Turkish Economy Kamil UNUR, Hasan KÖŞKER, Ferhat ŞEKER
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Chapter 39 ....................................................................................................................................... 490 Turkish Cousine’s Importance and Tourism Potential Faruk SEYITOĞLU and Osman ÇALIŞKAN Chapter 40 ....................................................................................................................................... 499 Cruise Tourism in the World and in Turkey Elif Tuba BEYDİLLİ & Ömer Zafer GÜVEN Chapter 41 ....................................................................................................................................... 509 Relationship Marketing in Tourism Sector Kaplan UĞURLU Chapter 42 ....................................................................................................................................... 518 Informal Employment in Tourism Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ, İsmet KAYA Chapter 43 ....................................................................................................................................... 527 Cruise Tourism in the Mediterranean Kamil YAĞCI and Gürkan AKDAĞ Chapter 44 ....................................................................................................................................... 535 Equine Tourism: Nature, Sports and Travel Kemal YILMAZ, Gülşen GONCAGÜL Chapter 45 ....................................................................................................................................... 544 Casino Gaming Tourism: A Case of Macau Burak MIL & Derman KÜÇÜKALTAN Chapter 46 ....................................................................................................................................... 553 Backpackers’ Travel Motivations and Experiences Kadir ÇAKAR, Faruk SEYITOĞLU & Nazlı SAYAR Chapter 47 ....................................................................................................................................... 561 Sensory Marketing in Tourism Ceren IŞÇI Chapter 48 ....................................................................................................................................... 569 The Leadership Orientations of Tourism Managers of the Future Halil AKMESE, Ahmet BUYUKSALVARCI, Sercan ARAS Chapter 49 ....................................................................................................................................... 576 Agriculture-Tourism-Exchange (Ta Tu Ta) Fatih TÜRKMEN Chapter 50 ....................................................................................................................................... 583 Annus Fidei 2013 in Rome: An opportunity for Pilgrimage Tourism in Italy Daniela LA FORESTA Chapter 51 ....................................................................................................................................... 590 Slow Food Practices in Tourism Eda GÜNEŞ, Ümit SORMAZ, Mustafa YILMAZ Chapter 52 ....................................................................................................................................... 596 Ecotourism Entrepreneurship, the Features of Ecotourism Entrepreneurshıp, Problems and Solutions Murad Alpaslan KASALAK, Zeki AKINCI, Gülseren YURCU vi
Chapter 53 ....................................................................................................................................... 602 Approach of the Young to Eco-Gastronomy: The Case of Turkish Cuisine Onur GÖRKEM, Murat BAYRAM, Serkan BERTAN and Ümmühan BAYRAM Chapter 54 ....................................................................................................................................... 611 Religious Tourism Ümit SORMAZ, Mustafa YILMAZ Chapter 55 ....................................................................................................................................... 621 Segmentation of Visitor’s Motivations: A Study on 20th East Mediterranean International Tourism and Travel (EMITT) Exhibition Ali DALGIÇ, Sevda SAHİLLİ BİRDİR, Kemal BİRDİR Chapter 56 ....................................................................................................................................... 632 The Evaluation of the Tourism and Recreational Potential of Amasra in Terms of Landscape Planning Ömer Lütfü ÇORBACI Chapter 57 ....................................................................................................................................... 650 Investigation of Nature-Based Tourism Possibilities in Bursa Waterfalls Zeynep PİRSELİMOĞLU BATMAN, Murat ZENCİRKIRAN Chapter 58 ....................................................................................................................................... 661 The Role and Importance of Tourism Information System in Urban Tourism Planning Sultan Sevinç KURT, Banu Çiçek KURDOĞLU Chapter 59 ....................................................................................................................................... 669 Gaziantep: One of The Gastronomy City Selected by UNESCO Hüsniye DOLDUR Chapter 60 ....................................................................................................................................... 679 Developing Ecotourism Development Strategies for Sustainable Rural Development: A Case Study of Kıyıköy, Kırklareli Tuğba KİPER, Osman UZUN, Tuğba ÜSTÜN TOPAL Chapter 61 ....................................................................................................................................... 700 Development and Sustainability of the Tourism in Lake Salda and its Environs Kaan KAPAN Chapter 62 ....................................................................................................................................... 708 The View on Alternative Tourism by Managers of Accommodation Establishments: The Example of the East Antalya (Side) Tourism Development Project Area Cemali SARI, Medine ALİGİL Chapter 63 ....................................................................................................................................... 716 Research on Slow City Movement within the Context of Sustainable Urban Planning: The Case of Vize, Kırklareli - Turkey Rüya YILMAZ
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Chapter 1 Research into the International Tourism Movements on the Basis of Destination: The Case of Turkey Necdet HACIOĞLU*, Füsun ESENKAL ÇÖZELİ** 1. INTRODUCTION Tourism is one of the leading sectors that are the fastest developing and growing industries throughout the world. This sector which makes positive and important contributions to the countries from economic, social, political and cultural aspects, has become an industry on its own in the world economy (Bozok, 1996: v). To that effect, the number of tourists who participated in the international travels in 2014 reached by 4.7% increase rate and up to 1,138 million compared to the previous year (with an increase of 51 million tourists compared to the previous period) according to World Tourism Organization’s statement (Turofed, 2015: 22). Therefore, the countries almost compete in order to get a share from international tourism which is such an important source of income. New destinations which possess many original features show up every day within intense tourism competition in the world (Yavuz, 2007: 41). The competition among the businesses in international tourism and travel industry has left its place to the competition among the destinations (Cabael, 2011: 15). A large number of destinations whose physical characteristics are similar are in a competition in Mediterranean basin where Turkey is also located (Cabael, 2011:4). Many countries which offer similar tourism products are affected negatively by this type of competition. When it is taken into consideration that it is highly possible for the countries such as Tunisia and Algeria, which are located in Mediterranean basin new in tourism, to offer charming prices to the tourists for the basic product, it should be expected that the competition will be much more intensive for Turkey in the following years. One of the predictions is that it would be easier and more profitable to do what has not been done in fierce competition environment brought by globalization or to enter into the small and niche markets which have not been entered yet and which possess a certain level of potential (Yavuz, 2007: 41). Therefore, the destinations in Turkey should continuously review themselves. The destinations should rediscover their past, history and cultural values, and should face the world with a new identity and vision (Yavuz, 2007: 41). Because each place may not motivate everyone in the same way (Hacıoğlu, 2000: 118). This situation necessitates that the authorities know the factors which affect the tourists’ destination preferences, and that various public and private enterprises offer a package composed of complementary goods and services in line with the resources of the destinations in a manner which will be beneficial for the tourists (Bağıran, 2015: 10). Otherwise, all destinations, including Turkey, which cannot ensure the development of sustainable tourism, cannot diversify their attractions, cannot make use of their resources effectively, cannot perform new and creative marketing activities will face the risk of losing their share in international tourism market (Bardakoğlu, 2011: 31). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. The Concept of Destination Destination is a word of French origin, and is used to mean “the place to arrive” in the most general sense (Cabael, 2011: 5). Apart from that, it is seen that this word is used in Turkish tourism literature with various expressions such as “the place visited”, “tourism area”, “orientation location”, “destination point”, “attraction location”, “tourist site”, “tourism region”, “target area”, “tourist target”, “tourist station” (Aksöz, 2010: 3). In general, destination is defined as “a geographical area which constitutes the focal point of the services and opportunities that are envisaged in order to meet the needs *
Prof. Dr, Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty, Head of Tourism Guide Department PhD Candidate, Balıkesir University, Social Sciences Institute, Tourism Mangement Department
**
of the tourists” (Babacan, 2010: 40). Destinations may be either as big as a continent, or a country or may be smaller than the whole country, or may be either as small as a city or even a village in a country. Within this context; villages, towns, cities, provinces and countries are expressed as destination (Aksöz, 2010: 4). Kotler, Bowen and Makens divide the destinations into two as micro and macro. Micro destination means the places whose borders exist physically in some way or it is accepted that their borders exist, and macro destination means the places which have more than one destination area. According to this definition, Bodrum is a micro destination, and Turkey is a macro destination. Besides that, even specific casino centers can be qualified as destination as is seen in the examples of Las Vegas, Cyprus, Monte Carlo (Aksöz, 2010: 5). 2.2 The Relationship between Tourism and Destination Destination is among the most essential factors of the tourism concept (Ekici, 2013: 5). Since all tourism activities are carried out within tourism destinations by the nature of the tourism sector (Doğan, 2013: 2). Therefore, it is known that tourism and destination are two important factors which are interrelated and have an impact on the development of each other. A well-preserved destination is important for the refreshment and development of the tourism, and similarly tourism is also rather important for the development and promotion of the destination (Keskin, 2012: 35). A visitor wants to be engaged in many activities in the place he/she has gone and wants to live different experiences such as accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment, sightseeing new places, learning different cultures. Hence, the visitors prefer the destinations which can provide some of the tourism activities all together such as sea-sand-sun, shopping, culture, sports, history, faith etc. During the vacation, the visitors evaluate the quality of the total service they have been provided, and they have an overall satisfaction opinion satisfaction upon these evaluations at the end of the vacation (Cabael, 2011: 16). Therefore, a success of a tourism destination lays on considering thoroughly how the visitors that have tendency for travelling can be affected and/or how the visitors coming to that place can be reattracted. In this period, it has great importance to develop strategies in the matters of determining the factors that have affect upon the destination preferences of the tourists, knowing the features of the destination well, knowing how to use and manage the existing potential of the destinations (Cabael, 2011: 4). Thus, the destinations which can meet the demands of the changing visitors, and which can enhance the quality of service and product range will gain advantage in today’s fierce competition conditions (Cabael, 2011: 16). 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1. Purpose and Importance of the Research In this study, some suggestions have been brought forward in relation to what can be done about moving the position of Turkey, as a tourism destination, in international tourism movements to top ranks. For this purpose, tourism destinations which comes into prominence and the destination areas which remain idle in Turkey have been addressed statistically on the basis of regions, provinces and districts. Afterwards, the regions and the provinces have been evaluated from the point of tourism features. Within this framework, it has been studied to give answers to some questions such as: Which regions and which provinces in Turkey do the foreigners mainly prefer? What are the reasons for preferring the accommodation in those destinations? What are the reasons for not preferring the destinations remaining idle? What can be done to increase the demand towards the destinations remaining idle? There exists a great deal of studies about destination marketing when the studies about the issue are examined. However, there has never been this type of study. In this sense, it is considered that this study becomes more of an issue for the literature. 3.2. Research Method As the method, firstly literature review has been conducted, and then it has been scrutinized that which destinations the countries prefer in the world and why they prefer these destinations, and which features Turkey has as a tourism destination, and the reasons why the foreigners prefer Turkey; and later it has been aimed to determine the destination centers that are preferred and the destination centers remaining idle in Turkey in the light of statistical data. 2
3.3. Findings obtained from the study When the data in the Table 1 are examined, it can be seen that Mediterranean, Marmara, Aegean, Southeastern Anatolia, Central Anatolia, Black Sea and Eastern Anatolia Region are listed respectively from the most accommodated to the least accommodated regions. Table 1: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in Turkey by the Geographic Regions 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Mediterranean 8,870,174 9,592,572 10,313,228 10,978,366 12,122,769 Marmara 3,829,370 4,425,365 4,998,288 5,145,758 5,811,276 Aegean 3,387,806 3,825,261 3,719,639 3,515,462 3,913,693 Central Anatolia 1,080,197 1,098,324 1,102,695 1,118,511 1,267,282 Southeastern Anatolia 84,168 116,831 136,993 190,405 180,656 Black Sea 101,053 133,722 141,135 152,238 160,635 Eastern Anatolia 62,596 72,363 69,330 80,928 111,488 Source: This table was compiled from the Accommodation Statistics of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Mediterranean Region According to the data of Table 1- 2014, Mediterranean Region is ranked as the first in terms of accommodation. The region draws attention of the foreign tourists both due to its natural beauties and mild climate; and its history and culture. In Mediterranean Region, there are natural health sources such as hot springs, healing waters, and mineral springs, which are of capital importance; and relaxing waterfalls and lakes, as well. The presence of Taurus Mountains brings the region into prominence in terms of mountain and hunting tourism. Apart from these, the region comes into prominence in terms of tourism with important cultural events and tourism fairs and festivals such as Mersin Fashion and Textile Fair, and Golden Orange Film Festival (Antalya Film Festival) which is held annually (web-1 (web-2). Mediterranean Region is the earliest warming and the latest cooling region in Turkey (web-2). The fact that the summer starts early results in the early start and development of the sea tourism, as well (web-2). Therefore, the most developed tourism type is sea tourism (WEB-3). At the same time, conducting tourism development projects in the region, intensification of the domestic and foreign tourism investments and accordingly the existence the tourism facilities which have various qualities and sufficient bed amounts lead to the fact that this region achieves superiority upon the other regions; and bring the Mediterranean Region into the number one attraction center (Hacıoğlu et. al. 2008: 81). So much so that, up to 35% of the tourist bed capacity in Turkey have been positioned in this region, especially in Antalya coastline. Along the coasts of the region, some very-well equipped international hotels, holiday villages, hostels, and the marinas are ranked after one another. There are other important factors which contributes to the development of the tourism in these areas such as marinas built in many places of the coasts, new airports, the roads which link the settlements and the spectacular sights to each other along the shore (WEB-3), and carrying out charter flights directly from the countries to this region, and the direct flights made in the air transportations. When the region is examined on the basis of the provinces, it is seen that the most important tourism center is Antalya which has a share at the rate of 98.5%. The province has 4 important tourism center as Alanya, Kemer, Manavgat, Serik. Moreover, it is seen that Muratpaşa, Side, Aksu and Konyalatı are also important tourism centers. Mersin gets share from tourism with its Akdeniz and Erdemli districts, Adana with its Seyhan and Yüreğir districts, Hatay with its down-town and Antakya and İskenderun districts, Isparta with its centers and Eğridir district, Burdur with its down-town and Ağlasun district, Kahramanmaraş with its Dulkadiroğlu and Onikişubat districts, and Osmaniye with its down-town. As seen in the table; the number of the tourists decreases especially as getting closer to the Syrian provincial border. Although there are plenty of cultural, historical and natural attractions, it is evident that the biggest reason why these provinces cannot get the desired share is security issue (Syrian civil war, terrorism etc.).
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Table 2: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Mediterranean Region by the Provinces and Districts Districts Antalya 11 944 480 Mersin 62 396 Adana 51 782 Hatay 48 534
Alanya Kemer Manavgat Serik Others Akdeniz Others Seyhan Others Downtown (antakya)
Mediterranean Region Number of the arrivals to facility 2,564,824 2,407,689 Isparta 5 970 2,193,077 2,130,536 2.648.354 Burdur 30,395 4 333 32.001 33,739 Kahraman18,064 Maraş 3.398 26,270 Osmaniye 1.336
Districts
Number of the arrivals to facility
Eğirdir
3,005
Down-town Others
2,837 128
Down-town
2,260
Others Dulkadiroğlu
2073 2,275
Others
1,663
Down-Town 1,030 Others 336 Source: This table was compiled from the accommodation statistics of the ministry of culture and tourism. Table 3: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Mediterranean Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces Antalya Mersin Adana Hatay Isparta Burdur Kahramanmaraş Kilis Osmaniye
2010 8,695,231 63,003 40,922 57,879 8,046 1,446 2,493 153 -
2011 9,454,362 50,105 40,420 37,157 6,210 957 2,356 293 -
2012 10,183,562 43,651 39,592 35,473 4,401 1,847 2,405 1,192 -
2013 10,827,654 50,106 44,641 43,870 4,111 1,847 4,093 -
2014 11,944,480 62,396 51,782 48,534 5,970 4,333 3,938 1,336
Source: This table was compiled from the Accommodation Statistics of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism
When the statistics between 2010 and 2014 are examined on the basis of the provinces, it is seen that Antalya maintains its stability and the number continues to increase. However, the same balanced attitude could not be maintained in the other provinces by years. Particularly, the declines which were experienced in Isparta after 2010 cannot be ignored. There has been a decline in especially Eastern Mediterranean provinces in 2012. When the reason behind this decline is examined, it can be considered that the reason is the Syrian civil war which broke out on 5 March 2011 and the Turkey-Syrian crisis which began after a Turkish jet was downed by Syria on June 2012. This is because, the nationals of Syria, Iran and Iraq often visited Eastern Mediterranean and Southeastern provinces in order to do oneday shopping until 16 September 2009 when the visa requirement between Turkey and Syria was effectively and mutually lifted, and then the visa requirements with Iran and Iraq were also lifted. However, this upward trend in 2011 was reversed with the impact of the crisis in 2012 and the number of the tourists coming from Syria decreased by 33.1% as it is seen (Çay, 2016). Marmara Region According to the Table 1-2014 data, Marmara Region is ranked as the second in terms of accommodation choice. The most important reason behind this is surely the region’s natural, historical and cultural richness (WEB-4). Apart from this, there are other features which increase the attractiveness of the region. For instance, there İstanbul (Bosporus) and Gallipoli Straits (Dardanelles) in the region (WEB-5) and this region is located on important transportation routes (WEB-6). However, 4
the following reasons have caused that this region is preferred as the 2nd accommodation location: the visits to the region are for one-day, and the accommodation periods are short, this region is the point of entry (airline and highway) for the tourists, and the tourism centers in the other regions are used as transit while leaving (Hacıoğlu et. al., 2008: 78). Table 4: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Marmara Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of the Provinces Districts Provinces Districts arrivals to facility arrivals to facility Fatih 1,627,085 Edirne Down-town 29,250 Istanbul 33 222 Beyoğlu 1,072,043 Others 3.972 5 078 949 Others 2,379.821 Yalova Termal 22,369 32.645 Osmangazi 167,216 Others 10.276 Bursa 225 588 Others 58,372 Sapanca 16,154 Sakarya Ayvalık 86,990 Adapazarı 9,985 Balikesir 28.690 114 929 Others 27.939 Others 2.551 İzmit 35,147 Tekirdağ Çorlu 11,306 21 260 Gebze 28,102 Others 9.954 Kocaeli 79 653 Bilecik Bozuyük 1,440 Others 16,404 2 694 Others 1.250 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics The most important tourism destination of the region is İstanbul which has a share of about 87% and named as a world city. İstanbul is an important tourism center where every pleasure and desire can be satisfied thanks to its historical places, museums, palaces, fortifications, mansions, natural beauties and faith centers, which are the accumulation of the 8000-year of history. Furthermore, İstanbul as the capital of culture is the city where the visits particularly for business, congress, meeting, and fair purposes are organized. Moreover, the other important reasons why tourism activities are intensely experienced here are that it has the biggest port of importation of the country, it has the characteristics to be the starting point of sea transportation in the country, and it is the biggest center which provides airline connection with the other countries throughout the world (WEB-7). When the districts where tourism is intensely experienced in İstanbul are analyzed, Fatih and Beyoğlu are the districts where the cultural places such as mosques, palaces are centered around. According to Table 8 data, it is seen that the other provinces of the Marmara Region fall behind İstanbul in terms of tourism, despite the fact that they hold many historical, cultural and natural beauties within. While Bursa which is ranked as the second comes into prominence with its Osmangazi districts, it is seen that Çanakkale which is ranked as the third is in the forefront with its down-town. The other provinces and their prominent districts are respectively Balıkesir- Ayvalık, Kocaeli-İzmit and Gebze, Edirne – Downtown, Yalova- Termal, Sakarya-Sapanca, Tekirdağ-Çorlu ve Bilecik- Bozuyük and down-town. It is possible to say that Bursa attracts tourists with its history and natural attractions, and also with Uludağ which hosts winter sports. The fact that the most important thermal springs are in Bursa and Yalova in the region moves these provinces to an important point in terms of medical tourism. Manyas, with its “Bird Sanctuary”, is in the limelight for the tourists who are interested in bird watching. Southern coasts including Balıkesir constitute the most favorable parts of the Marmara Region in terms of sea tourism (WEB-8). It is thought-provoking that the important coastal areas such as Erdek, Avşa Island, Zeytinli Ada which can lead to sea tourism of Balıkesir; and Ören, Burhaniye in Aegean coast cannot get share as much as Ayvalık does. Although Çanakkale which is another important tourist destination of the region is rich in terms of historical and natural beauties, it attracts rather less tourist than it should do. Tourism focuses on Gallipoli (Gelibolu) which hosts Trojan War and where the Ancient City of Troy and Assos lived and Gallipoli Campaign (Dardanelles Battle) occurred In particular, thousands of tourists from Australia and New Zealand rush into the region in Anzac Day which is held on 25th April every year. In addition, Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos) are important tourist destinations in terms of sea tourism. Although this province is suitable for sea tourism, 5
it is seen that there is not a structuring activity in this regard. Such that, the number of 5-star hotel within Çanakkale provincial border is only 1 (WEB-9). Moreover, the other destinations of the region such as Kocaeli, Edirne, Sakarya, Tekirdağ and Bilecik can be mentioned as tourism destinations and have many historical, cultural and natural values which can improve the region. When the related trend is examined, it is seen that İstanbul and Bursa, which are the most important tourism centers, maintain stability increasingly by years. Table 5: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Marmara Region by the Provinces in 20102014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Istanbul 3,371,952 3,832,035 4,416,608 4,475,838 5,078,949 Bursa 112,340 130,338 160,559 188,736 225,588 Çanakkale 154,647 162,658 179,870 172,791 192,878 Balikesir 111,425 195,948 124,160 136,730 114,929 Kocaeli 35,460 45,527 52,766 82,007 79,653 Edirne 17,228 16,482 13,359 16,788 33,222 Yalavo 12,948 15,486 21,697 32,645 Sakarya 558 7,077 13,525 23,136 28,738 Tekirdağ 9,924 16,439 16,374 23,281 21,260 Bilecik 2,449 2,931 2,348 4,064 2,694 Kirlareli 439 444 750 690 720 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics However, it is not the same in the other provinces. Especially, Çanakkale which maintained its place as the second important tourism destination until 2013 has lost its place, and Bursa has become the second important tourism destination, and Çanakkale fell to third place. One of the most important factors which causes this situation is the fact that there has been an influx of the Arab tourists to Bursa recently. A large part of the incoming tourists, (30%), to the region for holiday purposes is Arab tourists. Even if this situation is a pleasing development for Bursa, it is worrisome that Çanakkale could not catch the same increase rate when Çanakkale’s potential is taken into consideration. Furthermore, it is obvious that the other provinces, which may be important tourism centers with their numerous features, cannot get enough share. Aegean Region According to the data of Table 1-2014, Aegean Region is ranked as the third. The fact that it was a cradle to many civilizations throughout the history as one of the oldest residential areas is among the factors which increase the cultural and historical attractiveness of the region (WEB-6). Historical artifacts remaining from Ancient civilizations and Turkish States in the region are the other tourist attractions (WEB-10).On the other side, the fact that the mountains run perpendicular to the coastline form a very indented coastal strip (WEB-11). Therefore, it has plenty of bays and gulfs which are suitable for swimming (WEB-6/WEB11). Mediterranean climate prevails in the region (WEB 11). For this reason, tourism season can continue during 7-8 months (WEB 6). The factors such as the winter’s coming late, sunbathing opportunities in the summer, the convenience of the sea water temperature attract many tourists. This situation has led to preferability of the region in terms of the sea tourism (WEB-11). When the region is examined on the basis of the provinces, it is seen that Muğla destination is in the position of a tourism center. The province draws attention with its Bodrum, Marmaris and Fethiye districts in terms of tourist traffic, as well. Another destination which has importance in terms of particularly sea tourism of the region is Aydın. Aydın is at the forefront with particularly Kuşadası. The districts which come into prominence in terms of tourism in the other provinces that are full of historical and natural beauties are respectively Denizli-Pamukkale, Manisa-Yunusemre, Afyonkarahisar –down-town, Uşak–down-town. However, it is seen that these provinces serve for tourism quite limited despite their tourism potential. When the related trend concerning Aegean Region is examined, it is seen that Muğla province maintains its stability since 2010, and it is seen that Aydın province which was ranked as the third or 6
fourth before 2013, takes the second place in 2013. İzmir province continues to increase its tourist share; however there was a decrease by % 13 in 2013. It is stated in the news sources that one of the biggest factors causing İzmir province’s tourism potential to decrease is that some values such as Kadifekale, Agora, and Kemeraltı are poorly groomed and they have lost their attractiveness (WEB-12). The same situation is also seen in Denizli. Denizli lost its second place in 2012, which was maintained in 2010 and 2011. According to news sources, it is seen that the most important reason behind this situation is that Pamukkale travertine face the risk of losing its characteristics because of the unconscious water consumption especially by the five-star hotels and the increased structuring around the Pamukkale travertine. However, the measures taken have prevented this deterioration, and the increase of % 15 in the statistic of 2014 compared to the previous year proves this point (WEB-13). It is seen that the share obtained from tourism by the other tourism destinations such as Manisa, Kütahya and Uşak provinces are up-and-down by years and the balance cannot be maintained. It can be seen that the underlying reasons for this are lack of promotion and insufficiency of the facilities. It attracts attention that Afyonkarahisar province gets higher amount of share from tourism especially by the years 2013 and 2014. It can be stated that the reason behind this situation is that Afyonkarahisar is in the position of thermal tourism destination for the tourists travelling for health purposes (WEB-15). Table 6: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Aegean Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of the Provinces Districts Provinces Districts arrivals to facility arrivals to facility Bodrum 869,847 Denizli Pamukkale 514,816 Others 3.360 518,176 Muğla Marmaris 600,958 1,935,104 Fethiye 348,626 Manisa Yunusemre 13,677 Others 115.673 Others 4.147 17,824 Kuşadası 658,146 Afyon Down-town 13,488 Aydin Karahisar Others 70.403 Others 4.174 728,549 17 662 Konak 202,201 Kütahya Down-town 5,102 Izmir Others 371 5 473 Menderes 170,314 688,148 Selçuk 139,050 Uşak Down-town 2757 Others 176.583 2757 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics Table 7: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Aegean Region by the Provinces in 20072014 Provinces Muğla Aydin İzmir Denizli Manisa Afyonkarahisar Kütahya Uşak
2010 1,713,645 461,123 509,771 679,215 10,223 8,785 2,606 2,438
2011 1,672,772 599,016 717,653 813,993 10,584 6,521 2,643 2,079
2012 1,661,475 677,490 683,331 677,490 7,800 7,720 2,208 2,059
2013 1,661,453 721,342 596,875 496,231 19,546 14,906 3,289 1,820
2014 1,935,104 728,549 688,148 518,176 17,824 17,662 5,473 2,757
Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics
Central Anatolia Region According to the Table 1-2014 data, Central Anatolia Region is ranked as the fourth place in terms of accommodation. There are some factors which ensure a dynamic tourism in this region but not as much as the other regions. For instance, Turkey’s capital province, Ankara is located in this region and is the political center of the country (WEB-6), Kapadokya that is the natural area (the region which covers Nevşehir, Ürgüp, Göreme valley) favorable for long-term accommodation tourism after the 7
coasts is located in this region; and Konya as the center of cultural tourism of the region is also located here (Hacıoğlu, 2008: 79, 81). Meanwhile, the region is rich in terms of historical tourism because it hosted a great variety of civilizations. The settlements which belong to Neolithic period, and the various artifacts from Hittites are among the important tourism attractions. Seljuk monuments in Konya and Mevlana Mausoleum set a good example of these attractions (WEB-15). Medical tourism is also developed in the region. There are hot springs in particularly Eskişehir, Ankara, Konya, Niğde, Kayseri provinces. There are recreation and accommodation facilities established for this purpose in these settlements. Mount Erciyes and Elmadağ in the region are the developed places in terms of ski tourism. Most particularly Anıtkabir, Atatürk Museum, Ethnography Museum located in Ankara in the region are among the most commonly visited places by the people. Kayseri Anatolian Fair and Konya Fair which are held annually in the Central Anatolia Region are the major tourism and trade activities. There are also tourism areas which are preserved from historical and natural aspects such as Boğazköy Alacahöyük National Park, Göreme Historical National Park and Yozgat Pine Grove National Park (WEB-16). Table 8: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Central Anatolia Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of Provinces Districts arrivals to Provinces Districts the arrivals to facility facility Ürgüp 272,989 Tepebaşı 12,144 Eskişehir DownNevşehir Odunpazarı 3.600 15 744 268,613 town 613 392 DownOthers 71.790 Aksaray 7,703 town 8 473 Güzelyurt 770 Çankaya 300,904 Ankara DownYozgat Altındağ 117,743 728 458 842 town 730 Others 40.195 Others 2 DownKonya Sivas Selçuklu 105,354 643 town 140 463 657 Others 35.109 Zara 14 Kayseri Kocasinan 18,688 Kirşehir Down460 Melikgazi 6,868 25 556 460 town Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics Table 9: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Central Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Nevşehir 571,650 535,028 492,758 501,507 613,392 Ankara 296,558 360,107 423,782 416,053 458,842 Konya 164,335 151,865 129,897 146,057 140,463 Kayseri 14,332 23,760 30,389 30,216 25,556 Eskişehir 7,254 10,279 9,786 12,656 15,744 Aksaray 21,337 11,020 10,014 7,483 8,473 Niğde 1,275 2,950 777 1,175 788 Yozgat 619 866 381 475 730 Sivas 2,447 998 446 657 Kirşehir 21 441 345 414 460 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics
The tourism center of the region is Nevşehir. The most important reason for this is undoubtedly nature’s wonder fairy chimneys, crater lakes, Ihlara Valley and Kapadokya area which is famous for its underground cities in Derinkuyu in the region (WEB-16). Accordingly, the most important tourism 8
places in the province are Ürgüp and its down-town. When the tourism destinations which are central locations in the other provinces are examined; it is seen that Ankara is at the forefront with Çankaya and Altındağ districts; Konya is at the forefront with its Selçuklu district; Kayseri is at the forefront with its Kocasinan district; Eskişehir is at the forefront with its Tepebaşı district; and Aksaray, Sivas and Kırşehir are at the forefront with their down-towns. The provinces which particularly remain inactive in the region are Kayseri, Eskişehir, Niğde, Yozgat, Sivas and Kırşehir. Nevertheless, these provinces possess many historical, cultural and natural beauties. Kayseri which is particularly the trade and industry center of Central Anatolia, and located on the junction point of the highways and railways (WEB-17) has great importance with regard to business tourism. Furthermore, the fact that Erciyes Ski Resort exists here results makes this province rather favorable for winter tourism (WEB-18). However; despite these values, it is highly thought-provoking that this province gets quite low share from tourism. When, the trend between 2010 and 2014 of the concerned provinces of the region, it is seen that the number of the incoming tourists to all provinces except Ankara, which is at the forefront with its political identity, decreases as of 2012. According to news sources, it is determined that there has been a decrease in the number of Japanese tourists and western tourists visiting the region (WEB-19) and it is stated that this is because of the decreasing number of Japanese tourists due to the Arab Spring, the emergence of ISIS, and murder of two Japanese by ISIS (WEB-20). Southeastern Anatolia Region When the statistics of the region in the Table 4 are analyzed for 2014, it is seen that this region is ranked as 5th in terms of accommodation. It is the region where the oldest settlements of Anatolia have existed (WEB-6). Therefore, its tourism potential is very high (WEB-21). It is in the central position especially with regard to faith tourism (WEB-22). The region is full of many sightseeing places, and historical, cultural and natural beauties such as Adıyaman-Mount Nemrut, City of Prophets Urfa, Historical Harran University, Harran houses, Mardin houses. There are important tourism attractions in the region such as the traces of Commagene Civilizations on the Mount Nemrut where the sun rises in the most beautiful way in the world, and the Pool of Sacred Fish (Pool of Abraham) in Şanlıurfa. However, the region which has been exposed to terrorism for many years has not got a share from tourism it deserves (WEB-21) Table 10: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Southeastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of the Provinces Districts arrivals to Provinces Districts arrivals to facility facility Şahinbey 73,744 Artuklu 12,198 Gaziantep Mardin 107,205 Others 33.461 17,225 Others 5027 Sur 16,935 Kahta 2,255 Diyarbakir Adiyaman 24,584 Others 7.649 Down4,209 1,831 town Haliliye 17,549 Down3,220 Batman town 3,444 Şanliurfa Others 224 23,486 Others 5.937 Siirt Down503 503 town Source: Ministry of culture and tourism- accommodation statistics According to the data on the Table 12; the most important tourism center of the region is Gaziantep. The reason for this is that Gaziantep province, which is a settlement area and the center where various religions developed and spread since ancient times, is an important tourist attraction and has a central position in the region, where the numbers of accommodation is highest (Hacıoğlu et. al., 2008: 81). The province is at the forefront with its Şahinbey district. Subsequently, Diyarbakır with its Sur district; Şanlıurfa with its Haliliye district; Mardin with its Artuklu district; Adıyaman with its Kahta district and 9
its down-town districts; and Siirt with its down-town are at the forefront respectively. Table 11: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Southeastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces Gaziantep Diyarbakir Şanliurfa Mardin Adiyaman Batman Siirt
2010 38,546 19,680 7,760 9,855 7,742 585 -
2011 64,013 20,006 8,899 8,399 10,741 4,773 -
2012 90,658 13,871 13,245 10,495 7,495 1,229 -
2013 119,879 22,582 21,113 15,499 6,775 4,557 -
2014 107,205 24,584 23,486 17,225 4,209 3,444 503
Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics
However, when the statistical data in this region are analyzed by years, it draws attention that the arrivals and accommodations which showed an increasing trend until 2014 visibly decrease by the year of 2014. One of the biggest reasons for this situation is Syrian civil war which began which arose in 2012. Turkey-Syrian relations which developed rapidly with regards to trade and tourism in the past, has regressed because of the war, and the economies and tourism of especially Gaziantep, Mardin and Şanlıurfa provinces which are near Syria have begun to be affected negatively (Çay, 2016). The other important reason, or even the main reason is terrorism problem. Terrorism showing its presence less or intense from time to time, has caused that the share which the provinces get is both less and draws an unbalanced table by years. Black Sea Region The region has an important potential in terms of tourism with its lush vegetation, mountains, plateaus, natural beaches along the coast, hot springs, mineral springs, historical and natural beauties (WEB-23) (WEB 24). However; this region is ranked as 6th in terms of accommodation according to Table 5-2014 data, despite the fact that it has natural, cultural, and historical attractions; and it is a safer region compared to Southeastern Anatolia regions. The important reasons for this situation are that the mountains run parallel to the coastline; there are a few beaches due to the absence of protrusions and indentions along the coast; and the summer season lasts a short time when compared to the other regions because of its climatic condition which receives rainfall in every season (WEB-6)(WEB-23). This situation directs tourists who want to benefit from sea tourism towards mainly south and west. Furthermore, the other reasons are as follows: the important entrance gates are located in the west, this region is far from the major tourist roads, and the tourists prefer visiting the region without accommodating here or have a tendency to stay for a short period of time instead of accommodating and spending their holidays in this region. The fact that total bed amount is inadequate for holiday tourism, and foreign organized tours regard the Black Sea Region as the transition area can be considered as the other reasons (Hacıoğlu et. al., 2008: 81). The most important tourism center is Trabzon which is at the forefront with its Ortahisar and Yomra districts. The most important feature which makes Trabzon a tourism center of the region is that there is, one of the oldest structures of the history, Sümela Monastery in Maçka district within this province (WEB-25). Sümela is one of the oldest and most important monasteries of Christianity and especially of Orthodox sect in Anatolia. Therefore, it is regarded as one of the leading holy places by Orthodox Christians. That’s why it constitutes a huge potential with regard to faith tourism. Moreover, it is a tourist attraction thanks to its spectacular view, because it was built in a geographical area which is composed of a quite steep and green nature (WEB-26). When the other tourism destinations in the region are analyzed, it is seen that Bolu gets share from tourism mostly with its down-town and Mudurnu district; Karabük with its Safranbolu district; Samsun with its Canik districts; Rize with its Pazar, Fındıklı and Ardeşen districts; Ordu with its Altınordu district; Düzce with its down-town and Akçakoca district; Artvin with its Hopa district; Zonguldak with its Ereğli district and its down-town; and the other provinces get share from tourism mostly with their down-towns. 10
Table 12: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Black Sea Region by the Provinces and Districts Provinces Trabzon 65,468 Bolu 41,217 Karabük Samsun 17,398 Rize 10,363 Ordu 7.733 Düzce 6,437 Gümüşhane 440
Districts Ortahisar Yomra Others Down-town Mudurnu Others Safranbolu Canik Others
Number of the arrivals to facility 30,879 20,185 14.404 27,991 10,883 2.343 26,842 10,321 7.077
Provinces
Districts
Artvin 5 907 Zonguldak 5 768 Amasya 4 399 Giresun 4257
Hopa Others Ereğli Down-town Down-town Others Down-town Others
Çorum 1806
Down-town
Pazar Fındıklı Ardeşen Others Altınordu Others Down-town
4,175 2,152 1,985 2.051 5,978 1.755 3.257
Kastamonu 1.531 Sinop 892 Tokat 674
Others Down-town Others Down-town Gerze Down-Town Others
Akçakoca
3 180
Çankırı
Down-town
Down-town Kelkit
405 35
Bartin 209
Down-town Amasra
Number of the arrivals to facility 4 186 2 999 2 631 4.399 4 123 1 122 1 129 863 29 619 508 129 80
Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics Table 13: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Black Sea Region by the Provinces in 20102014 Provinces Trabzon Bolu Karabük Samsun Rize Ordu Düzce Artvin Zonguldak Amasya Giresun Çorum Kastamonu Sinop Tokat Çankiri Gümüşhane Bartin
2010 23,363 26,561 7,923 5,919 731 2,268 2,912 20,183 2,208 2,087 807 4,265 280 607 638 93 1 207
2011 41,036 25,815 12,859 7,239 4,327 3,440 2,950 16,322 2,930 6,801 2,719 3,063 944 1,264 511 1,077 176 249
2012 57,313 29,732 12,729 5,995 1,535 4,527 3,125 7,127 1,687 5,716 3,114 2,534 1,236 1,570 2,066 400 165 564
2013 52,279 33,187 19,384 6,176 3,966 6,215 4,523 3,949 6,888 5,206 2,758 1,991 3,310 1,154 473 253 216 310
Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics
11
2014 65,468 41,247 26,842 17,398 10,363 7,736 6,437 5,907 5,768 4,399 4,257 1,806 1,531 892 674 508 440 209
However, it is apparent that the share they get is rather limited in comparison with the historical, cultural and natural beauties. When the related trend for the region is examined; it can be said that most provinces (except for the year 2012) apart from some provinces in the region, draw a quite balanced and increasing trend by years. When the 2014 data in the Table are examined, tit is seen that there has been a considerable increase in the most provinces of the region. It can be said that the most important share of this increase belongs to Arab tourists. According to news sources, the Black Sea Region is the leading region where Arab tourist influx recently. According to the same news source, it is stated that Uzungöl and Sümela Monastery in Trabzon; and Ayder Plateau in Rize are the places receiving plenty of visits. Furthermore, it draws attention that this region is mostly preferred particularly by the Saudi Arabians, and it attracts the tourists coming from the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, and it is stated that the number of Arab tourists who visit the Black Sea Region was 190 thousand in 2013; and it reached to 260 thousand increasing by 75% (WEB-27). However, the relevant news sources lay emphasis upon that the intense demands of the Arabs are not fulfilled, the facilities fall short, and the universities’ private dormitories get involved in activities in order to meet this demand; but it is strongly emphasized that this situation adversely affects the quality of service, and this region may lose its charm for all these reasons (WEB-28). Eastern Anatolia Region According to the Table 1-2014 data, Marmara Region is ranked as the seventh in terms of accommodation choice. Historical and cultural richness of the region has significant appeal. Especially because of its large holding mountainous areas where mountain tourism is an important potential (WEB 29). Table14: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Eastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces
Districts
Van 38 478 Erzurum 28.240 Iğdır 11.757
İpekyolu Others Palandöken Others
Number of the arrivals to facility 32 680 5.790 23 760 4.480
Down-town
11.757
Battalgazi Yeşilyurt Others Doğubeyazıt Down-town Down-town Sivrice
3 429 2 957 313 3.320 256 2 842 121
Malatya 6.699 Ağrı 3 576 Elazığ 2963
Provinces
Districts
Şirnak 2474 Bitlis 2 431
Silopi Down-town Tatvan Others
Number of the arrivals to facility 1.940 534 2 267 164
Erzincan 2121
Down-town
2061
Refahiye Down-town Others Down-town
60 707 209 420
Yüksekova
227
Tunceli 916 Hakkari 647
Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics
However, long duration of the winter months in the region, due to the abundant snowfall, tourism is not very lively (WEB 7) tourists in this region tend to be more day to visit the coastal zone and marine tourism that can not or prefer to spend their holidays However, plant diversity and the scarcity of beds and foremost security issues in the region to tourists prefer to stay long-term are among the other causes. In addition, lack of transportation has hindered the development of tourism (WEB 30). The most important tourism center of the region is Van. Subsequently, Erzurum with its Palandöken district; Malatya with its Battalgazi district; Ağrı with its Doğubeyazıt district; Kars with its Iğdır district; and Erzincan, Tunceli, Hakkari, Muş with theirs down-town are at the forefront respectively. According to the data in the table 15 when examining trends related particularly bumpy because of security issues has been experiencing a trend. 12
Table 15: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Eastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces Van Erzurum Iğdır Kars Malatya Ağrı Elazığ Şırnak Bitlis Erzincan Tunceli Hakkari Ardahan Muş Bingöl
2010 13.771 18.811 8.494 11.920 2.625 1.774 1.167 395 2.183 311 57 574 458 56
2011 18.184 21.511 6.615 13.084 3.228 1.966 2.092 1.565 1.012 881 325 12 375 1.429 84
2012 11.413
2013 18.527
2014 38.478
12.341 9.445 3.764 3.794 3.230 1.638 1.739 905 235 688 1154 951 185
9.256 6.741 3.540 4.115 2.747 1.790 1.868 945 158 1.127 957 364 144
11.757 10.051 6.699 3.576 2.963 2.474 2.431 2.121 916 647 601 391 143
Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics Table 16: The Destinations Which Are Preferred by the Foreigners Reasons of their Preferences. Visits to historical places and cultural tours, city USA tours, guided tours, gastronomy tours, spa and wellness packages Sea-sand-sun, entertainment, shopping, health, Germany business, package program Historical, cultural, hiking, climbing, alternative Australia tourism types and shopping Recreation, trade (suitcase trading), winter tourism, Azerbaijan fair, exhibition, job interview and science-oriented trips Culture/City Tours, Wellness, Sea Vacation, Far Austria Destination/ Luxury Vacation United Arab Shopping, Nature, Culture and History Emirates Sun/ Sea Vacation, Sightseeing, Nature, Mountain Belgium and City Tours Bosnia Mass tourism (sea-sand-sun), Culture tourism Herzegovina Bulgaria
Sea, Culture, shopping, religion
China
Urban tourism, Culture tourism, Shopping
Denmark
Sea-sand-sun, culture, sports, health and ecology Visiting historical, cultural and religious places, shopping
Indonesia Finland
Sea-sand-sun, urban tourism, golf, cultural areas, sailing, paragliding, yachting and nature
France
Sea, culture, shopping, urban and medical tourism
South
History-Culture, Religion, Nature, Unesco World
13
According to their Nationalities and the İstanbul, Kapodokya, Kuşadası (Ephesus), Bodrum Mediterranean, Marmara-İstanbul, Aegean, Central Anatolia-Kapodokya İstanbul, Kapadokya, Muğla, Antalya, Ankara, Pamukkale, İzmir, Çanakkale İstanbul, Kemer, Antalya, Bodrum, Çesme Antalya, Muğla, İstanbul, Kapadokya İstanbul, Bursa, Yalova Antalya, İstanbul, Bodrum, Kuşadası, Kapadokya, İzmir, Marmaris İstanbul, Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Kuşadası, Side, Bursa Kuşadası-Ephesus (because of the interest in Virgin Marry) Antalya, Bodrum, İzmir, İstanbul, Kapadokya İstanbul, Kapadokya, Pamukkale, Kuşadası, İzmir, Antalya Antalya, South Aegean, İstanbul İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Ankara, Konya, Pamukkale, İzmir ve Çanakkale Alanya, Marmaris, İstanbul, Fethiye, Belek, Bodrum, Side, Antalya, Kemer, Kaş, Kalkan, İzmir Bodrum, İzmir, Antalya, İstanbul, Kapadokya İstanbul, Antalya, İzmir, Kapadokya,
Korea
Heritage
Croatia
Recreation, sight-seeing Sight-seeing and relaxation, Shopping, History and Culture, Honeymoon, Congress tourism Sea-sand- sun, culture, city, nature and sports activities Nice climate, culture and history, clean beaches, reasonable rates
India Holland Britain Spain
Culture/faith tourism and sea tourism
Iran
Sea, shopping, culture, faith and sports
Israel Sweden Switzerland
Sea-sand-sun, culture, thermal, nature and adventure tourism Mass tourism (sea/sun/sand), culture tourism, thermal tourism and golf tourism Sea-Sand-Sun, culture tourism, golf, yachting and water sports
Italy
Sea, culture, faith, urban and shopping tourism
İran
Sea, shopping, culture, faith and sports
Japan
History, Culture, Nature, Unesco World Heritage
Kazakhstan
Sea-sand-sun, shopping Vacation, trade (suitcase trade), culture, faith tourism
Kyrgyzstan Macedonia Malaysia Egypt Norway
Culture, nature tourism and business Visiting historical, cultural and religious places, shopping Culture, shopping, faith and sea Mass tourism (sea-sand-sun), Culture tourism, thermal tourism and golf tourism
Uzbekistan
Recreation, trade (suitcase trade), fair, exhibition, job interview and science-oriented trips
Poland
Sea-Sand-Sun, Nature tourism, Wonder and culture tours
Romania
Sea, culture, shopping, religion
Russia
Sea tourism, Entertainment Visiting historical, cultural and religious places, shopping
Singapore Serbia
Sea-sand-sun, Culture tourism
Slovenia Saudi
Recreation/sight-seeing Tableland tourism, Thermal tourism
14
Denizli-Pamukkale Pamukkale, Ankara, Konya, Çanakkale İstanbul, Kapadokya, Antalya İstanbul, Antalya, İzmir, Kapadokya Alanya, İstanbul, Side, Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Nevsehir Muğla, Antalya, İstanbul, İzmir, Aydın Kapadokya, İstanbul, Aegean, Mediterranean Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Kuşadası, İstanbul, Konya, Ankara Antalya, Aegean Coasts, İstanbul, Kapadokya, the Black Sea Antalya, Bodrum, İstanbul, Muğla, Marmaris, İzmir Antalya, İstanbul, Aegean Region, Bodrum İzmir, Kapadokya, Eastern Anatolia Rwgion İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bodrum, Marmaris,Çeşme, Pamukkale, Ephesus, İzmir, Muğla, Antalya Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Kuşadası, İstanbul, Konya ve Ankara İstanbul, Kapadokya, Konya, DenizliPamukkale, Çanakkale, Safranbolu, İzmir Antalya, Bodrum, Marmaris, İstanbul İstanbul, Kemer, İzmir, Antalya, Pamukkale and Erzurum, Ankara Marmara Region, Aegean Region, Mediterranean and the other regions İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Ankara, Konya, Pamukkale, İzmir, Çanakkale İstanbul, Antalya, Muğla, Bursa, Konya Antalya, Bodrum, İstanbul, Marmaris İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Ankara, Konya, Denizli-Pamukkale, İzmir, Çanakkale Antalya, Bodrum, Dalaman, İzmir, Kapodokya, İstanbul, Fethiye, Marmaris Antalya (Kemer, Belek, Side, Alanya), Marmaris, Fethiye ve Bodrum, Çanakkale, İstanbul, Kuşadası (Çanakkale, İstanbul, Kuşadası are preferred from Bucharest by roads) Antalya, İstanbul, İzmir İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Pamukkale, İzmir and Çanakkale Antalya, İstanbul, Kuşadası, Marmaris, Çeşme, Bodrum İstanbul İstanbul, Yalova, Bursa, Doğu
Arabia Syria Ukraine Greece
Sea, thermal, nature, shopping, entertainment and faith, business, health and honeymoon tourism Sun-sand-sea, culture-history, winter tourism Culture, religion, sea-sand-sun, affordable price (cultural and religion tours draw attention much more than sea vacation)
Karadeniz-Bolu-Trabzon Hatay, Mersin, Antalya Hatay, Mersin, Adana, Gaziantep, İstanbul, Antalya, Konya, Muğla, Bursa, Yalova, Kapadokya, Karadeniz Antalya (Kemer, Belek, Alanya, Side)İstanbul, Muğla (Bodrum, Fethiye, Marmaris, Dalaman) İstanbul, Kuşadası, Bodrum, Çesme, Marmaris, Black Sea
Source: Koder/ Ministry of Culture and Tourism
4. RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS When the findings regarding the examination into the international tourism movements towards Turkey on the basis of destination are evaluated, it can be said that tourism in Turkey actually rotate around only 7 provinces. According to 2014 data, the number of the foreigners who accommodate in the facilities with Tourism Operation License in Turkey is 23,609,016 and when the share which the provinces get are considered, it is seen that Antalya where 11,944,480 people accommodate is ranked as the first with its share of approximately 57%, and İstanbul is ranked as the second with 5,078,949 accommodation number and 22% a share. of Following these provinces, Muğla province with 1,935,104 accommodation number having a share of 8%, Aydın province with 728,549 accommodation number having a share of 3%, Nevşehir province with 613,392 accommodation number having a share of 2.6%, Denizli province with 518,176 accommodation numbers having a share of 2%; and Ankara with 458,842 accommodation number having a share of 1.9% come respectively. It is seen that 96.4% of total are only these provinces (İstanbul, Antalya, Muğla, Aydın, Nevşehir, Denizli, Ankara), and the others remains at a share of 4.6%. The fact that 4 provinces among the 7 are seaside destinations is an indication of that tourism in Turkey focuses highly on sea-sand-sun trio. However; when the travel motivations of the countries on the Table16 are taken into consideration, it is seen that Turkey has many provinces and districts which are full of historical, natural and cultural beauties which can appeal to the nationalities of a great deal of countries. When an answer is sought to the question “So why these provinces and districts could not find an active place in tourism?”, it is possible to get the results written below. Turkey’s image problem (According to “National Brands Research” conducted by a marketing expert, Simon Anholt, Turkey is on a rather unsuccessful position in respect to become a “brand-name” throughout the world. The participants evaluate Turkey as “the country where extremist Islamist currents and violations of human rights exist” in this research in which approximately 10.000 people participate and in which ten countries’ attraction as national brands are evaluated (Çerçi, 2013: 17). Security problem in the country (Turkey is located in a place in the world, where the balances generally change due to its geographical location. This situation results in many countries which are border neighbors living war. The most recent example is Syrian civil war. Apart from this, Turkey is a country which has been fighting against terrorism for many years. Especially, Southeastern-Eastern and Eastern Mediterranean provinces are the places which are most affected by this situation. Political Relations (When transnational political problems occur, many nationals of that country do not prefer the country where the political problem exists, and they tend towards alternative destinations. This problem cannot even remain between two countries and it can also affect the other countries with which these countries having such problems establish close relations. Recent TurkeyRussia tension constitutes an example for this. When the relevant data are examined, there has been a 17% decrease in the number of tourist arrivals from Russia, and Antalya which is preferred as a holiday resort mainly by the Russians is the most affected region.) Lack of facility, infrastructure and transportation (These shortcomings limit the tourism development of many destination areas. The biggest example for this has been experienced in the Black Sea Region. At the present time when the inflow of Arab tourists is high, the dormitories have been 15
used for accommodation because of the fact that the facilities fall short, and consequently this situation has reduced the quality of service and created dissatisfaction.) Shortcomings in promotion and marketing and wrong marketing methods (Turkey is known as a country which is cheap and only consists of sea-sand-sun. This situation causes that countries which have high income levels, high international tourism expenditures, and whose tourism volume is high cannot be attracted towards Turkey. Turkey has a higher market share than the countries such as Georgia and Bulgaria. However, when it is considered that these countries come with the purpose of visiting relatives and acquaintances, business visit, and their expenses are quite low, it will be understood that Turkey is ranked as 6th in terms of arrivals, and ranked as 10th in terms of incomes.) The following measures can be taken concerning the abovementioned problems. First of all, Turkey’s security problem must be solved. Otherwise, many actions and works which can be done will be wasted. There are some important points in this regard. For example; providing training for the people for public awareness by national and local administrations in this struggle, providing training on terrorism and tourism offenses for all personnel including the security forces who work in tourism destinations about, increasing security measures against possible terrorist acts, conducting international cooperation in this regard are important. Instead of the cheap country image of Turkey, it should be emphasized that Turkey is the country which has in fact a mixture of cheap and suitable-quality, and expensive but high-quality destinations, all of which can appeal to people from all strata thanks to the destination, labelling, and then marketing and promotion activities that can be made. Another issue that can be done in order to revive the idle destinations is to determine the target countries which can be directed to these destinations, and to carry out promotion and marketing activities in order to ensure that the targeted people are drawn to these destinations. For example, the idle places of Marmara, Aegean and Mediterranean regions and the Black Sea Region should be of top priority considering that the security in these locations can be intensely ensured. Within this context, the people of the countries who mainly travel nature, culture, shopping-oriented can be directed towards this region. The people of the countries who mainly travel sea-sand-sun-oriented can be directed towards the idle places of the Aegean, Mediterranean and Marmara regions. The ones who travel for medical purposes can be attracted towards the regions where the hot springs such as Afyonkarahisar, Yalova etc. exist intensely. However, the demographic, psychological and socio-cultural characteristics of the countries should be of course thoroughly studied in these types of guiadences, and required investments should be made in the destinations which can be suitable for these characteristics. Within this context, there is a need for the studies which define tourist profile including the data such as demographic, socio-cultural psychological characteristics as well as the facilities the they prefer, the type of booking, booking duration, the most effective advertising type, average vacation period, the average tourist spending, the number of people travelling, the time for going on holiday, based on the countries. When the relevant literature is analyzed, any comprehensive study has not been encountered in this aspect. It cannot be ignored that the activities which can be carried out for the tourism development are extremely important. When these problems, which Turkey experiences about being a strong trademark, are considered all together, the unseen part of the trademark (slogan, logo, and symbol etc.) should be focused on rather than the seen part of it. Structuring the products with high-quality, brand personality, spirit of brand, unlimited customer satisfaction guarantee, and the most importantly with a completely different feature that cannot be imitated by its competitors should be ensured (Doğanlı, 2006: 185). Ensuring particularly security issue, which is the most important factor while choosing destination, is the most urgent and sensitive component. Otherwise, it would not be possible for the labelling activities to gain success. REFERENCES Aksöz O. (2010)“Turizm Pazarlamasının Organizasyonunda Destinasyon Pazarlama Örgütleri ve Türkiye İçin Uygun Örgüt Yapısının Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, Eskişehir . Babacan E. (2010), “Uluslararası Etkiliklerin Destinasyon Markalaşmasına Etkisi”, Ege Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım Anabilim Dalı, İzmir 16
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WEB-21, URL: http://www.bilgilersitesi.com/guneydogu-anadolu-bolgesi-turizm-faaliyetleri-hakkinda-bilgi. html. WEB-22, URL: http://www.forumlordum.net/guneydogu-anadolu-bolgesi/11012-guneydogu-anadolu-bolgesi -turizm.html WEB-23, URL: http://www.forumdas.net/forum/konu/karadeniz-bolgesinin-turizmi.95726/#ixzz 44SNPT HWG WEB-24, URL: http://www.kulturelbellek.com/ulkemizdeki-turistik-yerler-turizm-bolgeleri/ WEB 25, URL:http://www.milliyet.com.tr/sumela-manastiri-efsanesi-tatil-1815256/ WEB-26, URL:file:///C:/Users/Pc/Downloads/213-822-1-PB.pdf. 9 WEB-27, URL:http://www.haberturk.com/ekonomi/tatil/haber/1037256-arap-turistin-gozdesi-karadeniz WEB-28,URL:http://www.ensonhaber.com/araplarin-akin-ettigi-karadenizde-tesisler-yetersiz-kald-2015-1008.html. WEB 29, URL: http://e-okulbilgi.com/turizm-cografyasi-nedir-turkiye-turizm-cografyasi-611.html WEB 30, URL: http://www.renklinot.com/soru-cevap-2/dogu-anadolu-bolgesindeki-ekonomik-faaliyetlernelerdir .html
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Chapter 2 Emotional Labor Behaviors in Tourism: A Study on the Students of Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism Cevdet AVCIKURT*, Pelin YAGCI** INTRODUCTION Service sector has unique features unlike the other sectors. That the employees have a lot of interaction with the customers is one of these factors. In this sector, the thing which is essential is to ensure customer satisfaction. In tourism and hotel business located in the service sector, human factor is stated to have a critical importance to ensure customer satisfaction and loyalty. In order to be ensured the satisfaction as well as human factor, the quality of the interaction between the employees and customers is very important. In order to increase the quality of the interaction, various strategies are applied. One of the strategies is expressed as exhibiting some certain behaviors and emotions by the employees in order to create a positive attitude toward the product or service submitted to the customers (Hochschild, 2003: 7; Kuşluvan, Kuşluvan, İlhan & Buyruk 2010: 171). That the employees who have an interaction with the customers present the product or service by exhibiting positive attitudes may help customers to have a positive perception to product and service presented to the customers (Mengenci, 2015: 77). Besides, the products and services which are presented in service sector are important as well as their form of presentation to the customers. Employees who perform the presentation of products or services by interacting with customers mutually respond to the emotional requests of their customers with a sense they exhibit emotional exhibited during this interaction. This can play a key role in increasing customer satisfaction (Kaya & Özhan, 2012: 110). In an empirical study carried out by Pugh (2001), it has been reached to the conclusion that the emotions exhibited by the employees towards the customers during business may change the moods of the customers and this change may affect the attitude of the customers towards the business. "Rules of conduct" are described with the aim of ensuring employees to give proper and true emotional responses to the customers by the businesses operating in the service sector. For customer satisfaction, the employees are required to manage their own emotions and demonstrate behaviors in compliance with these rules despite their own emotions (Seymour, 2000: 160; Yürü, Gümüş & Hamarat, 2011: 3827). The concept of emotional management is explained as “to create facial and body image that can be observed apparently by everybody" (Guy, Newman & Mastracci, 2008: 6). The thought of notifying emotional behavior rules related to which emotions the businesses expect from the employees and how these emotions will be displayed emphasize the concept of emotional labor (Diefendorff & Croyle, 2008: 310). In recent years, the requirement of using emotions in service sector has led to the concept of emotional labor come to the prominence (Kiffin-Petersen, Jordan & Geoffrey, 2011). The concept of "emotional labor" that was first used by Arlie Russell Hochshild and brought into literature is explained in Hoschschild (1983)'s study named "The Managed Heart," as "the management of emotions in order to ensure facial and body expression that can be observed by the public apparently with the aim of being compliant with the requirements of the job". Morris & Fieldman (1996) explains it as "the effort required to express the emotions desired as organizational during interpersonal communication, planning and controls". While Ashforth & Humphrey (1993) is expressing as "appropriate imaging act of feelings”, Grandey (2000) expresses as "the suppression of feelings to shape emotional expressions, changing and imitation of them".
*
Prof. Dr., Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management Res. Assist., Yuzuncu Yil University, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Travel Management
**
Emotional labor covers providing cooperation of the employees with the customers and colleagues, seeing another aspect of the issues and displaying the emotions and feelings required to comply with the viewpoints about what the businesses will do (Meier, Mastracci & Wilson, 2006: 900). At the same time, it expresses the process of being managed of the feelings by the employees during presentation of the services in accordance with the rules and principles determined (Wharton, 2009: 147). The employees' feelings are subjected to the administration to perform the purposes of an employer (Guy & Newman, 2004: 289). The management of the feelings plays an important role during the businesses of the employees (Hunter & Smith, 2007). The management of the feelings is required for some support positions such as public education in health and service sector, the affairs and assistants requiring professionals help, receptionists, office staff and secretaries. These emotions focus on measurable skills, success levels or qualities and they are not accepted as a part of the description of official duty (Guy & Newman, 2004: 289). Emotional labor have the following features (Wong & Wnag, 2009: 250): Emotional labor emerges as a result of the face to face or vocal interactions of the employees with the customers; The emotions are displayed to affect feelings, attitudes and behaviors of the others; There is an obligation to comply with the certain rules in displaying the applications. The importance of this phenomenon called as emotional labor or emotional laborer is increasing day by day in the sense of businesses (Mann, 2007: 553). Hochschild 1983 classified the emotional laborers performed based on the acts from the management perspective of the emotions in (Kruml & Geddes, 2000: 11) and they are discussed in two dimensions as superficial behavior and deeply behavior. In a study performed by Ashforth & Humphrey (1993), the sincere behavior dimension that is a third dimension was added to these two dimensions. Superficial behavior is expressed as displaying the unfelt emotion or changing the real feelings by surpassing. In other words, it is expressed as reflecting it to the customer in front of him by differentiating the feelings of the employees from the real feelings, by becoming counterfeit in a sense. Unwilling smile of an employee during the interaction of the employee with a rude customer is shown as a superficial behavior by this employee (Hochschils, 1983; Buckner & Mahoney, 2012: 251-252). The feelings exhibited in superficial behavior are mimic emotions that is not really felt, internalization of emotion is not in question. Just the given responses are adjusted (Güzel, Atilla Gök & Büyüker İşler, 2013: 107; Sarıışık, Ulama & Nergiz, 2014: 1031). Besides, this doesn't mean that the employees do not feel anything while the superficial behavior is being displayed; here the feelings felt by the employee are differentiated from being felt (Chu & Murrmann, 2006: 1182). Emotions can be demonstrated with facial expressions, verbal or non-verbal communication (Korkmaz, Sünnetçioğlu & Koyuncu; 2015: 17). Depth behavior involves changing the emotional state by trying to feel the exhibited behavior. Employees exhibit depth behavior in interaction with rude customers to maintain positive outlook while being "under stress" (Buckner & Mahoney, 2012: 251-252). This behavior is accepted as the basis of emotional labor by Krulm & Geddes (2000) since the employees are required to spend much effort during displaying this behavior. Depth behavior involves replacement the emotions felt with the behavior that should be to comply with the rules (Diefendorff, Croyle & Gosserand, 2005: 340). The emotions required to be displayed by force of the work performed require to suppress the emotions felt by the employees. They realize this by thinking the similar events or the events experienced by the other workers as if they experienced themselves (Korkmaz et al., 2015: 17). Sincere behavior is described as being overlapped and convenient of the emotions displayed by the employees with the emotions felt (Chu & Murrman, 2006: 1182). It is no necessary for the employees to perform the requirements of the work to imitate and/or play roles and they can display the real emotions they felt. In this case, the emotions felt by the employees are evaluated in the dimension of sincere behavior (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). In the dimension of this behavior, displaying a feeling different from the emotion felt in real, that's to say performing a superficial behavior or trying to replace the emotion felt in real with the emotion required by the work that is to say performing depth behavior are not in question (Başbuğ, Ballı & Oktuğ, 2010: 257). 20
1.RELEVANT RESEARCHES Emotional labor concept submits a wide research field for researchers and the researches performed are built on the ideas presented in Hochchild (1983)'s original study (Erickson & Ritter, 2001: 146). It is seen that the studies carried out in this scope focus on different employee groups and study on the samples from different professions (Türkay, Ünal & Taşar, 2011: 205). In revealing the psychological results of emotional labor, qualitative and quantitative researches were carried out and are being carried out based on Hochschild's study. In these researches, the subjects generally stressed on are as follows (Wharton, 1999: 158): - The experiences of the employees displaying emotional behavior, - The comparisons between those who display and do not display emotional labor, - Under which conditions the emotional labor is positive or negative, - The changes brought by the differences in the attitudes of the employees for emotional labor, - It is the effect of the emotional labor displayed in the workplace on the employees' private life. When it is made literature scanning, it is seen that there are some studies on the samples taken from different universes on emotional labor. As public employees, there are nurses, police officers and administrators (Steinberg & Figart, 1999; Hunter & Smith, 2007; Seery & Corrigall, 2009), service sector employees (Bayram, Aytaç & Dursun, 2012), service providers and call center employees (Man & Selek Öz, 2009) etc. among these groups. In tourism sector, some of the studies carried out about emotional labor are as follows: The study carried out by Sandiford & Seymour (2002) was carried out in accommodation sector in England. In this study, ethnographic study methods described as "the investigation of an individual or culture with a participant observations supported by depth interviews" were used. As a result of the study, the factors affecting emotional labor most are detected to be negative experiences and positive experiences between the customers and employees. Besides, the presence of many different factors affecting emotional labor such as customers, the situations encountered and business conditions were mentioned. In a study carried out by Bolton & Boyt (2003), the emotions displayed in the businesses and the employees having the skill of managing these emotions have been investigated. The scope of the study involves the cabin attendants working in the businesses making three different passenger transportations in England. The data were obtained by applying semi-configured survey form to the applicants. Additional qualitative data were collected through configured interviews. It has been reached to the conclusion that it is possible that cabin attendants described as skilled emotion administrators can balance and synthesize the emotions in different types exhibited depending on the situational demands by using comparable data. Additionally, it has been stated that the resistance to emotions and managing emotions capacities of plane cabin attendants and the emotions they displayed the next customers conflict with Hochschild's suggestion about the transformation of the emotions. In a study carried out by Kim (2008), investigated the reasons and conclusions of superficial and depth behavior that are among the emotional labor in accommodation sector. As a result of the study, it has been determined that the employees having higher neurotic personality reflect mostly the fake and factitious emotions (superficial role play) but the employees having extroverted personality reflect their adopted emotions (depth role play) to the customers. It has been determined to be a positive correlation between depth role play that is the dimension of emotional labor and personal success feeling that is the dimension of exhaustion. Besides, it has been found that the employees playing a superficial role exhaust more than the ones playing role in depth. Another study was carried out on tour leaders by Wong & Wang (2009). Besides them, in the study which focused on qualitative data and analysis, it was made interviews with the people performed tour leadership at least for 4 years. In the study, it has been concluded that the various cases during tour brought along the exhibition of more intensive emotional labor behaviors. The factors such as redundancy of tour participants, length of tour times and selling the souvenirs and the tours which emerged depending on the desire will be given as examples to these situations. Kaya & Özhan (2012) has carried out a study for tourist guiding displaying emotional labor at high level by force of his profession. In the study, it has been aimed to determine the relationship between 21
the emotional labor displayed by tourist guides and their exhaustion status. As scale, "Emotional Labor Scale in Tourism Businesses" developed by Chu and adopted to Turkish by Pala and "Maslach Exhaustion Scale" developed by Maslach and adopted to Turkish by Ergin were used. As a result, it cannot be reached to a significant difference between the demographic features of the tourist guides and displaying emotional labor behaviors. Besides, it has been reached to the conclusion that there is a negative correlation between the displayed emotional labor behaviors and the dimension of desensitization that is among the exhaustion dimensions and positive correlation with personal success feeling. Another study carried out on tourist guides who are called as leading actors of tourism sector has been carried out by Güzel et al. (2013). In the study, only the region of Muğla was taken into account and the emotional labor behaviors displayed in tours by professional tourist guides were determined and its correlation with the intention of leaving of employment was revealed. Emotional labor sale received from Ünler Öz and the questions of the scale to determine the intentions of leaving of employment were used. It has been revealed that tourist guides spend extremely high emotional labor during tours. It has been concluded that depth role playing and suppression dimensions have significant correlation with the intention of leaving of employment. In a study carried out by Sarıışık et al. (2014), it was focused on a sample selected from the employees of service business. With the scale formed by making use of three different studies, it was aimed to measure the participation levels to the statements related to the experience frequency of the statements describing labor behaviors of the participants and sympathy variable were tried to be measured. As a result of the study, it has been reached to the conclusion that the participants generally display emotional labor behaviors suitable for the business expectations, they have sympathy towards the other people and they generally feel positive emissions. 2.METHODS In the research, it was aimed to determine the emotional labor behaviors displayed by the students of Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism towards the customers in the businesses where they are undergoing training or working. As data collection tool, survey form was used. The universe of the research consists of 2nd, 3rd and 4th grade students continuing their education in Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism. In the research, it was aimed that everybody reached and desired can participate in the survey and form sample mass in simple way and 247 students were selected with convenience sampling method from sampling methods that are not based on the probability (Altunışık, Coşkun, Bayraktaroğlu & Yıldırım, 2012: 140). Survey forms prepared were applied to the students face to face by the researchers between the dates of April 18-May 6, 2016. 242 of 247 surveys obtained in the application were taken to the evaluation and 5 surveys were taken out of the evaluation. The reason of not being included of 5 surveys in the evaluation is being answered to the surveys by thinking the businesses they work in (bank, textile, etc.) out of tourism sector. Emotional labor scale used in the research was developed by Chu & Murrman (2006). The original of the scale consists of 2 dimensions and 19 items. The items whose Turkish translation was made were classified under three emotional labor dimension headings whose meanings were clarified as a result of literature scanning (superficial behavior, depth behavior and sincere behavior), and the scale used in the research has been formed. The expressions used in the scale were grades “1… Strongly disagree and 5 … Strongly Agree”. The data obtained through survey forms were transferred to electronic media with SPSS 20.0 software and analyzed. The analysis were made with the data obtained in the emotional labor scale as well as demographic data belonging to the participants. In line with the answers given to the expression, the scores belonging to the sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale for each participant were calculated. Whether these scores are convenient for the normal distribution or not was examined with "kolmogrovsmirnov test". Since it has been seen to show normal distribution, whether the sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale show a change according to the demographic information has been investigated through parametric tests. The distribution related to demographic information was identified with frequency analysis. The change of sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale according to two-grouped variables such as openness status in a year was examined with “t-test in independent groups”. Whether it has a significant level of change or not according to the the variables including more than two groups 22
such as age group, the type of tourism business, personal income and average daily working time was investigated with "one-way variant analysis (one way ANOVA)". As a result of one way variant analysis, in the cases when significant difference was found, "TUKEY test" that is a multiple comparison test was used to detect from which group the difference is resulted. During the data analysis, 22 different groups belonging to title/position question that is one of the demographic elements emerged. Since the number of people in the groups are not convenient for making generalization (in small number), it includes their distribution only with frequency analysis only with frequency analysis. Analysis were carried out 95% of reliability level. 2.1. Reliability Analysis The reliability analysis has been made to determine the whole and sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale used in the study and Cronbach’s Alfa coefficient has been obtained. If the evaluation criterion that us complied in the evaluation of Cronbach’s Alfa Coefficient is 0.00 ≤ α < 0.40, the scale is not reliable; if it is 0.40 ≤ α < 0.60, the scale is in low reliability; if it is 0.60 ≤ α < 0.80, the scale is extremely reliable; if it is 0.80 ≤ α < 1.00, the scale is high level of reliable. For the sample used in the research, Cronbach’s Alfa coefficient was found to be 0,919 for superficial behavior sub-dimension; 0,820 for depth behavior sub-dimension; 0,822 for sincere behavior sub-dimension, 0,805 for the whole of the scale. When literature was examined, Cronbach’s Apha coefficient's being over 70% is seen to be sufficient in the evaluation of the statements as reliable (Pallant, 2001: 85). In line with the aim of the study, basic hypothesis were determined as follows: H1: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in the tourism businesses and gender. H2: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in the tourism businesses and age. H3: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and the type of tourism business where it is worked. H4: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and the activity period of the tourism business where it is worked. H5: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and the department where it is worked. H6: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and income. H7: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and working time. 3.FINDINGS 3.1.The Distribution of Demographic Findings of the Participants With the aim of determining the distribution of demographic findings of the participants, frequency analysis has been made and the results are shown in Table 1. When the distributions of the participants were investigated according to their gender, the ratio of the men is 53,3% and the ratio of women is 46,7%. When the distribution according to age groups was investigated, the ratio of the people in 17-19 age group is 2,5%; the ratio of the people on 20-22 age group 63,2%; the ratio of the people in 23-25 age group is 29,3%. The least age group participation belongs to 26-28 age groups with 5%. When the distribution of business type where they work was investigated, the ratio of the employees in travel agency is 23,1%; the ratio of the ones working in the accommodation agency is 62,8% and the ratio of the ones working in the transportation agency is 1,2%. The ratio of those working in food-beverages agency is 11,2%, while the ratio of those working in recreation agency is 1,7%. When the opening status of the businesses throughout the year was investigated, while the business where 55,8% of them are working throughout the year, 44,2% of the businesses work as seasonal.
23
Table 1: The Distribution of Demographic Findings Male Gender Female Total 17-19 20-22 23-25 Your Age 26-28 Total Travel Business The Type of Accommodation Business Tourism Transportation Business Business Catering Business Where You Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business Work Total The Business Open Throughout The Year Where You Seasonal Work Total Operation Accountancy Front Office The Floor Services Department Food and Beverage Where You Work Animation Facility-Hotel Consultancy Other (Specify) Total 0-500 501-1000 Personal 1001-1500 Income 1501 and above Total 6-8 Average Daily 9-12 Working Time 13 and above Total
n 129 113 242 6 153 71 12 242 56 152 3 27 4 242 135 107 242 26 6 82 6 91 5 24 2 242 32 65 109 36 242 89 123 30 242
% 53,3 46,7 100,0 2,5 63,2 29,3 5,0 100,0 23,1 62,8 1,2 11,2 1,7 100,0 55,8 44,2 100,0 10,7 2,5 33,9 2,5 37,6 2,1 9,9 ,8 100,0 13,2 26,9 45,0 14,9 100,0 36,8 50,8 12,4 100,0
When the distribution of the departments where participants are working were investigated; the ratio of those working in the operation is 10,7%; the ratio of those working in the accountancy is 2,5%, the ratio of those working in the front office is 33,9%. The ratio of those working in housekeeping is 2,5% and the ratio of those working in food and beverage department is 37,6%. The ratio of those working in the animation department 2,1% and the ratio of those working in the department of facilityhotel guiding is 9,9%. When the distributions of the participants according to the income of the participants were examined, the ratio of the ones whose income is 0-500 TL is 13,2%; the ratio of those whose income is 501-1000 TL is 26,9% and the ratio of the ones whose income is 1001-1500 TL is 45%. The ratio of those whose income is 1501 and over is 14,9%. The distribution of the average daily working time of the participants was examined; the ratio of the employees working for 6-8 hours is 36,8%; the ratio of those working for 9-12 hours is 50,8%, the ratio of those working for 13 hours and more is 12,4%.
24
Title/Position
Table 2. The Distribution According to Title n 45 40 24 17 12 12 11 11 8 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 4 3 3 3 1 242
Receptionist Waiter Concierge (Facility-Hotel Guidance) Footboy Transfer Element The Officer of Customer Relations Bellboy Kitchen Staff Barman/Barmaid Reservation Officer Apranti Guidance Telephone Operator Maid/Valet (Housekeeper) Bar Chef Cook Accounting Officer Animator Sales and Marketing Officer Reception Chef Pastry Cook Other (Specify) Reservation Chef Total
% 18,6 16,5 9,9 7,0 5,0 5,0 4,5 4,5 3,3 2,9 2,9 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,1 2,1 1,7 1,2 1,2 1,2 ,4 100,0
The distributions of the participants according to their title/position are given in Table 2. Accordingly, it consists of the receptionist with 18,6% and waiters with 16,5% form the biggest group. Concierge with 9,9% (facility-hotel guidance), footboy with 7%, transfer element with 5%, the officer of customer relations with 5%, bellboy with 4,5%, kitchen staff with 4,5%. The rest of them in the other title and positions. 3.2.The Change of Emotional Labor Scale According to Gender The results of t-test in independent groups carried out for the detection of the averages of the SubDimension of Emotional Labor Scale according to the gender and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 3. Table 3. The Sub-Dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale According to Gender
Superficial Behavior Depth Behavior Sincere Behavior
n
Mean
Male
129
3,00
Std. Deviation 1,06
Female Male Female Male Female
113
2,65 3,71 3,82 3,64 3,79
1,05 0,69 0,69 0,99 1,00
129 113 129 113
f
p
2,549
0,011*
-1,262
0,208
-1,168
0,244
According to the results of t-test in independent groups; the sub-scale of superficial behavior show significant difference according to gender (p0,05). 3.4.The Change of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Tourism Agency Type The results of one-way variant analysis carried out for the detection of the averages of the subdimension of emotional labor scale according to the business type where it is worked and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 5. According to one-way variant analysis results, the sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale don't show significant level of difference according to the tourism agency type where it is worked (p>0,05). Table 5. Sub-Dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale according to the Tourism Agency Std. n Mean f Deviation Travel Business 56 3,09 0,99 Accommodation Business 152 2,78 1,07 Transportation Business 3 2,38 1,44 Superficial 1,322 Behavior Catering Business 27 2,74 1,13 Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business 4 2,32 1,17 Total 242 2,84 1,07 Travel Business 56 3,81 0,59 Accommodation Business 152 3,75 0,74 Transportation Business 3 3,79 0,83 Depth Behavior 0,850 Catering Business 27 3,79 0,56 Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business 4 3,16 1,06 Total 242 3,76 0,69 Travel Business 56 3,67 1,05 Accommodation Business 152 3,70 0,98 Transportation Business 3 3,89 0,84 Sincere Behavior 0,218 Catering Business 27 3,86 0,90 Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business 4 3,67 1,80 Total 242 3,71 1,00 26
p
0,262
0,495
0,928
3.5.The Change in Emotional Labor Scale according to the Department For the detection of the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to the department where it is worked and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not, one-way variant analysis results are given in Table 6. Table 6. Sub-dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Department where it worked
Superficial Behavior
Depth Behavior
Sincere Behavior
Operation Accountancy Front Office Floor Services Food and Beverage Animation Facility-Hotel Consultancy Other (Specify) Total Operation Accountancy Front Office Floor Services Food and Beverage Animation Facility-Hotel Consultancy Other (Specify) Total Operation Accountancy Front Office Floor Services Food and Beverage Animation Facility-Hotel Consultancy Other (Specify) Total
n
Mean
26 6 82 6 91 5 24 2 242 26 6 82 6 91 5 24 2 242 26 6 82 6 91 5 24 2 242
2,96 2,63 2,89 3,07 2,71 2,25 3,18 2,07 2,84 3,83 3,04 3,79 3,00 3,85 3,15 3,81 3,07 3,76 3,49 3,45 3,75 3,28 3,78 3,33 3,85 3,50 3,71
Std. Deviation 0,97 0,80 1,07 1,16 1,08 1,02 1,15 0,26 1,07 0,57 0,74 0,64 0,72 0,75 0,92 0,49 0,45 0,69 1,07 1,11 0,89 0,83 1,01 1,73 1,07 1,65 1,00
f
p
1,071
0,383
3,276
0,002*
0,659
0,707
According to the one-way variant analysis results, while depth behavior sub-scale from emotional labor scale sub-dimensions show significant level of difference according to the department where it is worked, superficial behavior and sincere behavior sub-dimensions do not show significant level of difference according to the income (p>0,05). For depth behavior sub-scale showing significant difference, according to the results of TUKEY test results performed for the detection of which group the difference is resulted from; The average of operation employees is significantly different from the average of the employees working in accounting, housekeeping, animation department. The average of the employees working in accounting department is significantly different from the average of the employees working in operation, front office, food beverage and facility hotel guidance. The mean of the employees working in front office is significantly different from the employees of accounting, housekeeping and animation department. The mean of the housekeepers is significantly different from the employees of operation, front office, food and beverage and facility hotel guidance department, housekeeping and animation department. There is not any significant difference between the other departments. 27
3.6.The Change in Emotional Labor Scale according to the Openness Status of the Business The results of t-test in independent groups performed to detect the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to the openness status of the business and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 7. Table 7. Emotional Labor Scale Sub-Dimensions according to the Openness Status of the Business Superficial Behavior Depth Behavior Sincere Behavior
Open throughout the year Seasonal Open throughout the year Seasonal Open throughout the year Seasonal
n
Mean
Std. Deviation
135
2,75
1,07
107
2,95
1,06
135
3,85
0,66
107
3,65
0,72
135
3,81
0,94
107
3,58
1,06
f
p
-1,474
0,142
2,301
0,022*
1,790
0,075
*p0,05). 28
According to the results of TUKEY test carried out for the detection of which group the significant difference is resulted from for depth behavior sub-scale showing significant difference, there is not any significant difference the average of those who have the personal income of 0-500 TL is significantly lower than the average of those who have the personal income of 1000-1500 TL (p0,05). 3.8.The Change of Emotional Labor Scale according to the Daily Working Time The results of one-way variant analysis performed for the detection of the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to daily working time and whether there is a significant difference between these averages are given in Table 9. Table 9. The Sub-Dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Daily Working Time
Superficial Behavior
Depth Behavior
Sincere Behavior
n
Mean
Std. Deviation
6-8
89
2,66
1,03
9-12
123
2,89
1,04
13 and above
30
3,14
1,22
Total
242
2,84
1,07
6-8
89
3,86
0,65
9-12
123
3,71
0,65
13 and above
30
3,68
0,92
Total
242
3,76
0,69
6-8
89
3,83
0,89
9-12
123
3,66
0,99
13 and above
30
3,58
1,27
Total
242
3,71
1,00
f
p
2,658
0,072
1,325
0,268
1,112
0,331
According to one-way variant analysis results; none of the emotional labor scale sub-dimensions don't show significant level of difference according to daily working hours (p>0,05). In other words, each behavior style is at the different level of all working time groups. 4.DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION Emotional labor concept called as acting by forming a certain emotion expression by the employees working in the business environment towards the customer was suggested by Hochchild (1983) and it has been a subject whose importance has been in increasing day by day and in which it has been made plenty of study in recent years. Service sector is a sector that obliges face-to-face interaction with the customers. The situation is similar for the tourism agencies in this sector. Since there are many physiological, psychological and social factors that are effective on human behaviors, there are many factors affecting emotional labor behaviors. Some demographic factors such as gender and age can be listed among these factors (Oğuz, 2015: 93). Based on this, the relationship between the emotional labor behaviors displayed by the students in Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism in the businesses where they do their internship or work and the identified demographic. The results that have been reached in the research carried out are as follows: As a result of the relationship between emotional labor dimensions and gender, it has been concluded that gender factor has a significant difference only with superficial behavior dimension and there is no significant difference between depth behavior and sincere behavior dimensions. As a result of this, while the part of H1 related to superficial behavior was being accepted, the part of it related to the depth and sincere behavior dimension was rejected. The superficial behavior was revealed to be displayed by men mostly. In a study carried out by Şat, Amil & Özdevecioğlu (2015) on private school 29
teachers, it was reached to a similar result as "superficial acting levels of male teachers are significantly higher than the female teachers". A significant difference was observed between being open of the businesses throughout the year and the depth behavior dimension displayed. No significant difference was found between being open of the business throughout the year and displayed superficial and sincere behavior sub-dimensions. Similarly, the part of H4 related to the depth behavior dimension was accepted and superficial and sincere behavior dimensions were rejected. The findings obtained revealed the conclusion that the depth behavior displayed is more in the businesses that are open throughout the year is more than the seasonal businesses. When the relationship between the department where it is worked and emotional labor behaviors were examined, it has been seen that there is a relationship with the dimension of depth behavior displayed. However, no significant difference was found between superficial and sincere behavior dimensions. As a result of this, depth behavior dimension of H5 was accepted, but superficial and sincere behavior dimensions were rejected. The department where depth behavior is displayed mostly is food and beverage department and operation, facility-hotel guidance and front office departments follow this. As a result of this, in the departments where face to face communication with the customers is more, depth behavior can be said to be displayed more. However, in the study carried out by Baş & Kılıç (2014) about the employees working in disabled tourism bazaar, while a significant difference was being found between the department where it is worked and the superficial behavior displayed, no significant difference was found with depth behavior. When it was examined in terms of income status, similarly a significant difference was found with the dimension of depth behavior; no significant difference was observed with superficial and sincere behavior dimensions. This caused to be accepted of depth behavior dimension of H6 but rejected of superficial and sincere behavior dimension. Among income groups, the group displaying the least depth behavior consists of the participants having the income of 0-500 TL. In the study, as a reason of showing difference by depth behavior dimension in terms of staff income, it is thought to be resulted from the fact that tourism agencies employ low waged staff. Revising personal satisfaction on the basis of wages will give opportunities to create positive changes in the behaviors of the employees working in tourism agencies towards the customers. On the point of being dissolved of this situation, the analysis of the negative table emerged with the execution of satisfactory level of wage policy by tourism agencies seems possible. From demographic factors except for these, no significant difference was found in age, tourism agency where it is worked and working times with the dimensions of emotional labor behaviors. In the study carried out by Oral on the doctors, it has been reached to the conclusion that age and working time have no effect on any of the emotional labor behaviors. As a result of this observation, H2, H3 and H6 were rejected. This research was carried out with the data obtained from 2nd, 3rd and 4th grade students studying in Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism. For this reason, the validity of the research findings is limited with the students in Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism. In the studies planned to be made in the future, the students in a different higher education institution or different education levels can form the universe of the study. Besides, this study is a comprehensive research in terms of the type of tourism organization, the type of tourism agency, the department where it is worked and the title/position and the studies to be made with the contraction of demographic factors will provide opportunity to the comparisons and will reveal different results. REFERENCES Altunışık, R.; Coşkun, R.; Bayraktaroğlu, S.; Yıldırım, E. (2012). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri, Sakarya Yayıncılık, 381 s., İstanbul. Ashforth, B. E. & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional Labor in Service Roles: The Influence of Identity. Academy of Management Review 18 (1), 88-115. Baş, M. & Kılıç, B. (2014). Duygusal Emek Boyutları, Süreci ve Sonuçlarının Engelli Turizm Pazarında Değerlendirilmesi. Gazi Üniv. Turizm Fakültesi Dergisi 2, 67-83. Başbuğ, G.; Ballı, E.; Oktuğ, Z. (2010). Duygusal Emeğin İş Memnuniyetine Etkisi: Çağrı Merkezi 30
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Morris, J. A., & Feldman, D. C. (1996). The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labor. Academy of Management Review, 21(4), 986-1010. Sandiford, P. J. & Seymour, D. (2002). Emotional Labor in Public Houses: Reflections on a Pilot Study. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research 26 (1), 54-70. Sarıışık, M; Ulama, Ş. & Nergiz, H. (2014). Duygusal Emek: Hizmet Sektöründe Bir Araştırma, 12. Uluslararası Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi, 30 Ağustos-06 Eylül 2014, Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 1031-1041, Tataristan. Seery, B. L. & Corrigall, E. A. (2009). Emotional Labor: Links to Work Attitudes and Emotional Exhaustion. Journal of Managerial Psychology 24(8), 797-813. Seymour, D. (2000). Emotional Labour: A Comparison Between Fast Food and Traditional Service Work. International Journal of Hospitality Management 19 (2), 159-171. Steinberg, R. J. & Figart, D. M. (1999). Emotional Demands at Work: A Job content analysis. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 561(1), 177-191. Şat, A., Amil, O. & Özdevecioğlu, M. (2015). Duygusal Zeka ve Duygusal Emek Düzeylerinin Bazı Demografik Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi: Özel Okul Öğretmenleri ile Bir Araştırma. Erciyes Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 39, 1-20. Wharton, A. S. (1999). The Psychosocial Consequences of Emotional Labor. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 561 (1), 158-176. Wharton, A. S. (2009). The Sociology of Emotional Labor. Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 147-165. Wong, J. Y. & Wang, C. H. (2009). Emotional Labor of the Tour Leaders: An Exploratory Study. Tourism Management 30 (2), 249-259. Yürür, S.; Gümüş, M. & Hamarat, B. (2011). Çalışan-Müşteri İlişkilerinde Algılanan Adalet/Adaletsizliğin Duygusal Emek Davranışlarına Etkisi. Journal of Yaşar University 6 (23), 3826-3839.
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Chapter 3 Gastronomy and Tourism Osman ÇALIŞKAN*, Gökhan YILMAZ** INTRODUCTION It is seen that in the last years gastronomy forges ahead towards becoming an academic discipline. For instance, Hegarty (2009) stated that so many academic studies were put forward on gastronomy and culinary arts between 1996-2007. In this context, the existence of academic journals (such as International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, Journal of Foodservice Business Research, Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism) particular to Gastronomy and Food-Beverage Management field and the increase in the number of scientific publications are seen as remarkable developments. On the other hand, it is accepted that gastronomy is in close relationship with tourism. In this framework, it is possible to encounter with lots of academic studies indicating that gastronomy is complement and a significant component of tourism. In the light of all of these, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues. CONCEPTIONAL FRAMEWORK The concept of gastronomy and its relation with tourism The concept of “Gastronomy” composed with the integration of the Greek words “Gastro” and “Nomos”. Gastro-relates to the stomach and, by extension, the whole digestive system, starting at the mouth, while nomos means rule or regulation. Gastronomy therefore refers to rules or norms in respect of eating and drinking (Katz, 2003; Santich, 2004; 2007). In related literature it is seen that the gastronomy concept can be defined with its guidance, process and cultural ways (Yılmaz, 2015). Santich (2004) considers gastronomy concept as rules and regulations about eating–drinking and in this regard, depending on historical, cultural and environmental effects, he defines gastonomy concept as offering proposals related to what, where, when, in which combination and how to eat and drink and making guidance. Beşirli (2010) evaluates gastronomy in cultural frame and states that the doings made during the process of producing, transporting, keeping and consuming of foods are related with culture. Also, Hegarty and O'Mahony (2001) explain gastronomy within the framework of eating and drinking culture as a concept containing elements and recipts used in preparing foods; preparing, cooking and presenting methods of foods; the amount and variety of foods; liked and disliked tastes; customs, traditions and believes about the presentation of foods; the equipments used. Richards (2002), Kivela and Crotts (2006) summarise gastronomy concept as distinctive foods of a country or a region, preparing and cooking methods of foods, presenting and consuming foods and emphasize on the relation with culture. On the other hand, Richards (2002), Hegarty (2005; 2009) and Hegarty and Antun (2010) evaluate gastronomy as a process in their studies (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) and describe this process as producing, handling, gathering, preparing, presenting, consuming of foods and getting pleasure. A significant discussion about gastronomy concept is carried out on its relation with science and art concepts (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, gastronomy is also described as good food eating art and science (Santich, 2004; 2007; Gillespie, 2006). Kivela and Crotts (2006) and Santich (2007) state that gastronomy concept includes both the art of good eating and also the art of good cooking. Hegarty and Antun (2007) qualify gastronomy as an art because of its trying to figure out the reality; as a science due *
Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department Res. Assist., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department
**
to its relation with fields like chemistry, physics and history. In this context, gastronomic products can be considered as art when they contain subjectivity and esthetics factors; the informations produced in gastronomy field can be considered as science when they contain subjectivity and rationality factors. In other words it is accepted that gastronomy is an art for it requires mastership and ability; it is a science for kitchen is not different from a laboratory and for it can get findings based on observation and experiment (Hegarty and Antun, 2010). And, Özdemir and Çalışkan (2011) state that the informations about foods and beverages reveal the scientific aspect of gastronomy; preperation and presentation of foods and beverages to appeal to the five senses of people reveal the artistic aspects of gastronomy. In terms of academic, it is seen that gastronomy is a working field requiring a very disciplined approach and being in relation with several working fields and sciences (Santich, 2007; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly, Radzi and Othman, 2009; Croce and Perri, 2010) like chemistry, literature, biology, geography, history, anthropology, music, philosophy and sociology (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Hegarty, 2009). In this regard, it is possible to say that gastronomy is both connected with social sciences and also physical sciences. For example, Santich (2007) indicates that gastronomy is connected with other fields such as history, literature, medicine, politics, law, ethics, business administration, religion, chemistry, philosophy, physics, communication, cookery, agriculture, geography, economy, trade and technology and in this context he considers the relation of gastronomy with other fields within the framework of production and consumption extents. In other words, while the fields such as cuisine, agriculture, geography, economy, trade, technology constitute the production extent of gastronomy, the fields such as religion, ethics, law, politics constitute the consumption extent of foods which are suitable or allowed for people. Also, communication, history and literature help learning cultural structures, customs and traditions of societies. Similarly, Croce and Perri (2010) state that at the heart of gastronomy there are factors as nature, culture and society and also it is in relation with the fields such as botanic, zoology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, engineering, architecture, painting and geology. Hegarty and Antun (2010) indicate that the gathering, preparing and cooking stages of foods are connected with physics and chemistry sciences. Also, This (2006a; 2006b; 2009) expresses that gastronomy is in relation with nature science due to the classification of foodstuffs; with physics due to the assessment of foodstuff’s quality and content; with chemistry due to the various analysis about the content of foods; with cookery due to the gathering together a variety of foods in harmony and their artistic presentation; with business administration due to getting materials on the cheapest and selling products lucratively; with economy due to its national and international income-generating effects. Despite all these assessments, according to the studies in related literature, it can be possible to say that the science which is in the closest relationship with gastronomy is tourism and gastronomy is being analyzed in the context of this relation. The benefits of gastronomy to tourism While researchers are conceptualising the interactions between gastronomy and tourism, they can consider different factors. For instance, when Tikkanen (2007) evaluates the effects of gastronomy to tourism, he puts forward 4 factors as being an attractiveness of food that can be used in destination’s advertising; being a potential element on the development of local agriculture and economy; being a significant part of experiences tourists are going to liveand being a contact of local culture. Henderson (2009) emphasizes the positive effects of gastronomy in the relations between gastronomy and tourism and indicates that there are 4 factors ranging as being a touristic products of food; being a factor that can be marketable to tourists; being a tool of gastronomy tourism in the development of destination and providing diversification opportunities to the firms in destination. Mak, Lumbers and Eves (2012) explain the determiners of the relations between gastronomy and tourism as foods’ being component of a touristic product or activity; the food consuming behaviours of tourists; the food experiences of tourists and their being specially interested in different foods-beverages and activities related with them. Kivela and Crotts (2009) evaluate the gastronomy or local foods as a travel motivation, a criterion being effective on the decision of a destination, a factor that ensures to visit the destination again and an element that contributes to the general satisfaction of tourists. Yılmaz (2015) summarizes the benefits of gastronomy to tourism as follows: It forms a basis to the differentiation of destinations 34
It plays significant role on marketing the destinations It is used as an important factor in promotion of destinations. It can be a travel motivation for tourists. It can be effective on chosing of destination for tourists. It can enable to visit a destination again for tourists. It can contribute to the satisfaction of tourists. It is beneficial to the economic development of destination. When consider from economic angle, the expenses that tourists make for foods and eating out during their travels show the importance of gastronomy in tourism industry. Hall and Sharples (2003) indicate that foods are the second most important factor (28 %) after accomodation (36 %) in daily expenses of tourists. Other researches show that the proportion of expenditures for food in total tourist spending can be between 25 % - 40 %. For instance, while Boyne, Williams and Hall (2002) state that food expenditures constitute 40 % of tourist expenditures Hudman (1986), Ardabili and Rasouli (2011), Canizares and Guzman (2012) and Getz, Robinson, Andersson and Vujicic (2014) state that this proportion is at a level of 25 %. Also Rimmington and Yüksel (1998),Telfer and Wall (2000), Torres (2002) and MacLaurin, Blose and Mack (2007) indicate that food expenditures constitute one third of tourists expenditures. For instance, it is stated that in South Africa, 8 % of foreign tourists’ expenditures and 24 % of domestic tourists’ expenditures are food expenditures (Du Rand, Heath and Alberts, 2003). According to the report of Turkish Statistical Institution it is indicated that 28,6 % of total expenditures of tourists coming to Turkey between 2005-2007 is seperated to food and eating out activities (Yurtseven and Kaya, 2011). Similarly, in Gastronomy Tourism Report published by the Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, it is indicated that the expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey in 2014 are at a level of 19 %. Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey are shown by years in Table 1. Table 1:Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists (2004-2014) Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Total Expenditure ($) 17.076.609 20.322.111 18.593.947 20.042.501 25.415.068 25.064.481 24.940.996 28.115.693 29.351.445 32.308.991 34.305.904
Expenditure on Eating – drinking ($) 3.158.780 3.690.171 3.899.512 4.746.747 5.774.961 5.975.660 5.841.251 6.440.577 6.210.047 6.583.641 6.523.852
Eating – drinking expenditure % 18,4 18,1 20,9 23,6 22,7 23,8 23,4 22,9 21,1 20,3 19
Source: Türkiye Seyahat Acentaları Briliği (TÜRSAB) (URL 1)
Apart from general touristexpenditures, the expenditures made by tourists travelling with the purpose of gastronomy are being important factors contributing economically to local people (HavenTang and Jones, 2005). For instance, it is stated that in 2013, 6.4 million people patricipated in Oktoberfest beer festivity celebrated yearly in Munich Germany and 6.7 million litres beer were consumed (Spiegel Online, 2013). Besides, it is seen that local food products including 549,899 pieces of chicken, 140 225 pair of local sausages, 44.320 kg of fish and 116 pieces of cow were used up (Oktoberfest.net, 2013). Similarly, it is indicated that millions of people visited the Maine Lobster Festivity which has been organised since 1948 in America and it produced economic profit about a billion dolar (TÜRSAB, 2014).
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In another example, it is indicated that gastronomy tourists visiting Canada Ontario Region in 2010 spent 816 million Canadian Dollars (Richards, 2012). In this study, Schmantowsky (2008) states that the tourists travelling in order to discover different local cuisines and taste local foods spend in average 1.194 dollars per person; Green and Dougherty (2008) state they spend in average 1000 dollars per person. Such as to support this, Noseworthy, Martin, Wade, Sabev and Csillag (2005) state that the average daily expenditures of gastronomy tourists double the expenditures of typical tourists. For reaching to these spending levels, the payments tourists made for gastronomic products and services have a great share. In fact, some tourists are eager to pay more in order to be able to experience local foods (Everett and Aitchison, 2008). In this regard, in the research made with 1.440 English tourists by Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2001), it was concluded that the 67 % of tourists are willing to pay more for local foods and drinkings. Westering (1999) states that tourists pay 425 pounds for two-day France Loire Valley wine and mushroom tours and 3.999 pounds for seven-day Greece Odesa wine tour. Also Hunter (2006) indicates that tourists pay 680-1000 dollars to 3-hour gastronomy tours including cookery courses, accomodation, gourmet breakfasts and dinner. Tourism creates value for its stakeholders. Gastronomy helps the development of the economic, social and cultural values of tourism stakeholders (Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002). In a study made by Kivela and Crotts (2006) in Hong Kong it was reached the end of which gastronomy tourism make various contributions to producers, tourism industry, local people and tourists. Haven-Tang and Jones (2005) state that local foods and drinks have various benefits to tourists, tourism establishments and local people. Quan and Wang (2004) summarize the importance of gastronomy tourism on promoting, developing and marketting a destination as creating alternative opportunities and providing added value for food producers who are in rural areas, converting rich and various foods in the region and regional cuisine culture into festivals or activities about foods and creating attraction centers to which tourists are able to come, diversifying tourism activities as a result of presentation of foods seperately as touristic products and developing local people’s identities and cultures and helping to the participation of several people. In the light of all of these, the benefits of gastronomy tourism to tourists, producers, local people, tourism industry and environment are as follows (Quan and Wang, 2004; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Yılmaz, 2015): Benefits to tourists Being a discovery tool of local culture Providing the opportunity of experiencing and purchasing different foods Providing the opportunity of participating in gastronomy focused activities Contributing to the tourists satisfaction Benefits to producers Developing agricultural activities Developing local husbandry Providing the increase of production and selling Improving the quality and diversity of products and services Ensuring the local producers’ being a part of tourism industry Benefits to local people Creating new business opportunities Strenghtening of local identity Increasing the intercultural interaction Development of local economy Benefits to tourism industry Increasing the number of tourists Extension of staying time Increasing of touristic expenditures 36
Development of tourism types Presentation of alternative products Benefits to the environment Contributing to the development of local destination Helping to the keeping of local attractivenesses Developing the environment friendly infrastructure Helping to the ensuring sustainability
Gastronomy and tourism studies Researches made about gastronomy and tourism relation constitute a significant conceptional basis in order to understand the gastronomy and tourism relation. In this regard, it is thought that explaining this issue in the light of related literature will be beneficial. Nowadays, it can be said that academic studies made on gastronomy and tourism relation get up to a certain level in quality and quantity and predominantly focus on following issues: Destination and local cuisine relation (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Barkat & Vermignon, 2006; Guzman & Canizares, 2011; Beer, Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2012; Yılmaz & Özdemir, 2015) Promotion (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010; Lan, Wu and Lee, 2012) and marketing (Du Rand er al., 2003; Du Rand & Heath, 2006; Okumus, Okumus & McKercher, 2007; Horng & Tsai, 2012c) of local cuisines The behaviours of tourists to local cuisines (Torres, 2002; Hjalager, 2004; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Chang, Kivela & Mak, 2010; 2011; Mak et al., 2012) The expectations and satisfactions of tourists about gastronomic experiences (Ryu & Jang, 2006; Correia, Moital, da Costa & Peres, 2008) The classification of tourists according to their relations with gastronomy (Boyne, Hall & Williams, 2003; Hjalager, 2004; Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Kivela & Crotts, 2009; Yun, Hennessey & MacDonald, 2011; Canizares & Guzman, 2012) and the determination of them as a part of market (Kivela & Crotts, 2005; MacLaurin et al., 2007; Mack, Blose & MacLaurin, 2009; McKercher, Okumus & Okumus, 2008) Gastronomic identity (Harrington, 2005; Fox, 2007; Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010; Lin, Pearson & Cai, 2011; Çalışkan, 2013) Gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism (Long, 1998; Hall and Mitchell, 2001; Hjalager, 2002; Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis and Cambourne, 2003; Hall and Mitchell, 2005; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Tikkanen, 2007; Henderson, 2009) The sources (Deneault, 2002; Smith & Xiao, 2008; Silkes, 2012) and development strategies (Green & Dougherty, 2008; Horng & Tsai, 2012a; 2012b; Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2013) of gastronomy tourism The usage of local foods in tourism (Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Özdemir, Yılmaz, Çalışkan & Aydın, 2015; Özdemir, Aydın, Çalışkan & Yılmaz, 2015) Gastronomy tourism Traveling of people for the purpose of experiencing local foods is accepted as a different tourism type (Molz, 2007). In order to describe this tourism type, in related literature as shown in Image 1, the development of several number of concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism, meal tourism, gastro tourism or food and wine tourism and from time to time using these concepts interchangeably or seperation of these concepts from each other are seen. Karim and Chi (2010) state that the concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism are used because, in the heart of concepts, there is traveling of people to particular destinations in order to discover foods and drinks and in this context, indeed, the concepts have the same meanings. Lin (2006) indicate that no matter which concept is used, the main aim is using foods and drinks as important means in order to promote and develop tourism in a certain region. In spite of that, Kivela and Crotts (2005) and Ignatov and Smith (2006) allege that there are some differencies between the concepts of 37
culinary tourism and gastronomy tourism. According to this distinction, gastronomy tourism is related to eating and including consumption, enjoying and quality factors. In other saying, the word “gastronomy” in the gastronomy tourism concept emphasize mostly on its consumption extent (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). And culinary tourism comprises foodstuff, the processes of food preperation and production, activities about foods and motivations (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and handles the production and consumption extents together (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). Similarly, Ninemeier (2010) states that culinary tourism grounds on the food preperation process and it is about cuisine. In wine tourism, experiencing wines and visiting wineries or regions are main travelling motivations (Charters and AliKnight, 2002).
Figure 1: The concepts about gastronomy tourism used in literature (Yılmaz, 2015).
According to related literature, the concept of gastronomy tourism was used firstly by Lucy Long in 1998 (Long, 1998; Kivela and Crotts, 2005; Karim and Chi, 2010; Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In this context, Long (1998) describes gastronomy tourism as a tourism type developed in order to discover other cultures and civilisations through activities about foods (Kivela and Crotts, 2005; 2006). Thus, Long (2003) emphasises the aim of recognising different cultures along with consumption in gastronomy tourism. The basis of gastronomy tourism bases on agriculture, culture and tourism (Westering, 1999; Cusack, 2000; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Everett and Slocum, 2013). Agriculture is effective in providing products or foods to be consumed; culture is effective in the history or authenticity of destinations. In terms of tourism, it is accepted that gastronomy tourism is one kind of culture tourism. Because, local cuisine forms an inseparable part of destination’s or society’s culture (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). With providing required background and services, agriculture, culture and tourism elements gather under the gastronomy tourism roof (Du Rand and Heath, 2006). In the literature gastronomy toruism is defined as a new type of tourism (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Smith and Costello, 2009; Chaney and Ryan, 2012; Horng and Tsai, 2012b); special interest tourism 38
(McKercher et al., 2008) or a niche market segment (Stewart, Bramble and Ziraldo, 2008; Silkes, 2012; Forga and Valiente, 2012). Some researchers take gastronomy tourism also as one of the fastest growing in tourism industry (Deneault, 2002; Mautner, 2009) and one of the most demanding tourism type (Beer, Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2012). At the heart of gastronomy tourism, there are discovering local foods or cuisines (Horng and Tsai, 2012a), enjoying (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and experiencing unforgettable experiment (McKercher et al., 2008). Traveling to different destinations provides tourists the opportunityof recognising new cultures, cuisines and local foods and experiencing the sense of authenticity(Westering, 1999; Cook, Yale and Marqua, 1999; Okumus et al., 2007). Gastronomy tourism focuses on unique food, cuisine and culture (Yun et al., 2011). In this regard, the definitions related to gastronomy tourism are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Definitions related to gastronomy tourism Study Long (1998; 2003) Richards (2002)
Deneault (2002) Wolf (2002) Hall & Mitchell (2001; 2005) Santich (2004) Ignatov & Smith (2006) Chang, Kivela & Mak (2010) Silkes (2012) Silkes, Cai & Lehto (2013)
Definition Travels including preparing, presenting and consuming of foods, done in order to learn and discover local cuisines and eating patterns that they do not own. Travels from which tourists can learn the producing process of foods, cooking methods, ingredients used and culinary culture of region. Gastronomy tourism, goes well beyond the dining experience. It includes a variety of cuisine and/or agri-tourism activities developed for visitors involving food and beverages. These can range from food festivals to farm visits and factory tours, and often involve the cultural discovery of a region's unique dishes. Travels made in order to search foods and drinks and enjoy. Travels which are made towards primary and secondary food producers, foods festivals, restaurants and special food and wine regions in order to discover or experience foods and drinkings and travels whose main travel reason is foods. A tool of interesting in food and drimk or eating and drinking, traveling motivation and experiencing other cultures. Tourism trips during which the purchase or consumption of regional foods (including beverages), or the observation and study of food production (from agriculture to cooking schools) represent a significant motivation or activity. A tourism type which provides oppotunity to experience local foods and learn local culture with various aspects. Cultural interaction taking place among tourists and local people through sharing experiences about foods.
Source: Yılmaz, 2015
In this regard, it is possible to define gastronomy tourism as travels comprising “the production, preperation, presentation and consumption processes of foods and eating-drinking patterns, being interested in table manners and cuisine culture and participating in activities about foods organised in destinations (visiting food-drink producers, wine and beer factories, farmer markets; meal experience in restaurants; participating in festivals; gastronomy tours; taking part in cookery classes and wine tasting courses); made in order to enjoy, learn and discover and whose main travel motivation are made up of local foods (Yılmaz, 2015). In gastronomy tourism it is seen that during travels, the fact of travel for foods comes to the forefront rather than consuming foods. As of both this definition as well as related literature addressed that the followings are among the distinctive features of gastronomy tourism. Dining is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (Sparks, Bowen & Klag, 2003; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Quan & Wang, 2004; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009; Munjal & Sharma, 2013; Bessiere & Tibere, 2013) 39
Tourists dine out when traveling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local food (Deneault, 2002), culture (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kim et al., 2009) and people (Fox, 2007; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009) Culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that affects all five human senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch (Long, 1998; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim et al., 2009; Chang et al., 2010; Mak et al., 2012) There is a high positive correlation between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and those interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festivals, and cultural attraction (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Lang Research Inc., 2006; Fox, 2007; Vujicic, Getz & Robinson, 2013), Interest in cuisine when traveling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnic group (Kivela & Crotts, 2006) Unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of day and in any weather (Deneault, 2002; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Canizares & Guzman, 2012) More often than not, gastronomy tourists are explorers (Telfer & Wall, 2000; Heldke, 2003; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009). Gastronomic tourism products Gastronomic tourism products can be described as products that tourists can consume during their travels or use for a while, include gastronomic factors (like foods-drinks) at its heart and services or factors formed by the combination of these (Yılmaz, 2015). For instance, local restaurants, wineries and vineyards in destinations are among the main gastronomic tourism products tourists can live an exhilarating experience (Kivela and Crotts, 2006). If it is though more comprehensive, in studies in the related literature traditional or high quality restaurants, food and wine festivals, cookery schools, wine trainings, local markets, cookery and meal competitions or activities (Long, 1998), wineries and vineyards, vegetable and fruit harvesting fields, food and wine routes (Yun et al., 2011), peddlers and farms (Karim and Chi, 2010) are considered among gastronomic tourism products. In order to develop gastronomic tourism products some resourches are required. There are resourchers making comprehensive classification on this issue. For example, Ignatov and Smith (2006) and Smith and Xiao (2008) classify the resources of gastronomic tourism products in four categories as facilities and opportunities, activities, events and organizastions. This classification is shown in Table 3. Facilities comprise buildings, areas and routes where the foods are produced, prepared and disseminated. These facilities are places which are open to tourist visits and where tourists can buy and consume gastronomic products, see the production areas and learn local culture. Among activities, there are eating in local restaurants, visiting wine and agricultural regions, courses about cookery, wine tastement educations and taking part in contests. And within the scope of consumer fairs and festivities, tourists can visit various food and beverage fairs and take part in local festivals. Even if they are not considered directly in gastronomic tourism products, the organizations related to gastronomy have great importance in terms of their functions. For example, the destinations willing to develop gastronomy tourism need to make some arrangements about foods and wines. In this context, it is thought that the arrangements to be made by institutions are going to become important determiners of food quality (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000). The institutions are expressed as systems or organisations which confirm, document and assume control of local foods and wines quality (Smith and Xiao, 2008). The certification of foods guarantees the products and increasing their quality (Horng and Tsai, 2010). For example, it is known that Hong Kong Tourism Bureau started Quality Tourism Services (QTS) implementations in order to guarantee the quality of services in restaurants and increase food standarts and customer security (Chang et al., 2011). This implementation enable tourists to find reliable restaurants and thus to feel safe themselves (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). It is possible to collocate main gastronomic tourism products as gastronomy tours, factories (wine, beer), farms and farmer markets, cooking courses, festivals, museums and restaurants. Gastronomy tours can be events performed on a specific route (like wine region, agricultural region) especially in order to discover different culinary culture, foods and wines and including such activities as making 40
food shopping in local markets (Kivela and Crotts, 2006), participating in cooking and wine tasting classes (Hunter, 2006) and visiting local restaurants (Hjalager, 2002; Ardabili and Rasouli, 2011). Especially local restaurants constitute one of the main gastronomic tourism products (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008) and both gastronomy tourists whose primary travel motivation is local foods and other tourists are willing to live food experience in local restaurants in order to experience local foods (Du Rand et al., 2003; Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). For example, Law, To and Goh (2008) state that in Hong Kong there are restaurants over 9000 where tourists can experience local cuisine or east and west cuisines. Similarly, Au and Law (2002) express that tourists can live unforgettable and unique experience in the restaurants in Hong Kong. On the other hand, in Canada, 8 day gastronomy tours named West Coasts Cuisine are organised and tourists can learn how the local foods are produced and prepared (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006). Farmers markets are indicated as places where the local products, produced or prepared by local people, are presented directly to consumers (Smith and Xiao, 2008) and fresh and organic foods can be bought (Henderson, 2009). Farmers markets offer informations to tourists about local culture and life that they can not obtain from knowledge sources like internet and travel magazines (Chang, Kivela and Mak, 2011). The visits made to factories where the local products like wine or beer are manifactured have similar function. Museums like food, cheese, wine and culinary museums are described as areas where various foods and equipments related to these foods are displayed (Bessiere, 1998). And farm visits enable tourists to make contact with local producers and local products directly (Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). Meal courses are explained as organised by restaurants (Green and Dougherty, 2008) or hotels (Henderson, 2009) and as places where tourists can learn how the local foods are prepared (Bessiere, 1998) and can consume local foods (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). Food festivals combiningeating-drinking culture and entertainment (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) are events in which local foods and products are main themes (Henderson, 2009), organised for short-term as 1-3 days and periodically (Smith and Xiao, 2008). In Canada Ontario Region every year 73 food and wine themed festivals are organised. In some situations, festivals can be comprehensive products in which a lot of gastronomic tourism products are served together. For example, in 2-day Abergavenny Food Festival organised every year, opportunities are given to participants like wine tasting, participating in cookery classes, serving and tasting food, buying local foods from local producers, visiting fish market (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Also many researches in related literature show the importance of gastronomic sources and gastronomic tourism products both for destinations and tourists. Horng and Tsai (2012a) state that developing gastronomy tourism multi directional is going to be possible with gastronomic sources such as food routes, food festivals, consumer fairs, wine tours. In this context, many destinations are trying to show and familiarise the unique gastronomic sources that they own (Cohen and Avieli, 2004). For instance, Canada is trying to present so many and a large variety of gastronomic tourism products such as local festivals, agritourism events, cookery schools, farm holidays, food festivals, dinner activities, vintage, food, wine and beer routes, winery and brevery tours, cheese production centers, food museums, farmer markets and special wine tasting tours (Deneault, 2002) and gourmet restaurants (Stewart et al., 2008). Restaurants generally serving foods belonging to local cuisine and festivals about foods constitute the gastronomic tourism products of Asian countries like Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). Similarly, according to The World Tourism Association’s report cookery classes or courses, food museums, food events, foods, food and beverage fairs, visits to the local food producers or food markets and food tours constitute the main gastronomic sources. In many researches in related literature some findings on the participation of tourists to these activities in destinations are presented. In the study which was done with Taiwanese and Austrian tourists visiting Hong Kong and Macau by Kivela and Crotts (2009), tourists’ participation in events about foods like visiting farms, participating in cookery courses, fruit picking and visiting cheese makers was revealed. Similarly, Yun et al., (2011) line the activities about gastronomy tourism to which tourists participate in as visiting markets selling local foods, taking part in local fairs, participate in food and wine festivals, taking part in cookery and wine courses, eating in the restaurants serving local foods or eating in luxury restaurants, participating in wineries and breweries tours, visiting food and wine routes, visiting farms and food producing places. And, in the study done with 3.137 European tourists 41
visiting Sweden by Vujicic et al., (2013), it was determined that the activities of tourists about foods during their travels are experiencing local foods in local restaurants, visiting local food markets and purchasing local products, living romantic dinner experiences, participating in the food festivals, visiting food routes and taking cookery courses. Table 2: Typology of culinary tourism resources
Facilities
Activities
Events
Organisations
Food processing facilities Wineries Breweries Buildings / Structures Farmers’ markets Food stores Food-related museums Restaurants Farms Orchards Land uses Vineyards Urban restaurant districts Wine routes Routes Food routes Gourmet trails Dining at restaurants Consumption Picnics utilising locally-grown produce Purchasing retail food and beverages Wine regions Touring Agricultural regions City food districts Cooking schools Wine tasting/education Education/Observation Visiting wineries Chef competitions Reading food, beverage magazines and books Food and wine shows Consumer shows Cooking equipment, kitchen shows Product launches Food festivals Festivals Wine festivals Harvest festivals Restaurant classification/ certification systems (e.g. Michelin, Taste of Nova Scotia) Food/wine classification systems (e.g. VQA) Associations (e.g. Cuisine Canada, Slow Food)
Source: Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008.
Similarly, Bessiere and Tibere (2013) line the places where French tourists can discover local foods during their travels as farms and production places, restaurants and local markets and the places where home cookings are made. In the study donein Taiwan by Lin et al., (2011) with tourism officials and 83 people working as senior executives (director, executive..), the activities to which tourists participate in are lined up as, in order of, food festivals, gourmet tours and gourmet holidays. Besides, it is indicated that the most attractive factor about tourists’ experience the cuisine of Taiwan is participating in local festivals, gourmet tours and holidays. In the study made with 42 people in South Africa by Du Rand et al., (2003), gastronomic tourism products are determined as specificial restaurants (62 %), food products produced in local destinations, food routes, food festivals, specific activities about foods and othes. In the research done by Lang Research Inc. (2006) it is indicated that 22 % of Canadian tourists show participating in cookery and wine tasting courses, 17.4 % of them show visiting vinery ans tasting wine, 11.9 % of them show food producing centers like cheese factory, 10.5 % of 42
them show visiting brewery and tasting beer and 3.3 % of them show taking part in all activities as the main travel reasons. In a research made in America it is concluded that 17 % of tourists (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010) and in a research made in Canada 74 % of tourists (Stewart et al., 2008) participate in the activities about food and wine. Gastronomic identity Foods are in close relationship with culture and identity issues (Hall and Mitchell, 2000). Foods and drinkings are seen as main components forming the identity of a destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005; Munjal and Sharma, 2013). In this context, gastronomic identity is stated as an identity reflecting food culture of a particular region or a community (Bessiere, 1998; Lin et al., 2011). And, in the studies about the subject, what are the components of gastronomic identity and which factors are effective on its formation are explained. For instance, Danhi (2003) indicates that there are 6 main factors determining a region’s gastronomic identity and lines these factors as geography, history, ethnic diversity, culinary etiquettes, common tastes and local receipts. Rao, Monin and Du Rand (2003) state that the identity movement in French cuisine during the transition process from classical period to new period took place in 5 dimensions as cuisine expression, cooking rules, materials, chefs and menu management. Harrington (2005) classifies the factors that have impact on the formation of gastronomic identity in two dimensions as culture and environment. While history, ethnical diversity, trial and error, innovations, skills, traditions, believes and values constitute the culture category, geography, climates, microclimates, local products and the harmony of new products constitute the environment category. In this context, with the effects of environment and culture, a gastronomic identity is created comprising of taste profiles, etiquettes, receipts, the entegration of materials or techniques, the harmonisation of wine and food, climatic zones and new world and old world styles in winemaking. Thus, foods that are among the main components of gastronomic identity become reflecting the social, cultural and natural features of a particular region (Lockie, 2001). According to Harrington (2005), during the gastronomic identity formation process geography, climate, historical process and ethnical diversity are the prominent factors. In historical process, migrations, battles, religional visits and discoveries taking place in the region and ethnical diversity that is formed with getting together of the communities from different cultures effect the gastronomic identity of region. By being entegrated with local products, new and different foods and drinks that are brought from remote regions with commercial activities lead to develop new preperation methods and to change the local traditions. Innovations are able to be made with trial-and-error and thus it is possible to meet the growing demands of consumers. Gastronomic identity takes form with the skills of local people apart from trial-and-error and innovations. Environmental factors comprise of the elements that are related to how the foods grow. Geographical and climatical changes such as soil diversities, precipitation, temperature, wind, humid and altitudes effect the food diversity that are produced or grown in a region and eating habits of people. In this regard, the emerging local products are foods and drinks having the characteristics of growing area and generally being perceived as good quality. In the world, it is possible to encounter with succesful samples about gastronomic identity in the world. For example, Harrington and Ottenbacher (2010) state Lyon city as the capital city of both France and the worldwhich has local foods like 140 kind of cheese and Bresse chicken, 61 restaurants with Michelin star and wineyards like Burgundy. Lin et al., (2011) utter that Taiwan has gastronomy destination identity with its various and different local foods. Because the gastronomy culture of Hong Kong is influenced by the cultures of several countries and ethnical groups, it is mentioned at present time as Gastronomy Paradise of Asia. Similarly, due to the cuisine culture that Singapore has is influenced by various ethnical groups, it is known as the Gastronomy Capital of Asia. This situation creates a gastronomic identity for Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). In the study, Chang et al., (2011) state that due to several of animals such as sheep and lambs in Australia, the gastronomic identity of the country includes sheep and lamb dishes. Within the framework of local and ethnical elements it owns, French cuisine takes part in among the special cuisine in the world and thus France is known with cuisine culture it has (Barkat and Vermignon, 2006). In the interview he gave to Newsweek magazine in 1961, former President of France Charles de Gaulle utters 43
the variety of his country has with the sentence “who and how can manage a country that has 246 kinds of cheese?” (Nadeau and Barrow, 2005). Indeed, it can be said that the word “cheese” is one of the most effective gastronomic identity elements indicating the region’s climate, history, culture, geography and cuisine (Çalışkan, 2013). Thus, gastronomic identity become usable for tourists in order to live unique and recollective gastronomic experience (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). A strong gastronomic identity special to a particular destination becomes an inseparable part of that destination’s success in tourism development (Fox, 2007). Gastronomic identity can constitute one of the attractive factors for tourists in order to visit destinations. Tourists are possibly want to experience local foods due to the destinations they travel have strong gastronomic identity (Chang et al., 2011). Grounding on these explanations, the possiblity of being so significant source of gastronomic identity for destinations comes to mind. In this framework, Fox (2007) evaluates the contributions of destination’s gastronomic identity to tourism destinations in five dimensions as differentiation, aestheticization, authentication, symbolization and vitalisation. Differentiation indicates that foods are important signs of cultural difference among regions and communities and by this way the destination is going to become different. Aestheticization expresses making aesthetic of food and beverage experience with tourist experience. Gastronomic identity that involves history, trade, transportation, technology and ethnic diversity, within the framework of authentication, creates desire to live past on tourists. Symbolization expresses that gastronomic identity can be presented with various gastronomic symbols and in this case it gives the symbolisation of Italian gastronomy with pizza as a sample. He states that, via vitalisation, a new image can be gained to destination by providing the use of old traditions and culinary heritage in tourism. The variation of factors from region to region that have impact on the creation of gastronomic identity causes to emerge different gastronomic identities and not to be able to imitate each gastronomic identity (Çalışkan, 2013). Because of its features like being valuable, rare, unimitable and not being replaced, gastronomic identity becomes a strategic source for destinations (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). In this regard, matching of certain areas with certain foods and drinkings become possible with gastronomic identity special to destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Thus, food is strongly correlated with a particular region (Lin et al., 2011). Champagne known as the most qualified sparkling wine of the World can only be produced in Champagne Region of France. Therefore, champagne and Champagne Region matches and a gastronomic identity special to the region emerges (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011). Similarly, matching cognac and Cognac region enables creating unique gastronomic identity (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, especially number of geographical indication products contributes to gastronomic identityalso. For instance, in Turkey, there are 124 geographical indications about foods. On the other hand, entering into the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists of the factors about eating and drinking like “keşkek” oftraditional ceremony, mesir paste festival and Turkish coffee and tradition also have importance in terms of gastronomic identity. Thus, with the integration of gastronomic identity and tourism development of a destination, it is possible for that destination to gain competitive advantage in the fierce competition environment in tourism market (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In order to do this, destinations are required to create and present gastronomic tourism products based on their unique gastronomic identities. CONCLUSIONS In this study, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues. REFERENCES Akkuş, G. & Erdem, O. (2013). Yemek Turizmine Katılma Niyeti: Planlı Davranış Teorisi Kapsamında Bir Uygulama. 14. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi. Bildiriler Kitabı. s.636-654. Kayseri: Erciyes Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi. Ardabili, F. S. & Rasouli, E. H. (2011). The Role of Food and Culinary Condition in Tourism Industry. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 9 (6). 826-833. 44
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Chapter 4 The Thermal Tourism Services Provided by Five Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar Gonca KILIÇ, Asuman PEKYAMAN**, Engin AYTEKİN*** 1. INTRODUCTION People take advantage of thermal water resources in order to overcome their health problems, feel relieved, relax and live a more youthful and energetic life and so they use the thermal tourism opportunities. Evaluated within the scope of health tourism, thermal tourism is a type of tourism that takes place under region-specific climate conditions and in the vicinities where there are medicinal mud and steam and mineral containing healing water at a certain temperature naturally (Öztürk & Yazıcıoğlu, 2002). The use of thermal water sources for treatment and rehabilitation are growing in importance all over the world, including Turkey. The effective use of the thermal water sources depend on the utilization of modern facilities and trained personnel altogether. Today various tailor-made thermal cure services are offered to customers in thermal centers that meet the infrastructure conditions through sufficient equipment and personnel thereby the patients regain their health or rest physically and mentally. Due to the rapidly increasing popularity of the thermal water sources in these centers, a great deal of contribution is provided to the health of people on one hand and compared to other types of tourism a high level of thermal tourism revenue may be achieved on the other (Türksoy & Türksoy, 2010). In this study, the thermal tourism concept in general and the related terms used in this context, thermal tourism in the world and Turkey, services offered under the thermal tourism by the thermal hotel facilities in Afyonkarahisar province, with its efficient thermal water, rich in content and highly efficient in source were discuss. 2. THERMAL TOURISM An increase in individuals’ life quality, their leisure time and the budget to be spent in their free time has led the tourism activities to hold an important place in people’s lives. Meanwhile, people have come to realize that they are not satisfied by meeting their needs through the same kind of classic tourist activities; they then have begun to search, look for and demand alternative tourism activities (Tengilimlioğlu & Karakoç, 2013). Thermal tourism is one of the most important alternative types of tourism that exists in Turkey. Thermal tourism, by providing a complementary therapy, not only helps people improve their health but also it is an important tourism type by providing many activities for visitors (Penpecioğlu, 2012). Thermal tourism is a type of tourism in which people leave their constant living place temporarily for some purposes such as regaining their health and having a healthy holiday in line with the philosophy of healthy living so that they go to the enterprises offering them thermal tourism services. They benefit from them the accommodation, food - beverages, recreation and other tourism services along with the spa, sea and climate assets there (Çelik, 2009). According to the definition made by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, thermal tourism is a type of tourism that covers the curing (treatment) applications by combining different methods like thermo-mineral water bath, mineral spring, and inhalation, mud bath with climate cure, physical therapy, rehabilitation, exercise, psychotherapy and diet. Additionally, thermal water sources are used for entertainment and recreational purposes (Tengilimlioğlu & Karakoç, 2013).
Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Afyon, Turkey Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism *** Lecturer, Afyon Kocatepe University, Foreign Languages Vocational School. **
It is also known that mineral rich underground water sources have been used for relaxation and health purposes throughout history. The modern use of thermal water sources for protection, development, treatment and rehabilitation of health has become an increasingly common approach over the past decade with the accumulation of scientific knowledge in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America, including Turkey. Also, it is known that important investments have been carried out in thermal tourism in the world in recent years (Gümüş & Polat, 2012). The reason why there has been an increase in investments for thermal tourism is that thermal tourism provides the region with great benefits. The benefits of thermal tourism in a region are listed as follows (Sandıkçı & Özgen, 2013): Thermal tourism allows four-season tourism, Thermal tourism leads to a high occupancy rate in tourist establishments, Thermal tourism increases employment, Thermal tourism can be combined with other types of alternative tourism and enables diversification of tourist activities, The establishments with cure center facilities in thermal tourism meet their costs quickly and become profitable. 2.1. Thermal Tourism in the World Nowadays thermal tourism remains widespread all over the world, especially in South, Central and Eastern Europe, Asia (Middle East, Japan, China, and Turkic Republics), South America (Argentina, Mexico, Colombia) and North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia). Although the traditional and empirical nature of the thermal treatment in many countries, including Turkey, fails to make progress, treatment has reached high quality standards in countries such as Israel, Germany, France, Italy and Japan (Cihangir, 2016). Especially Europe has an important place in thermal tourism sector and the most important share belongs to Germany. Thermal tourism has become an important sector in Germany and Germany holds about 50% of the European thermal tourism market. In Germany, there are 263 officially certified thermal facilities with a total bed capacity of 750.000 and the number of tourists visiting Germany has reached up to 7 million (Özdemir, 2015). With spa centers, casinos and the famous horse races, Baden is the nearest town of Germany to France border. In the modern Caracalla thermal facilities, the hot water coming from 2000 m depth serves the visitors from all over the world. The hot water reaching up to 68ºC is used for different treatments. This water is known to be good for heart, blood circulation, rheumatism and arthralgia, metabolic and respiratory ailments (Hemidov, 2012). As a wellness and/or medical tourism design, health tourism has grown to be a remarkable niche industry in a number of contemporary and accepted destinations. In many facilities in Germany such as thermal spas and health resorts, for example, generally are combined with a different sport and fitness products and services, which makes the destination develop in terms of health tourism (Pforr & Locher, 2012). Today about 8 million visitors come to Russia as for the thermal tourism. One of the most famous regions of Russia, which is rich in mineral resources, is Caucasus Region. Caucasus Region is a region between the Black Sea, Azov Sea and the Caspian Sea. Just behind Caucasus mountain range, the world-famous (Caucasian Mineral Water Sources) Kafkaznıe Mineralnie Vodi resort area is located (Hemidov, 2012). Modern Pyatigorsk is known to be the biggest balneotherapy and mud center. Therapeutic mineral water reaches out to the earth from 50 different springs. This place has made a name for the treatment of musculoskeletal system, respiratory system, neural system, blood vessels, and urology and gynecology diseases. Pyatigorsk sanatorium enables more than 200,000 people to recover from their illnesses each year. In the Pyatigorsk, Kislavodsk, Essentukov and Jeleznovodsk regions from 80 sources, 21 types of mineral water sources are actively in use. They serve 10 million liters of water a day (Hemidov, 2012). Munteanu & Teleki (2013) stated that since there are several natural resources in Romania, such as mineral waters, therapeutic mud lakes and various types of climate that varied from Carpathian subalpine and forested areas to Black Sea coast, a great number of climatic and touristic spas and resorts in the country have gone through a positive development and many of the facilities have been a popular destination in the eyes of the European guests. 52
According to Kazandzhieva (2014), Bulgaria adapted a Strategy of Sustainable Tourism Development, Horizon 2030 and in this strategy the trends in the development of Spa and Wellness tourism in were outlined accordingly. Having analyzed all the existing resources for health tourism, the report specifically focused on the balneotherapy, spa and wellness sub-types. The potential opportunities for their development are outlined based on the abundance and variety of thermal waters, bio-climatic treatment and curative mud. It was also mentioned by Kazandzhieva (2014) that the destinations for health tourism were identified and there were among 58 balneotherapy, 55 mountain climate and 48 seaside climate resorts. In addition, in Bulgaria there were 28 centers of major importance for their development in terms of Balneotherapy, Spa and Wellness Tourism such as Sandanski, Velingrad, Bankya, Devin, Narachen, Albena, Pomorie, Varshets, Dobrinishte etc. In recent years very advanced therapeutic spa centers have been established in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. There are 60 therapeutic thermal centers in the two countries and almost 500,000 patients are provided with treatment services every year (Varol, 5). In Hungary, since any water coming from the depth of the earth to the surface is over 30 °C, they can all be regarded as thermal water. In terms of tourism, the value of the capacity of thermal water in Hungary is of vital importance because of its balneologic benefits of the dissolved mineral substances in thermal water. Indeed, hot water lake Heviz which is a natural beauty is unique in Europe. Thermal and therapeutic water is available in 80% of the country. Geothermal gradient value is 1.5 times more than the world average and the average water temperature is increased 5% every 100 meters (Çelik, 2009). There are almost 360 spa centers in Italy. Around 600,000 visitors come to Italy each year. As a result of that, thermal tourism constitutes an important source of income for the country. Due to the mountains and volcanic events in Italy, there are many thermal spa centers in many cities (Özdemir, 2015). Some centers are available in the US to provide people with cure treatments for health and help healthy people remain fit. As in other industrialized countries, the population is aging in Japan and the government does not regard the medical expenses solely as hospital spending, medicine spending and so on. Also, they wish their citizens to remain fit and healthy with tourism and thermal tourism activities (Türksoy & Türksoy, 2010). There are 1500 spa facilities in Japan. These 1500 spa facilities have a total overnight capacity of 100 million. After the United States, Japanese thermal tourism industry has provided a growth of 700 billion yen and become the second largest thermal tourism industry in the world (Tengilimlioğlu & Karakoç, 2013). It was stated in a study by Fenyves, Orban, Konyves, Nagy & Sandor (2014), thermal spas hold a key role in Hungary’s tourism. There are high-quality medicinal waters in the country while the conditions of the spas are not in the convenient state. On the other hand, there have been some significant developments so that service quality in the facilities has greatly improved. It was also added that 80% of the country territory includes thermal water sources. Additionally, these sources do not only have a high temperature but also they are rich in terms of mineral content. Hungary is regarded as the 5th most significant country in this context following Japan, Iceland, Italy and France. It was claimed that Hungary has almost 1200 thermal water wells, 220 acknowledged medicinal, 195 acknowledged mineral water and 70 thermal spas. 2.2. Thermal Tourism in Turkey The thermal tourism sources in Turkey date back to ancient times and are the facility structures remaining from the Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk and the Ottoman times. In order to benefit from the healing water sources in Seljuk and Ottoman periods, they carried on the creation of spa facilities, and period-specific "Turkish Bath" phenomenon has come to the foreground. The first modern spa facilities in the Republican era were built at Bursa Military Hospital, in 1927. In the upcoming years, Yalova and Bursa-Çelikpalas spa facilities were built (Gümüş & Polat, 2012). In terms of geothermal resources, Turkey ranks among the top seven countries and becomes the first in terms of resource potential in Europe while Turkey ranks the third in the spa applications. Turkey is located on an important geothermal zone and falls into the top seven countries in the world in terms of resource richness and potential. There are more than 1,500 sources whose temperatures go between 20 and 110 C and flow rates vary from 2-500 lt/s. In Turkey, there are around 190 thermal facilities in 46 cities (URL1). 53
Marmara Region has significant advantages in thermal tourism in terms of the number of tourists, transportation diversity, and cultural heritage, the presence of various types of tourism and hospitality enterprises. The modern facilities located in Istanbul, Bursa, Yalova, Balıkesir, Sakarya and Canakkale serve foreign tourism as much as domestic tourism. Ankara, Nevsehir, Sivas and Eskişehir located in Central Anatolia Region are rich with regards to thermal springs. But due to various reasons such as the lack of physical equipment and capital, lack of qualified staff and promotion, they failed to use existing capacity fully. The existing sources located in Eastern Anatolia and the Black Sea regions are not utilized to the desired extent. The main cause of this situation can be listed as the lack of physical equipment and capital, transportation difficulties, lack of qualified personnel and promotion. The thermal tourism resources in Mediterranean Region are limited compared to other regions and the number of spa facilities are inadequate and less in the Southeastern Anatolia Region (URL 2). Aegean region is rich in the sense of thermal springs. In almost every province in the region you can find the thermal resources, and today in thermal tourism centers especially in Izmir, Afyon, Kütahya and Denizli various services are offered in the modern sense. The mud baths in Afyon thermal facilities vary from the services supplied in other facilities in Turkey. Pamukkale which is located in the UNESCO World Heritage List offers visitors different possibilities (URL 2). "Thermal Tourism Cities Project" was launched by Culture and Tourism Ministry in order to develop health and thermal tourism, and new regional areas have been identified by taking geothermal potentials into account in Turkey (Toy et al., 2010).
Figure 1. Map of Thermal Tourism City Areas (Resource:URL 1), The regions that can be integrated with other types of tourism and which have the capacity to create a destination are as follow (Fig. 1) (URL 1): - South Marmara Thermal Region: Canakkale, Balikesir,Yalova - Phrygian Thermal Tourism Region: Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya, Uşak, Eskişehir, Ankara - South Aegean Thermal Tourism Region: İzmir, Manisa, Aydın, Denizli - Central Anatolia Thermal Tourism Region: Yozgat, Kırşehir, Nevşehir, Niğde - North Anatolia Thermal Tourism Cities Region: Amasya, Sivas, Tokat, Erzincan - East Marmara Thermal Tourism Cities Region: Bilecik, Kocaeli - Western Black Sea Thermal Tourism Cities Region: Bolu, Düzce, Sakarya It is hoped that each one of these regions can be developed as a destination center and be integrated mainly with thermal facilities, golf, nature tourism, water sports and other tourism types and be connected with the other cultural and natural attractions in the immediate environment (URL 1). 2.3. Thermal Tourism in Afyonkarahisar Afyonkarahisar is one of the important centers that have used the thermal water sources since the earliest times. The thermal facilities that were small in capacity and outnumbered up to 1990 have undergone a rapid change with the 2000s. However, there has been a significant increase in both the 54
number of facilities and facility qualifications and capacities (Taş, 2012, Quoted by: Ekiz &,Yazıcı, 2016). Afyonkarahisar has been selected Water Feature: Hüdai spas rank the first in Turkey in terms radioactivity. The temperature of geothermal water is between 62 and 68 degrees and is fluid and belongs to the carbohydrate water group. The PH value of water is between 6.6 and 7 (URL 3). "Pilot Region" in Turkey and infrastructure projects were accelerated. Afyonkarahisar is classified as "Thermal Capital of the Future" (Taktak & Demir, 2010). In the scope of tourism, thermal water resources are regarded as the leading sectors of Afyon. All of the spa facilities located in Afyon have been declared as the Tourism Centers by the Cabinet Decision issued in official gazette dated 17.10.1993 numbered 21700 (Erdoğan & Aklanoğlu, 2008). The regions declared as tourism centers are (URL 4): • Gazlıgöl Thermal Tourism Center • Hüdai Thermal Tourism Center • Heybeli Thermal Tourism Center •.Ömer-Gecek Thermal Tourism Center Gazlıgöl Thermal Tourism Center It is 22 km. away from the Afyon city center, on Eskisehir highway and is connected to İhsaniye district and located in the Gazlıgöl town (URL 5). Water Feature: The temperature of geothermal water is 64 degrees and this water fits the carbohydrate water group. PH value is 6.9 (URL 3). Healing Properties: The water is applied in two different ways. Firstly it is used in drinking treatment and secondly in the bath treatment. The drinking water used as the healing water in the treatment belongs to the sodium bicarbonate water group. If this water is consumed warmly, it is good to the spasm and painful kidney disease, stomach diseases, liver, biliary tract and intestinal spastic pain (URL 6). In addition to that, it is known to relax and regulate the blood circulation through inhalation (URL 3). When it is applied as the bath treatment, it is good for rheumatic diseases, skin diseases and gynecological diseases (URL 6). Heybeli Thermal Tourism Center It is 30 km. away from the Afyon city center, and is on Afyon-Konya highway. The place of the thermal water dates back to ancient times. It is written in the tablets remained from the Roman period that there was a village called Leonte Comte which was in the north of spa and it was run during the Roman period. It was also stated by the list that belonged to the church that the spa was used in the Byzantine period. Additionally, it was also said that there was a village called Red Church (Kızılkilise) and in the Seljuk and Ottoman era the place was actively in use, which is known by the records in the National Library (the religious court) (URL 7). Water Feature: The temperature of geothermal water is 52 degrees and this water belongs to the carbohydrate water group. PH value is between 6.8 and 7 (URL 3). Healing Properties: The water is used especially for the treatment of rheumatic diseases, skin diseases, bone disorders and osteoarthritis, endocrine system diseases, neural system disorders and metabolic disorders. However, it was determined that during treatment through inhalation it is good for chronic bronchitis, pharyngitis and asthma (URL 3; URL 7). Hüdai Thermal Tourism Center It is located 8 km in the south of Sandıklı town. It was alleged that in the first period of Christianity, the archbishop, Saint Michel, in charge of the neigbouring area treated the patients in Hieropolis (today is known as Koçhisar) in the Hüdai spa. Hence, it was written in the old books as the “Saint Michel's Miracles". Thanks to its fame for source of healing, Hierapolis is known as the Holy City and Afyonkarahisar was named as Phrygia Salutaris (Healing Phrygia) with other existing spas. In the spa there are baths remaining from Byzantine era (URL 8). The basic feature of spas is its curative mud, and it won its name by its curative mud. Once the soil is mixed with 68°C medicinal water, a piece of mud at almost 40-45°C emerges. Staying in the mud bath depends on the patient’s endurance and may be between 6-7 minutes. Taking a mud bath once a day would be enough while it is okay to take water bath once or twice a day (URL 8). 55
Healing Properties: Calcification of joints and spine disorders are the leading diseases that the spa water and the spa mud help in the treatment. It was noted that water bath treatment is used for curing rheumatic diseases, skin diseases, bone diseases and arthritis, gynecological diseases, heart and vascular diseases. As the water is consumed by drinking, it is good for disorders of the digestive system. Moreover, mud bath is used in the treatment of rheumatic diseases, bone disorders and arthritis (URL 3; URL 8). Ömer Thermal Tourism Center It is 15 km. away from the Afyon city center and is on Afyonkarahisar-Kütahya highway (URL 9). Water Feature: The temperature of the fluid geothermal water is 95 degrees and belongs to the carbohydrate water group. The PH value of water is 7,2. The chemical property of the thermal water is that it includes sodium chloride, bicarbonate, and hyper thermal. This water also enters the carbonated water group due to the fact that it contains more than 1 g CO2 (URL 3; URL 9). Healing Properties: Thermal water is used to treat diseases such as rheumatic diseases, respiratory diseases, joint swelling, joint disorders, gynecological diseases, obesity and metabolic disorders, bone and calcification disorders and neuromuscular fatigue. It was identified that if the water is consumed orally, it can provide treatment for disorders like stomach disorders, digestion difficulties, intestinal laziness and chronic constipation (URL 3; URL 9). Gecek Thermal Tourism Center It is 18 km. away from the Afyonkarahisar city center and is on Afyonkarahisar-Kütahya highway (URL 9). Water Feature: The temperature of fluid geothermal water is 70 degrees and falls into the carbohydrate water group. The water of Gecek spa consists of a combination of sodium chloride and bicarbonate. The PH value of the water is 7,6 (URL 3; URL 9). Table 1. The Total Number of Rooms and Beds in Five Star Hotels Operating in Afyonkarahisar Name of The Hotel Hotel A Hotel B Hotel C Hotel D Hotel E Hotel F Hotel G Hotel H Hotel I Hotel J
Class
Number of Rooms
Number of Beds
Thermal Hotel
300
750
Thermal Hotel
310
800
Thermal Hotel
284
860
Thermal Hotel
329
1000
Thermal Hotel
157
450
Thermal Hotel
428
1500
Thermal Hotel
225
500
Thermal Hotel
376
1000
Thermal Hotel
352
800
Hotel
178
356
2939
8016
Certificate Investment Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate Tourism Operation Certificate
Total
Healing Properties: The bath treatment is used in the rheumatic diseases, in physical rehabilitations of the people who have undergone orthopedic operations, metabolism and gynecological diseases. Also, it is good for respiratory diseases, arthritis and bone diseases, muscles and neural exhaustion (URL 3; URL 9). 56
According to data of 2016 by Afyonkarahisar Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, the number of thermal facilities that have municipal certificate in Afyonkarahisar is 51 with a number of 2609 rooms and 7677 beds. On the other hand, the total number of thermal facilities that have tourism business certificate is 17 with a number of 3057 rooms, while the number of beds is 6415. According to the accommodation statistics of Afyonkarahisar, the number of domestic tourists who stayed overnight in municipal certified facilities is 230,107 recorded in 2015 while the number of foreign tourists is 2402. However, overnight stays by domestic tourists in the thermal facilities that have tourism business certificate are 438.211 while the number of foreign tourists is 14.749 (URL 10). The five (5) star thermal hotels that have tourism operation certificate 5 in total. However, one hotel has a tourism operation certificate but does not hold a feature of thermal hotel. One hotel that owns tourism investment certificate in Afyon. Besides, there are three more 5-star hotels in Sandıklı. Please refer to Table 1. According to information obtained from the website of the respective hotels and the directors of human resources in five star hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar, the number of rooms and number of beds are presented in Table 1. The total number of rooms in five star hotels in the center of Afyonkarahisar and Sandıklı district is 2939 with a bed capacity of 8016. 3. MATERIALS and METHODS The aim of this study is to identify the services provided by the thermal hotel enterprises in Afyonkarahisar and to evaluate these services within the scope of thermal tourism. For this purpose, a literature review on the subject was performed and then the services provided in the scope of thermal tourism by thermal hotel enterprises in Afyonkarahisar were examined and finally content analysis was carried out. The population of the study is consisted of five-star thermal hotel enterprises in Afyonkarahisar. In this context, six hotels hotel enterprises including five hotels that have Tourism Operation Certificate businesses and one that has an investment certificate were examined in terms of thermal hotel applications. In addition to that, thermal hotel applications of three 5-star hotels that are located in Hüdai Thermal Tourism Center operating in Sandıklı district of Afyonkarahisar were investigated. Content analysis method was applied in this study. In this context, the websites of the related hotel businesses were examined. In this study, the related hotel websites were examined and their services concerning the thermal tourism were divided into different categories and then tables were formed. The hotel web sites were analyzed based on this category and they were divided into six groups as follows: The Areas and the Services Directly Related with Thermal Tourism Classic Concept of Massage Massages in the Far East Concept and in Different Countries The Thermal Services and Areas Offered Body and Facial Treatments Other Services If there was no information found on the website of the related hotel with the categories, then these hotels were excluded from the study. The most frequently offered services by hotels in these categories were turned into tables. The hotels were marked if the related services are offered. If a service was offered only in that hotel, then it was not added to the table but it was given as an extra explanation. According to data of 2016 by Afyonkarahisar Culture and Tourism Directorate, the number of thermal facilities that have a municipal certificate in Afyonkarahisar is 51 with room number of 2609 and bed number of 7677. Also, the number of thermal facilities that have a tourism operation certificate is 17 with a room number of 3057 and bed number of 6415. According to 2015 accommodation statistics of Afyonkarahisar, the number of domestic tourists who stayed overnight in thermal facilities that have a municipal certificate is 230.107 while the number of foreign tourists is 2402. Additionally, the number of domestic tourists who stayed overnight in the thermal facilities that have a Tourism Operation Certificate is 438.211 while the number of foreign tourists is 14.749. There are a total of ten, including seven (7) five-star hotels in Afyonkarahisar center and (3) three in Sandıklı districts. There are (5) five 5-star hotels that possess tourism operation certificate in Afyonkarahisar and they are as follow 57
However, the 5-star one hotel has a Tourism Investment Certificate, and there are six (6) more hotels 5 of which will soon start operating and the 5 star one hotel has just started operating in Afyonkarahisar. 4. FINDINGS and DISCUSSION The examined five star thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar were coded from A to I by letters. The websites of the hotels were explored and then the information related to the hotels was put forward. Accordingly, the features of the hotels are as follows (URL 11-19): HOTEL A: It is located in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center and 60% of the hotel is formed with suites. It has 7 types of rooms respectively: King Suit, Queen Suit, Executive Suit, Family Suit, Luxury Suit, Standard and Room for Disabled Guests. This hotel has a total of 300 rooms and is a thermal and congress hotel for about 1,000 people. HOTEL B: This hotel is situated in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center. As the thermal properties of water used by this hotel are examined, it is seen that the water possesses 4727/32 mg/lt mineral and the water source exit temperature is 76 degrees containing thermo-minerals. In the hotel there are a total of 310 rooms, including 100 Standard Rooms, 112 Deluxe Rooms, 8 Family Rooms, 92 Rooms With Balcony, 8 Connection Rooms, 100 Corner Suites, 2 Rooms for Disabled Guests. HOTEL C: This hotel is in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center and is designed with different categories. It has a total of 286 rooms including 3 Rooms for Disabled Guests, 195 Deluxe Rooms, 48 Family Rooms (2 Interconnecting Rooms), 12 Prince Suites, 8 Princess Suites, 16 Queen Suites, 2 King Suites, 1 Penthouse Suite and 1 Penthouse Spa Suite. However, it has a capacity for 860 people along with 592 standard beds and with additional beds. HOTEL D: This hotel which is located in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center has a total of 329 rooms with 1000 beds including room types such as Rooms for Disabled Guests, Standard Rooms, Corner Suites, Terrace Suite, Junior Suite, Large Suite, King Suite, President Suite. This hotel owns a Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Center. HOTEL E: This hotel owns a capacity 157 rooms and 450 beds with 134 Standard Rooms, 3 Connect Rooms, 8 Deluxe Rooms, 8 Corner Deluxe Suite Rooms, 2 King Suite Rooms, and 2 Rooms for Disabled Guests. HOTEL F: This hotel has a total of 428 rooms and 1500 bed capacity including rooms in the category of Standard rooms, Deluxe Room, Corner Deluxe Room, Suite Room, Duplex Suite Room, Duplex Family Room, Duplex Queen Suite, King Suite and Sky Suite. HOTEL G: The most distinctive feature of the Hüdai thermal tourism center from the other spas is its world-renowned mud baths. These miraculous mud baths are formed in a special way from a mixture of the soil and the healing water whose temperature reaches up to 68 degrees coming up to the earth from a geological crack that lasts like 500 meters. In this hotel you can find 156 Standard Rooms, 28 Family Suites, 13 Rooms With Pool and Balcony, 18 Rooms With Pool, 3 Bedrooms With Pool for Disabled Guests, 2 King Suites, 2 Rooms for Disabled Guests, and it has 226 rooms and 642 beds in total. HOTEL H: The hotel is located within Hüdai thermal tourism center and is 5 km away from Sandıklı town center. In the hotel, there are 307 standard rooms, 16 Rooms for Disabled Guests, 25 Family Rooms, 26 Suites and 2 King Rooms, and it has a total of 376 rooms with 838 bed capacity. HOTEL I: The hotel is located within Hüdai thermal tourism center and serves its guests with a total of 292 hotel rooms and 60 Deluxe Apartment Rooms and with 1,100 beds including 2 King Suites, 16 Corner Suites, 10 Family Suites, 174 Deluxe Rooms, 24 Superior Rooms, 59 Standard Rooms, 7 Rooms for Disabled Guests. Glossary of terms for the services provided in hotels within the scope of research In this part of the research, it was intended to explain the Glossary of Terms that are provided by thermal hotel business in their physical therapy, cure and spa centers (URL 20-25, URL 31): Skin Care Services Classic Skin Care: The pores of the skin are opened by steam bath and the blackheads are cleaned by using comedones tool. Eye Massage with Oxygen: Cell regenerating bulb is applied around the eye area and then massage 58
is carried out by applying cream. Skin Care with Oxygen: With This therapy, tissue repair is accelerated and the signs of aging are delayed and acnes are blocked. The skin gains of 98% moisture. Ampoule Application with Oxygen: cell renewal and anti-wrinkle ampoule is applied onto the skin and then oxygen is given to the skin. It is made sure that the skin absorbs the oxygen ampoule thoroughly. Anti-aging: It is a kind of care treatment applied to the mature skins by loading the skin with vitamin C. Peeling: It is performed by purifying the dead skin and allows the skin to breathe. Then according to skin type, a cleaning mask is made. Finally, face and neck massages are done by creams. Scheherazade Care: Before Turkish bath, rubbing with a coarse bath-glove is performed and then it is applied as a foam massage. Massage Services Classical Massage: It is a muscle relaxant and stress relieving massage. Blood circulation is accelerated by this massage. It is expected to relax all body organisms. Volcanic Stone Massage: It is a natural type of therapy in which the heated volcanic stones are moved on the body and are left in some certain places on the body so that the heat has an impact on the skin. In this way, the negative power of the individual is removed. Sports Massage: It is an effective medical massage technique used for the relief of muscle problems encountered in after sporting events. The primary purpose of this massage is to accelerate the blood circulation. Also, this massage technique has a therapeutic effect in the muscle-skeletal system diseases. Total Medical Massage: Chronic tension in the body, joint and muscular pains can be cured with a mixture consisting of various spices, nuts, herbs and pain relieving oils, and it is the massages effective in getting rid of the toxins in the body. Local Medical Massage: It is applied to the painful part of the body area. With this type of massage, it is intended to eliminate the pain and reduce the impact of the pain. Manuel Lymph Drainage-Presso Therapy: It is a kind of massage that is performed for the activation of lymphatic system and the elimination of lymphatic fluid from the body. Besides, it helps the elimination of toxins and edema accumulated in the body. Aromatherapy Massage: This massage is applied with mixture of healing herbs and flower oils along with the plant extracts. Thanks to this special mixture, the skin and body become healthier. Anti cellulite Massage: It is the massage that narrows the diameter of the vessels by improving the blood circulation under the skin, allowing the flow of blood from the legs regularly. Thus, rearrangement of bad blood circulation is achieved and toxic substances in the body are removed Relaxing (Anti-stress) Massage: It is of an effective massage type by which the tired muscles become energetic with classic Swedish massage techniques. Shiatsu: It is the traditional healing art of Japan and literally means that compression of the fingers. The compression made with hand technique balances the internal structure of the body and it stimulates natural energies. Just like in other treatment methods of the East, in this method 'Chi' or ‘Ki’ are balanced and energy flow is supported. Reflexology: It is a type of massage done on foot to correct the energy imbalance and to relieve the pain in the body. Traditional Bali Massage: It is a massage unique to Indonesia's Bali region. With the effective pressures made on the energy points in the body and the desired stretching acts, it affects the muscle tissue on the surface. This massage helps with balancing all the energy centers in the body and integration of all internal systems with each other. Thai Massage: This massage is applied with pressure to specific points in the body to reduce the tension in the muscles and stimulate the flow of energy and is completed with stretching acts. Shirodhara: It is a kind of massage done by using Ayurvedic warm oil and effective in the treatment of symptoms based on stress, insomnia and headache and it positively affects the central nervous system. 59
HOTEL E
X
HOTEL F
Relaxing (Antistress) Massage
X
Anti-cellulite Massage
HOTEL D
Aromatherapy Massage
X
Lymph DrainagePresso Therapy
Sports Massage
X
HOTEL C
Medical Massage
HOTEL B
Volcanic Stone Massage
Name of the Hotel
Classic Massage
Swedish Massage: It is a classic massage implemented on full body that improves blood circulation rate and revitalizes cells and tissues. It also provides relief by reducing muscle tension. Mandara 4 Hands Massage: It is a kind of ritual in which two therapists working on the patient simultaneously, in synchrony and a rhythmic way by applying traditional Bali massage, Shiatsu and classical massage techniques. It is seen on the website of Hotel “I” that, the massage concept is divided into two groups as the classic concept and the Far East concept. Benefiting from this classification, the massages were handled in two main categories and they were converted into tables. However, some additions were made into the types of massages on the hotel website. Therefore, the information given by the hotel on the classic concept massage services is presented in Table 2. In addition, it was stated that Hotel “A” and “H” own massage rooms. But the information showing that which massage services are provided is not given on the hotel website so these two hotels were excluded and not presented in the table. According to the information obtained from Table 2, it is clear that the majority of the massages in the classic concept seem to be provided by the hotels. In almost all of the five-star thermal hotel businesses in Afyonkarahisar provide the massage services is the volcanic stone massage while the least offered type of massage in the hotels was found to be medical massage. However, the other massages that are applied by Hotel “D” and not included in the tables are the pregnancy massage and fruit therapy massage (URL 25). In Hotel “E”, it was identified that pregnancy massage, knee massage and deep tissue massages are offered (URL 26). As you go through the Thermal and SPA applications of Hotel “G”, it can be observed that they provide different types of massage such as Ottoman massage, local massage and chocolate massage (URL 27). In Table 3, you can find the hotels that provide massage techniques from the Far East and specific to some other countries Accordingly, the related information on the massage techniques were not included on the website of hotel "A" and "H" so they were not added into the tables. Table 2. Massage Treatments Offered in Classic Concept by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
HOTEL G
X
X
X
X
HOTEL I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
According to the information contained on the websites of the five-star hotels in Afyonkarahisar, the five-star hotels expressed that they all apply reflexology massage. On the contrary, it was determined that Swedish massage and Mandara massages performed by two expert therapists are the least massages offered by the hotels. It was also learnt that Hotel “C” and “F” provide Abhyanga massage (URL 21; URL 24). Moreover, it was stated that in Hotel “C” various kinds of massages such as Balinese Massage without Oil (The energy points in the body are stimulated to be balanced in terms of mental and body health. It is a type of massage applied on the Futon mattress with pressure.), Asian Deep Massage Therapy (Compared to the traditional Balinese massage, it is applied with more force. The therapist uses his arms in this massage technique, too), Shiroabhyanga (It calms the neural system, revives senses, clears the energy channels and runs them. It is applied to the body with hot spice oils.), Minera specially (It is a type of massage demonstrating the difference of Minera. It is a muscle relaxing and stress 60
relieving massage, which reduces the tension in the body (URL 21; URL 22).
X X X X
X
X
X X
Mandara Massage (4 hands)
X X
X X X X
X X X X X X X
Swedish Massage
Shirodhara Indian Head Massage
X
Thai Massage
X X X X
Traditional Balinese Massage
HOTEL B HOTEL C HOTEL D HOTEL E HOTEL F HOTEL G HOTEL I
Reflexology
Name of The Hotel
Shiatsu
Table 3. Massage Treatments Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels Operating in Afyonkarahisar in Far East and Other Country Concepts
X X X X
X X
X X
Thyme Bath
Daisy Bath
X X X X
Milk Bath
X X X X X X X X X
Aromatherapy Bath
X
Cleopatra Bath
HOTEL A HOTEL B HOTEL C HOTEL D HOTEL E HOTEL F HOTEL G HOTEL H HOTEL I
Mud Bath
Name of The Hotel
Steam Bath
Table 4. Bath Therapies Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
As a result of the massage, tissues, each cell and the complete organism are all expected to relax.) and La Stone massage (La Stone therapy is a type of massage based on ancient Indian healing methods. Hot basalt and cold marble stones are placed on energy points of the body. Due to the intensive massage and temperature of the stone, blood circulation in the tissues rises. A feeling of comfort is obtained.) are applied (URL 21; URL 22). Lomi Nui Massage (It is a type of massage applied to the king in the temple by shamanistic healers of Kahuna living in the Hawaiian Islands. It aims to uncover the positive energy.), Baby Massage (It is administered by mother participation. It helps babies to get better acquainted with their bodies and organs and also it contributes to their development of intelligence and senses. It creates a special bond between mother and baby.), Pregnancy Massage (It is a relieving, relaxing and refreshing massage carried out in the gestation period between three and six months.) and Aliva touch (It is a classic massage therapy applied to some regions of the body) massages are done in Hotel “F” (URL 24). The information concerning the therapies offered within the framework of the thermal services by thermal hotels are given in table 4. According to the data obtained, the most applied bath therapy is the bath mud while the least bath therapy offered by hotels are the milk bath, thyme bath and chamomile bath. 61
HOTEL A HOTEL B HOTEL C HOTEL D HOTEL E HOTEL F HOTEL G HOTEL H HOTEL I
SaunaOzone Therapy
Doctor Fish
X
Salt Cave and Rooms
X
Detox or Foot Detox
Ice-Snow Fountains
Name of The Hotel
Adventure Showers
Some bath services are also included in Hotel “I” such as chocolate therapy bath, herbal bath therapy and wine therapy bath (It is a Spa bath done in order for the implementation of the skin detox through special wine) (URL 28). Additionally, unlike other hotels in Hotel “E” clay bath (Clay bath is important because it contains natural minerals like iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, and zinc. It is a scientifically proven antiseptic that is active against a wide variety of microorganisms. It can easily take out the dirt in the deepest layer of the skin. It accelerates healing and restructuring by helping to regulate the fluid mechanism in the skin) is also provided (URL 29). The information concerning the other services provided by five-star thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar under the thermal services is given in table 5. In this context, adventure showers, snowice fountain, detox or foot detox applications, salt cave, doctor fish or sauna applications-ozone therapy were examined. It is seen that there are salt cave or salt rooms in the majority of the hotels. Also, it was found out that by other services offered, the adventure showers and ice-snow fountains are the least services provided by the hotels. In addition, there is hydrotherapy session (It causes acceleration of blood circulation by applying the pressure water to the body by the rhythmic movements.) within the framework of thermal services provided by Hotel “F” (URL 23). Biorezonans and phytotherapy methods are used in Hotel “B”. Bioresonance method detects the impaired micro frequencies in the human body and reinstates them. The foundation of the application is based on Quantum physics. In the SPA section bioresonance applications are available. Phytotherapy is a combination of Greek Python (Plant) with Therapeia (Treatment) words. It is the name given to the method of treating the diseases with fresh or dried plants or their natural extracts. The hotel also has a Phytotherapy center capable of providing Phytotherapy products to the customers (URL 30). Table 5. The Other Services Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar
X X X
X
X
X X X X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X X X
X X
X X
The hotel web sites of five-star thermal hotels were examined, and the services offered by the hotels and the services which are directly related with thermal were handled as Turkish bath, private family bath, thermal pool, sauna, Jacuzzi or thermal Jacuzzi, Finnish sauna or steam bath. The concerning information is given in Table 6. When examining the thermal services directly offered by the thermal hotels, their websites were used but while forming this table, there was a lack of direct information about some certain hotels so that the photograph galleries of the hotels also were put into the process. According to the information achieved, it was found out that in almost all the hotels there are areas associated with nearly thermal services and they serve the customers actively. As we examined the body and face-skin care services offered to customers by the five-star thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar, it is noticed that skin care is administered in all hotels and it is followed by the peeling application. However, there was not any explanation on the Hotel “A”, “H” and “E” website concerning skin care so these hotels were excluded when forming the table. 62
x x x x x x x x x
Finnish Bath Or Sauna
x x x x x x x x x
Jacuzzi Or Thermal Jacuzzi
x x x x x x x x x
Sauna
x x x x x x x x x
Thermal Pool
HOTEL A HOTEL B HOTEL C HOTEL D HOTEL E HOTEL F HOTEL G HOTEL H HOTEL I
Private Family Bath
Name of The Hotel
Turkish Bath
Table 6. Thermal Services Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar
x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x
Except for the services included in the table, Hotel "B" also provides applications like Paraffin Slimming (Hot paraffin is applied to the body and it takes the form of the body and the body is covered with heat blanket for 40 minutes. This application dismantles the fat between the skin and muscle and allows the destruction of unwanted cellulite in the body.), Selectron Slimming (Electro pads are connected to the fatty parts of the body and the machine starts the massage. As a result of 40 min. massage, the decomposition of fat is achieved.), Pressotherapy Slimming (The person wears a jumpsuit and then air is given to the body. This process runs the lymph nodes. It is carried out for 30 minutes and the body is left to relax.), Eye Massage with Oxygen (Cell regenerating bulb is applied around the eyes and then oxygen is supplied to the region and finally massage is performed by applying cream.), Skin Massage with Oxygen (The skin gains 98% of moisture. This therapy accelerates tissue repair and the signs of aging are delayed and finally acne formation is blocked.) (URL 31). In the MineraSpa Center of Hotel “C”, some services just like special Skin Care, Skin Care in Depth, Minera Skin Care, and Body Wrap with Aroma Oil are offered. Besides, some other kinds of therapies like Seaweed Body Wrap (It is applied with pure micro-algae powder obtained from the shores of Britain, which thins the body and raises metabolism and allows rapid elimination of toxins. It moisturizes the skin and helps the skin be stretched by providing minerals.) Pressotherapy (It is a pressure therapy applied by starting from the lymph points in the body and is applied from the bottom of the soles to the lower chest. It accelerates lymphatic and venous circulation in the body and drains the fluid accumulated between the vessels. It is also used in the treatment of edema caused by various diseases.) are provided to the customers (URL 32; URL 33).
x
x
x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
Eye Care
x
Anti-Aging Care
Peeling
x x x x x x
Scheherazade Care – Harem Ritual
(Oxygen) ampoule Application
HOTEL B HOTEL C HOTEL D HOTEL F HOTEL G HOTEL I
Paraffin Care
Name of The Hotel
Classic Skin Care
Table 7. Body and Face Care Applications Provided by Five Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar
x x x x x
x
In addition to that, various skin care services just as Aliva Secret Skin Care (It is Aliva Spa’s most exclusive and intensive care service. It refreshes the damaged skin, especially repairs the scars left on 63
the skin by stress.) are applied in Hotel “F”. Also, body care treatments like Elixir of Life Body Care (Having performed the sea salt and cinnamon peeling process, the elixir of life oil is applied to the body, which allows the revival of the skin.), Balancing Seaweed Care (The most important effect of this treatment is that the edema in the body is removed thanks to the plenty of vitamins and minerals contained in the seaweed. Another feature of this care is that it dries the acnes with its oil stabilizing and disinfecting property) and Japanese Hanakasu Ritual (The peeling mixture containing cherry blossoms and rice powder extracts is heated and applied to the body. Then the body is cleaned with soft towels, and starting from the foot Hanakasumi Shea oil is applied to the whole body as a massage.) are offered to the customers (URL 23). As the thermal and the spa applications are examined, it is understood that in Hotel “G” there are some other applications such as oily skin care as facials, back facials, mixed skin care, clay mask, sensitive skin care, green tea mask, mature skin care, chocolate mask except for the services listed in table (URL 34). 5. CONCLUSIONS According to the Culture and Tourism Ministry, Turkey is among the top seven countries in the world in terms of geothermal resources and potential while it ranks the first in Europe. The thermal water sources of in Turkey, both the flow rate and temperature and their various physical and chemical properties, have qualities superior to the thermal water sources in Europe. The thermal water sources are natural in terms of water outlet and rich in water efficiency, sulfur, radon and salt along with high in solution mining value. Turkey has more than 1500 water sources whose temperatures and flow rate vary from over 20°C and 2-500lt/s respectively. The total investment capacity of the thermal sources in Turkey corresponds to 1,365,000 bed capacity. In the calculations done about the temperatures and flow rate of thermal water sources, Afyonkarahisar province holds the highest bed capacity in terms of thermal health tourism in Turkey (Öztürk & Bayat, 2011). In this study it was intended to put forward the services in terms of thermal tourism offered by the five-star thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar so that the hotel websites were examined and they were handled in six categories. As the required literature review is performed, it was noticed that this kind of research was not found in the field so that it led to the start of this study. According to the findings obtained from the websites, it was stated the most applied type of massage in the classic concept in the hotels is the volcanic stone massage while the least preferred type of massage by the hotels is the medical massage. However, when the massages applied in the Far East concept and the massages unique to some other countries are examined, it is seen that reflexology is the most applied massage in the hotels, which is applied to the foot. On the other hand, it was determined that Swedish massage is the least preferred type of massage by hotels. In addition, it was noted that in some hotels different massages are performed by expert therapists in the Far East concept. Moreover, it was identified that all the hotels offered mud bath therapy and nine of the ten hotels included salt caves or salt rooms and related applications which are used for the treatment of diseases such as asthma and bronchitis. It was also found out that all the hotels have thermal pool, sauna, steam bath, areas such as Turkish bath and private family baths, which are directly associated with services related to thermal tourism. Furthermore, when the body and skin care services implemented by five-star hotels in Afyonkarahisar are examined, it was detected that treatments such as classic skin care, peeling and eye care are the most applied and most preferred ones. Being defined as the capital of the thermal water in Turkey along with its increasing bed capacity and thermal water properties and investments made up till now and will be made in the future, Afyonkarahisar province is increasing in importance with regards to thermal tourism day by day. The demand for thermal tourism, spa centers and health tourism in the world is increasing each passing day. On the other hand, while the facility investments in Afyonkarahisar rise, the number of foreign tourist arrivals is very low (Kervankıran, 2014). People participate in thermal tourism activities so as to regain their health or protect their health, stay fit and try alternative tourism forms especially in the countries where industrialization is felt at high levels. As these results are taken into account, the necessity of carrying out promotion activities about the Afyonkarahisar province comes to the forefront. 64
Considering the physical therapy centers, cure centers, spa center units and the diversity of offered services by the thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar province, it is believed that contributions both to the economy of province and the country will be quite high on the condition that adequate promotion activities are actualized. REFERENCES Cihangir, İ. S. (2016). Termal Turizm Potansiyelinin Bölgesel Kalkınmada Ekonomik Rolü: Ilgın Termal Tesislerinde Bir Uygulama, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, Konya. Çelik, S. (2009). Afyonkarahisar’da Uluslar arası Termal Turizm Destinasyonu Oluşturma Potansiyelinin Analizi, Doktora Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Afyonkarahisar. Ekiz, E. & Yazıcı, H. (2016). Termal Turizmde Farklı Bir Destinasyon: Jeoturizm (Afyonkarahisar Örneği). ZfWT 8 (1),67-81. Erdoğan, E.& Aklanoğlu, F. (2008). Termal Turizm ve Afyon-Gazlıgöl Örneği. , e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy 3 (1), 83-92. Fenyves, V.; Orban I.; Konyves, E.; Nagy, A.; Sandor, F. (2014). Economical Aspects of Thermal and Medical Tourism. Apstract 8:(4), 77–84. Gümüş, S. & Polat N. (2012). Sağlık Turizminde Pazarlama Değişkenlerine Bir Bakış ve İstanbul Örneği, Hiperlink Yayınları, 52 s., İstanbul. Hemidov, G. Y. (2012). Avrupa’nın Termal Turizme Olan Talep Analizi ve Türkiye’nin Pazardaki Payı: Haymana ve Balçova Örneği, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Dış İlişkiler ve Avrupa Birliği Koordinasyon Dairesi Başkanlığı, Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara. Kazandzhieva, V. (2014). Trends in The Development of Spa and Wellness. Tourism. Conference: International Tourism Forum "Spa and Wine". October 16-20,2014, p.1-8. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/263808671Trends (Accessed on: 21.06. 2016). Kervankıran, İ. (2014). Afyonkarahisar İli Turizminin Türkiye Turizmindeki Yeri. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi 32, 171-192. Munteanu, L. & Teleki, N. (2013). Thermal and Spa Activities in Romania and Other Eastern European Countrıes. OMTh and SITH Congress. October 19, 2013, Levico Terme, Italy, p.1-9. http://www.omth. com/86/L%20Munteanu%20THERMAL%20 AND%20SPA%20ACTIVITIES%20IN%20ROMANIA.pdf. (Accessed on 21.06.2016). Özdemir, Ş. (2015). Türkiye’nin Termal Sağlık Turizmi Potansiyeli. Mustafa Altındiş (Ed.) Termal Turizm kitabı içinde (bölüm1, sayfa1-12). Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık Eğitim Danışmanlık Tic. Ltd. Şti.: Ankara. Öztürk, M. & Bayat, M. (2011). Uluslararası Turizm Hareketlerinde Sağlık Turizminin Rolü ve Kalite Çalışmalarının Önemi Bir Literatür Çalışması. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 1(2), 135-156. www.dergipark.ulakbim.gov.tr/ksuiibf/article/download/5000039249/5000038122.(Acces.on 20.5. 2016). Öztürk, Y. & Yazıcıoğlu İ. (2002). Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler İçin Alternatif Turizm Faaliyetleri Üzerine Teorik Bir Çalışma. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2, 183-195. Penpecioğlu, E. (2012). Termal Turizm ve Bölgesel Kalkınma. Spa&Wellness 6(22), Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı ve Ulu Basım Matbaacılık. Pforr, C.; Locher, C. (2012). The German Spa and Health Resort Industry in the Light of Health Care System Reforms. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 29:(3), 298-312. Sandıkçı, M. & Özgen, Ü. (2013). Afyonkarahisar İlinin Termal Turizm Açısından SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi. Uşak Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 6(3), 51-79. Taktak, F. & Demir, H. (2010). Termal Otel Geliştirme: Afyonkarahisar Örneği. Harita Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi 2(1), 20-35. Taş, B. (2012). Afyonkarahisar İlinde Termal Turizmin Gelişimi. SDÜ Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 26, 139-152. Tengilimlioğlu, D. & Karakoç, G .(2013). Termal Turizm ve Spa Turizmi. Dilaver Tengilimoğlu (Ed.) Sağlık Turizmi kitabı içinde (bölüm 3, sayfa 71-97). Siyasal Kitabevi: Ankara. Toy, S., Çatakçı, S., Eymirli, E. B. & Karapınar, M. (2010). Erzurum Termal Turizm Potansiyeli. Turizm Raporları No:., Kuzeydoğu Anadolu Kalkınma Ajansı: Erzurum. 65
wwwremote.ikg.gov.tr/upload/2011.../34db5c5f-6282-4cba-ae66-54ba1b3cbf28.pdf, Accessed on: 23.5.2016. Türksoy, A. & Türksoy, S. S. (2010). Termal Turizmin Geliştirilmesi Kapsamında Çeşme İlçesi Termal Kaynaklarının Değerlendirilmesi. Ege Akademik Bakış /Ege Academic Review 10 (1), 699-725. Varol, B. Nevşehir Termal Turizm Raporu. Ahiler Kalkınma Ajansı, Nevşehir Yatırım Destek Ofisi. http://investinnevsehir.com/assets/ilgilidosyalar/Nevsehir-Termal-Turizm-Raporu_1.pdf(Accessed on: 07.06.2016). URL 1:WTHC. http://www.visitturkeyforhealthcare.com/34-termal-bolgeler.html (Accessed on: 07.06.2016). URL2:Sağlık Turizmi Koordinasyon Kurulu. http://www.saturk.gov.tr/images/ pdf/tyst/07. pdf Türkiye’de Termal Sağlık Turizmi. (Accessed on: 07.06.2016). URL3:AfyonkarahisarValiliği.http://www.afyonkarahisar.gov.tr/kurumlar/afyonkarahisar.gov.tr/Dosyalar/afy onkarahisar-turkce-ingilizce-tanitim.pdf (Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL4:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR, 63508/saglik-turizmi.html (Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL5:Yatırım ve İşletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü. http://yigm.kulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,10078/ afyon.html. (Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL6: Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http:www.afyonkulturturizm .gov.tr/ TR ,63509/ gazligol-termal-turizm-merkezi.html.(Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL7:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http:www.afyonkulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,63511/heybeli-termal-turizm-merkezi.html (Acc. on: 23.05.2016). URL8:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR,63510/hudai-termal-turizm-merkezi.html (Acc. on: 24.05.2016). URL9:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR,63512/omer-gecek-termal-turizm-merkezi.html (Accessed on: 25.05.2016). URL10:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR,158749/kultur-turizm-istatistikleri.html (Acc. on: 25.05.2016). URL 11: Alila Deluxe Termal Hotel&Spa Afyon. http://www.alilatermal.com/alila-thermal-hakkinda/ (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 12: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. Afyonkarahisar. https://orucoglu.com/odalar/ (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 13: İkbal Thermal Hotel&Spa. http://ikbal.com.tr/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/bilgi-formu.pdf. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL14:Afyonkarahisar Korel Thermal Resort Clinic & Spa. http://www.korelthermal.com /tr/ kurumsal. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL15:Afyon Budan Thermal Spa Hotel & Convention. .http://www.budantermal.com. tr/tr/hakkimizda (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL16:Ng Güral Afyon Wellness & Convention Hotel. http://www.nghotels.com.tr/ Otellerimiz/NG-Afyon2/ODALAR-2/(Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL17:Sandıklı Thermal Park Hotel. http://www.sandikliparkhotel.com/tr /anasayfa/ kurumsal/hakkimizda. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 18: May Thermal Resort & Spa Sandıklı. http://maythermal.com/tr/hakkimizda. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 19: Safran Thermal Resort Sandıklı. http://safrantermal.com/tr/otelimiz. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 20: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. Afyonkarahisar. https://orucoglu.com/project/analizler/ Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 21: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://ikbal.com.tr/masajlar. (Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL 22: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://www.mineraspa.com/masajlar. (Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL23:Ng Güral Afyon Wellness & Convention Hotel. http://www.nghotels.com.tr/ Otellerimiz/ NGAfyon-2/Bakimlar-1108/.(Accessed on: 06.06.2016). URL24:Ng Güral Afyon Wellness & Convention Hotel. http://www.nghotels.com.tr/ Otellerimiz / NGAfyon-2/Masajlar-1104/(Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL25:Afyonkarahisar Korel Thermal Resort Clinic & Spa. http://www.korelthermal.com/ tr/hizmetler/ thermal-spa/masaj/(Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL26:Afyon Budan Thermal Spa Hotel & Convention. http://www.budantermal.com.tr/ tr/thermal-spa/masaj-cesitleri/ (Accessed on: 04.06.2016). 66
URL27:Sandıklı Thermal Park Hotel. http://www.sandikliparkhotel.com/tr/thermal-Ssa/uygulamalar/masajlar(Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL28:Safran Thermal Resort Sandıklı. http://crocusthermalspa.com/#/icerik/spa-banyolari. /(Accessed on: 05.06.2016). URL29:Afyon Budan Thermal Spa Hotel & Convention. http://www.budantermal.com.tr/tr/ thermal-spa/kil-banyolari. /(Accessed on: 05.06.2016). URL 30: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. https://orucoglu.com/project/biorezonans-ne/(Accessed on: 05.06.2016). URL 31: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. https://orucoglu.com/project/termal-dor. (Accessed on: 06.06.2016). URL 32: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://ikbal.com.tr/cilt-vucut-bakimlari/( Accessed on 06.06.2016). URL33: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://www.mineraspa.com/yuz-vucut-bakimi. (Accessed on 06.06.2016). URL34:Sandıklı Thermal Park Hotel. http://sandikliparkhotel.com/tr/thermal-spa/uygulamalar/cilt-bakimlari (Accessed on: 08.06.2016).
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Chapter 5 The Role of Gastronomy Tourism in Slow Cities: Case of Turkey Mehmet SARIOĞLAN*, Cevdet AVCIKURT** THE CONCEPTS OF SLOW CITY AND GASTRONOMY TOURISM Cittaslow forms from the words Italian Citta and English slow and means “slow city”. This concept formation; has been started to protest the opening of McDonalds at Spanish Stairs/Rome in 1986 by a group in the leadership of Carlo Petrini, throwing bunch of Italian macaroni plateful. The main reason of this protest is based on the philosophy “Eating food should not be greedily and not be a fast-food”. As from this concept, the time slips by slowly and Slow food concept has been revealed in reaction to the fast-food and gradually been spreaded all over the world extemporarily. During this process, "Slow Food Unity" has been established in Barolo/Italy.In the later years, has become a movement that fed from a mutual "slowness philosophy" such as money, food-beverage, life, trip, education and other fields (Presenza et al., 2015; Üstündağlı et al., 2015; Park&Kim, 2014; Ekinci, 2014; Baycan&Fusco Giard, 2013; Heitmann et al., 2011; Pink, 2009; Pink, 2007; Knox, 2005). It can be stated that Cittaslow movement which is an urban unity based on membership has emerged to hinder globalization make city's structure and lifestyles standardize adversely. “Cittaslow” movement is kind of route map that supports the sustainability of tourism by increasing its competitiveness as well as being a development model, well accepted internationally. At the same time, It is a significant gastronomy tourism model due to the fact that it has been constituted under the skin of food and beverage phenomenon (Servon&Pink, 2015; Pink, 2014; Carp, Baldemir, 2013; 2012; Radstrom, 2011; Lowry, 2011; Mayer&Knox, 2006). To be a Citaslow city, several criterias has been determined by unity such as environment policies (11 pieces), infrastructure policies (13 pieces), Technologies and tools which increases the quality of urbanlife (9 pieces), protecting the domestic production (11 adet), hospitality (5 pieces), awareness( 3 pieces), supporting the slow food projects and activities are totally 59 different criterias. Besides the most determinant requsities to be slow city; the population must not be over 50.000, protecting the natural and historic fabric of environent, maintainig the cultural and social customs and providing the sustainability of foods and beverages in dimension of supply chain (from supply to product, from product to service).In this context, Food and Beverage phenomenon is required to be featured significantly, absolutely, so as to make the concept actual in an effective way. Thus when viewed from this aspect, the concept of gastronomy tourism can be described as a developing tourism type day by day (Presenza et al., 2015; Hatipoğlu, 2015; Panait, 2014; Ildiko, 2013; Semmens&Freeman, 2012; Yurtseven&Kaya, 2011; Pink, 2008). As an attractiveness fact of slow cities ‘’ Gastronomy’’, takes place in first related to expectations of individuals about destinations due to that being a cultural heritage with a strong mean. This phenomenon can only be realized with a gastronomical identity. Gastronomical identity, because which differs from as far as current cultural, geographical, ecological, economical and historical process, has big role on creating an unique, inimitable concept and coping with increased competitiveness against other destinations of slow cities. After creating this identity, the competitiveness of slow cities will be enabled. Thus, the demands to gastronomical tourism has been increasing as qualitative and quantitive day by day (Pajo&Uğurlu, 2015; Sarıoğlan, 2015; Görkem&Öztürk, 2014; Yurtseven&Karakaş, 2013). METHOD The research has been conducted in 6 of 11 different destinations which got ‘’Cittaslow’’ title such as Akyaka (Muğla), Seferihisar (İzmir), Taraklı (Sakarya), Vize (Kırklareli), Yenipazar (Aydın) and *
Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty,
[email protected] Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty,
[email protected]
**
Gökçeada (Çanakkale) totally. The research has been conducted w,th questionairre method(face to face interview) which is a quantitive data collection method. Field of research has been implemented with tourists who visit relevant slowcities in between the years September,2015 and May,2016. The main reason of this study is determining the motivations of tourists who visited slowcities concerning the effects of gastronomical facts on their visits and destinations. This pilot study has been implemented in Seferihisar so as to increase the effectiviness of questionairre and achieve the objective before its final form. In this context, this research has been conducted on 952 tourists operating in 6 different ‘’ Cittaslow’’ regions but only 833 of this total were implicated in this study. As a result of research, obtained datas have been analyzed by SPSS 22.0 Pc Programme. FINDINGS AND COMMENTARIES In this part of this study, findings and analyzes as the result of obtained datas are evaluated. Findings and analyzes in the part of field research have been revealed as an ultimate aim so as determine tendencies of individuals and gastronomical values that effects the destinations( Slow City) during their visit. In this context, the demographical profiles of 833 tourists are demonstrated below Table 1. The major part of attendants are conglomerated in the age of 60 and above, age and rational distrubutions are increasing directly proportional. However; we cant ignore the distributions of below 20 and 20-30 age ranges; it has been predicted that demands to Slow Cities will increase in the forthcoming terms. We can say that the incomes of tourists are higher than the major part of Turkey’s average income. The major part of attendants are retired, businessman, merchant and student. In the light of these datas, it can be stated that there is a population consisted of majorly higher incomes and free spacer. It has been determined that the numbers of tourists hosted by destinations and attendance level to the research of tourists are directly proportional. Major part of attendants dwell in big cities (Metropolits). Major part of attendants have various graduation degrees, so this tourist mass is well sophisticated and educated. Table 2 has been created in order to determine the effects of food and beverage facts to destinations (slow cities) motivationally. The first proposition is “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous meat dishes”. The attendance level of this proposition is quite above average. We can say that Eating meat dishes is a well motivational fact for people who wants to visit Slow Cities. The second proposition is “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous vegetable dishes”. Although the attendance level is right below the average, it can be stated that the attendance level is significant. The other proposition is “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous starters”. It has been determined that although the attendance level is right below the average, it can be stated that the attendance level is significant. In this context, if dessert cultures of destinations will be improved, gastronomical visits to destinations would increase gradually. The propositions “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous bakery products (cookies, muffins, pastries etc..)”, “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks” are right above the average. These propositions; “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous foods products with endemic plants”, “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks products with endemic plants”, “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous oliveoil dishes”, “I think number of tourists will increase by improving and revealing the indigenous cooking methods”. Have quite considerable attendance from tourists. This explains the situation that the given importance to oliveoil dishes and endemic plants is quite a significant subject for tourists. The proposition; “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous seafoods” shows an average attendance from tourists. Besides, slow cities should improve their concept based on seafoods and cooking methods in order to increase the tendency levels of individuals.
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Table 1. The Demographical Profiles of Attendants
Variables
Frequency(n)
Age Range 20 and below 21-30 age range 31-40 age range 41-50 age range 51-60 age range 60 and above Total Average income 500 $ and below 501-1000 $ 1001-2000 $ 2001-3000 $ 3001-4000 $ 4001-5000 $ 5001 $ and above Total Profession Officer Employee Student Merchant Businessman Retired Other Total Destination Akyaka (Muğla) Gökçeada (Çanakkale) Seferihisar (İzmir) Taraklı (Sakarya) Yenipazar (Aydın) Vize (Kırklareli) Total Graduation Degree Primary Secondary High School Two Year Degree Bachelor Master Doctorate Total Residence İstanbul Ankara İzmir Abroad Other Total
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Percentages (%)
92 109 117 136 173 206 833
11,04 13,08 14,04 16,32 20,76 24,76 100
57 88 94 139 172 196 87 833
6,84 10,56 11,29 16,68 20,65 23,54 10,44 100
104 38 143 155 169 183 41 833
12,49 4,56 17,16 18,61 20,29 21,97 4,92 100
143 189 204 97 129 71 833
17,16 22,69 24,51 11,64 15,48 8,52 100
16 39 97 144 489 29 19 833
1,92 4,68 11,64 17,29 58,71 3,48 2,28 100,0
288 91 179 151 124 833
34,59 10,92 21,48 18,12 14,89 100
Table 2. Analyses of Answers to Propositions by Attendants Propositions I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous meat dishes. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous vegetable dishes. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous starters. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous desserts. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous bakery products (cookies, muffins, pastries etc..) I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous foods products with endemic plants. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks products with endemic plants. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous oliveoil dishes. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous seafoods. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous products wşth indigenous cooking methods (jug,steamed) I think number of tourists will increase by improving and revealing the indigenous cooking methods.
Attendance Percentage (%) 54,96 49,44 47,89 43,81 51,84 51,49 70,68 51,24 71,52 62,76 57,36 73,57
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS This study is consisted of two main chapters be about literatur research and field research. Drawed a conclusion that Gastronomical facts have an unignorable impression on destinations which got “Cittaslow” title. In the direction of a result of the literatur research, the communication level between slow cities and gastronomical facts has been tested whether if they are in the same direction or not. As a result of this field research, it has been determined that Gastronomical facts have an important role on individuals to prefer “Cittaslow” destinations. A set of suggestions were developed for “Cittaslow” cities and “Cittaslow” candidate cities related to make an evaluation about gastronomical facts; “Cittaslow” and candidate cities should develop a new food and beverage culture incident to region by doing a scientific study about using endemic plants with indigenous foods and drinks, Cittaslow” and candidate cities should feature their own indigenous gastronomical facts with their promotion strategies, Cittaslow” and candidate cities should organize fairs,expos,festivals and panels to refer individuals to destinations. Soon after this study, a certain number of studies will be conducted by means of determine the gastronomical facts of ‘’ Cittaslow’’ regions. Besides by the help of this study, following relevant studies will be an example for candidate destinations to generate their own strategical policies. REFERENCES Baldemir, E. Kaya, F. Şahin, T. K. (2013). A Management Strategy Within Sustainable City Context: Cittaslow, Procedia Social and Behavşoral Sciences, 99(1), 75-84. Baycan, T. Fusco Giard, L. (2013). Case Study Window–Culture in International Sustainability Practices and Perspectives: The Experience of ‘Slow City Movement – Cittaslow’, The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture, Aldershot-UK, 273-292. Carp, J. (2012). Enviromental Reviews and Case Studies: The Town’s Abuzz: Collaborative Opportunities for Enviromental Professionals in The Slow City Movement, Journal of Enviromental Practice, 14(2), 130-142. Ekinci, M.B. (2014). The Cittaslow Philosophy in The Context of Sustainable Tourism Development; The Case of Turkey, Tourism Management, 41(1), 178-189. Ergüven, M.H. (2011). Cittaslow-Yaşamaya Değer Şehirlerin Uluslararası Birliği: Vize Örneği, Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(2), 210-210. Görkem, O., Öztürk, Y. (2014). Gastronomic Reflections of Cittaslow Movement on Local Cuisine: The 71
Case Study of Seferihisar (İzmir, Turkey), TURIZAM, 18(1), 11-21. Hatipoğlu, B. (2015). Cittaslow: Quality of Life and Visitor Experiences, Journal Tourism Planning & Development, 12(1), 20-36. Hietmann, S., Robinson, P. & Povey G. (2011). Research Themes for Tourism (Slow Food, Slow Cities and Slow Tourism), FSC Publishing, USA. Ildiko, G.H. (2013). Regional and Town Development in Hodmezovasarhely From The Aspect of Cittaslow, Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula Protecţia Mediului, 20(1), 197-204. Knox, P.L. (2005). Creating Ordinary Places: Slow Cities in a Fast World, Journal of Urban Design, 10 (5), 1-11. Lowry, L.L. (2011). CittaSlow, Slow Cities, Slow Food: Searching for a Model for the Development of Slow Tourism Travel & Tourism Research Association, 42nd AnnualConference Proceedings: Seeing the Forest and the Trees–Big Picture Research in a Detail- Driven World, June 19-21, 2011 London, Ontario, Canada. Mayer, H. & Knox, P. (2006). Slow Cities: Sustaniable Places in a Fast World, Journal of Urban Affairs, 28(4), 321-334. Pajo, A., Uğurlu, K. (2015). Cıttaslow Kentleri İçin Slow Food Çalışmalarının Önemi, Electronic Journal of Vocational Colleges, 65-73. Panait, I. A. (2014). From Futurama To Cittaslow (Master Thesis), MSC Landscape Architecture and Planning, Wageningen University-Netherlands. Park, E., Kim, S. (2014). Enhancing Local Community’s Involvement and Empowerment Through Practicing Cittaslow: Experiences from Goolwa, South Australia, SHS Web of Conferences Proceedings, 1-7. Pink, S. (2014). Making Resillience: Everyday Affect and Global Affiliation in Australian Slow Cities, Journal of Cultural Geographies, 21(4), 695-710. Pink, S. (2009). Urban Social Movements and Small Places, Journal of City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy, Action, 13(4), 451-465. Pink, S. (2008). Sense and Sustainability: The Case of The Slow City Movement, The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, 13(2), 95-106. Pink, S. (2007). Sensing Cittaslow: Slow Living and The Constitution of The Sensory City, Journal of The Sense and Society, 2(1), 59-77. Presenza, A., Abbate, T., Perano, M. (2015). The Cittaslow Certification and Its Effects on Sustainable Tourism Governance, The Journal of Enlightening Tourism, 5(1). Presenza, A., Abbate, T., Micera, R. (2015). The Cittaslow Movement: Opportunity and Challanges For The Governance of Tourism Destination, Journal of Toursim Planning&Development, 12(4), 479-488. Radstrom, S. (2011). A Place Sustaining Framework for Local Urban Identity: an Introduction and History of Cittaslow, Italian Journal of Planning Practice, 1(1), 90-113. Sarıoğlan, M. (2015). Prospects for The Turkish Gastronomy Tourism, Athens Journal of Tourism, 2(2), 117126. Semmens, J., Freeman, C. (2012). The Value of Cittaslow As an Approach to Local Sustainable Development: A New Zealand Perspective, International Planning Studies, 17(4), 353-375. Servon, L.J. Pink, S. (2015). Cittaslow: Going Glocal in Spain, Journal of Urban Affairs, 37(3), 327-340. Üstündağlı, E., Miray, B. Güzeloğlu, E.B. (2015). Collaborative Sustainability: Analyzing Economic and Social Outcomes in The Context of Cittaslow, Journal of Business and Economic Research, 6(1), 125144. Yurtseven, H.R., Karakaş, N. (2013). Creating A Sustainable Gastronomic Destination: The Case of Cittaslow Gökçeada-Turkey, American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 3(3), 91-100. Yurtseven, H.R., Kaya, O. (2011). Slow Tourist: A Comperative Research Based on Cittaslow Principles, American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 1(2), 91-98.
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Chapter 6 Interpretation of Zeugma Museum by Tourist Guides Uysal YENIPINAR* 1. INTRODUCTION In recent years, the importance of tourist guide’s interpretive role has increased and has begun to be included in foreign scientific studies. It is seen that tourist guides’ interpretive roles have gained importance in promoting local culture and cultural heritage. The main purpose of the study is to identify how historical, mythological, ecological belief and cultural images with high artistic value depicted in mosaic panels in Zeugma Mosaic Museum can be interpreted in an entertaining and accurate way after going through tourist guides’ information strainer with literature review, visual elements and participating tourist guides’ suggestions. Providing information about the artifacts in the museum necessitates knowing and interpreting many disciplines, in particular art history and archeology. Therefore, in addition to historical, mythological, geographical and socio-cultural subjects, tourist guides need to be knowledgeable on many different subjects like presentation techniques, diction, animation ability, group psychology and visitor profile and they also need to apply these. On the other hand, since the study is a new subject, it is expected to contribute to the literature on tourist guiding and the promotion of Zeugma museum. Professional tourist guiding is a work area with rich human relations, high professional return and satisfaction. Tourists believe that successful guides have extensive knowledge on the visiting places and attraction elements (Yu, Weiler& Ham, 2001). Ap and Wong expressed that tourist guides have the ability to turn a museum visit into an unforgettable learning experience for the visitors (Ap & Wong, 2001). Tourist guides give confidence to the group with their interest and knowledge. The feeling of confidence raises the visitors’ expectations of experiencing a new cultural experience without feeling the difficulties of being in a foreign country. From this aspect, tourist guides contribute to the preservation and promotion of the cultural and natural heritage of the countries where they work at. On the other hand, a guide’s foreign language skills have important part in cultural mediation and knowing both languages provides the guide the opportunity to defend one culture to the other culture fairly (Yu et al., 2001: 79). Partaking in the application of package tours prepared by tour operators, tourist guides play important role to meet the aforementioned needs in the name of travel agency and tour operator. On the other hand, it is known that the roles of tourist guides in interpretation of destination culture and cultural mediation are gaining importance. Through the example of Zeugma Museum mosaics, the study evaluated how the interpretive roles of tourist guides were effective in passing complicated subjects. 2. Literature Tourist guides bear the responsibility to make written, visual and auditory, artistic and historical themes meaningful for the tourists with the education they have gotten and pass this information to them in an entertaining way. While fulfilling these responsibilities, they draw on their communication and interpretation abilities. Where there is intense competition in the tourism sector, countries develop different strategies to be the preferred destination and try to ensure customer loyalty by focusing on tourist satisfaction. It is seen that the countries that prioritize tourist satisfaction aim to raise service quality. It is known that tourist guides take a role in destination promotion, tourist satisfaction and raising destination loyalty. The changes in tourist expectations has widened tourism industry and brought multidimensionality. Tourist guides and their professional roles also got affected by the changes and their roles turned into much more diverse and comprehensive roles compared to their solely guiding roles during the beginning years of tourism. Interpretative Roles of Tourist Guides: While performing their professions, tourist guides have *
Assist. Prof. Dr., Mersin University, Faculty of Tourism, Tourism Guiding Department
important and multi-faceted roles. Role is a behavior expected from a person who is assigned to a certain position or function. Tourists’ changing travel trends have affected and changed the roles of the tourist guides who show around and are the closest person to the tourists. In 1985, Cohen defined guides as pathfinders who guide and lead the visitors in regions and environments where the visitors did not know and experienced before. The role given to the tourist guides in Cohen’s seminal definition is being “pathfinders”. Today, tourist guides’ tasks got diversified and became more comprehensive and functional, going beyond only guiding. Professional tourist guides, the leading actors in tourism, are the tourism workers who the tourists visiting Turkey spend the longest time with and most affected from, who take responsibility and get authorization during the moments when services turn into actions, who generally accompany tourists during their trips and who have the opportunity to have direct communication with the tourists (Genç, 1992; Karaçal&Demirtaş, 2002; Zengin et al., 2004; 2011; Çetin& Kızılırmak, 2012; Güzel et al., 2013). To be a cultural mediator, a tour guide needs to mediate information and encounters but their elaborations on what these roles entail provide new insight beyond which has been previously written in the literature. Stronger support must be provided to tour guides, particularly to the new comers who may need intercultural training. If excellence in cultural interpretation and mediation is to be achieved, commitment and support from all sides, government, the tourism industry, employers and the guides themselves, is vital (Yu, at al., 2004: 7). Today’s tourists are as knowledgeable and interested as tourism professionals about destinations. They are sophisticated tourists who gather information from different channels; compare similar destinations and who prefer destinations that offer different opportunities before the trip. Today, it is known that tourist trends are towards education, experience and entertainment (Fennell&Iagles, 1990:28). The positive change in the attitudes and behaviors of the visitors informs the resource managers that interpretative tour guiding can be an effective and desirable educational tool. Thus, the negative change in attitudes and behavior suggests a need for better training of guides in design and delivery of interpretation (Poudel&Nyaupane, 2013:10). In other words, interpretation of information can give tourists new insights and understandings of the area they visit and the culture and environment they experience. The Society for Interpreting Britain’s Heritage defines interpretation as “the process of communicating to people the significance of a place or object so that they enjoy it more, understand their heritage and environment better, and develop a positive attitude toward conservation” (cited in Moscardo, 1999: 8). This definition assumes there is a ‘correct’ significance of a place or object that must be known before people can enjoy or understand their experience. Reisinger and others brought a different perspective to the interpretation skills of tourist guides. According to them, there is also an ulterior motive for offering the interpretation: to influence the tourists’ attitude towards conservation (Reisinger and Steiner, 2006). Moscardo (1998) identifies three main ways in which interpretation can contribute to the quality of visitors’ experience. “These are: (1) providing information on the available options so tourists can make the best choices about what they do and where they go; (2) providing information to encourage safety and comfort so tourists know how to cope with and better manage encountered difficulties (e.g. sea sickness) and understand messages given by the warning signs (e.g. ‘you cannot swim here’); and (3) creating the actual experience so tourists can participate in activities such as guided walks, eco-tours, visit art galleries, fauna sanctuaries or zoos, and learn in areas of educational interest” (Moscardo, 1996: 382). Interpretation also means a kind of humor, analogies, metaphors; opportunities to ask questions, provision of variety, and structuring logically presented information help to build links between the interpretative content and the everyday experience of visitors. These deceptively encouraging words lose some of their appeal when one realizes that Moscardo et al. (2004) are not advocating that tourists make links between their experiences and their current knowledge but rather between someone else’s interpretations and their current knowledge. According to Ham (1992) and Moscardo (1998), interpretation enhances visitor satisfaction. To achieve this, Moscardo (1999) believes interpretation should incorporate differences into interpretative experiences, provide personal connections for visitors, practice participation, create clear content, and allow for alternative audiences. Dahles stated that tourist guides should be seen as people who encourage tourists to see, hear, smell, taste, feel and experience other cultures (Dahles, 2002: 785-786). In a study conducted by Müküs 74
in 2009, the participants listed the qualifications of a tourist guide as follows: to know archeology, art history and foreign language; to be able to follow innovations; to be knowledgeable on the region; to have good communication skills. It is determined that tourist guides’ qualifications and skills and meeting the tourist expectations play a key role in tourist satisfaction. In the study, also, stress that tourism sector, media and government officials see the subject as a more comprehensive subject than meeting the roles of the tourist guides and giving information. On the other hand, tourist guides are obliged to preserving the country and destination they work in (TUREB, 2004). This obligation gives the tourist guides in Turkey the role of “cultural and natural history preserver”. According to the definition of Turkey Tourist Guidance 2013 regulation, “tourist guides are people who guide domestic and foreign tourists in languages written on their identity cards, who have scientific and comprehensive knowledge on the historical, cultural and natural heritage of the regions they are promoting, who can reflect the country’s image in the best way with their knowledge, who ensure the tour programs organized by travel agencies are executed how it was sold to the customer in line with the written forms of the travel agencies and who guide organized groups/people in museums and archeological sites”. Tourist guides accompany tourists during their trips and ensure that their trips go smoothly. Therefore, on the one hand, they identify the visitors’ satisfaction levels and on the other hand they reflect and identify Turkey’s and Turkish people’s image with their knowledge, attitudes and behaviors (www.myk.gov.tr). According to the definition of World Federation of Tourist Guide Associations (WFTGA), a tourist guide is a person who guides domestic and foreign groups or individual visitors in the language of their choice, who guides monuments, museums, cultural and natural heritage of an area and passes information in an entertaining way and who is recognized by the appropriate authority. According to Ahipaşaoğlu’s definition, a tourist guide is a person who accompanies tourists, visitors and guests, who gives accurate information about protected sites, museums, monuments, tombs, temples, historical artifacts and ruins, folklore, cultural and artistic artifacts, hand crafts, souvenirs and entertainment places and who helps execute various sports like mountain and nature hikes, water sports, hunting, skiing, caving, ornithology, parachuting, botany, bike and horse tours (Ahipaşaoğlu, 2001). In intercultural formations, there is generally a cultural gap between the visitor and the visiting area. For this reason, in areas where cultural heritage based on tourism activities occur tourist guidance service with information on high standards is demanded. On the other hand, tourist guides take on the role of mediator between local culture and culture of the tourists and can be described as “cultural mediator” since they offer communication between the tourists and the local people (Leclerc & Martin, 2004). In addition to developing tourists’ experiences, tourist guides directly play the role in “cultural mediation” and “intercultural communication” between the local culture and visitors (Yu et al., 2001: 77) because the guides have great knowledge, skills and experience in where visitors should go, what they should see or what aspects of the local culture the visitors should establish relationship. Tourist guides play an important and decisive role in the visitors’ satisfaction from tour organization and travel experiences and in promotion of Turkey and Turkey’s image. Thus, training qualified tourists guides who will represent Turkey and Turkish people with their knowledge, skills, culture, attitude and behaviors, who will accurately promote and who will ensure visitors returning to their countries satisfied and with positive impressions is of great importance (Tosun&Temizkan, 2004). According to Ham and Weiler, with meeting service expectations based on experiencing the product the tourist buys through interpretation, the tourist will be satisfied, customer loyalty will be ensured and destination’s sustainability will be increased (Ham&Weiler, 2002). In their report titled “Interpretation Reduces Ecological Impacts of Visitors to World Heritage Site”, Littlefair and Buckley emphasized the effectiveness of a skilled tourist guide’s narratives based on interpretation. They also mentioned that tourist guides reduced the negative ecological effect the visitors have on world cultural heritage sites and that the effect on these sites are due to the tourists’ attitudes, behaviors and knowledge rather than being biological and physical (Littlefair&Buckley, 2008). Changes in people’s behaviors were identified after educational experiences (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; O’sullivan & Spangler, 1998; Lasalle&Britton, 2003; Ballantyne et al., 2011; Penz&Hogg, 2011). ‘Effective interpretation enables visitors to make connections between the information being given and their previous knowledge and experiences’ (Moscardoet al., 2004: 13). This can be achieved by using clear, simple explanations 75
to reduce the gap between the information and visitors’ current knowledge. Also, humor, analogies, metaphors, opportunities to ask questions, provision of variety, and structuring logically presented information help to build links between the interpretative content and the everyday experience of visitors (Moscardo et al., 2004: 13). It is a known fact that tourist guides create awareness in the visitors with their interpretation skills about preservation by drawing attention to the importance of local culture for world cultural heritage. The interpretation skill of the tourist guide overlaps with ethics of responsibility. Ethics of responsibility is to define an action, behavior and attitude that need to be done in terms of the situation’s unique conditions and behavior’s results. Ethics of responsibility is also called situational ethics (Yarcan, 2007). Situational ethics is the change of attitudes and behavior types according to context under unclear conditions (Keskin, 1999). There is the principle of pragmatism in ethical behavior. This principle is based on the idea that there are no fundamental and valid values and man does what he does for the good of the majority. Doing whatever needed for the right action is not related to philosophy; it is rater a behavior towards solution (Kuçuradi, 1999). Ethics is values criteria that identify evaluations and attitudes in human relations. Travel agencies work with guides who they know from before and had business relations with before. Tourists and leaders of tour groups prefer professionals they have known and worked with before. Tourist guides execute the tour program, solve the problems arising in the name of customers and travel agency and they are directly responsible from the tour’s success. The guides determine the tourist’ perception of travel experience and images of travel and country to a large extent (Dahles, 2002). Functions of Museums and Tourist Guides: Contemporary museums are cultural centers where visitors learn while having fun and where visitors enjoy learning (Atagök, 1982: 2). With their interpretation and entertaining narratives, tourist guides help the visitors to visualize and learn the objects they see and to gain aesthetic appreciation and historical awareness. According to a definition made by International Council of Museum-ICOM, “a museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment” (Mclean, 1996). “A museum is intended to provide interest, education and enjoyment to its visitors, the quality of the experience being dependent on many variables from the age and education of the visitor and the kind of museum collection to the exhibition presentation and visitor services” (Capstick Brenda,1985:365-372). “Educational” function of museums is directing in addition to collecting, preserving, examining, evaluating and exhibiting. Museums can be described as free choice or informal learning environments (Kelly, 2004; Rabley, 2005; Grant, 2005). Visitors voluntarily learn the subjects they are interested in more easily and more permanently by experiencing through the tourist guides. The quality of the experience depends on many variables. Visitors’ age, education level, museum collection, exhibition presentations, exhibition type, presentation and visitor services are among the main objectives (Capstick Brenda, 1985: 365-372). Museums are places where people from many different cultures visit and have education. For this reason, reputable museums put much effort in exhibitions and providing information to the visitors (Abacı et al., 2005; 114). Today, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) subbranch Social and Human Sciences is largely concerned with transformation of daily life (Altaylı, 2011: 2). Here, it is extremely important to elaborate the difference between scientific knowledge and narrative knowledge. Today, intangible heritage refer mostly to narrative knowledge and museums assume an important role in rescuing this knowledge kind from the dominance of scientific knowledge that totally leaves out human lives’ daily aspects (Lyotard, 2000: 16). Museums offer opportunities for the creation of identity. For this reason, museums are places where a society’s historical, cultural and natural values are collected, protected and presented for educational purposes (Buyurgan,Altın&Oruç, 2007; Mercin&Özsoy, 2005; Oruç, 2008: 125-141). Museum learning can be defined with concepts like informal, inner directed, optional and life-long (Hughes, Jackson & Kidd, 2007; Gray &Chadwic, 2001). It is known that studies on museums are conducted for purposes like personal development, restoration and education. Intrinsic motivation in museum increases the objective gained from the 76
museum. Museums function as a kind of educational institution reflecting culture and history (Oruç&Altın, 2007). With the education they have received in subjects like art, history, culture, cultural heritage, destination management, tourist guides make sure the visitors are not bored, entertained and leave the museum satisfied and also contribute to the development of museum science. By promoting the artifacts in the museums to domestic and foreign tourists, tourist guides contribute to museums’ education and culture functions. With the tourist guides’ interpretations of artifacts during museum trips, the visitors go on a journey to the past in their minds and explore humans’ cultural reflections. This process helps the visitors to make new connections in their lives and create meaning and help their personal development. Gaziantep Zeugma Museum: Zeugma Mosaic Museum is located in the city center of Gaziantep in Turkey’s southeastern region. Founded to the west coast of the Euphrates, the city is the region’s most important commercial and industrial city. Just like the historical Zeugma city, Gaziantep owes this to its location on the fertile land along the Euphrates River an as Silk Road’s gateway to the Middle East. With its Zeugma Museum, Turkey became one of the rare countries owning the rich mosaic mosaics of the Roman of the Roman period. The museum building covers an area of 30.000 square meters. With its 1450 square meters mosaic area, Zeugma Museum became the world’s biggest mosaic museum, taking the title from Tunisia’s Bardo Museum. Zeugma Museum building is comprised of three different buildings. Congress and culture center, mosaic museum, exhibition and conference center and archeology museum make up the museum complex. Between the museum and administration building, there are souvenir shops where the visitors can walk around without being bored. With their artifacts and exhibition styles, museums tremendously draw the interests of the visitors and become touristic attraction centers for the cities all by themselves. 40-square-meter mural, four Roman fountains, 20 columns, four sculptures made from limestone, a bronze sculpture of Mars, grave steles, sarcophagi and architectural pieces whose restorations were completed are exhibited in the museum. The atmosphere of the places where the mosaics were removed from was created and the mosaics were placed in their assigned spaces with modern museology understanding. Keeping kids in mind, mosaics are reflected on the museum’s floor with visual light plays. Visitors walk on these visual mosaics on the floor. Visitors are curious about the pool made out of colorful natural stones and the mosaics that are used as wall panels and look like a large painting and their mythological stories. Another feature of Gaziantep Archeology Museum is its seal collection. The collection is made up of 100.000 seals reflecting the archive of the ancient city of Zeugma. With this number, the museum is the number one in seal collection. Rich descriptions on the terra-cotta seal inform the visitors about Zeugma’s economic, social and religious life and its relations with other ancient cities (http://www.zeugmaweb.com). A seal is a security system giving an idea about where and from whom a letter, decree or package is coming and a system ensuring the shipment goes without being opened. Mosaic: Pebble stone tesserae (neatly cut stone), transition to mosaic technique, seen in the Mediterranean World at the beginning of third century BC. (Üstüner A.C., 2002: 22). 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS For the study, literature and visual data about the museum were reviewed. Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, and face to face interview technique were employed in the study. The main data collection tool in phenomenological studies is interview. It is important for the researcher to establish a safe and empathy-based interactive environment with the interviewed individuals. In phenomenological studies, the interviews are generally long. To bring out and explain the experiences in-depth, the researcher should enter an intense interaction with the interviewed individual or individuals. Since there is an opportunity to show the explanations and meanings reached by the researcher to the interviewed individuals and for them to confirm them, the study’s validity and reliability of the study increase (Yıldırım&Şimşek; 2013). The study sample are 15 active tourist guides who are registered to İzmir, Antalya, İstanbul, Adana and Nevşehir Chamber of Guides and who frequently do Gaziantep tours with domestic and foreign package tours and guide in Zeugma Museum. The number of participants was limited to 10 since some of the participants gave similar answers and 5 people did not want their names written. Face to face interviews were conducted with the participants 77
during the low season, February and March, of 2016. During the interviews, new questions were added and some questions were omitted from the semi-structured question form that was used as the data collection tool. Question forms were revised considering the questions the tourists frequently ask about the museum and the mosaics and the questions the tourists might ask. 3. FINDINGS The participants stressed that it would be impossible to answer the questions directed to them from only one source. They stated that their answers came from the vocational courses they took during college, Turkish and foreign books they read archeologists they met during their tours to the protected sites and museologists, architects, art historians and artists that participate in their tours. They also stated that their knowledge enriched and interpretation skills improved with the questions asked by culture groups. They told that they will answer the questions about the interpretative narration of Zeugma museum mosaics without sticking to a book or any other work as they synthesize and interpret in their minds after reading, listening and seeing. Participants gave the following answers to the question of “where do you first start narrating and how do you start it?” While we approach the museum with the tour bus, we see camel caravan sculptures that are evocative K1, of the historical Silk Road. The statutes attract the attention of the tourists. They take pictures and look K5, at me with questioning eyes. I start with explaining the two factors that make the two cities, Zeugma K4, and Gaziantep, important. I start with explaining the importance of both of them being founded along K6, the banks of the Euphrates and on the intersection of historical routes. When we get off the bus, we K7, take a group picture with the museum stairs, museum sign and museum building at the background. K8, They love this. They always say that taking a picture was a great idea. They love this even more when K9, the tour finishes and they look back at the pictures. Later, I give information about the Zeugma K10 museum building and the most important artifacts exhibited in the Zeugma museum. We also start our narration with the camel caravans on the way to the museum. We stop in front of the panel that has the Zeugma city plan and model on and we make sure they see the plan and the model. By this way, we make the visitors imagine the city I their minds. On the map, we explain which museum mosaic was removed from where and from which villa, we explain along which bank of the Euphrates the city was founded on and the historical location of it. After this visual narrative, our tour group begins to listen to us attentively and does not want to miss a single word. If we have time, in the museum’s theater we watch the movie about the short history of ancient city of Zeugma in different languages. All of these help the visitors to make sense of the large-scale mosaics they will hear their stories from us soon after and the time and culture of the people who made these mosaics. I gather the group under the shade by the wall across the museum canteen. We sit and face the museum building and I start talking about the museum. While they listen to me, I make sure they see the museum. Here, I talk about the area of the museum, the functions of the buildings, the size of the mosaics, how the mosaics after four years of restoration were placed on the museum floors with a design that is similar to the villa the mosaics were taken from, geometric colorful mosaics that look like a carpet and how they can walk on the light displays on the colorful floor made for the children.
The answers of participants to the question of “What are the characteristics that make the museum important?” are as follows; With their artifacts and exhibition styles, museums tremendously draw the interests of the visitors and K9, become touristic attraction centers for the cities all by themselves. 40-square-meter mural, four Roman K10 fountains, 20 columns, four sculptures made from limestone, a bronze sculpture of Mars, grave steles, sarcophagi and architectural pieces whose restorations were completed are exhibited in the museum. The atmosphere of the places where the mosaics were removed from was created and the mosaics were placed in their assigned spaces with modern museology understanding. Keeping kids in mind, mosaics are reflected on the museum’s floor with visual light plays. Visitors walk on these visual mosaics on the floor. Visitors are curious about the pool made out of colorful natural stones and the mosaics that are used as wall panels and look like a large painting and their mythological stories. Another feature of Gaziantep Archeology Museum is its seal collection. The collection is made up of 100.000 seals 78
reflecting the archive of the ancient city of Zeugma. With this number, the museum is the number one in seal collection. Rich descriptions on the terra-cotta seal inform the visitors about Zeugma’s economic, social and religious life and its relations with other ancient cities (http://www.zeugmaweb.com). A seal is a security system giving an idea about where and from whom a letter, decree or package is coming and a system ensuring the shipment goes without being opened
Participants gave the following answer to the question of “Where was the large size mosaics found?” According to Mr. Ergeç (2000); Museum takes its name from the ancient Roman city of Zeugma. Zeugma was founded by Alexander the Great in 300 BC with the name “Selevkia Euphrates”. In the year 64 BC the Roman general Pompeius surrenders to Antiachos I. One of the four big cities of Commagene Kingdom, the city was connected to the Roman Empire in 31 BC and took the name “Zeugma” meaning “bridge” and “gateway”. While the city had great wealth and splendor during K1, the Roman Empire, it was conquered by Sassanid ruler Shapur I in 256. With the conquest, the city K3, was sacked and demolished and later forgotten. K5, The first excavation work in Zeugma, which is an archaeological site of primary importance, was K5, started in 1987 in the South of Belkis Hill by the Gaziantep Museum. During excavations conducted in a rock tomb and its surroundings, many sculptures left by traffickers were found. These sculptures were made of limestone. The buried people were transferred to the Gaziantep Museum and are presently exhibited there. Excavation works were carried out in the antic site gained a new dimension with the start of the construction of Birecik Dam on the Euphrates, which was contracted out to an international consortium (Birecik A.S.) in 1993 on build-operate-transfer model. Following studies that asserted the dam’s threat on the area, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism started "urgent excavation and rescue work" in 1992. As a result of this work carried out by the Gaziantep Museum, villas, floor mosaics, frescoes and various other remains were unearthed. Also found during this excavation was a splendid mosaic on the wedding of Dionysus and Ariadne. 2/3 of this mosaic, however, was stolen in 1998. Upon the start of construction, tomb steles with eagle and basket relieves, a beheaded sculpture and a floor mosaic with goddesses of seasons were found in 1993 and they were removed and transferred to the Museum in 1994. In 1993, Prof. David Kennedy from the University of Western Australia joined excavations carried out by the Museum. During his work, Prof. Kennedy found that the floor mosaic of a Roman villa was also displaced by traffickers. Further investigations revealed that the mosaic taken from the site was that of two immortal lovers, Metiox and Partenope and that the mosaic was in the private Menil Collection in Houston, US. Upon the initiatives of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the mosaic was returned to Gaziantep Museum in June 2000. Participants gave similar answers to the question of “Who made the Mosaics done and where were they used?” K1, K2, K3, K4,
Zeugma is inside the Persian border region of the Little Asia province and is the only gateway bridge on the Euphrates connecting East to the West. When the Gaziantep region came under Roman sovereignty, 4th Scythian Unit, one of the 30 legions, was founded in Zeugma. The presence of the unit enlivens the trade. When trade attracts wealth and wealth attracts artists, Zeugma becomes a big city with its 70.000 population. The commanders and traders made pools with mosaics constructed inside their villas along the banks of the Euphrates to cool them. The mosaics were used on the floors, pools and pavements of the villas. This need attracted traders, artists, scholars and clergy to the city of Zeugma. It is known that the art of mosaics reached its peak between the 2nd and 5th centuries in Antakya and Zeugma. When the mosaics are excavated and transferred to the museum, mosaics and their secrets woke from their 2000 years old sleep
Participants gave the following answer to the question of “What are the topics of the mosaics in the museum? In the big mosaic panels transferred to the museum ancient gods like Poseidon, Oceanus, Tethys, K3 Aphrodite, Perseus and Andromeda and various topics like Dionysus’s wedding, Danae and K4 Euphrates gods are portrayed. The visitors can see the portrayals of how Achilles disguises himself K5 as a woman not to go to the Trojan War, how Aphrodite was born out of the white bubbles of an oyster to the coast of island of Cyprus, grape and wine god, 79
Dionysus, the life tree that grows out of the water coming from the pitcher of the Euphrates river god and the endangered bald ibis that today lives on the Birecik rocks along the banks of the Euphrates. The Gypsy Girl mosaic became the museum’s symbol. With her big eyes, she watches the visitors wherever they go. There is a gypsy neighborhood in Gaziantep. Their lives are intertwined with music. Since the big-eyed gypsy women’s headscarf tying style looks like the girl’s style in the museum, people gave this name to the mosaic. On the other hand, on the 2nd floor of the 2nd section to the right of the museum, there are nature and animal mosaics on the large panels on the floor and the wall. What is interesting is some of the animals like stubborn goats, sheep and wild birds can be seen today but some of the animals portrayed in the mosaics like giraffes, elephants, lions and tigers do not live in Anatolia anymore. Participant mentioned how the 1.50 meter bronze statue of war god Mars symbolizing abundance and strength was found nearly undamaged underground during the excavations. What is interesting about the Mars statue is that the statue is holding a spear in one hand and flower on the other hand. It is believed to represent an artistic spirit who knows how to fight but prefers peace.
The responses given by participants to the question of “What is mosaic? Is there a technique?” are as follows: Mosaic is the art of creating images on a surface with an assemblage of small colorful pieces like stone, enamel, glass and wood. To protect the small pieces creating the decorative figures, mortar at the same level as the pieces facing up was used. Mortar was soft at the beginning of the application K1, but hardens afterwards. In this architectonic surface, another characteristics that differentiates K5, mosaic art from other art branches is that mosaics did not lose any of their color characteristics K6 even though thousands of years have passed (Üstüner, 2002: 7). Mosaic as decorative art of any architectural area is lining up colorful little stone pieces or prismshaped pieces made out of terracotta on a cement bed. Mosaic stones are called tessurula or tesserae in Latin and mosaic floors are called pavimenta in Latin and musoi in Greek. Mosaic artist is called museiarius or musivarus. Pavimentarius is the one who uses marble to pave the mosaics (Üstüner, 2002: 7). The middle mosaic is called Emblema. Mosaics are generally divided into two types as floor and wall mosaics. Because the walls are easily damaged, the floor mosaics survived more than the wall mosaics. K1, K4, K3, K5, K10
Participants explained mosaic types and characteristics as follows: Mosaics have different types based on the qualities of the stone pieces and method applied. According to the technical classification, mosaics are divided into two types as wall (MusivumPous) and floor (Opus Tessellatum or Pavimentum). Many other types emerged under different names in different regions due to techniques developed in time and changing tastes. Opus Vermiculatum and Opus Signinum are two of them. In time the neatly cut small and colorful marble, stone, ceramic or cube-shaped tesseras made from glass paste took pebble stones place in Opus Tessellatum floors. The size and shape of the tesseras are more or less the same. During the early periods of this technique, the tesseras are used in geometric arrangements.
Participants stated that they use Ödekan’s studies while explaining mosaic laying techniques. According to Ödekan, mosaic construction stages are as follows: K2, 1. First, the widest borders of the mosaic on the floor or wall are determined. Outer contour lines like K3, this are seen on the brick walls of the Hagios Georgios Church’s dome (Ödekan, 1997: 1300). K7, 2. After determining the outer contours, a layer of plaster on which the mosaic pieces (tessera) will be K8 applied on is prepared. 3. The wall surface is plastered with a mixture of tar to prevent the plaster layers fall down from because of moisture. 4. For the plaster layer of the mosaic not to fall, head nails are nailed between the bricks leaving the heads out (Mozaik-sanat.html.). 5. Pebbles and glass pieces are applied on the material generally made from cement. Plaster is applied between the glued pieces. Pieces in different kinds, shapes and sizes like ceramic, metal, wood and glass can be used together as mosaic pieces. The participants stated that materials used in Zeugma 80
museum were mainly procured from the colorful pebble stones along the banks of the Euphrates. The colors that were not found along the Euphrates were procured from glass materials
Participants gave the following answer to the question of “Where were the mosaics first made? According to Üstüner; The pioneers of mosaics were seen in the Sumerian and Egyptian art until the 4th Millennium BC in Mesopotamia. From the Greek classical age, mosaics were seen in Anatolia and Greece and finally at the beginning of 2nd century BC mosaics were began to be seen in every province in the East and the West. After the Roman Empire, mosaic art developed inside the Iranian and Byzantium lands. These influences developed during the Byzantium art periods and transferred K2, to Renaissance. Christian Victor expressed that there is a similarity between ceramic art, wall K3 mosaics and other art techniques in Mesopotamia and textile art of that time. It is believed that mosaic art took inspiration from textile art because of the motif similarities (Üstüner, 2002). Mosaic Construction: When the mosaic art which is the art of decorating walls and floors by lining different colored small stones, marbles or glass pieces on a surface, is examined in terms of technique, it was determined that there is a standard construction technique (Hasol, 2000: 404). The participants gave the following answers to the questions about where the mosaics are mostly used and how information about daily lives are learned from the mosaics: We know that mosaics are mostly used on city pavements, courtyards of houses and bottoms of pools. We learn about the city’s daily life mostly from the mosaics and one hundred thousand seals found in the city of Zeugma. Ancient city of Zeugma is situated on the key transit route of Silk Road going from capital of The Roman Empire, Rome, to capital of China, Shanghai and it is located inside the Persian borders. Roman soldiers provided city’s and roads’ security. It is understood that this improved the K6, trade in the city and increased quality of life. Having the images of gods and goddesses of like Tyke, K5, Fortuna and Hermes reinforces this interpretation. Tyke governed the fortune and prosperity of a city. K1, Fortuna was the goddess of fortune. Hermes was the god of commerce. On the highest hill of the K2 ancient city of Belkis, on the other bank of the Euphrates, there is a Tykhe temple for the goddess Tykhe. This temple was also portrayed on the back face of the city coins. Because the majestic temple was seen by the caravans from tens of kilometers away, it is believed to make traders and passengers feel safe. On the other hand, deployment of the 4. Legion camp with its 5 thousand soldiers in Zeugma increased this feeling of being safe. It also strengthens the city economically and increased the postal communication. More than ten thousand seals had the image of Augustus on them. This shows that official documents were mostly military documents. Zeugma literally meant Gateway Bridge. From its name, it is understood that Zeugma was the customs gate from east to west at that period. Participants provided the following response to the question of “What are the characteristics that made mosaics different from each other? K2, K5, K7, K8, K1, K4, K10
1. A rug’s quality is determined by knots per square inch and the colors of the strands used. This is true for the mosaics. There are floor mosaics similar to rug motifs. As the stones, teserras, used in the mosaic get smaller, the beauty of the image increases. For example, in Zeugma the mosaic masters used 400 thin pebble stones (teserra) to portray the feelings of a person’s face. While stones in 3-5 different colors were used in other mosaics, this number is 12-13 in Zeugma mosaics. Artists using variety of color shades added a different depth to the mosaics. It is remarkable that many of the artists signed their works just like today’s painters. This indicates the existence of mosaic workshops and schools in the region. Frequently portrayed in Zeugma mosaics, Oceanus and Tethys were rarely used in Greek mythology. 2. Because Zeugma was founded on the bank of the Euphrates and because it was close to the Mediterranean, they gave special importance to water gods and goddesses. It is known that Oceanus and Tethys were not portrayed in full body in mosaics found in European museums. Oceanus and Tethys figures were portrayed in full body or in the form of bust in Zeugma mosaics. This can be evaluated as the proof to the respect they had in this geography. 3. On the other hand, it is seen that Zeugma mosaic artists used “perspective” at least one thousand years earlier than the Renaissance artists. It is possible that Renaissance artists learned perspective, different color transitions and giving depth to the image from the mosaic artists that were brought from the East to the West. 81
4. Because Zeugma was founded on the bank of the Euphrates and because it was close to the Mediterranean, water god and goddess were frequently portrayed in the mosaics. One of the mosaics portrays Oceanus and Tethys in the water and the visit of Hera to Tethys and Oceanus, described as the father of gods in Homer’s Iliad. In Homer’s book, Odyssey, Odysseus comes to the shores of Oceanus to go to land of the dead. On the other hand, it is told that Herakles needs to pass Oceanus to reach the land of Hesperides and for this reason asks for a golden bowl from Helios. Also included in the mythological narratives of Ovidius’s Metamorphosis, Oceanus and Tethys comfort Hera who was cheated on by Zeus with Kallistro. This is depicted in Zeugma mosaics. 5. It is understood that mythological stories of ancient gods and goddesses were systematically depicted in Zeugma mosaics in a magnificent way. A similar situation exists in the early Christian churches in Cappadocia, Turkey. Bible stories were depicted in the frescoes of the churches’ walls and ceilings in Cappadocia. Every single page of Bible and subjects in the Bible were depicted on the ancient churches’ ceilings and walls. The new religion was taught the easy way to the Anatolian people who did not know Hebrew just like narrating with Barco-vision K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10
The participants summarized their views on the city of Gaziantep as follows: Because Just like Zeugma, Gaziantep is founded on the historical Silk Road along the bank of the Euphrates and is located on the intersection of Mediterranean lands and Mesopotamian lands where the civilizations were born, it brought the past’s historical, cultural, artistic and hosting traditions to today. It has an important place in trade and industry, especially in agriculture. Because of the recent touristic activities in recent years, it began to be famous in gastronomy. With Geographical Indication, baklava is registered with Gaziantep’s name. In the year 2015, UNESCO announced Gaziantep as World Gastronomy center with its 300 different food. Gaziantep is an important touristic city not only its Zeugma Museum but also with its castle, archeology museum, open-air museums, historical bazaar and streets. Therefore, tour guides told that they frequently take domestic and foreign tour groups to Gaziantep and Zeugma museum and to be able to guide them in these places they need a historical and cultural accumulation and they are very happy to use their skills while guiding the visitors. They stated that groups and agencies that come with themselves are also very satisfied from the museum and the city.
Participants gave the following answers to the question of “Do you observe a change in the visitors after you narrate about Zeugma and Gaziantep city? What are these changes?” Of course, there are a lot of changes. Because the Southeastern Anatolian Region is less developed, K1 because there are not enough information and because the region is close to the Middle Eastern K2 countries, there is a question mark and prejudice inside the visitors’ minds. But they relax when they learn about the city’s history and today’s life style, the bustle of the bazaars, the taste of their food. K3 They want to taste Gaziantep food, buy dried eggplants, menengiç coffee and regular eggplants and K4 see the bazaar with pearl inlaid tables, coppersmiths and jewelers. We tell them that the local people K5 enjoy food, drinking, walking around and they drink tea and coffee at the famous Tahmis Coffeehouse. When they hear about these, they want to drink coffee made traditionally over ash and cinder and chat K6 and observe the local people. They want to drink the traditional natural mulberry syrup sold by the K7 street vendor just like the locals. We have difficulty in bringing them to the hotel from the streets. They don’t want to leave the streets; they say they wish they could have stayed a little bit more. K8 K9 K10
All the participants gave the following answer to the question of “What are your recommendations about tourist guides’ interpretation skills?” We know that tourist guide candidates studying at the departments of Tourism Guidance in Turkish K1 tourism faculties and other candidates take really good courses. To graduate, they have to participate in a 45 days of Turkey tour and they need to get at least 75 from foreign language exam. We K2 recommend them to give importance to their course starting from the first year, to read books on K3 history and culture in addition to their classes and enrich their knowledge. 82
K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10
In addition to being rich in its geography, Turkey is a rich country in terms of historical and cultural sources. If the guide candidates cannot understand these richness people have produced and bequeathed to today and if they cannot find the relation between them, their interpretation skills will not improve. For them to improve their interpretation skills, they need to (a) read a lot, (b) establish connections between different histories and different faiths, (c) participate in trips to regions rich in faith and culture, (d) benefit from the experiences of guides who have worked in the cultural region they will go to, (e) to guide different groups, particularly culture groups, in these cultural regions, (f) note the interesting questions the visitors ask, (g) get help from experts in areas they lack to better themselves, (h) learn about the local people’s traditions, life styles, eating habits and how they approach foreigners by staying with them for a while to get to know today’s local culture through observation and experiencing, (j) be keen on liking and preserving the local culture, (k) know the visitors’ culture really good and to establish connections between their culture and their destinations and to narrate these to the visitors. In short, interpretation skills develop in time by traveling, observing, experiencing, asking, learning and sharing with the visitors. Interpretation needs certain stages. Just like Rumi’s famous words “I was raw, I became cooked, I was burnt”, it needs effort and process transitioning from apprenticeship to professionalism. The process can be long or short. We recommend our students to work in the summers in travel agencies organizing package tours starting from the first year and get experience under the guidance of professional guides. We are aware that the financial resources of our students and educational institutions are limited. We are aware that many of our students have difficulty in participating in Turkey tours and some of them cannot even participate at all. This is a problem. We believe that the tourism sector and the Ministry should provide financial support to these guide candidates who will become promotional ambassadors of our country and who will become cultural mediators.
Professional Turkish guides’ interpretations about the subject coincide with Yu and others’ interpretations. According to Yu and others, sufficient funding must be allocated to tourism and tour guide associations and tourism training authorities to facilitate training and basic entry-level jobs should be provided as well as advanced guide training for tour guides. Also, there should be respect to guides’ cultural mediator roles for good guiding. Tourism industry should support professional development, on the job training and offer better remuneration and rewards for good practice for tour guides. 4. DISCUSSION and CONCLUSIONS The participants stated that they are very well informed about Zeugma Mosaic Museum and the artifacts inside the museum and they could lengthen and shorten their interpretations depending on the tour group’s interest. Also, they mentioned that special culture groups stay inside the museum longer and they can walk around longer without hurrying. They take pictures of the mosaics and listen to the interpretations of them more carefully. They told that these cultural tours are more satisfying for the tourists and for the guides because they can interpret the history and stories back ground of the mosaics in the museum more comprehensively and in a fun way. On the other hand, the agencies put lots of places to visit especially in the domestic package tours. They have difficulty in giving information and making interpretations in places like the zeugma Museum where special time must be allocated. They drew attention to the fact that travel time should be longer in this kind of special places. Despite the external factors limiting their performances, their agencies receive positive feedback from archeologist, art historians, mythologists, architects and other people who are familiar with the subject and who participate in their tours. This pleases them and the agency they work for. Participants interpreted the role of mosaics shown in zeugma in bringing history’s cultural accumulation to today. It can be said that tourist guides’ interpretation skills are effective in teaching the visitors the local culture, the creation of cultural places, how objects were used and what purposes they served, their reflections on today and connections between the past and today’s local culture. As in Zeugma Museum and Gaziantep example, when the tourist guides narrates the right information in the right place and in a way that the visitors understand, visitors get more interested in the city and the products produces in the city. Guide’s interpretation skill contributes to the visitor’s learning, experiencing and entertainment 83
trends. Their demands to drink mulberry syrup in the street and to drink coffee and chat at Tahmis Coffee House can be given as examples to this. When the tourist guide knows well the functions of the historical places they visit and the local culture if the tourist guides give this information accurately to the visitors. So visitors develop positive feelings towards local culture and they want to get to know the local people and local life. Tourist guide’s intercultural mediator role is effective in visitors’ attitudes. Tourist guide candidates studying at the departments of tourist guidance in Turkey’s tourism faculties are required to attend the 45-day General Turkey tour organized by the Association of Tourist Guides in Turkey (TUREB). However, many students who do not have the means have difficulty in attending these costly trips. For this reason, financial contributions of Ministry of Culture and Tourism and other stakeholders in the tourism sector will help overcome these problems. On the other hand, using third and fourth year students who know foreign languages and who can represent their country in domestic and foreign expos can be more effective in Turkey’s promotion. REFERENCES Abacı O., Alakuş O. A., Gökay, M., Macccario, N.K., Tuna S. (2005). İlköğretim Sanat Eğitimi Kuramları ve Yöntemleri, Görsel Sanatlar Eğitimi Derneği Yayınları 3.Varan Matbaacılık, ISBN 975-00345-11.Altaylı. Ahipaşaoğlu, S., (2001). Seyahat İşletmelerinde Tur Planlaması ve Yönetimi. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.s.91. Altın, B. N., Oruç, S. (2007). Tarih ve Coğrafya Eğitiminde Müze Eğitimi ve Yaratıcı Drama, I. Ulusal İlköğretim Kongresi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara: 15-17 Kasım 2007. Ashley, S. (2005). State Authority and the Public Sphere: Ideas on the Changing Role of the Museum as a Canadian Social Institution, Museum and Society, 3 (1), pp. 5-17. Ap, J. and Kevin, K. and Wong, F. (2001). Case Study on Tour Guiding: Professionalism, Issues and Problems, Tourism Management, 22, 551. Atagök, T. (1982). Çağdaş Müzecilik Kavramı Doğrultusunda Türk Sanat Müzelerinin Kültürel Etkinliklerinin Saptanması, Yeterlilik Tezi, Mimar Sinan Üniv., İstanbul, s.67. AyantabDergisi; Zeugma’nın Kronolojik Tarihi, Sayı 4. Ballantyne, R.,Packer, J. and Falk, J. (2011). “Visitiors‟ Learning for Environmental Sustainability: Testing Short and Long Term Impacts of Wildlife Tourism Experinces Using Structural Equation Modelling”, Tourism Management, 32(4): 770-779. Buyurgan, S., Mercin, L. ve Özsoy V. (Ed)., (2005). Görsel Sanatlar Eğitiminde Müze Eğitimi ve Uygulamaları. Ankara: Görsel Sanatlar Eğitimi Derneği Yayınları. Chapstick, B. (1985). Museums and Tourism, The lnternational Journal of Museum Management and Curatorship (1985), 4. 365-3 72. Christian, V. (1940). Altertumsk un des Zweist Romlandes, Cilt 1,s. 137. Cohen, E. (1985). The Tourist Guide: The Origins, Structure and Dynamics of a Role, Annals of Tourism Research, 12(1): 5-29. Çetin, G., ve Kızılırmak, İ., Eraslan Şehnaz, (2012). Antik Dönem Sanatında Okeanos Figürleri, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, SanatDergisi, sayı 22, sayfa.157. Ergeç, R. (2000). Belkıs/Zeugma 1992-1999/2000; Çalışmaları, Kazı ve Araştırmalar. Arkeoloji ve Sanat Dergisi, No: 98. s. 20-29. İstanbul. Fennell, D. A. and Malloy, F. (1996). Measuring the Ethical Nature of Tourism Operators, Annals of TourismResearch, 26(4): 928-943. Genç, Ö. (1992). Rehberlik Eğitimine Eleştirel Bir Yaklaşım, Turizm Eğitimi Konferansı, Bildiriler Kitabı, Turizm Bakanlığı Turizm Eğitim Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara, 215-217. Grant, M., C. (2005). Enhancing Motivation Using The Constructs of Flow in Museum Education Activities. San Diego Üniversity, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Gray, D. & Chadwick, A. (2001), Museums: Using Key Workers to Deliver Lifelong Learning. International Review of Education, 47, 5, 427–441. Grimal, P. (1997). Mitoloji Sözlüğü. Yunan ve Roma, İstanbul. Güzel, F.Ö. ve Köroğlu, Ö., (2013). “Turistlerin Milliyet Bazında Davranış Kalıplarının ve Karakteristik Özelliklerinin Belirlenmesi: Turist Rehberleri Üzerinde Bir Araştırma”, 14.Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, “Turizmde Yenilik”, Erciyes Üniversitesi, Bildiriler Kitabı 6-9 Aralık, ISBN : 978-605-5216-74-0, Kasım 2013, s.449-473, Kayseri. 84
Ham, S. H. &Weiler, B. (2002). Interpretation as the Centrepiece of Sustainable Wild Life Tourism. Chapter 3 in Harris,R.,Griffin,T. & Williams, P (eds.). Sustainable Tourism: A Global Perspective. London: Butterworth-Heinneman, 35-44. Ham, S. (1992) Environmental Interpretation: A Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas and Small Budgets. Golden, Colorado: North America Press. Holbrook, M. B. and Hirschman, E.C. (1982).The Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Consumer Fantasies., Feelings and Fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, pp.132-140. Hughes, C., Jackson, A. &Kidd, J., (2007). The Role of Theater in Museums and Historic Sites: Visitors, Audiences, and Learners. International Handbook of Research in Arts Education. Ed: Liora Bresler, Dordrecht: Springer. Karaçal, G. ve Demirtaş N. (2002). 4702 Sayılı Yasa Uygulamalarının Turizm Rehberliği Eğitimine Etkisi. Turizm Eğitimi Konferansı, Workshop Bildiriler Kitabı, Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara. Keskin, F. (1999). Sivil Toplum Kuruluşlarında Etik. İçinde Etik – Deprem İşliği Konuşmaları, Sivil Tolum Kuruluşları ve Etik, 1-2 Temmuz, 1999, (ss.120-125). İstanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal TarihVakfı. Kuçuradi, İ. (1999). Etik ve Etikler.İçinde Etik-Deprem İşliği Konuşmaları, Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları ve Yasalar-Etik-Deprem,1-2 Temmuz, 1999, (ss.115-120). İstanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı. Lasalle, D. and Brıtton, T. A. (2003). Priceless: Turning Ordinary Products into Extraordinary Experiences, Harvard Business School Press, USA. Leclerc, D. and Judith N. Martin. (2004), Tour Guide Communication Competence: French, German and American Tourists’ Perceptions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28 (3-4), 181-200. Littlefair, C. and Buckley, R. (2008). “Interpretation Reduces Ecological Impacts of Visitors to World Heritage Site”, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Ambio Vol. 37, No. 5, July, s.338 http://www.ambio.kva.se. Moscardo, G., Woods, B. and Saltzer R. (2004) The role of Interpretation in Wild Lifetourism. Chapter 12 in K. Higginbottom (ed.) Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Planning and Management. London: Common Ground. Moscardo, G. (1999). Making Visitors Mindful: Principles for Creating Sustainable Visitor Experiences Through Effective Communication. Champaign, IL: Sagamore. O’Sullıvan, E.L. ve Spangler, K.J. (1998). Experience Marketing, Venture Publishing Inc., USA.p.8. Moscardo, G. (1996). Mindful Visitors. Annals of Tourism Research 23 (2), 376–87. Oruç S., Altın N. (2008). Müze Eğitimi ve Yaratıcı Drama, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(35); 125-141. Poudel, S., Nyaupane, P.,G. ( 2013). The Role of Interpretative Tour Guiding in Sustainable Destination Management: A Comparison and Mediation between Guided and Nonguided Tourists, Tour Guides. Journal of Travel Research, XX (X) 1-4, SAGE Publications, Published online 27 Fabruary 2013 DOI:101177/0047287513478496, p.10. Penz, E., Hogg, M.K. (2011). The Role of Mixed Emotions in Consumer Behaviour, European Journal of Marketing, 45(1/2): 104-132. Reisinger, Y., and Steiner, C., (2006). Reconceptualising Interpretation: The Role of Tour Guides in Authentic Tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, DOI:10.2167/cit280.0, Vol. 9, No. 6, pp.486. Resmi Gazete; Turist Rehberliği Meslek Yönetmeliği, Sayfa : 82 Resmî Gazete 26 Aralık 2014 – Sayı : 29217. Rabley, J. P. (2005). Displacement: The Impact of Forced Removal on Memory Reconstruction at the District Six Museum and Beyond. Columbia University, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Reisinger,Y., Steiner, C. (2006). Reconceptualising Interpretation: The Role of Tour Guides in Authentic Tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 9, No. 6, 1466-4208/06/06 0481-18. Thompson DT. (1993). Considering the Museum Visitor: an Interactional Approach to Environmental Design: Visitor Immersion. Phd. Dissertation, The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Sanat Dergisi, Sayı 22/157. Tosun, C. ve R.Temizkan.; (2004). Türkiye’nin Dış Tanıtım ve Ülke İmajında Turist Rehberlerinin Rolü. I. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, (15-16 Nisan) Bildiriler Kitabı, 345-365. Turist Rehberliği Meslek Kanunu. (2012). 22/6/2012 Tarih ve 28331 Sayılı Resmi Gazetede Yayımlanan 6326 Sayılı Turist Rehberliği Meslek Kanunu. Türkiye Turist Rehberliği Birliği (2004). Resmî Gazete, Sayı : 29217 Turist Rehberliği Yönetmeliği, Meslek 85
Etik İlkeleri, Madde 30, (1-e).26 Aralık 2014, Cuma. www.tureb.org.tr/ URL:http://www.unutulmussanatlar.com/2012/07/mozaik-sanat.html 16.10.2014. URL:http://www.zeugmaweb.com, (2016)/zeugma/onem.htm.8.5.2016. URL:http://www.myk.gov.tr.10 Kasım 2013. URL:http://www.wftga.org/tourist-guiding/what-tourist-guide.World Federation Tourist Guide Associations. Tourist Guiding, What is a Tourist Guide (24.5.2016). Üstüner Ali C. (2002). Mozaik Sanatı, Engin Yayıncılık, Sanat Kitapları Dizisi, ISBN 975-379-333-2, s. 9, İstanbul. Weiler, B.,and S. H. Ham. (2001). Tour Guides and Interpretation.In Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, edited by David B., Weaver. Wallingford, UK: CABI, pp. 549-63. Yarcan, Ş. (2007). Profesyonel Turist Rehberliğinde Mesleki Etik Üzerine Kavramsal Bir Değerlendirme, Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt 18, Sayı 1, Bahar: 33-44. Yağız, D. (2006). Tale of Zeugma and the Birecik Project, Art and Cultural Heritage, Law, Policy and Practice, edited by Barbara T. Hoffman, Cambridge University Press,New York, USA. Yıldırım, A., Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 9. Genişletilmiş Baskı, ISBN: 978-975-02-2603-8, Sertifika No:13268, ss:80-81, Ankara. Yu., Xin; Weiler B.,and Ham, S., (2004). “Cultural Mediation in Guided Tour Experiences: A Case Study of Australian Guides of Chinese Tour Group, Monash University, Business and Economics, Department of Management Working Paper Series, ISSBN: 1327-5216, p.7. Yu.,Xin; Weiler., B.,and Ham, S., (2001). Intercultural Communication: A Framework for Analysing Intercultural Competence of Chinese. Journal of Vocation Marketing 8 (1), pp., 7587. Zengin, B., Batman, O. ve Yıldırgan, R. (2004), “Seyahat Acentalarının Turist Rehberlerinden Beklentilerine Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, I. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, Bildiriler Kitabı, 366-376. Research Participants N P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P 10
Name&Surname SemraAltın Tijen Oral Hamide Çakır Evren Özdemir Atilla Nilgün Burhan Çınar Uysal Yenipınar Güney Peker Lale Yılmaz İsa Akdağ
Age 44 41 30 40 49 27 54 31 32 43
Occupation, Association of Tourist Guiding Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir-Fabruary, 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir, March- 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, Nevşehir, March - 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir, Fabruary, 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, Antalya, March 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, İstanbul, March, 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir, March, 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, İstanbul March, 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, İstanbul April, 2016 Professional Tourist Guide, Adana, April, 2016
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Chapter 7 Job Insecurity from a Multi-faceted Perspective of the Tourism Sector Aziz Gökhan ÖZKOÇ*, Nurgül ÇALIŞKAN** INTRODUCTION Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that, “everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment and protection against unemployment’ which indicates that being able to work is a fundamental human right. Therefore, in order for the right to work which is accepted as a fundamental human right to gain value it is not sufficient to be employed in a suitable job, it must also be ensured that they are prevented from losing their jobs as long as they work according to the rules, in other words they must be ensured job security (Ağer, 2006). However, the liberalization of economic life on an international level as of the 1970’s and the globalization of competition the nature of work has changed. The establishment of flexible employment associations in response to this change with flexible enterprise applications leads to vulnerability on the part of employees against insecurities in terms of employment and induces a perception of job insecurity in employees. Especially taking into consideration features such as the relative seasonality of the tourism sector, the high staff turnover rate, flexible employment and extensiveness of labor force mobility it is safe to say that the tourism sector is one of the sectors where the perception of job insecurity is felt quite strongly. From this aspect the study will carry out a conceptual and structural analysis regarding job insecurity and assess job insecurity in the tourism sector from a multi-faceted perspective. 1. CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF JOB INSECURITY Many definitions have been made regarding the concept of job insecurity is association with discussions pertaining insecurity. A study of the contents of these definitions reveals that reference is made to the concept of job insecurity either as job security as a legal concept or the social, organizational, economic and psychological dimensions of insecurity. Therefore, in order to understand the concept of job insecurity it is primarily necessary to manifest what ‘job insecurity’ is as well as the historical process of its development. 1.1. The Generation and Development of the Concept of Job (in)security in the Historical Process The concept of job security covers normative regulations which are aimed at eliminating the weaknesses in labor contracts to limit or prevent employers from unfair termination of the labor contracts of employees who are dependent on their subsistence through their labor and to protect them (Aktuğ, 2009). In short, job security which means the protection of the right to work has been manifested and developed in parallel with modern labor law. From this aspect the manifestation and development of labor law and therefore the concept of job security can be explained within the understanding of three eras which are based on different economic and social values. The first one is the understanding of a liberal state which emerge with the industrial revolution, the second eras is the social state understanding and the third era is the new liberal understanding which emerged together with globalization. The industrial revolution is a technological, economic, social and cultural transformation process which started in the United Kingdom during the second half of the 18th century and subsequently spread to Western European countries and America and continued to spread throughout the world until the mid 19th century. The most prominent features of this process were manifested in the working life and small scale manufacturing based on the master-apprentice association of the previous era was replaced with *
Assist. Prof. Dr., NHBV. University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management Res. Associate, NHBV. University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Guidance
**
mass production in factories equipped with large machinery and numerous laborers working together (Ağer, 2006:9). During this process new production associations were manifested as employee and employer classes were promulgated for the first time in history and it became necessary to regulate these associations (Ekin, 2002). However, the classical liberalisms which developed on the basis of the structure and philosophy of this era foresaw a free market economy far from state intervention and a social order based on individual freedoms and promulgated the “homo economicus” (economic man). Consequently, the "laissez-faire, let pass" defending the natural order of the principles of classical liberalism adopted a limited and responsible state approach and tasked the state with guaranteeing the freedom of working instead of tasking it with the regulation of working affairs among individuals in the working life. In line with this approach complete freedom has been given in terms of whether or not a labor contract is prepared as well as the termination of such a contract. This situation has led to various negative aspects in terms of the labor class such as long working hours, inadequate wages and working conditions which are in violation of occupational health and safety which has subsequently put the questioning of contract freedom on the agenda. The rules of the liberal system manifested during the Industrial Revolution rated human labor as “merchandise-goods” (Demir, 1991:31). Therefore this understanding generated a new labor class which had more individual freedom than medieval serfs who were overwhelmed with insecurity under new working conditions (Ekin, 1994:11). However, the major dimensions of the prevailing injustices and instabilities forced the state to intervene in the economic and social life and therefore the working life to manifest the concept of ‘social state’ and with the idea of the state regulating the market labor law in the contemporary sense started to be formulated. Particular during the process between the First and Second World Wars with the manifestation of mass unemployment in the Great Economic Depression of 1929 it became evident that the social security system was not adequate. Therefore it was foreseen that the concept of social state needed to be strengthened to enable the social state to eliminate the precarious environment on the agenda with a series of interventions. With the understanding of the social state which emerged during the second half of the 19th century and made its mark in the 20th century and recognized the need to protect laborers law makers were prompted to bring an order which limited the freedom of employers in the field of job security as well as other areas of labor law. In the first instance ‘life long work contracts’ which could mean slavery were prohibited and the opportunity to terminate fixed term contracts and indefinite contracts with a notice without looking for justification was enabled. The most important regulations in this regard on a constitutional level were the Constitutional Law of Mexico dated 1917, the Constitutional Law of the Soviet Union dated 1922 and the Constitutional Law of Cuba dated 1934 which stipulated that dismissal from work must be based on valid reasons (Alpagut, 2001:80). The concept of social state strengthened between the two wars and had its golden age after the Second World War. In addition to the regular inclusion of protective standards in terms of job security into national and international regulations laborers were given the opportunity to organize against employers and establish unions which ensured them the power to carry out collective bargaining. Therefore with the manifestation and development of the social state human labor ceased to be a commodity and was transformed into a concept which required that the sustainability of the lives of the laborer and his family are guaranteed. This positive process in both developed as well as developing countries came to an end with the recession in the USA during 1969-1970, the collapse of the international monetary system in 1971 and the sudden bottleneck in the world economy during 1974-1975 (Müftüoğlu, 2001). The crisis which started in the mid 1970’s mandated success in competition, enhancing potential to counter the shrinking market, adapting to changing conditions in demand and the use of advanced technology (Çetik & Akkaya, 1999). On one hand, this situation pushed enterprises in an economic crisis to focus on costs in order to sustain them in an increasingly competitive external market and on the other hand the trend to decrease the intervention of the state in the economy had accelerated. In other words the process of returning to liberal policies had started (Koray & Topçuoğlu, 1995). The reflection of this transformation into the labor law has been manifested as less rules, less legislation in return for the search for more flexibility and freedom. In a way labor law had been obliged to adapt to competition law (Uçkan, 1998). 88
The liberalization of the economic life on an international level, globalization, the manifestation of competition in terms of the external market rather than the internal market pressurized enterprises to go for ‘flexible’ regulation in response to these changes. The understanding of a more flexible, open, horizontal, autonomous and continuously learning enterprise changed the qualifications demanded from the labor market as well (Aktuğ, 2009:55). In this context the concept of ‘flexible labor’ which differed from standard employment associations generated new forms of employment such part time work, temporary work, fixed term work, seasonal work and self employment. It can be asserted that the fact that these forms of employment contained a much higher level of instability, uncertainty and variability paved the way to the extension of job insecurity. Furthermore with globalization and the necessity to use advanced technology in the orientation to the service sector caused many employees to lose faith in the stability of current jobs and experience job insecurity. In conclusion by starting to move away from the understanding of a social state the concept of job security with its overriding legal aspect is replaced with the concept of job insecurity which has a psychological dimension. 1.2. Definition and Dimensions of Job Insecurity While contemporary businesses endeavor to compensate for unbalanced economic changes with downsizing, saving in material or dismissals on one hand during well earning periods they endeavor to re-structure in terms of organizational productivity or enhance flexibility by temporary employment to earn more (Reisel, 2003). Therefore laborers have found themselves in an increasingly precarious working life due to the fact that the flexible applications of the new liberal economy are becoming increasingly more prominent in work related organizations and the work force. In this context it can be asserted that job insecurity covers circumstances which generate a concern for losing employment based on the uncertainties which have been established as a result of all forms of legal or illegal organizational changes that may obstruct the sustainability of the current employment (Çakır, 2007:120). The confusion as to whether “job security refers to the process regarding current employment or whether it refers to a process of life time guarantee of employment” also complicates the definition of job insecurity (Keser, 2009:11). Therefore the definition is made in both legal as well as psychological aspects. From a legal perspective the concept of job security is used rather than job insecurity. In legal terms job security can be defined as the protection of the rights of employees to employment against unjust dismissals. From a psychological aspect job insecurity is the concern felt by employees regarding the future of their employment. The focal point of the definition of job insecurity concentrates on the way that the individual perceives events and explains the perception of threat regarding the current employment of the employee (Seçer, 2009). From this aspect job insecurity is assessed subjectively and in the scope of Work Related Psyco-Social Risks of the World Health Organization job insecurity is viewed as a risk threatening the career development of employees (Vatansever, 2014:138). The concept of job insecurity which was studied in detail initially by Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) define job insecurity as ‘the difficulty perceived in maintaining sustainability if the continuation of employment of a person is under threat’. On the other hand regardless of the fact that job insecurity is usually considered as the start to the loss of employment, unemployment is not an inevitable result of this process. Not all workers who perceive job insecurity lose their jobs. According to Jacobson and Hartley (1991) job insecurity reflects ‘the difference between the levels of security experienced by an individual and the levels of security they would prefer’. In this sense job insecurity indicates the faith of the individual in the continuity of employment. Therefore, it would be wrong to conclude that all perceptions of job insecurity will result in the loss of work. However, due to the fact that the perception of job insecurity plays a role in disrupting the psychological, biological and social life of an individual it has similarities to various negative consequences generated by unemployment. Some researchers who handle the concept from a holistic perspective have defined job insecurity as a general concern regarding the availability of work in the future. According to these researchers job insecurity is a one dimensional concept which reflects the perception regarding the continuation of employment. According to some other researchers, job insecurity is a multi-faceted concept including the strength of resistance of individuals regarding the perceived threats regarding various features of the work (De Witte, 1999). In this sense job insecurity is generally handled within the scope of two dimensions. The first one of these dimensions is the severity of the threat and the other one has been 89
determined as the weakness to resist the threat (Greenhalg & Rosenblatt, 1984:442): The first dimension of the severity of the threat is dependent on the possibility of the potential loss and its significance. At this point major distinguishing features among the employees are relevant. These are; 1) the transience or permanency of the potential loss, 2) will the action causing the loss result in a layoff or firing, 3) will the change incur in a loss of the job itself or the loss of certain properties. The second dimension comprised of the feeling of powerlessness escalates threat and therefore is viewed as a significant element of job insecurity. There are four factors which contribute to the feeling of powerlessness of employees. These are; lack of protection, uncertainty, the culture of the enterprise and the belief of the employee regarding the layoff procedures of the enterprise. 2. APPROACHES REGARDING JOB INSECURITY It is evident in literature that three different approaches have been adopted in explaining job insecurity. These approaches are classified as objective-subjective, cognitive-emotional and holistic (qualitative) dimensions. 2.1. Objective and Subjective Job Insecurity While objective job insecurity is associated with external threats regarding the employment of an individual subjective or in other words perceived job insecurity is associated with the evaluation of the threats by the individual (Ferrie et al., 2001:38). According to this perspective the basis of the perception regarding subjective job insecurity is the interpretation of factors associated with the work environment on an individual basis. Even if individuals are confronted with the same objective situation their perception regarding the risk of work loss differs (Sverke & Hellgren, 2002). Therefore both job insecurities are associated with each other however; the level and severity of subjective job insecurity can differ in an organization where employees have equal amounts of objective job insecurity. 2.2. Cognitive-Emotional Job Insecurity According to this perspective the cognitive job insecurity indicates the estimated possible job loss of an employee in the near future while emotional job insecurity indicates the concern and fear of the employee regarding the loss of work. Accordingly, cognitive job insecurity is one of the determinants of emotional job insecurity. However, emotional job insecurity is comprised of more than the threat perceived in terms of the current job situation (Anderson & Pontusson, 2007:214). The distinction between cognitive and emotional job insecurity has a significant role in understanding the concept of job insecurity. For example, employees may believe that a job loss will incur without feeling concern for a possible job loss. In contrast, job loss can be worrisome for an employee with financial responsibility who is not concerned about the possible results of a job loss (Slack, 2004). In this case, a cognitive impact develops first which is subsequently generated into job insecurity in an emotional sense. 2.3. Holistic (Quantitative) and Multidimensional (Qualitative) Job Insecurity Holistic (quantitative) job insecurity is defined as the threat of job loss or uncertainty about work. Multidimensional (qualitative) job insecurity is not limited to an uncertainty regarding the continuity of work on the part of the employee but also an uncertainty about certain characteristics of work such as promotion opportunities, income flow and sovereignty. Holistic (quantitative) job insecurity is a more severe threat compared to multidimensional (qualitative) job insecurity. As a natural result of this situation significant results such as financial losses, losses in social status and social losses related to employment are generated. In other words while multidimensional (qualitative) job insecurity manifest behavioral changes in terms of work, holistic (quantitative) job insecurity generates psychological stress and illness and therefore is accepted as a more significant stress factor (De Witte et al., 2010). 3. FACTORS CAUSING JOB INSECURITY Various factors directly or indirectly influence the different levels and severities of the manifestation of job insecurity and its perception by individuals. These factors can be studied under four main headings which are individual, organizational, economic and legal.
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3.1. Individual Factors A part of the individual factors generating job insecurity are related to the qualifications and employability of the individual while the other part involves the personal characteristics of the individual which influence the individual’s perception regarding the circumstances (Çakır, 2007). Particularly the state of affairs regarding employability which indicate the qualifications and competencies of an individual can be perceived as factors which decrease or increase the risk of job insecurity. Therefore it is safe to say that high qualifications and competencies will increase mobility in the labor market and thus the job insecurity perception of employees who are not concerned about unemployment will be less. Personality traits cause different levels and severity perceptions regarding job insecurity and is related to the strength of resistance against this feeling of threat. In this aspect personal traits such as self confidence, self esteem of the individual, internal/external locus of control, positive/negative affect can be listed as significant elements with an impact particularly on the perception of subjective job insecurity. For example it has been foreseen that employees with internal locus of control who believed that they had the strength to resist any threats from the ambient environment will perceive job insecurity on a lower level than employees with external locus of control. 3.2. Organizational Factors The higher the number of expected changes to incur in an organization by an employee the higher the perception level of job insecurity will be. Organizational change may cause the disruption of the psychological engagement between the employee and the organization as well as induce a feeling of lack of control and anxiety in the employees. Furthermore, change can cause various rumors within an organization. Employees who take incorrect rumors to predict the individual results of the change may generate an unrealistic perception of job insecurity. Under such circumstances the employee will feel even more distress about a potential job loss (Ashford, Lee & Bobko, 1989:806). Therefore developments such as downsizing, re-engineering, outsourcing, company mergers, technological changes and flexibility applications which cause organizational change can be listed as organizational elements which trigger job insecurity. 3.3. Economic Factors Another one of the factors that leads to concern about the continuity of the employee's employment is associated with economic conditions. Labor demand is generated by indirect demand and therefore there is a direct association between economic stability and job security. In this context, an increase in job insecurity is observed during periods when there is a decrease in the volume of economic activity on a global and national level (Felstead & Nick, 1999). In other words, the experiences of employees regarding flexible work, changes in wages and individual/mass layoffs associated with economic recession or crisis may enhance the perception of job insecurity. Indeed according to researchers (Anderson & Pottuson, 2007) the high level of unemployment manifesting during economic crisis periods has a negative impact on the expectations of an employee of finding other employment and consolidates the perception of job insecurity. For example according to a study carried out by Önder and Wasti (2002) in Turkey revealed that the job insecurity perception of employees before the crisis in November 2000 had been lower than in the post crisis period when downsizing policies were applied. 3.4. Legal Factors The legal factors which generate job insecurity, in general are related to the legal regulation dealing with work contracts, the characteristics of work contracts and the right to unionize. Work contracts prevent employers from arbitrary dismissal and have the objective of protecting employees. Therefore it can be said that employees with legal protection will experience less job insecurity than unprotected employees. On the other hand the features of the work contract also are among the factors which affect the employee’s job insecurity perception. Therefore it is asserted that the job insecurity perception of part time and full time employees and those on fixed term and indefinite contracts is different. Unions which have been established by employees to protect and develop common economic, social rights and benefits are structures which are believed by the majority of employees to deliver various benefits on condition that they are members. Unions endeavor to make collective contracts with employers to challenge the dismissal of employees and stipulate provisions which prevent illegal layoffs 91
by the employer (Bingöl, 2016). Therefore it can be asserted that the presence of unions and union membership are influential in decreasing the perception of job security by protecting employees against employers. 4. JOB INSECURITY FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE TOURISM SECTOR Together with the increase of economic and social problems which are employment-based throughout the world job insecurity has become a serious threat for many sectors, including the tourism sector. A review of the results of studies which analyze job security within the framework of the tourism sector with its multidimensional aspects for the past ten years reveals that the level of risk perceptions in terms of the job insecurity of tourism employees is not low. (Karacaoğlu, 2015; İzgi & Olcay, 2008; Yıldırım & Yirik, 2014, Zeytinoğlu, Keser, Yılmaz, Inelmen, Özsoy & Uygur, 2012). It is also evident that the fluctuation in the demand for tourism for the last years has had a negative impact on employment in the sector. For example according to data collected by the research unit of Mediterranean touristic Hoteliers and Operators Union (AKTOB) the increase rate of employment in tourism in Turkey receded from 12% to 5,1% in the first half of 2015. With this deceleration the increase in employment in the accommodation sector which was 11,7% in 2014 receded to 3,1% in the same period in 2015 (haberturk.com, 2016). A review of the tourism employment data of the European Union for 2014 reveals that 27% of the employees working in accommodation enterprises had been employed in their current jobs less than one year. The tenure rate in accommodation enterprises was the lowest among other sectors in Europe (ec.europa.eu, 2016). 4.1. Job Insecurity due to the Structural Features of the Tourism Sector It is anticipated that due to their structural characteristics various factors may influence the generation of job insecurity in the tourism sector. The factors can be listed as the seasonal structure of the tourism sector, the employment of personnel on a transient and short term basis, the vulnerability of the sector in economic and social crises, the sensitive and variable structure of the demand and revenue of tourism. The seasonal characteristic in the tourism sector is processed as ‘temporal imbalances incurred in the realization of tourism activities” (Jang, 2004). The increase and decrease observed in demand for touristic enterprises based on temporal changes are directly proportional with the rise and fall in employment. The seasonal fluctuations in the work volume in the sector cause fluctuations in the work force they demand. The unemployment which is manifested due to decreased demand for labor is called seasonal unemployment. The tourism sector is one of the sectors where seasonal unemployment is most prevalent. Therefore the rate of employment increases or decreases according to the intensity of the demand for tourism (Ünlüönen & Şahin, 2011). Tourism enterprises employ ‘seasonal’ personnel to meet the demand especially in high season. At the end of the season this personnel are left jobless, have no job security, cannot make solid plans for a career, have economic problems and subsequently lose their enthusiasm for work (Günel, 2009). According to the results of a study carried out by Yıldırım ve Yirik (2014) in Antalya province which is one of the main tourism centers in Turkey the perception of job insecurity of the employees increase due to the seasonal nature of the activities of hotel enterprises. According to the results of another study carried out in hotel enterprises as an output of the seasonal structure of tourism employment 85% of the employees of 5-star hotels had the intention to quit work (Bas-Collins, 2007). As the demand for tourism is concentrated for certain months of the year it is inevitable that due to the characteristics of touristic enterprises transient staff is employed alongside regular staff. The seasonal characteristic of the overall sector validates the conditions of underemployment (Olalı & Timur, 1988). Studies conducted in various sectors reveal the negative perceptions regarding the job insecurity of transient employees and the negative results of job insecurity. Cuyper and Witte (2007) have determined that job and life satisfaction among transient laborers is low and this is due to the fact that employers do nothing to ensure job security. Kuroki (2012) indicated that the overall rate of transient workers in the total labor market in Japan had increased by two and a half fold during the years 2002–2005 and increased from 0.9% to 2.1%. Kuroki also determined that this increase in the number of transient workers had been accompanied in parallel with a significant increase in the perception of job insecurity. Similarly Lee, Bobko and Chan (2006) manifested that when China moved from a 92
planned economy into a liberal market economy the number of transient workers had increased due to the autonomy given to investors and that less benefit was generated by these workers and that they had more concerns regarding job insecurity. Various proposals have been made to minimize the job insecurity established in the sector by seasonal changes in tourism activities. One of these proposals is to hire students or similar personnel with spare time as transient personnel employed during the peak season (İçöz, 2005). Another proposal is to focus on alternative tourism types such as health tourism, congress tourism, yachting tourism and prevent the fluctuations in demand incurring during certain periods of the year (Akgül, 2010). In addition to the individual initiatives and applications carried out in Europe on a country, region and sector basis to contend with the seasonality of the sector the European Union has initiated the Calypso Preparatory Action with an international perspective to decrease seasonality in tourism on a European level. Especially Spain has realized applications to support 3rd age tourism within the scope of social tourism to resolve the seasonality challenge of tourism (Küyük, 2012). Although tourism is a sector which undergoes seasonal fluctuations it is also a sector which is affected slowly by positive internal and external developments and very rapidly from negative internal and external developments (economic crisis, terror, social chaos, etc.) (Pearce, 1992). For example due to the terror attacks which took place in Ankara and Istanbul provinces in 2016 Turkey has fallen behind in global tourism. In comparison with 2015 the number of tourists visiting Turkey for the first two months of 2016 decreased by 8,5% and tourism revenue decreased at a rate of 15.7%. During the same term the number of tourists visiting Spain, a rival of Turkey in terms of tourism, increased with 12,5% and tourism revenue increased by 5.7% (turizmdatabank.com, 2016). According to data for January in 2016 the number of insured workers in the tourism sector decreased from 900 thousand to 700 thousand due to terror attacks (turizmdebusabah.com, 2016). Likewise, according to data from the World Tourism Organization, serious changes incurred in tourism revenue in the world in 2009 after the 2008 crisis which affected the whole world. In America which was the most affected country by the economic crisis tourism revenue receded by 14.4% compared with the previous year and by 13.6% in Spain and 12.4% in France. Crises on a global or national scale, terror incidents and other negative developments do not only affect the income-expenses statistics in the tourism sector, they also have an impact on the employment structure and labor market. In any crisis environment in parallel with the decrease in tourism demand and revenues, the first action to be taken by employers to decrease costs is to dismiss employees. Therefore the job security of the employees is lower compared to the employees of other sectors. Due to this characteristic of the tourism sector employees do not prefer the tourism sector in the long term (Yanardağ & Avcı, 2012). 4.2. Job Insecurity due to the Structure and Operation of Tourism Enterprises In addition to the structural characteristics of the tourism sector the various negative aspects generated by the current structure and operation of tourism enterprises may also enhance the job insecurity among employees. In general the factors due to the operation which causes job insecurity can be listed as failure to manage organizational restructuring correctly, employment of mainly unskilled labor in tourism enterprises, negative working conditions, failure to apply work contracts by the enterprises and lack of support for the unionizing and organization of employees. Within the past 10 years employees in many countries have been subjected to comprehensive changes such as organization re-structuring (corporate downsizing, closure of facility, re-organization of the workforce). As a result job security has practically disappeared in all sectors including tourism and job insecurity has been established. The decisions taken by the administrators of tourism enterprises regarding the re-structuring of the labor force do not support employees in terms of eliminating job insecurity and generate negative individual and organizational results (Probst & Lawler, 2006). One of the most important factors increasing job insecurity in the tourism sector is that tourism enterprises mainly employ unskilled labor. In Turkey, there is no mandate requiring the certification of those employed in the tourism sector which results in random employment in the sector. Likewise, it is evident that 25% of the employees working in accommodation enterprises in European Union member countries have low levels of education. The employment of unskilled labor is most prevalent in 93
accommodation enterprises in European Union member countries (ec.europa.eu, 2016). In 2011 the Ministry of Labor and Social Security in Turkey conducted an inspection of 106 hotel enterprises in the most popular tourism centers covering Antalya, Aydın and Muğla provinces. During the inspection it was determined that out of the accessed 26.884 tourism employees 48% had finished elementary school while 37% had graduated from secondary and high school. Although the necessity of employing qualified staff in the tourism sector throughout the country is widely spoken of most of the employees are elementary school graduates and uncertified (csgb.gov.tr, 2016). While the necessity for qualified labor in tourism enterprises is continuous the fact that the majority of the employees in the sector are individuals without an education in tourism enhances the possibility of failure (Akgül, 2010). Although the labor turnover rate is affected by factors such as the lack of a robust labor market on a sector basis, high unemployment rate in the sector, frequent application of seasonal work the turnover is on a high level especially in economies where unskilled labor is concentrated. In developed countries with extensively qualified labor the availability of a job security system to a certain degree is influential in reducing labor turnover in terms of the tourism sector. In contract in developing countries where unskilled labor is prevalent there is no job security system and unionized organization in the tourism sector is not efficient to induce a high level of labor turnover (Boz, 1999; Kılıç, 2000; Ünlüönen & Şahin, 2011). The perception of job insecurity of employees in the tourism sector can also be manifested due to the negativities generated by current working conditions in tourism enterprises. According to the results of the inspection conducted by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security in Turkey covering 106 hotel enterprises problems were encountered in 98 enterprises which violated working time rules (failure to comply with weekly working time, daily working was over 12 hours including breaks), unpaid employee receivables (98% of overtime fees-receivables in particular), weekly and annual leaves which have not been used (in 54 work places) (csgb.gov.tr, 2016). Such problems originating from the operation of tourism enterprises will cause the tourism sector to be an unreliable area of employment in the future in addition to the concerns and exhaustion generated in employees. Recent quantitative studies have achieved results which verify this prediction. İzgi and Olcay (2008) indicated that due to the working conditions hotel employees had concerns in terms of the future of their working lives and did not believe that they would be able to retire from their current work places. According to the results of another study conducted on students studying tourism education in Turkey revealed that the majority of the students were of the opinion that working hours in the tourism industry were long and irregular and that the work environment was stressful and exhausting (Duman, Tepeci & Unur, 2006). Another subject which needs to be addressed together with negative working conditions in the tourism sector within the scope of job insecurity is the lack of unionization and organization in tourism as well as the failure to implement the work contracts between employee and employer. Article 23 of the Universal Human Rights Declaration recognizes the right for everyone to establish a union and become a union member. Also, the declaration by the World Tourism Organization in 1999 ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’ emphasizes that tourism employees must have rights such as training, social security, job security, improvement of living conditions. However, in addition to having a work force which lacks organization the work force in the tourism sector especially in underdeveloped and developing countries is blocked from unionizing. For example, regardless of the rapid increase in the numbers of accommodation enterprises in Turkey very few of the employees are members of a union. This is prevented with collective labor agreements which also prevent implementation (Erdinç, 2008). Therefore it is evident that in parallel with economic developments and social changes in future years there is a need for a new employment and operation structure in the tourism sector. This new structure will bring individual, organizational and sectoral improvement with the job security presented to employees. 5. CONSEQUENCES OF JOB INSECURITY IN THE TOURISM SECTOR Quantitative studies conducted in recent years regarding job insecurity in particular have emphasized the negative individual, organizational and socio-economic consequences arising from job insecurity. 94
5.1. Consequences from the Perspective of Employees In our society work is a key element in social participation and in terms of recognition. The threat of becoming jobless means the prevention of this type of individual needs and being deprived of many more significant sources (social, financial and social). Job insecurity which transforms into an unattractive prediction in terms of the future of employees in time also has a negative impact on the psychological health of employees (Elst et al., 2014). Job insecurity is a significant burden on employees due to the long term ‘uncertainty’. ‘Uncertainty’ has a tendency to increase its detrimental impact based on two fundamental factors. The first one of these is that they are ‘unpredictable’ as well as ‘uncontrollable’. If job insecurity is ‘unpredictable’ this means that it is not clear what this concern will be in the future. The fact that it is ‘uncontrollable’ means that as a result of developing a feeling of powerlessness against the threat of job insecurity a loss of control will be inevitable. Both negative factors have a detrimental impact on the psychological health of employees (De Witte, 1999). Stress and stress related other psychological problems (anxiety, depression, stress and burnout, etc.) are the most common adverse outputs which develop in employees as a result of job insecurity perception. Based on the ‘psychological stress theory’ developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) many researchers address job insecurity in terms of a subjective assessment regarding the risk of an individual losing his job and its consequences. Thus without regard as to whether there is an objective threat or not, individual assessments regarding the threat of job insecurity will be accompanied by psychological stress already at the initial process (Hallier & Lyon, 1996). Researchers who address the impact of job insecurity on the mental and spiritual health of employees have determined that employees with a high perception of job insecurity are often plagued by stress derived conditions such as tension (Elst et al., 2014), anxiety (Lee & Chen, 2006), emotional exhaustion (Boswell, Buchanan, & Harris, 2014). At the end of the 1980s, a study which lasted two years was conducted by Ohio State and Michigan University on the consequences of chronic job insecurity prevalent among employees. The study revealed that job insecurity did not only have psychological symptoms but physical symptoms as well. According to the achieved findings it was manifested that job insecurity caused conditions such as shortness of breath, chest tightness and pain, racing or pounding heart, skin irritation, ringing in the ears, eye strain, frequent headaches (Heaney, Israel, & House, 1994). Especially in labor-intensive sectors such as tourism employees who are continuously in motion must also struggle to maintain their physical health. In time psychological and physical ailments may cause employees to display negative attitudes and behavior in the work place. Employees with a high perception of job insecurity may develop behavior with a tendency for absenteeism, intent on leaving, low self esteem. Furthermore, significant statistical findings have been reached about job insecurity triggering aggressive and deviant behavior in the work place (Boswell et al., 2014; Kinnunen, Feldt, & Mauno, 2003; Glambek, Matthiesen, Hetland, & Einarsen, 2014). Alongside the studies which have emphasizes the adverse consequences of job insecurity during the past decade, it has also been advocated that the perception of job security should be kept on a certain level in the work place. This outlook advocates that if job insecurity is eliminated the performance and productivity of employees will decrease, the employees will have less regard for their work and be indifferent about development (Calhoun, 2009). This outlook considers that the perception of job insecurity can be assessed as a motivation factor in enterprises. 5.2. Consequences from the Perspective of Enterprises In time the negative perception, attitude and behavior caused by job insecurity in employees in tourism also becomes a significant threat element from the perspective of enterprises. Job insecurity is one of the determinants of the strength of the bond between a tourism enterprise and an employee. Enterprise administrators and leaders display a greedy nature and endeavor to protect their short term profits at all costs. However, they do not display an effort to establish a comprehensive vision for the robustness of the enterprise in the long term. Shutting down units and dismissing employees by enterprise administrators in order to realize their short term profit targets is a threatening element to the robustness of the enterprise in the long term. For example, when Lehman Brothers was on the verge of bankruptcy the company CEO announced that he had received the enterprise by paying compensation worth 500 million dollars. Subsequently many employees were dismissed and work units were shut 95
down. Such problems are material losses which drag enterprises to bankruptcy as well as one of the outlets of distrust between administrators and employees (Lawton, Taye & Ivanov, 2014). In time the climate of mutual distrust established by the job insecurity within the enterprise will decrease the loyalty of employees as well as the organizational citizenship behavior of employees (Feather & Rauter, 2004). Measurements conducted regarding the work oriented welfare level of employees have lead to the conclusion that the perception of job insecurity has an adverse impact on job satisfaction (Artz & Kaya, 2014). At the same time job insecurity both directly and through job dissatisfaction causes a significant decrease in the organizational performances of employees (Selenko, Makikangas & Kinnunen, 2013). Every employee working in a tourism enterprise mostly has to work a heavy workload to protect the relevant enterprise from bankruptcy. A serious decrease in productivity and innovative work behavior has been observed in employees due to job insecurity. This situation causes an obstructive process in the struggle of the enterprise to stay afloat (Lawton et al., 2014). In fact according to Greenhalgh (1983) enterprises which fail to manage a job insecurity crisis correctly are likely to enter an organizational collapse process. 5.3. Social and Economic Consequences Job insecurity may require employees not only to struggle with the work environment but also with a life crisis in the social environment. Individual life crises have been broadly defined as highly demanding situations in which the person must adjust his behavior to a new set of circumstances. Changes in the social and economic setup conditions, the uncertainties and attitudes regarding the degree of impact on the employment security perceived by the individuals will cause an individual life crisis (Jacobson & Hartley, 1991). Considering that the most significant element in the establishment of social dynamics is the ‘individual’ it is safe to say that the stress, concern and uncertainties caused by job insecurity will decrease the welfare level of societies. According to the results of a study conducted by Knabe ve Rätzel (2011) with data they obtained from the German Socio-Economic Panel poor reemployment opportunities established for the unemployed and job insecurity in employees have an adverse impact on the life satisfaction of individuals. When this situation transforms into a chronic social problem it turns into a virus that penetrates the whole society to cause an unhealthy social structure. Another issue that concerns the social consequences of job insecurity is that it is not only the individuals who are affected but their families and especially children as well. Accordingly the job insecurity of families and the associated adverse experiences have a negative impact during the socialization process when the work values of children and their attitudes are being formed (Çakır, 2007). Studies dealing with the social impact of unemployment manifest that job insecurity has negative social consequences which need to be addressed. In a study conducted on personal and family relationships it has been determined that job insecurity caused distress and tension in families and had an adverse impact on affairs between spouses and even caused divorce (Gaunt & Benjamin, 2007). This situation is a threat to the ‘family’ institution which is one of the social organizations ensuring a contribution to the shaping of societies. Anxiety about job insecurity is addressed within the framework of organizational psychology and behavior discipline with an overriding social aspect. Usually economic factors are addressed as the reason for job insecurity. However, the low productivity and performance observed in employees as a result of job insecurity will leave tourism enterprises face to face with serious economic crises in the medium and long term (Lawton et al., 2014), This situation is a significant problem caused by job insecurity from an economic perspective. Furthermore, the cost of the organizational and public applications carried out to eliminate the perception of job insecurity established in employees is an issue which is also discussed in terms of the economic consequences of job insecurity. The applications conducted with a view on decreasing job insecurity in society may transform into serious financial problems and therefore the necessity to handle the total costs caused by job insecurity within a realistic financial policy framework is emphasized (Gianetti, 2014). 6. CONTENDING WITH JOB INSECURITY IN THE TOURISM SECTOR Job insecurity is the result of worldwide economic changes and all modern societies are afflicted. 96
Perhaps in the near future the structures of these changes and their significance will progressively increase. These developments emphasize the necessity of various interventions to decrease the complicated structure of job insecurity as well as its impact. Due to its problematic nature as a result of being unpredictable and uncontrollable, experts working in various areas (psychologists, economists, management scientists, public administration experts, etc.) have generated proposals and developed interventions to minimize the negative impact of job insecurity. 6.1. Individual and Organizational Struggle on the Micro Level The negative impact of job insecurity on the employees in the tourism sector can primarily be decreased with the resistance displayed by employees at certain points. Psychologists and researchers who are experts on the subject have developed various proposals with this perspective. ‘Job control’ is the most common one among these proposals. Job control is defined as the degree of potential control and execution that employees have regarding all their tasks throughout the working day. Job control is recommended as one of the ways that employees can overcome work stress. Employees who are in control of their work have decreased work stress and reduced job insecurity (Schreurs, Emmerik, Notelaers & De Witte, 2010). In addition to job control employees need to have a faith in ‘self-efficacy’ and ‘the ability to overcome’ is also an important impact source for contending with job insecurity. Self-efficacy is the faith and judgment of the individual in terms of his degree of success in overcoming possible circumferential incidents (Bandura, 1994). Self-efficacy is viewed as a strong moderator between stress sources and tension in the work environment (Schreurs et al., 2010). The ability to overcome is a resolution oriented strategy developed to minimize a stressful situation incurring in the work environment for various reasons (emotional or other problems). There are strong empiric findings indicating that employees and administrators implementing these strategies successfully will have low job stress and job insecurity (Van Zyl, Eeden & Rohtmann, 2013). A strong and positive personality is necessary to contend with a precarious work environment and the accompanying stress sources especially in a sector like the tourism sector which is based on human oriented productivity. A positive personality is able to balance the mental and spiritual health employees better than a person with negative tendencies. This emphasizes that employees in the tourism sector must act with a positive personality in order to contend with the perception of job insecurity (Roskies, Louis-Guerin & Fournier, 1993). Furthermore environmental pressure and organization-al change implementations which have been incurred as a result of necessity at the same time present an opportunity of self-fulfillment for employees regardless of how much their perception of job insecurity is increased. Therefore job insecurity can be transformed into a strong motivation tool in time with its inherent uncertainly and stress. For example, a new front desk automation program developed for tourism enterprises will generate a new style and process of executing the work. Therefore in order for the front desk employees working in the sector to adapt to the technological change and preserve their current jobs they must start a self-fulfillment process with various tools such as training. This situation underlines the fact that employees contending with job insecurity also display an effort in selffulfillment and adaptation with the new business world (Vermeylen, 2005). At the same time the robust operation of the process will be ensured with the support of various administrative decisions and applications in contending with job insecurity. Various proposals are purported in administration literature as a response to the question, “how can the administrators of tourism enterprises contribute to minimizing the negative impact of the perception of job insecurity?”. Some of these proposals are ensuring accurate information to employees, increasing communication with employees, delivering new training for alternative employment opportunities and teaching employees how to deal with stress caused by job insecurity (Sverke & Hellgren, 2002). The most significant stimulant which could cause the perception of job insecurity to increase among employees in the future is lack of communication. Open, courteous and clear communication may increase the unpredictable and uncontrollable aspect of concern for the future and furthermore, this kind of communication will make the employees perceive themselves as respectable individuals (De Witte, 2005).
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The importance of job control in employees contending with the perception of job insecurity was emphasized previously. Administrators can apply various procedures to increase the control of employees regarding the work. For example, the participation of employees in decision making, applications such as work autonomy, job enrichment can be used within the scope of administrative support to increase the control of their work by employees. However, it is important for the robust functioning of the struggle against job insecurity that both communications as well as participatory management techniques are implemented within a fair framework (De Witte, 2005). Greenhalgh (1983) who was one of the first researchers to handle the subject of job insecurity in management literature underlines that enterprise administrators have various responsibilities to minimize the negative results generated by job insecurity. These include responsibilities such as the strategic planning of human resources, displaying necessary efforts to minimize disputes between employees-employer, showing an interest in the ‘powerlessness’ of employees caused by job insecurity, informing employees about any aspect of their work as soon as possible and helping those who have lost their jobs. Such applications presented by administrators to support the mitigation of stress and tension induced by job insecurity have also been observed to increase positive employee behavior. 6.2. Social Struggle at Macro Level Although every employee is a member of the enterprise where they work at the same time they have social identities as individuals in the society they live in. Therefore job insecurity and the negative aspects that accompany it are a source of problems on an individual and organizational micro level as well as a social problem on a macro level. This reality manifests the necessity of establishing a social support mechanism at the same time to contend with job insecurity. Each positive step to be taken within a social structure for the resolution of employment related problems such as job insecurity must be backed by a strong national culture. Hofstede who is known for the national culture typology he developed asserted that during the 1980’s collectivist cultures emphasized job security and good working conditions more than individualist cultures. Many studies conducted in subsequent years resulted in views which confirmed this outlook (Probst & Lawler, 2006). Therefore, contending with job insecurity in collectivist cultures where the understanding of ‘we’ rather than ‘I’ dominate and groups which prioritize the socialist perspective instead of a personal one are prominent generates much more positive results. The term social support has been used to refer to the functions performed for the individual by significant others, such as family members, friends, and colleagues. These significant others can provide different types of support, such as emotional (i.e., care, love, and trust), appraisal (i.e., transmission of information relevant to self-evaluation), informational (i.e., helping individuals to help themselves), and instrumental support (i.e., various sorts of practical help). Social support has often been cited as an important buffer against various workplace stressors including job insecurity (Schreurs, Van Emmerik, Günter & Germeys, 2012). The state mechanism which has a critical role in building social welfare and peace must also take an active role in contending with job insecurity. In many countries such as Germany, China, Japan various applications are implemented under the title ‘Employment Protection Regulations’. Although the enforcement power of government sourced measures in the resolution of current employment problems in a country is high so is its power to minimize economic and financial stress sources (Gianetti, Madia & Moretti, 2014). Institutionalized organization also has a significant role in contending against elements such as job insecurity which threatens public health and in defending the rights of individuals and the protection of their interests. In this context it is necessary to support and activate unionization and corporate structures such as non-governmental organizations to resolve the social problems caused by the private sector. Inadequate social organization which is viewed as one of the primary problems of the tourism sector is also blocking the struggle of contending with job insecurity in a sectoral sense. Therefore, addressing tourism employees within a social state framework as well as a protective social union in terms of their work and social rights will be an appropriate approach.
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CONCLUSION Strategy and the new competition oriented world economy have manifested a multi-functional labor force profile called ‘intellectual capital’. The functional changes which have taken place in expectations regarding the labor force emphasizes that employees who can discover their talents and use them in the right place, who are able to think in a human and service oriented manner and can play an influential role in the decision making within the organization can get a toe hold in the sector. Therefore, employees who have been transformed into a key component of development from a micro aspect and economy from a macro aspect must prepare themselves for new working conditions not only physically but also in terms of mental and psychological resilience. During this process one of the main threats that are waiting for them is ‘job insecurity’. A strong psychological infrastructure is necessary in order to survive in a sector with a variable and sensitive employment structure like the tourism sector. In the tourism sector like in every sector administrators make various strategically decisions and implement them to achieve optimal productivity from the work force. When administrators take decisions involving employment they are guided by many variables such as the structure of the tourism sector, the quality of the work force, future targets, capital to be transferred into human resources. Job insecurity is an individual perception and attitude which is generated by the reflection of the administrative decisions regarding employment into the work environment. This concept which threatens the mental and spiritual health of employees does not only feed from organizational factors but from economic, legal and individual factors as well. Tourism which delivers service oriented activities and is a labor intensive sector is one of the sectors in which individual, organizational and social problems based on job insecurity are most commonly encountered. This situation can be caused by the temporary employment due to the seasonal characteristic of the sector or because it is a sector which is susceptible in terms of chaotic setups just as much as from adverse working conditions or managerial applications. Regardless of the source in time the perception of job insecurity causes numerous psychological ailments such as stress, anxiety, burnout in addition to mental and physical ailments. Employees with a high perception of risk regarding the future of their current jobs will likely lack motivation which is accompanied with low productivity and performance. It is emphasized that if job insecurity is transformed into a chronic and sectoral problem it will cause social and economic losses in addition to individual losses or losses for the enterprise. The comprehensive area of destruction with its multi-dimensional results underlines the necessity to manage job insecurity properly from a macro and micro aspect. Sector employees, administrators, social and public administrations have various responsibilities in contending with job insecurity. As a priority, employees should develop their current knowledge and skills and be transformed into individuals who are in control of their jobs. Administrators must take decisions which support employees with a perception of job insecurity both within and outside the enterprise and implement them. Every member of society should develop a life style which advocates the rights of the individual and those around him, who listen to problems and generate solutions with a collectivist culture rather than an individualistic one. Within an understanding of a social state, state administrations should generate solutions to eliminate this negative perception with legal regulations which protect the rights of employees. In conclusion, in the present day when social rights are advocated more efficiently due to civil society structuring, union structures and civil society structuring for tourism employees should be supported and enhanced. By virtue of all these elements the tourism sector can be transformed into a sector which presents a reliable work environment for society. REFERENCES Ağer, İ. (2006). Türk Çalışma Yaşamında İş Güvencesi. Ankara: Adalet Yayınları. Akgül, V. (2010). Türkiye’de Turizmin Mevsimsellikten Çıkarılarak On İki Aya Yayılmasına Yönelik Değerlendirme: Öne Çıkan Alternatif Turizm Türleri, T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Tanıtma Genel Müdürlüğü, Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara. Aktuğ, S.S. (2009). İş Güvencesinin Sosyal, Ekonomik ve hukuki Temelleri ve Türkiye Değerlendirmesi. Doktora Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. 99
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Chapter 8 Leadership in Service Enterprises Ahmet BAYTOK, Hasan Hüseyin SOYBALI INTRODUCTION With the rise of management concept, the difficulty of managing large organizations that began to emerge at the beginning of the twentieth century and provision of more effective management of people and resources have brought the concept of leadership to the forefront. Under rapidly changing conditions which are posed by increasing competition, especially with globalization, it is only possible to become successful by actualizing appropriate changes within the enterprise, external environment and especially with meeting the expectations of the customers. These mentioned facts have played an important role in the increasing interest in leadership. Unlike administrators’ roles to manage systems that are founded with the legal authority and based on specific positions, the need for a constant change requires leaders who are capable of ensuring accordance between the human resource and the job done (Joiner,1987: 1; Brake, 1997: 2) and can transform systems and direct people to purposes more effectively. Instead of "administrators" using the legal authority based on this position, the "Leader" concept has achieved prominence (Koçel, 1998: 396) and leadership has become one of the fundamental concepts of modern management approaches. Leadership is a concept required in all circumstances and time of periods. It can be said that an orchestra without its conductor is no different than a stack of musicians and the instruments, and can be concluded that organizations without leadership are not a thing different from piles of human and the machine (Newstrom and Davis, 1993: 222). As in all areas and the sectors, leadership is important and necessary in the service sector businesses in terms of maintaining their competitive nature. The labor-intensive structure of the sector, in particular, and internal control caused by simultaneous production and consumption characteristics make it necessary for the managers of the enterprises operating in the sector to carry leadership qualities. Because leadership in a sense means being a follower and the employees and managers’ perceptions in service business related to leadership qualities are directly reflected to their jobs and attitudes and behavior towards their customers. In order to sustain the rapid changes that have been experienced in the industry in recent years and the competitive features of complex structure, it requires managers with leadership qualities who are able to determine vision, mission, structure and values adequately in administrative aspects. Thus, this development exhibits the necessity of leadership in the service sector. For this purpose, this section will first provide basic conceptual information concerning leadership and then will define service leadership with the information obtained. CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP Political, military, religious, business or at which level a group may be formed, someone in the group has to assume the leadership role due to the hierarchical nature of the human being because of ensuring the intra-group order and guiding the group towards its purpose and targets. Anthropology studies have shown that there is always a leader who acts first and plays a central role in the group decisions even in primitive societies where there is not a corporate executive, a legislator or a Chosen One (Lewis, 1974). Therefore, researchers note that the research of the history of civilization is nothing more than investigating what leaders have done and why (Yukl, 1994: 1; Bass,1990: 3). Leadership is a primal issue told in the myths and legends of the prehistoric periods such as in "Epic of Gilgamesh", "Egyptian Hieroglyphics”, Plato's "State", Homer's "Iliad", Machiavelli's " The Prince" (Bass, 1990: 34) and in the life story of important historical figures such as Ataturk, Attila, Alexander the Great, etc.
Assoc. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management Assoc. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management
Leadership is one of the mostly studied concepts among the behavioral science topics. More than 5,000 empirical research on leadership at academic level were carried out (Yukl, 1994) and leadership was defined in 350 different ways (Bennis and Nanus, 1985: 4). Looking at the research done in the last fifty years, it can be seen that some questions such as "Is leadership a quality or is being a leader innate or is it an acquired personality trait? Is leadership an interpersonal process between the leader and the followers? Does leadership mean that the leader shows consistency to the whole group or team? Is leadership a process covering all the system or a collectivist management and supervision of the process?" have not been asnwered yet (Yammarino et al., 2001:149). That the leadership is a complex and a comprehensive concept (Cribbin, 1972: 9) which can ascribe different meanings and is defined by researchers by their personal perspectives (Yukl, 1989: 252) according to interest of them makes it difficult to conceptualize leadership. The first reason among all is that leadership concept has been employed to suggest different concepts. There are some concepts that are often used instead of leadership particularly power, government, authority, and control (Yukl, 1994: 2). While leadership has common points with these concepts, the difference is how these common points are exploited by the leaders. Table 1. Myths Related With Leadership Concept, Traditional Perspectives and Realities Myths
Traditional Perspectives
Realities
Leader is stable and tidy.
Leader challenges the process and runs after changes.
Leader connects with the followers through his extraordinary movements and affects them.
.
Through voluntary participation and encouragement, leader connects with the followers. Leader has a short-term perspective.
Leader often has a long-term perspective.
Leader is a calm and analytical thinker and acts devoid of his emotions
Leader takes the truth as they are but also uses the feelings of people. The dynamism of the leader does not result from his different personal characteristics. On the contrary, the dynamism of the leader comes from his faith and passion to succeed.
Leader is charismatic. Leader has distinguishable characteristics from other people.
The first job of the leader is Leader does not control people. The leader the control (people, money, allows people to act. materials and time). It is a place and position.
It is a process.
Only senior managers can be leaders.
Being at highest positions makes you an administrator, not a leader.
It is the effect.
It is the interaction.
Source: adapted from Kouzes and Posner, 1987: xvi-xvii.
Another major cause of the problems in understanding the concept of leadership is the basis of leadership. Because leadership is as a myth perceived mostly with regard to senior management based on a position. However, leadership is not only the activities resulting from the legal position. Just like it may come out of legal position of the activity, it may also be a person's action at any position. Being unable to make a distinction between management and leadership disregards the fact that leadership does not depend on legislative power, authority and position, and necessitates different functions and 104
features. Another important point to remember in this regard is that an employee who is assigned or promoted to a post in any organization becomes an administrator, not a leader. The myths about the concept has made major contributions to the understanding of the conceptual structure of leadership. The myths about leadership has some pre-acceptances. This situation created the basic research topics in the conceptualization of the leadership since the study of leadership started at academic level, and thus different perspectives and approaches have been developed about leadership. The most obvious features of the myths about leadership are that they are leader oriented. As shown in Table 1, the most important myth about leadership is "being charismatic" and depending on that “leaders are born, not made”. Apart from this, there are other valuable myths saying that the leadership is considered as a "position" and it is believed that “only senior managers can be the leaders” and is seen as a unilateral "action". Between the time periods that passed within the beginning of the 1930s on which leadership began to be studied at an academic level and up to the present time, the studies done on the subject by researchers in different fields, which are general truths accepted by many researchers today, revealed some conclusions. They are; leadership is a process consisting of a leader, followers and conditions. Achieving a particular goal or objective via the interaction between leader and followers constitute complementaries of the process (Koçel, 1998: 397; Başaran, 1998: 47). Leadership = f (Leader, Followers, Status and Conditions) Leadership is a process, not an event that is only dependent on the leader and the characteristics of his personality. In other words it is not a solo act. The leadership studies that aim to reveal what traits make leaders different from other people are the most important indicators that there is no one universal quality about leadership. Therefore, today's leadership is regarded as a process in which the follower is also as effective as leaders, not a leader oriented thing that is caused by leader’s influence. The process takes place between the leader and the followers in a given situation and there is not a one-way influence in this process arising from the leader to the followers but rather there is an interaction between the leader and the followers. In other words, as the leader influences the followers, the followers also affect the leader. Leadership is not a single event but it is a group of activities (Blake and McCanse, 1991: 4; Tichy and Cohen, 1997: 25; O’Toole, 1999: 8). Burns (1978) stated that the biggest mistake made in leadership studies was handling the leadership literature and the followers literature as two seperate issues and claimed that these two concepts should be considered jointly. Pree (1990) and Northouse (1997) indicated that there would not be a need for leadership without the followers and the leadership would only exist by the relationship between the leader and the followers. They emphasized that in the process the followers held as much importance of as the leaders. The basic factor that makes the followers important in the leadership process is that a person is regarded as a leader and is then elected, and the objectives driven by the leader are carried out by the followers. The leader is the person who played a leading role in this process. This role is rooted in the followers’ belief that it will contribute to the achievement of their objectives, accepting to follow this person since that person was the first to act (Burns, 1978: 20). The Status and Conditions are other important determinants of the leadership process. The effect of conditions or status about the process was firstly demonstrated by Stogdill (1948). Stogdill emphasized in the study that many of the quality, features and capabilities that a leader should possess are determined by the status within which a leader operates and added the importance of the status into the leadership process. Later on the studies carried out in the contingency approach, the impact of the status and conditions on the process was set forth more clearly. Today, the conditions are seen as the determinants of many leadership styles and behavior characteristics. Many studies have sought to answer the question that “What characteristics should a leader possess as personality?” from the time leadership began to be investigated at the academic level. Although researchers have been unable to reveal even a single feature directly linked with which personality traits should the leader own in the characteristic approach studies and in more recent studies performed in the following periods, they have managed to obtain some determinations. In this context, considering the information provided by leadership approaches and today's conditions, as personality traits a leader 105
should have intelligence, credibility, reliability, accuracy, cognitive ability, empathy, listening and influence, which will provide the leader with benefits in playing the leadership role. One of the significant subjects about the study of leadership is the question question that which funtion the leadership fullfills at the organizational level. The organizational function of the leader has been tried to be expressed with different approaches (behavioral, situational) but the approaches that were put forward to have attempted to provide some information. In addition, they were considered to be missing a point and have been criticized. It is to say, leadership is a quite wide subject as a content and is evaluated with its only one aspect by everyone to uncloak these results. The information provided by the approaches related to leadership and the fact that today's complex and ever-changing environment pose is that today's organizations need leaders. Bisesi (1983: 62) states that “Nobody knows it better than the one doing this job. However, no one in the whole of that business system may know the importance of harmony better than the leader himself”. Today's changing environment requires more leadership along with new kinds of leadership (Conger, 1993: 203). In other words, it is a must for today's business leaders to fulfill job and task linked duties and responsibilities without losing strategic focus and control; to think more flexible, innovative, creative and changable and to become challenging people. A leader who wants to be successful at the organizational level instead of employing the traditional structure and control should focus on motivating their efforts, being a source of inspiration, using the strategic vision, performing employee empowerment at all levels, collecting and sharing information within the organization, collecting and integrating external information, challenging the status quo and enabling creativity (Dess and Picken, 2000: 18–19). To ensure that, present and future organization leaders should center their organizational functions on vision creation, strategy formulation, change creation and employee empowerment. LEADERSHIP IN SERVICE ENTERPRISES Leadership is a subject matter that has been studied in the fields of military, politics and social sciences and in all industries at enterprise level. Service enterprises are also included in this scope. In leadership studies conducted in the service enterprizes; the characteristics of services were taken into account and the leadership approaches developed in the past and current ones were used, and it was investigated to determine the dimensions of leadership and what the most suitable approaches were (Normann, 1984; Walker, 1986; Worsfold, 1989; House, 1992; Hinkin and Tracey, 1994; Sparrow, 1995; Testa, 2001; Kasper, 2002; Chathoth and Olsen, 2002). Since human factor plays a key role in service production, "Should the service enterprise employees be managed in the same way as military or industrial company employees?" question emerged (Wilderom, 1991: 6) and this initiated the research and the use of "service leadership" term as a new leadership approach by some researchers in the 1990s (Zeithaml et al., 1990; Wilderom, 1991; Edvinsson, 1992; Siehl, 1992; Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Chowdhary and Saraswati, 2003). Service leadership, as a different leadership approach, has attracted the attention on the basis of two basic reasons. The first reason why there has been an interest in service leadership is that services have become a vital element for any enterprises in maintaining their competitive structure. In today’s world, products do not express any meaning by themselves; in contrast, they even produce problems that need to be solved. The solution to these problems lies behind the services. Because services play a vital role in maintaining customer satisfaction and only customer satisfaction can provide customer loyalty. This situation makes it imperative to all enterprises to understand the service dimension of whatever they produce. (Keller and Wilderom, 1992: 55-56). In addition, today has constituted an environment for the enterprises in which they can either exhibit not adequate business performance or achieve only limited success, whereby enterprises advocate competition within the axis of product and quality and internalize managerial approaches that advice the process approach and systematic thinking to be successful. It is difficult for today's modern enterprises to sustain their absolute technology-based competitive advantages for a long time as the technology can be easily imitated by competitors (Chowdhary and Saraswati, 2003: 106). This situation raises the question for enterprises that how they can differentiate themselves from the competitors and it requires the diversion of attention and resources to other areas 106
that create value. The answer for this question and the area in which differentiaton will be created is "the service" itself. No matter what industry an enterprise operates in, under the present circumstances, it can only gain advantages with its "service" by creating differences, increasing productivity, creating customer loyalty, being an advertising tool and getting rid of the price competition (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 2). The second reason why service leadership has drawn a lot of interest is that the differences linked to the sectoral characteristics of the service sector increase the necessity for the service enterprise managers and employees to have leadership qualities. Depending on the rapid changes taking place in the services sector, organizational structures are getting more complex each passing day, which increases the requirement of managers that can determine the vision, mission, structure and values with good leadership qualities in administrative aspects in order for the businesses to maintain their competitive qualities. Besides, the labor-intensive structure, the internal control caused by simultaneous production and consumption, which are some of the distinctive characteristics of the service sector, make it mandatary for the business managers operating in the sector to hold leadership qualities. Because leadership in a sense means being a follower and the employees and managers’ perceptions in service business related to leadership qualities are directly reflected to their jobs and attitudes and behavior towards their customers. The mentioned situation reveals the result that there is a need to treat service leadership as a separate approach to leadership and it is advised that it be studied separately. A) Service Leadership Concept Although leadership has the same significance in all industries, it necessitates that leadership in service enterprises should be explored as a different leadership approach since it holds some distinctive features such as; the importance of the service has increased recently, it is abstract and different, it is dependent on a particular location and time, human factor plays a major role in the production, the customers’ active participation in the production is required (Wilderom, 1991: 7). It is because “There is a direct relationship between good service and the leadership” (Burwash, 1997: 13). Leadership, in a sense, means being a follower. As being a follower, employees in service business need a role model who may manage to show the employees a vision to believe, a success culture to be the best, a team spirit to improve, encourage and guide them (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 5). The determinant of all these organizational parts of the system and the role model to be taken by followers signal being the service leader. Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) stated that a service leader plays a vital role in the excellent service delivery in service enterprises to customers and added that the leadership model (Figure 1) created by Locke et al., (1991) was a suitable model for service leadership. The model refers to the service leader’s specifications required in personality (motive, quality, knowledge, skill, ability) and administrative (the vision and the implementation of the vision) aspect. The researchers who have taken the fact into account that the importance of the service sectors are increasing each passing day and the structure of the business sector is getting more complex depending on the continuous changes have tried to express service leadership in the context of the vision and implementation of the vision. While the model provides basic information about service leadership, it fails to supply detailed information about its managerial functions. Hence, the following points should be taken into account in order to reveal the conceptual structure of the service leadership in addition to Zeithaml and Bitner's (1996) statements: Service leadership requires having some certain personality traits, Service leadership can take place at all levels, Changing people's ideas and values in service companies is only achivable through service leadership, Service leadership is pro-change but not traditional, The service leader leads via his examples and is always involved in the work process. 107
Employee empowerment in service enterprises could be obtained by service leadership, Quality and excellent service may be provided by the service leadership, The service leader regards the employee customer theme as an opportunity to create the future strategy of the company, Leadership roles required for the services in the success of the service leader are important. The studies carried out on leadership display that leadership is not an innate quality but they also emphasized that being a leader requires some certain personality traits. Service leadership is not an innately acquired quality. However, it is believed that in order for the service leader to be successful, the leader has to own some personality traits. It is stated that it is mandatory for service leadership to have particularly intelligence, honesty, reliability, accuracy, clarity, self-confidence and cognitive ability. Service leadership may take place at all levels of the organizational structure. Because successful service leaders allow the development of all employees in the enterprise by carrying out coaching service consistently and continuously, advising, correcting, giving responsibility and developing along with creating a work environment that supports the process, whereby efforts are put to achieve new leaders. To encourage all employees to become leaders is the common feature of the good enterprises operating in service sector in the world (Burwash, 1997: 13). Service leadership is about changing people's values, behavior and judgment. Unlike traditional leader, the service leaders who are in favor of changes know very well that the change at the organizational level is possible and obtainable with well-planned service vision. The service leaders are aware that as an ideal the service vision could become reality just with the participation and support of employees while achieving the vision the service leaders need to lead the employees by examples and adapt employee empowerment approaches. Employee empowerment in service enterprises may be acquired with service leadership. Traditional management approaches act accordingly with the assumption that the employees may be governed by bureaucracy, rules and instructions. On the other hand, senior management has no control on employees in the service sector in the course of the realization of services. Besides, as for the service production it is also possible to make a decision in the course of service production depending on the uncertainty of customer demands. In such a case, the customer will never want to hear the statement of "I have to consult to my chief" and will expect an immediate solution to be performed by the employee. Such cases create the diversity of services in the service sector, which forms these small details so that it requires the employees to have empowerment about their job. Creating a business environment and organizational culture which may allow the employee to use individual decision authority can be achieved by service leadership. Service leadership in service business is the main determinant of provision of quality and excellent service. Traditional approcahes consider that quality is an asset owned by business with documents and flags. In reality, determinant of quality in the service business is the perception of customer who buys the service. Therefore, in service delivery, it should be targeted to reach perfection, not a level of good. Excellence in service quality in service businesses could be ensured not as a program but by turning it into organization's philosophy and lifestyle of doing business. To create this structure at the organizational level, leadership service is required. Every day thousands of contacts are experienced in service enterprises. The contacts that take place between the customer and the employee offer opportunities to the enterprises in determining the marketing strategy and creating customer loyalty by learning the customer's expectations. The contact moment of the employee and the customer means the success of the enterprise in the current service delivery and should be regarded as an opportunity for the company to create its future strategies, which can be possibly obtained by service leadership. Because an individual who purchases the service wants to be considered important as a human. Converting this idea into a strategy that supports the vision in the generation of enterprise systems necessitates service leadership. This is one of the simplest but the most critical applications that lies behind the success of today's major service businesses. For example, Ritz-Carlton hotels operating in the hospitality industry evaluate every stay of the customers as an opportunity to learn about the customer and try to learn customers' specific needs and tastes. When a customer again goes to the Ritz-Carlton hotel, he is given the same room, with his favorite chocolate 108
and drinks in the mini bar of the room. This approach distinguishes Ritz-Carlton from the other enterprises since it is referred as the “quality” in the hospitality industry. Because of the increasingly complex organizational structure of the service businesses and increased competition in the sector, service leadership will be an important determinant in maintaining enterprise’s existence by creating a difference in the future. In order for the service leaders to succeed in this environment, it is required that they know how to provide high quality services in the future, meet customer expectations through benchmarking, make differences and grow new leaders; and they should ensure that business service employees learn and teach how to serve (Siehl, 1992: 22).
Figure 1. Essence of Leadership Model Source: Locke et al., 1991, cited by Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996: 243.
As a result, depending on the fact that leadership is a human-related concept, it is possible to say that leadership acts as the same function in all industries. However, as the human element is the main determinant in the production and the subjectivity of the human factor in production make the leadership in service businesses more significant than the industrial businesses and allows a chance to distinguish them. Many people have a false belief that they are just simple businesses due to the nature of the services business. For example, a person who stayed in many hotels may think that he can easily manage a hotel depending on his observations or a person who is very good at cooking might think that he can be a good cook. However, the production of services as previously highlighted has an abstract and subjective nature in which human is the basic input, the production is realized by the contact between customer and employee, it is difficult to standardize but easy to imitate. Therefore, a very good vision, organizational system, employees, organizational values are needed. To reveal a quality service that has reached the excellenct level by bringing this complex structure altogether requires service leadership. B) Managerial Roles of Service Leader Just like other businesses, service businesses operate as a system. Operation of these service enterprises effectively and efficiently as a system commands that they actualize their activities in 109
thought, process and physical dimensions and in a healthy structure. It is only possible when the service leaders in these managerial positions fulfill some certain roles successfully. Edvinsson (1992) highlighted that to be successful, a service leader should be able to play thought leader, process leader and commercial leader roles, and expressed that the three roles of service leader may reshape the competitive structure of the company, employee performance and creation of added value by bringing them altogether in harmony. 1. Thought Leader Role: It refers to having information about business environment, grouping, development and education in order for service leader to cope with competitors. The tools that a service leader will benefit in fulfilling the Thought Leader Role are his intelligence and the use of information technologies. The service leader who fulfills the Thought Leader Role has the edge on like thinking faster than his competitors, gathering information and sharing information and thus he contributes to his enterprise by increasing the productivity. 2. Process Leader Role: The process leader role of the service leader is about the productivity caused as a result of interaction between emeployee and customer and its determination of how the highest energy can be achieved. Service leader is the leader who energises people with the process leader role. Traditional managers steal people's energy with bureaucracy, rules and directives while the service leader who plays process leader role shares the energy by establishing dialogues with the employees and may communicate effectively. The process leader role makes a contribution to the service leader in the improvement of the service delivery process and in achieving perfection at the organizational level. 3. Commercial Leader Role: The key issues in the commercial leader role of service leaders are creating added value and saving money. Many people think that service sector is not a profitable business field. However, it may seem possible that a conscious service leader who understands the nature of the business may create added value and achieve profitability that the company targets by playing commercial leadership role well. C) Personality and Management Qualities of Service Leader The main determinants of what characteristics a person should possess to play a leadership role in service businesses are the features of the service and the struct of the service enterprises in terms of cultural aspect. It is possible to put the qualities in two groups as personal and managerial, which the service leader needs to have. Conceptual information about service leadership shows that as personality qualities a service leader needs to hold intelligence (Walker, 1986; Zeithaml et al., 1990; Edvinsson, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997), honesty (Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997), reliability (Nebel, 1991; Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997), righteousness (Burwash, 1997), clarity (Keller and Wilderom, 1992), self-confidence (Walker, 1986; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997) and cognitive ability (Walker, 1986; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997) (please see figure 2). As aforementioned in the earlier part of the chapter, these qualities generate the leadership qualities that are demanded by job, employee, competition and the structure of environmental conditions in today’s business world. These conditions are also applicable to service businesses. The issue that what qualities the service should have in terms of managerial aspect has been evaluated differently by researchers. For example, Normann (1984) pointed out the must-have qualities for a service leader as establishment of standards, assessment of people, development of role models, and creation of codes that guide the employees’ behavior. Keller and Wilderom (1992); brought vision and flexibility to the fore and viewed that being customer and people-oriented is necessary. Chathoth and Olsen (2002); defined vision as the basic task of service leader and stated that the other determinants are the focus in teamwork, employee empowerment and employee involvement in the achievement of organizational goals. Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) who focused on making change tried to explain the duties and responsibilities of the service leader in the process of vision creation and implementation of the vision. Nebel (1991) who investigated the leadership qualities by interviewing hotel managers found out that effective leadership qualities are employee empowerment, team building, providing motivation, delegating authority and being a good communicator. In addition, Zeithaml et al. 110
(1990) asserted that in terms of managerial aspect a service leader should have service vision, high standards, invlovement in the job and personal dignity. As various researchers’ assumptions on the managerial qualities that service leaders should have are examined, it is possible to say the findings by Zeithaml et al. (1990) express all the fundamental qualities that service leaders need to have as for the managerial aspect (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Personal and Managerial Qualities of Service Leader
Source: Baytok (2006), Saylı ve Baytok (2014: 154) 1. Service Vision The vision which is shortly expressed as "an ideal and image of future" helps determine the direction of the organization and requires replacement or rearrangement of many elements such as strategy, structure, organizational culture, and organizational system. Since vision requires changing at its core, it is referred as a leadership position. Thus, in the majority of the current leadership approaches (charismatic, transformational, strategic, servant leadership) vision is defined as the basic leadership task and is one of the priority tasks of service leaders. The service vision is the tool that will be used by the service leader to carry the oragnization to the desired point by taking service characteristics into account. The vision to be created in the service business must mainly focus on the following points. These are; Excellence in quality, Competition, Interest in employee and customer, Making difference, Organizational culture. One of the main determinants of service vision is providing excellence in service quality. The excellence of service quality in terms of service enterprises is the key to success and is the main element of competition. Therefore, it should be considered as an inherent tradition of the organization rather than a matter that cues that excellence in service is not deteriorative. The strategy of obtaining good service and regarding it as an endless journey along with turning service quality into lifestyle (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 5–6) at the organizational level depending on the 111
previously mentioned ideas could be procured by service vision. When the world's major service businesses are explored, it can be noticed that their vision is based on providing excellence in service and service quality. For instance, Ritz-Carlton Hotels and SAS Airlines do not define themselves as an accommodation and airline enterprises but instead call themselves as “service” enterprises. This situation is due to the vision of the service leaders. Employees’ harmonization themselves with the enterprise, providing motivation and empowerment feeling (Chathoth ve Olsen, 2002: 9) could be attained by service vision. As for the employee, the vision is a pathfinder that eliminates uncertainty. The vision created by service leader and the strategies concerning the implementation of these help guide the employees how to think and act. The employees particularly the ones who have direct contact with customers in service enterprises should be in harmony with the system of organization, strategy, objectives and the mission, which are formed as a result of organization climate. All in all, they may be gained by vision. Additionally, depending on the nature of the service, the necessity of being employee-focused enables the environment for employee empowerment in the implementation of the vision. One of the major advantages of the vision to the service businesses is the contributions it makes to create difference. Small differences in service delivery may provide a major contribution to customer satisfaction. Service leaders emphasize the details that make a difference with vision and make employees adopt them. Vision is also important in terms of being a determinant of changing the organizational culture. Many businesses have been expecting the culture to change in time. Successful business leaders make the changes in the direction they desire by managing their culture and visions deliberately (Chowdhary ve Saraswat, 2003; Bass et al., 1993). The excellence in service quality, being employee and customer focused, creating differences are the conditions that are attainable on the condiiton that they are brought into the organizational culture. In the determination and the implementation of the vision, the service leader should know that everything he will change will be about organizational culture. For that reason, it is required that vision be well determined since creating a vision, in some senses, means changing the existing culture (Bass et al., 1993). When forming the vision, determining how the vision should be conceptually is the easiest step in the process of achieving the vision. The hard part of the realization of vision is getting the support of the followers. Therefore, in the efforts of vision-building, the service leader need to know that he will be engaged in the moves and activities such as structure of the organization, employee selection, employee socialization, training of employees, motivating employees, knowledge management, team building, change propagation, innovation and risk-taking (Zeithaml ve Bitner, 1996: 245). 2. Providing High Standards and Maintaining Continuity In today's business world quality is not considered sufficient to provide excellence in competition whereas it is applied in all industries in the production of goods and services as a basic attribute. The conceptual structure related with quality consists of the data obtained from studies conducted in the manufacturing businesses (Kundu ve Vora, 2004: 41), but the concept of quality was also defined for service businesses and it was aimed to determine the dimensions of quality (Zeithaml et al., 1990; Grönroos, 1990). Due to the structure and characteristics of service, the concept of quality in the service businesses differ from the industrial products. Since service is an abstract product as experience, fact and event, the employee and customer contact plays an important role in the production, it is difficult to standardize and easy to imitate and price is not a competition means. All of them constitute the basic constituents of the differences between product service and quality. In service businesses, the difference is the determinant of quality. The difference in the service quality is achived by perfection. High standards must be identified to ensure gain perfection. Successful service leaders are the leaders who are seeking excellence in service delivery. Service leaders believe that the good service that fails to differentiate themselves from competitors is not good service at all, and by dealing with the details of the service they notice the opportunities in small activities that the competitors lose sight of. According to service leaders, the applications of service enterprise relating to 112
small jobs are the same as the applications regarding big jobs. Also, they believe that small things add value to customers and they make a difference (Zeithaml et al. 1990: 6). The high standards set by leader in service businesses are determinant in increasing the performance of the company and they also function as a controlling tool (Normann, 1984: 135) for the employees' behavior and attitudes, which becomes more of issue concerning service leadership. The approaches of the enterprises that are looking for excellence in quality in the service sector are the indicators of high standards. For example, the leaders of Ritz-Carlton Hotel and the SAS airlines, have expressed themselves in their basic philosophy with these remarks: “We are in service industry and offer service” (Burwash, 1997: 33– 34). 3. Being Involved in Job The most important determinant that distinguishes service leaders from other leaders is that they are involved in the job. The structure of service delivery makes it compulsory. Due to the nature of the service companies, it is not eligible to carry out a desk job in service companies. In service businesses, especially awareness of the need for organizational change, determination of the structure of the vision to be created, revealation of the strategies needed to achieve the vision and employee guidance require involvement in the job. One of the primary responsibilities of service leader is to ensure the implementation of the vision he puts forward as the future target. The implementation of the vision can be achieved by providing confidence in the vision. This is only possible with the help of employee support and by earning their trust. In gaining the trust of those employees, two-way communication and contact with them are very important. Being involved in the job opens up new opportunities to the service leader such as carrying out continuous coaching to employees, warning them, correcting them, convincing them, giving advice them, asking questions to them and listening to them. In this way, leader may direct the employees towards both his wishes and the vision by learning their expectations, getting to know their problems and the operation of the job. In addition, the excellence of the service requires getting the job done properly not just by individual employees but all the personnel involved in service delivery, as a part of the team (Normann, 1984: 136). The creation of team climate which will allow everyone to do the job right can be gained if the service leaders often come together with the team and engage in meetings and hold celebrations with the team. As being involved in the job, the service leader gets the opportunity to communicate directly with customers, to persuade them and to listen to them. This provides the leader with instructional information in creating the vision and setting the strategy. Being involved in the job supplies the leader with the opportunity to make personal observation, to witness workflow process and to observe the employees, and it will contribute to the development of his individual ideas, values and the way of doing business. Sam Walton's (Wal-Mart's owner) approach is a good example for being involved in job. Walton and the senior managers of Walmart spend a big part of their time on visiting the stores and listening to people, and as the top management they meet in one place each week sharing impressions obtained. It is the achievement of organizational culture created by Sam Walton. Although Walmart is a huge business, this structure enables Walmart to run the organization like a small business (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 7). 4. Personal Dignity One of the most important qualities of the service leader is the personal dignity. The final requirement of effective leadership is to gain confidence. Otherwise, there will be no followers. If there is a lack of dignity in an organization managed by service leaders, it is kown that it is impossible to exhibit a service-oriented attitude. The service leader is aware of the interdependence between the service excellence and employee pride and also knows that the pride of the employees will take a shape by their perception on the fairness of management (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 7). Another service leadership model is Testa and Sipe’s (2012) High Order Competency Model which provides a foundation to further explore service leadership competencies in the hospitality and 113
tourism management context. Based on the in-depth interviews of Testa and Sipe, they developed a preliminary model which identified three broad leadership factors (Business Savvy, People Savvy, and Self Savvy) focus on managing the business, interacting with others and managing self (Figure 3). Business Savvy, as the first factor, consists of dimensions of behaviour which focuses on effectively managing the business and organization. People Savvy focuses on traditional leadership behaviours or people skills. Finally Self Savvy is related with the skills, abilities and behaviours focuses on managing self in the service settings. Service Leadership
Business Savvy Planning Numberwise Continuous Improvement Strategic Decision Making Systems Thinking Technical Service Results Oriented
People Savvy
Self Savvy
Interpersonal Communication Expressive Service Team Orientation Coaching & Training Inspiration Cultural Alignment Networked
Accountability Professionalism Self-development Time Management Spirit of Optimism Change Management
Figure 3: High order competency model; Source: Testa and Sipe (2012: 652) The service leadership Competencies and its’ Definitions are shown on Table 2. In the model, business savvy behaviors are focused on managing the business, people savvy behaviors are geared toward developing positive interactions with others. Table 2: Service Leadership Competencies and Definitions Competency Accountability Professionalism Inspiration Self development Interpersonal communication Time management Spirit of optimism Expressive service Team oriented Cultural alignment Technical service Results oriented Change management Coaching and training Systems thinking Strategic decisionmaking Planning Continuous improvement Numberwise Networked
Definition Takes ownership, executes and follows through on promises and responsibilities. Role models behaviors and demeanor consistent with company values. Engages and inspires others to do their best work every day. Takes initiative to continuously learn, adapt, and improve oneself. Listens and communicates openly and effectively in a variety of settings. Balances multiple tasks while focusing on key priorities. Displays an energetic, passionate, and optimistic approach in all endeavors. Goes above and beyond to create customer loyalty and memories that last a lifetime. Fosters a climate of shared vision and contributions from all team members. Aligns team goals and values to that of the company culture. Uses systems, processes, and standards to provide consistently efficient service. Focuses on achieving high expectations and getting things done. Adapts easily and views change as a way of life. Provides actionable feedback that supports continuous learning. Orients toward the big picture and a process focused approach. Uses all available resources to make sound decisions appropriate to the situation. Creates and translates a shared vision into strategic priorities and actions. Strives to improve the business and make things run smoother. Incorporates data, reports, and trends to draw conclusions and inform decisions. Fosters industry relationships inside and outside the company.
Source: Testa and Sipe (2012: 654)
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In the hospitality and tourism context, such interactions or “moments of truth” will be common place, and form the foundation for both employee and customer satisfaction. The constant changes taking place within the industry, the economy, and both customer and employee needs suggests that service leaders must be able to adjust their behavior, often times in rapid order. These leaders are not afraid of taking risks and make an effort to create an environment where others are comfortable doing so as well. Service leaders who have a command of change management are likely to be at the forefront when seeking to develop new and different amenities and services. (Testa and Sipe, 2012: 654-656). D) Similarities and Differences of Service Leadership with other Leadership Approaches The question that “Is there a need to address Service Leadership as a separate approach to leadership?” forms the critical main point related to service leadership whose conceptual structure has not been fully determined yet. Accordingly, a lot of people go through the dilemma by asking the questions: "Service leadership?" or "Leadership in service enterprises?”. It is seen in the literature that there are a lot of research to answer both of the questions. Researchers who carry out leadership research in this context in services business (Normann, 1984; Walker, 1986; Worsfold, 1989; House, 1992; Hinkin ve Tracey, 1994; Sparrowe, 1995; Testa, 2001; Kasper, 2002; Chathoth and Olsen, 2002), have used the models and theories developed with classical and contemporary leadership approaches in service enterprises up to now and are still using them. Researchers who have dealt with the service leadership as a leadership approach (Zeithaml et al., 1990; Wilderom, 1991; Edvinsson, 1992; Siehl, 1992; Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Chowdhary and Saraswati, 2003) tried to clarify service leadership and demonstrate the conceptual structure within the question of “Should the service enterprise employees be managed in the same way as the employees of military and industry enterprises?". This study also seeks to explain the service leadership by taking it as a distinct approach to leadership. According to the researchers who handle the service leadership as a separate leadership approach, some of the characteristics such as untouchablility, perishability, and inseparability and variability that result from the nature of the service differentiate the system of organization, structure, strategies, most importantly, the culture of the service businesses from the other businesses. In addition, due to the fact that service production is the labor-intensive, human resource is the main input in the production and the production and consumption is simultaneously realized, managers have no control over the employees in the course of production, which makes it necessary to study service leadership. While service leadership is dealt with as a separate leadership approach, it is observed that the personality traits and administrative functions of service leaders in the management share similarities in many points compared with previously developed leadership approaches. In today's business world, intelligence, honesty, reliability, righteousness, clarity, self-confidence and cognitive ability, which are thought to be possessed by the service leader, are the general leadership qualities required by job, employee, competition and environmental conditions. In other words, in today's conditions the personality traits that a leader should have are valid for the service leader as well. The service vision, ensuring high standards and continuity, being involved in the job (as an example) and personal dignity, which are defined as the administrative functions of the service leader, are emphasized as the managerial duties and responsibilities of leader in all of the charismatic, transformational, servant leadership and strategic leadership approaches, which are considered as the contemporary leadership approaches. As it is highlighted in all other current approaches, creating a vision which is defined as the basic leadership task composes the main task of the service leader, too. Due to its structure, creating a vision necessitates making a change, personal dignity, being involved in the job and employee empowerment. This aspect posits the similar points in fulfilling service leadeship’s leadership function with other leadership approaches. The difference point of service leadership as a separate approach to leadership focuses on two critical points, which is required by the structure of service. These are being involved in the job (being an example) and ensuring high standards and maintaining continuity. Being involved in the job is one of the desired and highlighted tasks and responsibilities in other leadership approaches while it is an obligation in the service business because of the nature of the job. Because service businesses are not a type of desk-job enterprises. What makes being involved in the job 115
necessary is to become aware of a need for an organizational change, to determine the structure of the vision to be created, to reveal the required strategies to achieve the vision and to guide the employees. Just as in Walmart for example, Walton and the senior managers in Walmart spend most of their time on visiting the stores along with listening to people, and as the top management they gather in a place each week sharing the impressions that they obtain. It is the achievement of organizational culture created by Sam Walton. Although Walmart is a huge business, this structure enables Walmart to run the organization like a small business (Zeithaml et.al., 1990: 7). This situation can be managed by the service leader on the condition that he is involved in the job. Being involved in the job is one of the main determinants of the structure of organizational culture. Thus, this aspect makes the difference of service leadership. Demonstrating high standards and ensuring its continuity required by the sturcture of service are two other differences that a service leader has to fulfill as his managerial duties and responsibilities. Because the quality concept in the service business differs from industrial products. That is to say; service is an abstract product as experience, fact and event and the employee and customer contact plays an important role in its production. It is also difficult to standardize service but easy to imitate, and the price is not a competition means for service, all of which generates the basic constituents of the differences between service and product quality. This situation executively distinguishes the service leader’s practices and approach to job. The determinant of quality in the service businesses lies behind making a difference. Making a difference in service quality is only achievable by perfection. High standards must be determined in order to ensure excellence. Therefore, a service leader should be the leader who seeks excellence in service delivery, believes that the good service is actually not a good service at all if it does not differentiate itself from the competitors and by dealing with the details of the service sees the opportunities in small activities, which are disregarded by the competitors. Because a service leader knows that the implementations of the service business related to small business are the same as the implementations related to big business, and small things add value to customers, which makes a difference (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 6). When the service leadership is compared with other leadership approaches, it is clear that in general it is not very different from the current approaches to leadership. As highlighted in other leadership approaches, vision creation, change making, employee empowerment, being invloved in the job and personal dignity are the fundamental administrative duties and responsibilities of the leader in the service leadership. The main difference comes to light in the functions like being invloved in the job, ensuring high standards and continuity. Being invloved in the job, which is also a desirable feature in other approaches, is a must for the success of the service leader due to the nature of the service. Ensuring high standards and maintaining its continuity distinguishes service leadership from other leadership approaches as a requirement by the structure and properties of the service. Service Leadership Case Study This case study has been taken from the article of Drs Sandra Naipaul and Youcheng Wang (2009) called “entrepreneurship and leadership in hospitality- Insights and implications for hospitality and tourism education” which is based on conversation with Mr Harris Rosen who is an entrepreneur, leader, hotelier, and philanthropist in Central Florida. This case indicates Mr. Rosen’ views on how a service leader should be, think and act. Mr. Rosen on leadership; I do not believe that you can teach someone to be an entrepreneur (it is I believe akin to teaching someone to be 6’ 8” tall). However, I do believe that it is absolutely possible to teach someone to be a good leader. The military does it all the time. The three years I spent as an officer in the Army certainly helped me tremendously. The question is: are there natural born leaders, perhaps there are individuals who carry themselves a certain way, and who speak with a certain authority. However, I believe that you can also train someone who wishes to be a leader or someone who has the passion to learn and who also possesses the necessary skills to do so. No doubt you can teach someone to be a good leader if they have the desire to do so.
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To be a leader, you must always set the example. This is really the key. Please remember never to ask someone to do something that you, yourself, would not do and always be fair to everyone, treat all equally, and don’t play favorites. Never treat some individuals differently than others. Treat everybody the same. It is also important to praise whenever appropriate and to offer constructive criticism when necessary. Criticism may be directed at an individual quietly or perhaps not so quietly; however, to be effective it must be unequivocal. People must understand when they have done something inappropriate or incorrectly; however, you must explain why it was inappropriate and then make sure to correct the situation for the future. Simply speaking, it is a balancing act where fairness and respect must always be emphasized. It is also important to let your staff know that you are always anxious to hear whatthey are thinking. Remember the best ideas often come from those who are workingwithin the company usually in the middle and lower levels of the organization, not the top. I’ve certainly had my share of ideas and our company has certainly grown based on my intuitiveness and my gut feelings (it is the entrepreneurial gene that often gets my attention). I have often gotten wonderful ideas from those associates within the organization such as housekeeping, the front desk, the culinary departments, engineering, sales, food & beverage operations, etc. Great ideas come from all corners of the organization and it is vital to develop a culture that encourages the sharing of ideas and suggestions. Everyone should be comfortable when offering a suggestion. And, of course, never ridicule anyone for a silly idea. I never have and I never will. No matter how silly the idea might be, never make someone feel uncomfortable about sharing an idea with you. It is also important to realize that on occasion the craziest (out of the box) ideas can turn out to be exciting and productive. Sadly, however, I have discovered that in academe, in the public sector, and sometimes within large private organizations (G.M., Ford, AIG, Citicorp, etc.) there seems to be disinclination, almost a fear for those who work within these organizations, to think out of the box. Perhaps it is akin to a fraternity where likeminded people are comfortable with each other and don’t ever wish to be considered as outcasts or mavericks by thinking differently. Indeed it is often the private sector where the outcasts and mavericks excel. Neither Donald Dell nor Bill Gates graduated from college. They both decided to first develop their ideas in the private sector before completing college. It is most often those who have different ideas and who also have the courage to act upon them that succeed and I suspect it is why the USA has been such a fertile ground for the entrepreneur, the thinker, the maverick and why it is such a great place to live especially if you posses the troublesome “defective” entrepreneurial gene. I tell youngsters all the time that it is not a gene I wish upon those I really care for because it can drive you mad. I am often asked, how do you feel when you walk into one of your hotels. I respond that I don’t really feel anything because I am usually too busy looking for cigarette butts, litter or to check if someone’s nametag is on straight or perhaps if paintings are hanging correctly, or if the carpet has been recently vacuumed. I wish that just one day I could crawl into Donald Trump’s shoes and see how it must feel to be an “important” person, being driven around in a stretch limousine, flying in private jets and wearing very expensive suits. How must that feel? I suspect I will never know!
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Tichy, N. M.; Cohen, E. (1997). The Leadership Engine: How Winning Companies Build Leaders at Every Level, Harper Collins Publishers, NY. Walker, R. G. (1986). Wellsprings of Managerial Leadership, The Cornell H.R.A., Quarterly, August, 27: (2), 14-16. Wilderom, C. P. M. (1991). Service Management/Leadership: Different From Management/Leadership in Industrial Organizations?, International Journal of Service Industry Management, 2: (1), 6-14. Worsfold, P. (1989). Leadership and Managerial Effectivenss in The Hospitality Industry, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 8: (2), 145-155. Yammarino, F. J.; Dansereau, F.; ve Kennedy, C. J. (2001). A Multiple-Level Multidimensional Approach to Leadership: Viewing Leadership Through an Elephants’s Eye, Organizational Dynamics, 29: (3), 149163. Yukl, G. (1989). Managerial Leadership: A Review of Theory and Research. Journal of Management, 15: (2), 251–289. Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in Organizations, 3rd.Ed., Prentice Hall, NJ. Zeithaml, V. A.; Bitner, M. J. (1996). Service Marketing, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Zeithaml, V. A.; Parasuraman, A.; Berry, L. L. (1990). Delivering Quality Service: Balancing Customer Perceptions and Expectations, The Free Press, NY.
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Chapter 9 The Role of Rural Tourism in Rural Development Gülay ÖZDEMİR YILMAZ* INTRODUCTION Ensuring and sustaining economic growth and development for developed and developing countries is among the main targets. Since there is a big population in rural areas, it has lead rural development to become more prominent today in development efforts. Rural development concept has become one of the most arguing phenomena in recent years. Undoubtedly, one of the leading and most important issues in rural development is the rural tourism. The importance of rural tourism is increasing day by day as an alternative or supplement of the current tourism types in both developed and developing countries. The important reasons for the rise in interest to the rural tourism can be listed as the changing demographic structure and the consumption habits, increase in environment awareness and the passion of adventure as well as the destruction of urban life on the people. The increased interest in rural tourism ensured the acceleration of the efforts to use supply sources worldwide for touristic purposes. Rural tourism ensures to distribute the intensity of tourism in certain months to the whole year, to eliminate the unequal distribution of tourism income in the geography of the country, to strengthen the economies of rural areas and to reduce the population mobility that occurs from rural to urban areas. With many other positive economic and socio-cultural effects, it is seen as one of the basic tools in rural development and the countries try to reveal some projects that will lead to positive results. In this study, it is aimed to reveal the importance of rural tourism in rural development in details. For this, it has been stressed on the concepts of rural development and rural tourism. RURAL DEVELOPMENT The development is generally described as the process including economic, social and political structure depending on the continuous increase in national income level of a country (Clark, 1996). In other words, development is being capable to ensure the positive qualitative change for a country. Although development concept occurs in the field of economy, it is not only an economic event. The development doesn't only mean the increase in production and income per capita but also includes the change and renewal of the economic and socio-cultural structure in a developing country. The development is closely associated with economic factors as well as social, cultural, political and psychological factors. The development is a unity composed of different parts (Kaypak, 2012). The countries and societies are in a process having continuous changes in the matters such as the distribution of resources, production techniques, corporate structure, social values, behaviors and attitudes of people. The traditions of people, their interests develop continuously and reshape in different forms. For this reason, development is closely associated with the positive interventions performed to affect social change process. The development is a dynamic concept suggesting to go through changes by starting from the available status or the previous position (Tolunay & Akyol, 2006). Economic development is one of the basic topics which is stressed by the countries. The countries that had partly performed their economic growth and development do various regulations and reforms in the field of economy to provide the continuance of this stability whereas underdeveloped or developing countries do such to perform economic growth and developments (Çukurçayır & Tezcan, 2011).All the countries in the world want their own society to live in wealth and for this reason, they apply some programs in their boundaries. For most of the countries, that the population living in the rural area is more than the urban population is a factor that makes the development difficult. In such countries, rural development is stressed on (Ün, Tutar, Tutar & Erkan, 2012). Rural development concept has become *
Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Tourism Management Department 120
one of the issues on which has been discussed mostly in recent years. OECD, United Nations, World Bank, European Union, various volunteer institutions, civil society organizations and Government allocate more source, information and time to the concept of social development (Çeken, Karadağ & Dalgın, 2007). Approximately 90% of European Union is rural area and considering that 56% of the population is living in rural area, rural development in unity can be said to have a special importance. In 77% of rural areas, agriculture and forestry are performed. Today, the scope of unity and rural development policy is perceived wider than traditional "agriculture" activities; environment protection and development measures, supporting rural societies and rural development designs as a whole (Gülçubuk et al., 2010). The concept of rural development has been described as "society development" without being stated whether the quality of the society is rural or not by the United Nations (Kaypak, 2012). According to this description, rural development has been described as; “being unified of all of the volunteer struggles they undertake to improve social, economic and cultural conditions including small societies with the struggles of central administration on this subject and all of the processes about unifying local societies with the whole of the society and the nation and contributing fully to the struggles of development struggles of the country (Geray, 1999). Rural development is mobilizing all factors to help agricultural, economic and social areas of all people living in a certain rural area as a whole and making use of these factors at maximum level (Kiper & Yılmaz, 2008). In other words, rural development can be thought to be equal access to the arable lands, more equal distribution of the income, health, nourishing and acquiring accommodation and expanding the opportunities for all individuals (Sıma, 2015). From the point of descriptions made for rural development, the basic purpose of rural development can be listed as to minimize the socio-cultural and economic development difference between the urban and rural areas as a result of using the sources owned by rural areas and spaces effectively, prevent the migration to the cities and rise the life standards in rural areas by increasing employment opportunities in rural areas and urban immigration (Çeken et al., 2007). In the framework of these explanations, for rural development (DPT 2000); • It is a process having economic, social and cultural dimensions. • It is a rural life level developed with universal criteria, equality and justice. • It is the country development and welfare sharing of rural society by developing on-site. • It is an employment type in which rural labor is productive and gives their rights. • It is a life level developed by sharing better access to the resources, welfare and income in a balanced way. • It is the elimination of poverty and bad nourishment in rural area. • It is the modernization of rural social life. • It is the reduction of urban/rural separation. • It is the economic development of the media that is thought to be rural. The mission of "New Rural Development Strategy" identified by the World Bank,“ is to reduce the poverty. The vision revealed to perform this mission can be summarized as follows (Gülçubuk et al., 2010); - The people living in the rural area are required to have a life standard and quality at least as much as those living in the urban areas, - Economic and socio-cultural opportunities which are equal and fair to those who live in rural areas, - Rural areas must be made sustainable and attractive for living, - Rural areas must adapt to economic, social, environmental and technological changes. The plans made in order to make rural development efforts reach success and to realize the purposes explained above should be realistic and peculiar to the conditions of the vicinity. Besides, it must be designed to grasp all sections of the society. In rural development studies; answers are being searched for some questions such as; For whom?, Who is the target mass?, With whom will it be carried out?, What will it be made?, How will it be performed, How will it be concluded?, What will the success criteria be?, How will it be made sustainable? (Kiper & Yılmaz, 2008). In general, it is possible to show the basic processes of the studies to be performed in the process of rural development process, 121
that's to say, of rural development period as in Figure (1). As it is seen in Figure (1), rural development process is started with the recognition and identification of the problems in rural area. Making planning studies for identification of the selection of the best alternative style ensuring the solution of the recognized problems and the intervention type to the rural structure is the second stage. The execution process is performed by putting plans and projects prepared afterwards in the application area. With the monitoring values collected by performing followup within application process, rural development period is evaluated. Successful results are allocated as the output of this period and it is returned to the beginning again. If an unsuccessful case is in question, the reasons of this failure are searched and by following the same processes, the identified problems are restarted to be solved (Tolunay & Akyol, 2006). In general, it is possible to give the strategies discussed in rural development studies in three main headings (Tolunay & Akyol, 2006): (I) Technological strategies: We can summarize this strategy as changing the viewpoints of rural societies by using technological developments. Adapting to the technological innovations by the rural societies and using these innovations within a current rural structure are main principles. Among study subjects that are taken into account by this strategy, the development of agricultural production techniques, using machine agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, artificial fertilization in breeding and the development of skills in handicrafts can be listed.
Figure 1: The Major Processes of a Rural Development Period (Cited from FAO/RAPA, Tolunay & Akyol, 2006).
(II) Participant reformist strategies: Although technological change also has an important place in this strategy, having an effective role in rural development struggles gives the meaning of the strategy. The participation of the people to rural development efforts is the basis of this strategy. (III) Structural strategies: This strategy primarily investigates social, political and economic relations that exist in rural area as a whole. Then, it identifies the negative results brought by these relations to the people of rural area and ensures to be carried out of rural development work with the movement style to eliminate these negativities. When the descriptions about rural development are investigated, it is possible to classify its basic components as agricultural development, rural industry and rural tourism. Agricultural development is the applications including agriculture (vegetable and zoological activities), production activities about forestry and aquaculture and quality, income increase, marketing and production rise in these fields. Rural industry is the activities of on-site evaluation of the local resources (raw) such as agriculture, medical plants, and depending on the demand, ensuring the production of marketable local products and selling them when necessary. Rural tourism is a tourism type developed depending on touristic supply values as well as agricultural activities in rural vicinities where agricultural activities are intensive (Uçar, Çeken & Ökten, 2010). No matter how the rural development is described, the most important key stone in this development tour is agriculture. Rural societies to be developed with rural development are substantially villages. As a result, rural 122
development programs are applied to the villagers obtaining most part of it from agricultural activities. For this reason, making the rural tourism activities adopted to the societies settled in the villages substantially is the prerequisite for ensuring rural development with rural tourism (Kuşat, 2014). RURAL TOURISM Tourism industry is one of the most rapidly growing industries of global economy. Industry revolution has been a turning point for tourism. So, the people have leisure time to have a holiday, new production methods in the manufacturing has emerged, basic seaway and railway transportation has been strengthened. In the 20th century, the technological developments in air and road vehicles ensured the expansion to include the destinations of mass tourism in wider geography (Bull, 1995). The developed and developing countries are in an effort to gain profit from this industry. Tourism activity increased its importance in each passing year in economic field and has become a concept interested by wider masses. Today, as a result of rapid differentiations in production concept, acclaims, fashion and values, the viewpoints and expectations of people about tourism began to change. This change increased the interest of both suppliers and demanders to different tourism types. One of these tourism types is the rural tourism. By escaping from the exhaust of urban life, being in rural places, relaxing here, consuming organic food has become almost a style, fashion for people. Rural tourism developed on the basis of sustainability is an extremely wide concept. With the most general sense, the travels to rural areas are called as rural tourism. It is possible to encounter with many descriptions about rural tourism (Soykan, 2006). Nilson (2002) expressed that rural tourism is a tourism type covering all tourism activities in rural places. Rural tourism has been described by the European Union as the desire of the people who likes spending their holidays in rural areas by seeing rural inheritance and who likes rural lifestyle (European Commission 2003). Küçükaltan (1997) describes rural tourism as people's visits to rural places outside the places where they are settled continuously, goods and services produced by the agricultural producers there and the whole of cases and relations arising from temporary hosting by demanding the places convenient for the natural tissue of the region and minimizing money increasing efforts. Akça (2004) described rural tourism as; “people's visits to the rural areas outside the places where they are settled continuously goods and services produced by the farmers there, and the whole of cases and relations arising from temporary hosting by demanding the places convenient for the natural tissue of the region and minimizing money increasing efforts.” The researches indicate that rural tourism is a more complex structure. ‘‘Rural tourism is a multidimensional complex activity including all agricultural tourism activities, educative travels, health tourism and ecotourism’’ (Özkan, 2007). When the relevant literature is examined, rural tourism is seen to be called as farm tourism, village tourism, highland tourism, agri tourism, ecological village tourism and green tourism (Maestro, Gallego & Requejo, 2007, Dimitrovskia, Todorovic &Valjarevic, 2012, Haven-Tang &Jones, 2012). The reason for this can be shown as being unable to reach a consensus about the scope of rural tourism among specialists (Maestro et al., 2007). These concepts are the concepts receiving different names according to the field where it occurs and according to the activity. Rural tourism has some typical features such as being performed basically in rural areas, being based on the experience, occurring in the regions where the population is less, performing in the areas where natural environment is intensive, aiming to protect and enliven the cultural values and from this aspect being based on the local activities (Dinçer, Türkay & Avunduk, 2015). It is possible to gather the determinants of tourism society under four headings such as rural area, rural life, rural inheritance and rural activities. Rural areas present an attraction to the tourists in many aspects resulting from ethnic and geographical characters, history, different culture and rural nature. Within this scope, the various applications of rural tourism have been in question in different countries of the world. These applications are fishing in fisher villages, renting a part of their houses to tourists to gain income by the families living in mountain villages, accommodating in farm houses, due to this, selling the products, souvenirs and ornaments manufactured by those who are living in the farms, sustaining otantic cultural values peculiar to the region and presenting some opportunities such as camping, riding a horse and horse drawn travelling, hiking and mountain bike, sustaining the traditions of the public in the region, 123
etc. (Pamukçu, Aydoğdu,Gemici & Samgar, 2015).
Figure 2: The Determinants of Rural Tourism Society Source: World Tourism Organization (WTO), Rural Tourism in Europe: Experiences, Development and Perspectives (cited by. Kuşat, 2014)
For realization of these activities mentioned, that is to say, for the development of rural tourism in the region, there must be some factors. These factors are (cited by. Çelik, Coşkun & Öztürk, 2013); • Having plenty of water • Being able to organize trip factor meticulously, • Convenient for doing sports (golf, tennis, swimming, fishing) • Being close to the national parks, • Containing historical values, • Being able to make easy and direct reservation, • Easy to access and economic, • Having traditional architecture, • Presenting a certain production type, • The regions where the people of them are sincere and open to interaction are the most convenient places for rural tourism. Rural tourism is a kind of tourism coalescing with culture, natural environment and agriculture and integrated with the other tourism types extremely easily. For this reason, rural tourism whose content is enriched with various local, national and international attempts can attract people in many countries of the world to rural places (Soykan, 1999). That the natural life interest is becoming a need day by day and relaxing, peace, healthy life and a different activity focus, rural tourism can be said to establish a bond between an urban and rural life again (Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis & Cambourne, 2003). In recent years, the interest in rural tourism has begun to increase. Rural tourism that was the subject of domestic tourism to a large extend previously, has begun to form a subject for the international tourism with the developments in transportation opportunities (Özçatalbaş, 2006). While rural tourism was a tourism activity performed by the people living in big cities previously for recreation and visiting the relatives and friends for one day, today it has turned into a tourism type that can cover the destinations in a very long distance and that people can prefer to spend the whole of their holiday for a long time. At this point, rural tourism has assumed a quality responding to a need to experience a life presenting the life different from their own cultures and lifestyle, purified from technology, complexity and stress and presenting different and authentic attractions. For the people who prefer rural tourism, the followings come to the fore among their expectations and demands from rural tourism: Relaxing and relief, longing for the past, experience for the adults and children, farm tours, harvesting, collecting yields, buying products from the manufacturing areas, active and passive recreation, culture communication, settlement and accommodation conditions (Ukav, 2014). In general, no matter how leisure time and income factors are effective in the development of tourism, as well as these factors, some other factors such as rising education and culture level, development in the environment and healthy life awareness, increasing in the interest in organic foods and the desire to be integrated in the nature are also effective in the development of rural tourism (cited by. Çeken, Dalgın & 124
Çakır, 2012). In the rising interest in rural tourism and becoming widespread of it, the effects of these factors have been extreme (Çakır, Çakır, Dursun & Dursun, 2010): • The increase in tendency to active holidays and special interest tours. • The desire to remote from the environment of life that is restrictive and full of rules. • That sea shores resemble each other in all aspects, even being degenerated. • Increase in the old urban population ratio in developed countries, their preference to the healthy environments of rural areas by them. • That the rural areas have appropriate environments for a number of recreational activities. • That the rural tourism is cheaper than the other types of tourism. • Becoming widespread of the environment protection awareness, and the increase in the protected areas in the world. PRINCIPLES OF RURAL TOURISM It is possible to classify the principles of rural tourism as “utilization”, “development”, “design”, rural economy”, “protection” and “marketing”. It is possible to summarize them as follows (cited from Tarlak 2007 by Karafakı Çetinkaya &Yazgan, 2012): Utilization: The utilization of tourists from the rural areas must be ensured by making activities based on the features of the rural areas, the beauty, history and wild living beings of it. Development: The tourism development in the rural areas should help the purposes of protecting and rising. As an example, new utilizations can be brought to historical houses and additional utilizations to farms, desolated areas can be improved and new opportunities can be provided for transportation to rural areas. Design: Planning new tourism developments, detecting their places and managing them must be suitable for the landscape and when possible, the landscape must be enriched. Rural Economy: Investment to tourism must support rural economy but it must be followed-up to spread in wider extend geographically in order to avoid destroying tourism resources due to intensive crowd, erosion and excessive use and shifting to the out id the periods when visits are most frequent. Protection: Those who are utilizing from the tourism in rural places must provide political and practical support to protection and raising policies and programs to contribute to protection an enrichment of the grizzle that is the most important belonging of this tourism. Marketing: In promotion, informing and marketing attempts of tourism industry, it should make people to reach appreciation and utilizing sense by deepening the understanding and interests of them for rural areas. THE THINGS REQUIRED TO BE PERFORMED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL TOURISM IN A DESTINATION The potential developments in the field of tourism in a region have a quality in need of directing long-term plans more than inner dynamics. The support of a more sensitive planning and administration in rural tourism is a must for ensuring the desired developments (OECD 1994). In the regions where supply potential of tourism is high, some conditions required by tourism are important which are needed to prevent the uncontrolled growth of tourism and thus avoid damaging historical, natural, cultural and agricultural sources. It is possible to list these conditions as follows (Çeken et al., 2007): • The public in rural areas must be informed about tourism. • Different components of natural beauties, activities and services in rural tourism must be formed. • Especially in the places where rural tourism potential is high, sub-structure services, drinking water, sewage and treatment plants must become widespread. • The promotion of local culture and services must be performed. • The measures for rural tourism in regional and local level must be stable with tourism plans and programs. • Tourism and agriculture unification must be ensured and be convenient for production market conditions. • The rural areas must be ensured to turn into rural tourism destination. 125
• The ones dealing with family pension managing for tourism in rural areas and the administrators who get their land to use for recreational purpose must be given credit and supported by the state. • The time of farmers dealing with rural tourism must make working plans to meet the needs of tourists. • In the regions where rural tourism is intensive, new institutions to deal with rural tourism must be opened. • For rural tourism activities, especially housewives must be incited and be ensured to obtain income. • In the employment of rural tourism, the local people must be given priority. • Tourism awareness must be developed in the region. • The promotion of rural tourism must be made and domestic and foreign tour operators must be invited. • The goods and services produced in rural tourism must be convenient for the pleasure, demands and habits of tourists. • The investments made to improve available housing conditions in the regions must be supported by the state. • The arrangements to ensure active participation to local festivals in the rural areas should be made. • Touristic investments launched by civil society institutions in rural areas must be supported by the state. There is a direct relation between rural development and rural tourism. Rural tourism is one of the most important components of unifying economic activities in the rural development. In the following part, the role of rural tourism in rural development is explained in detailed way. THE ROLE OF RURAL TOURISM IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT Rural areas are the places where the traditions, inheritance and natural beauties are interlocked. Rural areas can sustain their own identities, self-balances and organizing capacities only with a series of limited complexity. If socio-ecological conditions continue to change, these rural areas will also change eventually (Gobattoni, Pelorosso, Leone & Ripa, 2015). In general, it is known that the underdeveloped countries and/or regions are the rural places mostly dealing with agriculture. For this reason, there are special efforts to improve rural areas in almost every country (Uçar et al., 2010). In rural development policies prepared for the areas in the process of reconstruction process, tourism has a central role. In the areas having special value where especially agricultural activities regress, it is accepted to be a catalyzer for socio-economic development and innovation. Even in the destination in poor countries, the effects of rural tourism in different processes of the development can be monitored (cited by. Akbulak, 2016). It is stated that those who participate in rural tourism are richer, more well-educated and quality seekers and they spend money more than the average. With this approach, the rural tourism in the harmony with sustainable tourism concept can be said to have important contributions to the country's tourism in both macro and micro sense (Kodaş and Eröz 2012). In rural development, the reasons why it is in need of rural tourism can be listed as follows (Soykan, 2006); • The protection of traditional affairs in rural areas is extremely important. Some of them are peculiar to there and on the verge of extinction. • Many new businesses can be created during rural tourism. • In rural areas, it is a must to protect tourism services. Rural tourism contributes to the development, informing, transportation and similar services. • The development of tourism in rural areas supports the diversification and multiple-integrated activities arise. • The support to the farmers is not always given in the content of agriculture by the state organs, some other support factors are looked for. • Rural handicrafts occupy a priority and important place in the cultural heritage of the countries and regions. • Cultural services always remain behind in rural areas. • In rural tourism, it is possible to utilize from historical structure in tourism (old churches, 126
chateaus, farm buildings, houses) in different types (museum, handicrafts center, accommodation house etc.). •Although the role of woman is extremely limited in rural societies in the past, they are ready to take important roles today. • In rural areas, it is to activate the attempts of rural development by developing the cooperation among public section, special section and civil society organizations. • The institutionalizing of local attempts • It is to develop the capacities of regional administrations and unions within the scope of very cultivated governance concept and to increase in organization level. • It is the promotion of local, local culture, local products and services and turning the local resources into benefit. • It is to provide the information and experience share on regional, national and international level. The effect of rural tourism to rural development is proportional to effective use of the historical, natural, cultural and agricultural resources in the region. Kuşat (2014) examined the interaction between rural tourism-rural development in three dimensions as “economic effects”, “socio-cultural effects” and “physical environment effects". These dimensions can be summarized as in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Rural Tourism - Rural Development
In Figure 3, both positive and negative aspects of the effects of rural tourism on the development are attempted to be emphasized. While economic effects are displaying a positive performance as investment increase, the increase in demand to goods and services in rural area leads to a reaction inciting inflation. While it is forming a structure by giving opportunity to the protection of cultural values of rural places, the increase in value of women in socio-economic sense and revival of the traditional products that the cultures of the tourist lead to a cultural degeneration can be in question. On physical environment, providing opportunity to gain environment awareness with an understanding bringing environmental values to the forefront and taking important steps for sustainability will be in question. But provided that raising awareness in all participants about environment is not completely possible, an environmental degeneration and ineffective source use can form a structure to negatively affect the sustainability (Kuşat, 2014). It is possible to examine the importance of rural tourism for rural development in more detailed way. The Effect of Rural Tourism on Rural Economy The most important one among the positive effects of rural tourism on rural areas is the effect of creating income. That the people living in the rural areas have low income and their income obtained as a result of agricultural activities have made the rural tourism attractive (Torun, 2013). In a research carried out in England, it is stated that most of the farmers have participated in tourism sector to 127
increase their income (Fleischer & Pizam, 1997). The spending of domestic and foreign tourists to meet their needs such as accommodation, food-beverage, rural activities, transportation, shopping, local handicrafts and authentic foods ensures people living in the rural places to increase their income. Besides, the income increase that emerges as a result of rural tourism activities positively influence many direct or indirect sectors within the region in the fields such as production increase in goods and services. Rural tourism income obtained from the rural areas contributes to the other production factor owners in the economy in terms of income by being spent by production factor owners in the other sectors in the region (construction, agriculture, industry and other service providers) and changing various hands (Uçar et al., 2010). Ün et al. (2012) summarize the income gaining opportunities of tourism to rural local people from various sources as follows; • Since additional demand to agricultural products will arise, this means the formation of additional market for agricultural products. • Augment in public services with touristic goods and services sector increases both individual income and public income. • Handicrafts and domestic craft develop in rural areas, the number of tradesman and craftsmen increase, additional income increases. • Increase in the facilities such as food-beverage etc. increases employment and wage income. • Since construction sector develops, side sectors of it and income increase. The effect of rural tourism on providing employment to rural economy is another important issue. The additional demand arising with rural tourism increases both agricultural production and the number of touristic administration that arises with rural tourism. So, new employment opportunity comes out for the people living in the rural areas. Besides, the developments in rural tourism facilitate changing the roles of women in the family and the participation of women in working life more effectively (Karafakı Çetinkaya & Yazgan, 2012). Women play an important role especially in agricultural tourism in European Union. They carry out the activities related to tourism in the farms. For their professional status, the needs of women play a role in this term (Şerefoğlu, 2009). Rural tourism provides the employment of women living in rural areas indirectly. As well as the daily housework, the women gain income by producing agricultural products (canned goods, fruit, cheese, diaries, village bread, sausage, etc.) and various handicrafts and by selling them to the tourists and thanks to this kind of work, they have a job. The improvement in life conditions in the rural areas, ensuring fair income share, the increase in employment opportunities will decrease immigration as well. Those who live in the rural areas will evaluate the current opportunities without migrating to the provinces. So, both the migration from rural places to the province is prevented and continuous employment fields are created in rural areas thanks to tourism (Uçar et al., 2010). Besides, the status of young population in the society is strengthened. Together with new business branches, it is contributed to the young's being able to gain entrepreneurism spirit (Ongun & Gövdere, 2014). The increase in tourism demand for the regions having the potential of rural tourism supply leads to increase in touristic investments. That rural areas become attractive in terms of tourism incites public or private entrepreneurs to make new or additional touristic investments. Realizing these investments without destroying the local features is extremely important. The increase in demand of tourism for the region will ensure to increase the investments in the other sectors directly and indirectly associated with tourism sector. While this increase continues, the matter of considering historical, natural and cultural values in the region is extremely important. The natural destroys and the structuring that are not convenient for the nature will negatively affect the rural tourism (Uçar et.al, 2010). Another one of the effects of rural tourism to economy is the effect of sub-structure. Depending on the increasing tourism demands, with the sub-structure services developed with income support, the utilization of the local people will be ensured. In rural places, the development in sub-structure thanks to tourism, a significant increase in the quality and number of the services such as health and education are extremely important in terms of rural development. Finally, as a result of the fact that tourism is based on the nature in rural areas and the income that has previously been earned in big cities is spent in these regions, the difference between the urban and 128
rural places in development level will reduce a bit more. The Effect of Rural Tourism on Social Structure Tourism is basically a social event. Tourism leads to a new lifestyle and carries a social flow quality. The relations emerge between the tourists and the local people and among themselves is an important aspect of socio-cultural effects of tourism. With the developments in tourism, the relations of tourists and local people, behaviors of tourists and their relations with each other come to the status of important social events and seen as the most important activator factors in starting the social changing factors (Civelek). Tourism is expected to be effective in ensuring social developments of individuals and as a result, in making positive behavior changes in individuals. As a result of the development of tourism activities in rural areas, the tourists get in touch with the local people with the aim of meeting their needs such as food and beverage, enjoyment, curiosity and recreation and they establish various relationships. As a result of this, there are some changes in the current social values, personal behaviors, interfamilial relations, moral rules, activities of handicrafts and traditional demonstrations of those who live in the rural places (Brunt & Courtney, 1999). The local people can benefit from the businesses in rural areas opened for tourism (restaurant, sport centers, accommodation facilities, etc.). So, it is to raise the life quality of the people. In the development of rural places in social sense, the possible effects of rural tourism can be listed as follows (Çeken et al., 2012): • As a result of continuous people mobility from urban to rural areas, life and behavior differences between urban and rural region are eliminated. • Associated with the employment created by rural tourism, the status of women in the family and society is strengthened. • Rural tourism contributes the young living in the region to gain entrepreneurism spirit. • With the development of rural tourism, professional knowledge and skills of the people employed in this region develop with the contribution of various education programs and thus the quality of rural labor force arises. • As a result of the fact that the tourists coming to the region accommodate in the units interlaced with the living areas of the local people, a social interaction arises and temporary friendships comes out between two parties. • With the effect of the development of rural tourism, migration from the rural to urban areas will decrease, and as a result of that, some improvements can be provided indirectly for the problems such as squatting and conurbation experienced in the cities. • Thanks to rural tourism, the societies having different social and cultural structures can associate with each other, and the interaction taking place as a result of such relations plays the role of accelerating the social change. • Rural tourism leads to change in consumption habits and nourishment types of the local people living in the region and accelerates the change in social value judgments. • As a result of visiting rural areas by the people living in the city, information flow occurs as a result, people learn new things and gain new viewpoints. • The interest towards traditional festival and enjoyment peculiar to the rural area motivates local people to continue to these activities; as a result, local identity strengthens. The Effect of Tourism on Cultural Structure One of the factors forming the touristic supply potential of a region is cultural structure. Cultural environment of a region is composed of physical culture factors such as historical areas remained from the past, historical museums, churches, architectural structures and historical monuments as well as ethnic societies and cultural asset factors specifying cultural features shared by ethnic groups and organizations (cited by Kodaş & Eröz, 2012). Rural areas mostly show the feature of close society and local people protects the cultural structure they have. Since the protected cultural structure show differences from other cultures, it also accelerates rural tourism demand for the region. If tourism develops within its natural course, the interaction of tourists with local people provides opportunities for the intercultural dialogue and revival of the traditional culture owned by the region (Uçar et al., 2010). That the individuals coming from different societies making information exchange with each other and 129
identify their cultural structures lead to new friendships (Civelek). Rural tourism have an important factor in the protection of local family traditions, values, belief and our cultural heritage in the region (MacDonald & Jolliffe, 2003). It is possible to summarize the possible effects of local tourism on the culture of the tourism as follows (Uçar et al., 2010): • As a result of the development of tourism in rural regions, cultural assets in the region are taken under protection, local people and tourists have knowledge about the history and culture of the region. Besides, the income obtained from tourism contributes to restoring the structures that are attractive in cultural sense. • In rural areas, together with the development in family boardinghouse owning depending on the tourism, a double directional interaction occurs in cultural structure and life style of the local people and tourists; and depending on the friendship between two sides, the result of enrichment of the cultures arises as a result of exchanging cultural components such as clothing, food culture, traditions and customs. • Rural tourism positively affects the protection of both cultural heritage and traditional architectural structure. • With the development of tourism in the region, the local people feel the need of learning a foreign language to make a better communication with tourists and thanks to this language; local people try to learn different cultures. • Emphasizing local identity, the protection of cultural diversity and originality are ensured (Uslu & Kiper, 2006). The Effect of Rural Tourism on Physical Environment Environment and tourism are closely associated with each other. For the sustainability of tourism, the protection and development of natural resources are required while tourism is an important tool to develop natural values (Uslu & Kiper, 2006). Rural tourism must use all the environment in its authentic form and is one of the tourism types that is the most solicitous to protectiveness. Considering that the tourists who choose farms and villages for the purpose of holiday are here to taste the natural; having uncontaminated forests and mountains, keeeping alive the traditional production types bounded to agriculture and breeding are very important. The importance to natural values is increasing day by day since they are the basic capital of rural tourism (monument trees, plateaus, waterfalls, etc.) Rural tourism is a kind of tourism that inspires the protection awareness to the guests coming to the tourism region and the people living in the region (Uçar et al., 2010). Negative Effects of Rural Tourism Rural tourism is a type of tourism having the least negative effects due to its features. Performing the accommodation in rural areas and mostly in the available houses of the rural settlements do not lead to environmental problems such as concretion and land consumption. Rural tourism do not lead to seasonal intense due to the feature of making in four seasons of a year and eliminates the touristic pressure. On the other hand, it may lead to various negative economic and socio-cultural changes by developing in time (Uçar et al., 2010). It is possible to summarize the possible negative results of rural tourism as follows (Morgül, 2006): • Rural tourism leads people who gain income from the agriculture to shift out of the agricultural sector. Unplanned development of rural tourism leads decrease in agricultural areas. • In the prices of land and the other real estates, there are speculative increases. Renting costs extremely increase and agriculture producers may incline to leave their land empty to wait for income instead of bringing-in from the agriculture. • The excessive and intense use of rural areas may destroy agricultural lands and by leading to the destruction of natural and cultural heritage protection areas, it ruins destroys the ecological balance. • The income earned from rural tourism may create an opportunity for local people to assess this income out of agriculture even outside that region, and this strengthens the capital flow to the other sectors and can remote rural tourism from the aim of improving that region. • Being crowded of the rural areas excessively leads to decrease in their attraction and lose their authenticity. 130
• The efficiency reduces by the change in agricultural product sample. • Presenting rural areas and lifestyles as a product for tourism due to commercial reasons lead local life stories and identities lose their originality in time (cited by Rogers, 2002). Rural tourism leads to cultural contamination. It leads to destroy the existent spiritual emotions in time. • In case the rural tourism is made unplanned, the people may leave agriculture and focus on tourism and this may lead to value decrease in the agriculture. • The unconscious tourists' or the mass tourists groups' visits may destroy the natural structure. • As a result of the flexible structure of tourism sector, the people inclining to rural tourism can be affected by this flexibility negatively. • Depending on the development pace of rural tourism in the vicinity, increase in the prices of lands leads to rise in the prices of houses and rents. This case negatively affects the life conditions of the people living in that region. Those who will get benefit/harm from positive/negative features of tourism are local people. For this reason, the local people are required to be previously informed about the effects of developing tourism and adopted of the development of tourism. CONCLUSION In rural areas, it is considered that a particular importance should be given to non-agriculture activities in order to eliminate poverty. No matter how agricultural development and rural development concepts are closely associated with each other, rural development covers not only the agricultural development but the development in industrialization, education, health, social security, accommodation, transportation and employment fields. On the basis of rural development, there is establishing a balance in socio-cultural and economic differences between the urban and rural areas. The general purpose of rural development can be said to be the policies aiming to develop economic, social and cultural opportunities of rural societies. Rural development is the basic purpose of the developing countries. One of the basic components of rural development is rural tourism. The rural tourism, which is not a new concept; is a tourism activity emerged in the rural area and developed as a reaction to the stress and dilapidation of industry cities growth and developed in 19th century. Rural tourism that began to develop especially in 1970s emerged with the start of the tourism industry revolution. That the employees working in the industry were seen to rest in the village houses were the first activities (Perales, 2002). Today, the increase in income level, the facilities ensured by the improvements in working conditions and technological developments and that the people living in big cities need to relieve their tiredness in rural places integrated with nature ensured to increase the demand in rural tourism. For those who want to get away from the crowded population, air pollution and stress in the cities, it has become an ideal holiday type. Rural tourism has gained importance in rural places of European Union countries before long years. As a result of increasing demand in rural tourism, rural tourism has become one of the basic tools of rural development. The success of rural tourism is very important in rural tourism. In the worldwide, most of the developing and developed countries, the struggles for strengthening the economies of rural areas by using touristic supply resources for the purpose of tourism have accelerated. From this point of view, both in EU and in Turkey, the policies about rural tourism and development are formed. The European Union directs most of the economic and agricultural policy tools together with all positive and negative income for rural development (Dinçer, Türkay & Avunduk, 2015). Rural tourism forms an employment and income opportunity for rural areas in the first place. Especially in the places where agricultural activities are intensive, it is possible with rural tourism that the farmers can provide a side income for themselves and rise their wealth level by using natural, sociocultural and historical values of the region without leaving agriculture, which is their main work. Especially in underdeveloped and developing countries, in small family organizations, providing side income with their own facilities of rural area (physical, human and cultural) is an important matter. It is a tourism type compatible with human, environment and local culture and so, it is less compared to the other tourism types. In rural tourism; accommodation and being able to make the local settlement in available houses do not lead to environmental problems such as concretion and land occupation. Besides, due to the feature of being able to continue for twelve months of the year, rural tourism does 131
not lead to seasonal intense and eliminates the use to exceed the capacity that will not be sufficient for seasonal intense. As well as its positive effects, rural tourism may lead to negative results provided that its development is not planned and managed in a professional way. It is especially important that the local people should adopt, embrace and become conscious of the tourism. Rural tourism is a commerce type requiring professionalism. Besides the hospitality of the local people, they should also be more conscious about how they can draw a tourist. Considering the education level of the people living in the rural areas, it is not known by many organizations. For this reason, some studies should be performed focusing on this matter (Şerefoğlu, 2009). REFERENCES Akbulak, C. (2016). Ardahan İlinde Kırsal Turizm Potansiyelinin Sayısallaştırılmış SWOT Analizi İle Değerlendirilmesi, Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Humanitas 4 (7), 1-30. Akça, H. (2004). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Kırsal Turizm. Ekonomik ve Teknik Dergi Standard 43(513), 61-70. Brunt, P. & Courtney, P.(1999). Host Perceptions of Socio-Cultural Impacts. Annals of Tourism Research 26(3), 493-515. Bull, A. (1995). The Economics of Travel and Tourism, Second Edition. Longmans, Green & Co Ltd., England. Clark, J. (1996). Kalkınmanın Demokratikleşmesi, (Çev: Serpil Ural). TÇV Yayınları, Ankara. Çakır A.; Çakır, G.; Dursun S. ; Dursun B. (2010). Kırsal Turizmde Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Kullanılması: Poyralı Köyünde Uygulanabilirliği. Uluslararası II.Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma ve Girişimcilik Sempozyumu, 1-2 Ekim 2010,s.347-356, İğneada, Kırklareli. Çeken, H.; Karadağ, L.; Dalgın, T. (2007). Kırsal Kalkınmada Yeni Bir Yaklaşım Kırsal Turizm ve Türkiye’ye Yönelik Teorik Bir Çalışma. Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 8 (1), 1-14. Çeken, H.; Dalgın, T.; Çakır, N. (2012). Bir Alternatif Turizm Türü Olarak Kırsal Turizmin Gelişimini Etkileyen Faktörler ve Kırsal Turizmin Etkileri. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekon, Bilimler Derg. 2 (2), 11-16. Çelik, S., Coşkun, E., Öztürk, E. (2013). Şehri Nuh’un (Şırnak) Kırsal Turizm Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 3 (2), 21-28. Çukurçayır, S.& Tezcan, K. (2011). Demokratikleşme ve Ekonomik Kalkınma: Etkileşim Analizi. Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi VI (II),48-76. Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT), (2000), Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı Hazırlıkları Çerçevesinde Hazırlanan “Kırsal Kalkınma” Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Ankara Dinçer, M. Z.; Türkay, B.; Avunduk, Z.B. (2015). Kırsal Turizm Politikaları: Avrupa Birliği ve Türkiye’deki Politikaların Değerlendirilmesi. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi 5(1), 49-60. Dinler, Z. (2003). İktisada Giriş, Ekin Kitabevi, Dokuzuncu Baskı, Bursa. Dimitrovski, D. D.; Todorovic, A. T; Valjarevic, D. (2012). Rural Tourism And Regional Development: Case Study of Development of Rural Tourism In The Region of Gruža, Serbia. Procedia Environmental Sciences 14, 288-297. Fleischer, A. & Pizam, A. (1997). Rural Tourism in Israel. Tourism Management. 18(6), 367-372. Geray, C. (1999). İşlendirme Açısından Kırsal Gelişme Yöneltilerimiz, A.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi 54(2), 62-100. Gobattoni, F.; Pelorosso, R.; Leone, A.; Ripa, M.N. (2015). Sustainable Rural Development: The Role of Traditional Activities In Central Italy. Land Use Policy 48, 412–427 . Gülçubuk, B.; Yıldırak N.; Kızılaslan,N.; Özer, D.; Kan, M.; Kepoğlu, A. (2010). Kırsal Kalkınma Yaklaşımları ve Politika Değişimleri, Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisliği VII. Teknik Kongresi, 1115.Ocak.2010., s. 1-19, Ankara. Hall, C.M.; Sharples L.; Mitchell, R.; Macionis N.; Cambourne B. (2003). Food Tourism Around The World, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Haven-Tang, C., & Jones, E. (2012). Local Leadership For Rural Tourism Development: A Case Study of Adventa, Monmouthshire, UK. Tourism Management Perspectives 4, 28-35. Karafakı, Ç. F.; Yazgan, M. (2012 ). Kırsal Turizme Kavramsal Yaklaşım, Kırsal Turizmin Önemi ve Etkileri Kırsal Turizme Kavramsal Yaklaşım, Kırsal Turizmin Önemi ve Etkileri, Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi 2 (2), 55-58. Kaypak, Ş.(2012). Ekolojik Turizm ve Sürdürülebilir Kırsal Kalkınma. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi 14 (22), 11-29. Kiper T.& Yılmaz E. (2008). Şarköy-Kumbağ Arasında Kırsal Kalkınmayı Destekleyici Turizmin Olabilirliği ve Yerel Halkın Rolü. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 5(2), 159-168. 132
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Chapter 10 An Ideal Example for Sustainable Tourism Development: Kaiserwinkl, Austria Barış ERDEM*, Eray POLAT**, Sami Sonat ÖZDEMİR*** INTRODUCTION While tourism was an activity including small groups of wealthy people in the first half of 20th century; it has begun to gain a massive scale after the Second World War especially since the 1970s (Neto, 2003: 212). With the increase beyond the estimations in tourist number (Budeanu, 2005: 89), the positive economic effects of tourism such as creating employment and new investment opportunities were seen but the serious harm it gives to natural and socio-cultural environment has begun to emerge (Dabphet, Scott & Ruhanen, 2012: 1107). With starting to be noticed of the destructions given by tourism to the environment, various meetings have been organized under the leadership of the international institutions such as United Nations and the World Bank and the concepts such as “sustainability” and “sustainable development” have emerged in these meetings. The emergence of these concepts has led to the discussions about how the development of a tourism that does not consume its sources and that is sustainable will be on the reactions to the realization of mass tourism by consuming natural and cultural resources (Rızaoğlu & Biçici, 2011: 78). With the opinion that tourism activities mist be performed by ensuring the sustainability of tourism resources; a change began to be experienced on the triple of sea – sand – sun and in the demand of tourism intensified in the coastal area and it is begun to look for alternative ways (Akoğlan Kozak, Evren & Çakır, 2013: 16). Today's tourists who do not prefer contaminated natural areas, buildings deprived of visuality, overcrowded regions and noisy spaces demand the destinations in high quality and aesthetic environment (Hu & Wall, 2005: 621), giving importance to historical and cultural values (Akoğlan Kozak et al., 2013: 18), protecting local life styles and having flora and fauna that has not lost its quality. While tourists' preference, expectations and needs are differentiating, on the other hand, a change about preferred tourism regions has emerged. In this sense, the income of important tourism regions reduced and the attraction of new tourism regions and products increased. As an example for this situation, the increase in tourist numbers in the period of 2000 and 2003 that are 2% in Europe, %3 in Asia-Pacific and 27% in the Middle East (Ayaş, 2007: 61) can be given. New tourism concept requires drawing individual or smaller tourist groups instead of mass tourism, spreading tourism activities for a longer time and wider space and developing different tourism activities (Emekli, 2004: 417). So, natural and cultural environment constitutes the emergence reason of tourism and natural and cultural environment the importance of which is saved by touristic region throughout the life period will also be saved (Demir & Çevirgen, 2006: 85). Tourism which develops in a balanced way within the sustainability principles in a region will increase its quality together with protecting the environment and meet the tourists' expectations at the highest level. Due to all these reasons, sustainable tourism concept foreseeing the transmission of natural and socio-cultural resources without destroying has become a very important matter. In line with this, as stated by Falcon and Munoz (1999: 336); the public and private sector decision-makers and *
Assoc. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University Tourism Faculty, Recreation Management Department, Balıkesir, Turkey & Kyrgyz – Turkish Manas University The School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Tourism and Hotel Management Department, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. ** Res. Assist., Balıkesir University Tourism Faculty, Tourism Management Department, Balıkesir, Turkey. *** Res. Assist., Balıkesir University Tourism Faculty, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department, Balıkesir, Turkey. 134
academicians raised interest in the subject after 1980 and plenty of studies, reports and meetings about sustainability were performed. In this study, it is focused on sustainable tourism development and in private; it is stressed on Kaiserwinkl sample that is one of the important touristic destinations in Austria. Kaiserwinkl is a destination including four small towns as Kössen, Walchsee, Schwendt and Rettenschöss. The region achieved saving its natural and cultural tissue and it is accepted to be one of the important destinations where tourism is vivid in the Central Europe for 12 months. It is thought that Kaiserwinkl destination constitutes an ideal sample for the development of sustainable tourism from this aspect. The detections revealed as a result of this study are expected to be leading for the regions which are planning to newly open for tourism. Again this study aims to reveal a perspective to make trials to the researchers who are interested in the field. The study includes three parts. In the first part, the concepts of sustainability, sustainable tourism and sustainable tourism development were discussed. In this part, also the applications about sustainable tourism which were carried out in various countries have been discussed. In the second part, it was given place to the relevant literature scanning performed related to sustainable tourism development. In the third part of the study, Kaiserwinkl destination of Austria has been discussed as a case study. 1. THE CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM According to Ertan et al. (2010: 143) and Sezgin and Karaman (2008: 429), sustainability concept constitutes one of the most important issues of 20th century; and constitutes one of the trend topics of all relevant subjects since 1990s (Godfrey, 1998: 213). Sustainability is described as the sustainability of a certain ecosystem or any other system having sustainability without interruption or ruining and consuming due to overuse and overloading to the main resources (Kaypak, 2010: 98). Kaya (1997: 2) summarizes the sustainability as providing the continuance of a resource being included in the economy without any reduction in the amount. This concept means long-term thinking and long-term protection and expresses not only the protection but finding balance between protection and usage (Hacıoğlu, Girgin & Tetik, 2011: 374). The continuance of the sustainability of the resources in any area taking human beings to the centre is aimed (Kocaboyun, 2009: 36). The perception of the importance of this subject in terms of the future of the world pushed each sector to produce solutions about their own job (Kahraman & Türkay, 2006: 95). Sustainability concept about tourism has been talked due to being destroyed of natural and sociocultural environment of tourism destinations with unplanned development of tourism, and even according to Akid et al. (1996: 481) the destruction of the whole region (Choi & Sirakaya, 2006: 1274). In “Stockholm Notification" dated 1972, it has been drawn attention to the subjects of carrying capacity, taking into account the inter-generative justice and development and providing the unity of cultural, social and ecological environment (Hardy & Beeton, 2002: 476; Sarkım, 2007: 61); in "Common Future" also known as “Brundtland Commission” of World Environment and Development Commission dated 1987 (Hardy & Beeton, 2002: 480), sustainability concept has begun to be talked in the dimension of tourism and discussed in international platform (Butler, 1999: 7; Tosun, 2001: 289). In Rio Conference titled "Agenda 21" in 1992, it has been mentioned about the importance of the role in providing the sustainability of traveling and tourism industry and this case has been mentioned with the statement of “traveling and tourism industry have a great interest in protecting natural and cultural resources related to their own business area" (Sprecher, 2000: 30). "In World Conference on Sustainable Tourism and Sustainable Tourism Contract Conference’ in 1995, "Sustainable Tourism Contract" including some items such as being sustainable of tourism development in environmental, social and ethical mediums, providing the participation of all actors in private and public sectors, being based on effective cooperation at national and international levels, making positive contribution to economic development have been accepted. Other than these conferences, "International Environment Conference and Berlin Declaration (1997) on Bio-diversity and Sustainable Tourism”, “Global Ethic Principles Conference in Tourism (1999)”, I. ve II. “International Climate Change and Tourism Conferences" organized in the years 2003 and 2007 draw the attention as the conferences where tourism has been spoken (Tetik, 2011: 24 – 27). Sustainable tourism concept has become a subject that is stressed by tourism theorists and applicants besides international meetings and on which it is developed plans and 135
identified principles (Sharpley, 2000: 1). The description of sustainability as, “meeting today's needs without endangering the resources which will provide meeting the next generation's needs" has been adapted to tourism by tourism entrepreneurs, planners and researches (Hinch, 1996: 95). In this sense, while sustainable tourism is being described by Kahraman and Türkay (2006: 96) as “using tourism resources without consuming, polluting and destroying to allow to be used by the next generations”, it is explained by Butler (1999: 7) and Budeanu (2005: 92) as “ensuring the sustainability of any kind of tourism, in any place and at any time". In the description made by Liu (2003: 460), it has been emphasized that there are three critical factors to provide the sustainability as protecting the standards of the local people, providing the tourist satisfaction and protecting the natural resources. In the descriptions made, although there is not a full agreement in academic sense, (Hornagold, 2004: 75), as mentioned by Sarkım (2007: 85); protecting the environment and providing the next generations to make use of tourism activities come to the forefront as common points in the descriptions for this concept. On the basis of sustainability understanding, there is living by human beings in order not to exceed the carrying capacity to support the environment (Güneş, 2008: 172). In this sense, sustainable tourism can be said to have three dimensions as economic, ecological and socio-cultural. Economic sustainability can be described as using economical resources as efficiently and allowing to transfer o the next generations; ecological sustainability is performed by protecting the ecological diversity and resources and socio-cultural sustainability is strengthening the social identity by protecting the compliance of people with their own value and cultures and providing the sustainability (Timur & Getz, 2009: 221 – 222). With all of these dimensions, for applying sustainable tourism, it is very important for different interest groups to act together and in the conscious of protection and usage (Emekli, 2004: 417). Sustainable tourism includes social responsibility, economic efficiency and ecological sensitivity (Beyhan & Ünügör, 2005: 80). In this sense, many different concepts are used for sustainable tourism by the researchers. These concepts can be summarized soft tourism, low effective tourism, alternative tourism, green tourism, eco-tourism, responsible tourism, rural tourism and natural based tourism (Godfrey, 1998: 214). That all of these tourism types are pre-dominantly based in tourism types leads to be perceived of sustainable tourism concept as a tourism type and associated with these tourism types one by one. However, the sustainable tourism is an approach including the requirement of being protected of the environmental values as the basic element of tourism and carried out coordinately with economic development no matter which tourism type is (Kahraman & Türkay, 2006: 97). 1.1.Principles of Sustainable Tourism If a region is opened for tourism without planning in the light of sustainability principles, a reaction may arise among local people depending on tourism actions that may increase in time. Tourism activities that were approved at first, may arise the result of being disturbed by the mentioned activities after the emergence of its negative effects (İzgi, 2007: 47). For this reason, basic problems for ensuring the sustainability of tourism must be defined and the activities must be arranged according to these principles. Garrod and Fyall (1998: 202) list the principles that may consult to tourism sector on this matter as follows: Using resources as sustainable: The protection and sustainability of natural, social and cultural resources are important and ensure to create business areas. Reducing Overconsumption and Wastes: Reducing overconsumption and wastes contribute to the quality of tourism and reduce the costs caused by environmental destruction in long term. Sustaining the Diversity: For sustainable tourism development in long term, sustaining and inciting natural, social and cultural diversity are compulsory. Including tourism in planning: Tourism included by national and local strategic planning and the environment effect evaluation of which has been made can sustain its life for a long time. Supporting local economies: Tourism which supports economic activities and protects environmental values ensures both the protection of the local economies and prevents environmental destructions. Covering the local society: Full participation of local society to the tourism not only gains favor 136
to themselves and their environment but increases the quality of tourism experiences. Getting Shareholders' and Public Opinion: The communication power between tourism industry and local people, organizations and foundations are important in terms of their working with each other and being able to solve the possible conflicts. Training the staff: Training empowered by local staff in all stages and which turns sustainable tourism into application increases the quality of tourism products. Forming responsible tourism marketing: Marketing providing full information for tourism increases the respect to the natural, social and cultural environment of the destination and customer satisfaction. Doing research: Since the analysis carried out with the data collected from the researches and observations will help the solution of the problems, it will be beneficial for the destination, industry and customers. The principles of sustainable tourism indicate that tourism has adopted not the high profits in short term but equality between generations in long term. The basic purpose of these principles is to protect tourism resources and transferring to the next generations (Sarkım, 2007: 113). 1.2. Sustainable Tourism Development Sustainable tourism development (STD) has emerged as a result of the growth of tourism sector intemperately and being affected by natural and social resources negatively (Greenwood, 2006: 17) and it expresses the compliance between the protection of the environment and economic benefit (Güneş, 2004: 500). According to this opinion, tourism types must be provided to be satisfied with both the efficiency of today's resources and being able to be satisfied with the needs and desires of the future generations at maximum level no matter which region it develops or not (Tosun, 1998: 596; Tosun, 2001: 290; Michalena & Tripanagnostopoulos, 2010: 668). Besides, since STD economical development policy has been the subject of some variables such as environmental subjects, social factors and international tourism system, it is a wide and multi-disciplinary concept (Tosun, 2001: 291). STD is a concept moving around the axis of the development and constituting an important dimension of sustainable development. In this sense, a tourism concept based on the sustainable development will be able to reach to the level of assigning the development direction of the region. But the important point is the matter that a tourism movement which has caught development momentum on social, economic and environmental basis do not give harm to its own development dynamics. In this sense, the tourism development is required not to leave a negative and continuous effect on today's and next generations' vital values (Çalışkan & Tosun, 2014: 1277). The success of the sustainable tourism depends on being more sensitive and intellectual in the administration of all units that may be effective on tourism (Güneş, 2004: 500). In this sense, sustainable tourism development has been expressed by Kaya (1997: 36 adapted from Müller, 1994) with the help of magic pentagon seen in Figure 1. Economic wealth
Meeting the visitors’ needs at the highest level
Subjective easiness
Protecting resources
natural
Healthy culture
Figure 1: Magic Pentagon of Sustainable Tourism Development (Source: Kaya, 1997: 36) 137
Here, there is a mutual interaction between these five factors. Each one of the factors has an equal importance and when a compatible unity is provided between them, ten it can be mentioned about sustainable tourism. So, while the negative effects on the nature and culture are being minimized, increasing the interaction between all dimensions is aimed (Avcıkurt, 2009: 145). 1.3. Implementations in Various Countries about Sustainable Tourism Development In order to be successful in the issue of sustainable tourism development which has gained importance as a result that tourism gains massive scale and the negative effects of it emerge, countries inclined to different implementations. As mentioned in the previous part of the study, that the scope of sustainable tourism is extremely wide has led to increase the applications performed and to differentiate. One of the most successful examples of sustainable tourism development in the United States of America is the projects known as Disneyland and organizing the touristic attractions. The project has been carried out in the region, the center of which is known as Florida marshes. The area has been turned into a protection area after being made eligible for the living of plant cover and animals; dams have been constructed with the aim of checking the distribution of sources in the area; pure water obtained from the irrigation of golf areas was used. Besides, trainings and seminars were given to ensure worker security (Kaya, 1997: 72 – 74). Within the scope of sustainable energy efficiency is another important issue. Many islands in the Mediterranean Sea and whose economy is largely based on tourism have made significant investment in the scope of renewable tourism. Sicily Island meets the electricity needs with the waves having the potential of generating electricity 800 times more than wind. In Gavdos island belonging to Greece and Sardinia Island belonging to Italy, it is made use of solar energy to meet the needs of energy in touristic activities intensified especially in August (Michalena & Tripanagnostopoulos, 2010: 668 – 669). About the development of sustainable tourism, “Cowichan-Chemainus Ekomüze” that has been formed in the shape of park in Vancouver island of Canada constitutes another approach. In ecomuseum covering an area of 640 km2 and described as a museum without walls, the local people's traditions and cultures as well as their life styles are displayed. With this museum, it has been aimed to contribute to tourism for enlivening the region's economy and protecting natural and cultural heritage. The applications such as experiencing the forestry applications performed in the region by tourists, marketing the products of the region's tradesmen and producers, organizing local festivals, the employment of local people in touristic businesses have been realized within the scope of the project (Kaya, 1997: 75 – 76). With the aim of ensuring sustainability of Tourism also in Turkey, many projects have been carried out. With these projects, "blue flag project" which is an indicator that beaches and marines have international level of standards; "green star project" which is the document of being sensitive of accommodation institutions about protecting the environment (URL-1); being taken under control of water, electricity, energy, chemical and solid waste amount used in touristic institutions; "white star project" aiming to minimize the destruction of the environment and natural resources (Dolmacı & Bulgan, 2013: 4864); "Mediterranean-Aegean Tourism Substructure Coastal Administration (ATAK) Project" carried out with the aim of forming new coastal administration plans to eliminate the substructure deficiencies in coastal regions and forming new coastal administration plans (Kahraman & Türkay, 2006: 119) can be given as examples. Besides, the environmental impact evaluation (EIE) process carried out to evaluate whether the development of tourism or its dimension is appropriate or not and whether it provides benefit for the vicinity or region (Demir & Çevirgen, 2006: 169) is one of the most important applications carried out. In addition, there are various projects that have been carried out in the scope of Eastern Black Sea Project (EBSP) and with the aim of diversifying tourism and ensuring sustainability. With this project, developing winter tourism having the potential in the region on the basis of sustainability, it has been aimed to make slabbing studies to make the efficient promotion of the region in international level the region and to increase the visibility and awareness of tourism destinations in the region (URL-2).
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2. RELEVANT LITERATURE Academic studies in domestic and foreign literature for sustainable tourism development focused on many different subjects. In the examination made, great majority of the studies in the domestic literature have been identified to be for examining the perceptions and attitudes of local people about sustainable tourism development. Foreign studies subjected to sustainable tourism development generally include empirical studies including the field researches and book episodes based on literature examination. The matters examined mostly in the mentioned studies are the examination of alternative tourism types in different destinations on sustainable tourism development and the identification of the roles of shareholders in terms of their contributions to tourism development. Aforementioned studies are summarized in Table 1. Table 1: The Summary of the Relevant Literature Research Researcher/ Researchers Basic Purpose and Findings Method Duran, 2013: 76 – 94 Empirical In these studies, authors have examined the attitudes and behaviors Biçici, 2013: 19 – 36 Research of the local people leaving in the regions subjected to the study. Çevirgen et al., 2012: 65 – The data obtained in the studies indicate the participation of local 76 people in sustainable tourism development in different dimensions. Lee, 2013: 37 – 46 Saufi et al., 2014: 801 – 820 Ekinci, 2014: 178 – 189 Empirical The author suggests that some cities must be included in the Research application of "slow city" in order to eliminate regional differences in the development of sustainable tourism. Öztürk & Eraydın, 2010: Empirical In their study in which the authors mentioned about the importance 113 – 124 Research of cooperation of tourism shareholders in ensuring sustainable tourism development, they have reached the result that the cooperation that has been formed occurs mostly for economic matters not environmental. Michalena & Literature The authors have examined the contribution of solar energy to Tripanagnostopoulos, 2010: Review provide sustainable tourism development. 667 – 673 Yasarata et al., 2010: 345 – Empirical In the study for identification of the political obstacles before 356 Research sustainable tourism development, in the identification of policies, political system and power focuses have identified to play a key role. Jurdana & Frleta, 2011: 24 – Empirical In their study, the authors have aimed to reveal economic and 34 Research social achievement to be obtained thanks to sustainable tourism Zientara, 2012: 169 – 186 development in rural areas. Jadhav et al., 2013: 159 – Literature In the study, it was made some suggestions to tour operators about 165 Review realizing the applications to give the less harm to environmental and cultural structure in terms of sustainable tourism development. Shakeela et al., 2012: 35 – Empirical In his study examining the role of tourism training in ensuring the 43 Research tourism development, the author defends that the training must be brought to the necessary quality level in order that sectoral labor force demand can overlap the expectations. Doan, 2010: 249 – 263 Literature The authors examined the touristic features peculiar to the Onchwati et al., 2014: 49 – Review destinations and the contribution of alternative tourism types in 60 (Book these destinations to sustainable tourism development. Chapter) Ishwaran, 2013: 81 – 95 Literature The author discussed the subject of the relationship between Review sustainable tourism development and climate change. (Book Chapter) Cascante et al., 2010: Empirical As a result of the study analyzing the relationship between 735 – 756 Research societies based tourism and sustainable tourism development, the importance of being included in social institutions in the process 139
Ellis & Sheridan, 2014: 129 – 142 Dabphet et al., 2012: 107 – 124 Kruja & Hasaj, 2010: 1 – 12 Rotich et al., 2012: 108 – 117 Boukas & Ziakas, 2014: 191 – 209 Ndlovu & Heath, 2013: 947 – 955 Sani & Mahasti, 2011: 523 – 530
Empirical Research
Empirical Research Empirical Research
Reihanian et al., 2012: 223 – 228 Petrevska, 2012: 701 – 706
Empirical Research Literature Review
Matev & Assenova, 2012: 1065 – 1073
Literature Review
and ensuring their participation in decision-making processes has been emphasized. The studies were performed to measure the perceptions of shareholders and identify their roles in ensuring sustainable tourism development in various countries.
The study examines the effect of crises on sustainable tourism development. As a result of their study carried out to identify the effects of rebranding and regional identity on sustainable tourism development, the authors have revealed that the mentioned factors can make a positive contribution to sustainable tourism development thanks to the supports of the shareholders. In the research, it was tried to identify the strategies for sustainable tourism development through SWOT analysis. In his study, the author discusses the role of state administration in incitement and planning applications for the development of sustainable tourism. The author suggests development of social support approaches as the supporter of sustainable tourism development.
3. A SAMPLE FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: KAISERWINKL / AUSTRIA Kaiserwinkl is known as important destinations in Tirol region of Austria. According to the data of the year of 2013, approximately 10 million of 36 million of domestic and foreign tourists visiting Austria went to Tirol region. From this aspect, Tirol is the destination drawing tourists mostly in Austria. In the second row, Vienna comes with nearly 6 millions of visitors. In overnight figures, again the superiority of Tirol region attracts the attention. In 2013, 45 million of 132 million overnight stays in Austria has come about in Tirol region. The average staying time in the region is seen as 4,4 days in statistics (Statistics Austria, Tourism Statistics. Compiled on 22 February 2014). Kaiserwinkl is a destination including four small towns as Kössen, Walchsee, Schwendt and Rettenschöss (Figure 2). The region has succeeded to protect its natural and cultural tissue up to now. From this aspect, it is accepted as one if the important destinations of Central Europe where tourism is experienced for 12 months.
Figure 3: Logo of Kaiserwinkl Destination
Source: URL-4 Figure 2: The Destination of Kaiserwinkl Source: URL-3
As it is known, the tourism concept based on sea-sun-sand triangle continues its dominance throughout the world today and the people mostly prefer organizing their travels in the summer period. Undoubtedly, in such a preference, there is the important effect of school holiday periods, seasonal factors in the origin countries sending tourists, holiday habits and big tour operators guiding tourists. Nevertheless, intensifying the tourist flow in a certain time and place obstructs the carrying capacity in 140
the regions that is traveled and as a result of this, tourism activities and reach to the dimensions to destroy natural and socio-cultural environment. In this scope, in the basic elements of sustainable tourism concept, the necessity of “spreading tourism to 12 months” is frequently emphasized. In figure 3, there is the logo of Kaiserwinkl destination. As seen in the logo, the blue part represents the "lakes" in the region (that is to say summer tourism), the strip going down from the colored part to the upside and shown in white color represents "skiing tourism" and the symbol indicating the sun just above this and snow represents "summer and winter season". With the logo of destination, it is tried to create the perception having the alternatives suitable for tourism activities of the region throughout the year. Actually, there are some alternatives tried to be told in the region. For example, the lake in Walchsee town which is frequently visited by tourists in summer months is worth-seeing (Fig. 4). In the lake, various activities are organized during summer and so, it is tried to be presented a pleasing holiday opportunity to the tourists.On the other hand, when figure 5 is examined carefully, it is noteworthy that Walchsee town has not a scattered settlement plan, nature and green are protected, the buildings in the settlement are single or two-storey and compatible with nature and there is no structuring in especially mountain slopes. Again, it is possible to express that the accommodation centers in the town are generally in the type of pension and the number of hotels which can be described Figure 4: Walchsee – 1 (Source: URL-5) as big scaled are not more than one or two. Many of the institutions especially being run on the type of pension are in the statue of family organization. This is another important subject in tourism in terms of economic sustainability.
Figure 5: Walchsee – 2 (Source: URL-6)
When figure 5 is examined, it is understood better how much the nature is protected in Walchsee town. Being scarcely any structuring or touristic facilities around the lake is noteworthy at first sight. On the coast, there is only one and single-storey cafe. When all prominent factors in Walchsee town are evaluated together, they are said to be in compliance with the criteria which are important to ensure sustainability in tourism such as ‘protection of life standards of local people', 'ensuring tourist satisfaction' and 'protecting natural resources'. Another one of the tourism types in Kaiserwinkl destination is related to winter tourism. Especially Kössen town is an important ski tourism center (Figure 6). Kössen town is an important destination preferred by those who like skiing in the Central Europe in winter. The town has alternatives appropriate not only for skiing but for paragliding. Another factor that makes Kössen town attractive is the swimming activities of it. There is a 141
swimming pool center in compliance with the nature and open for the use of domestic and foreign tourists (Figure 7). The center with the name of “Erlebnis-Waldschwimmbad Kössen – Tirol” is prominent as an alternative tourism type for the tourists visiting the region. From this aspect, it is possible to say that Kössen town has tourism diversity required by sustainable tourism development.
Figure 6: Kössen Ski Center (Source: URL-7, URL-8)
Figure 7: Kössen Swimming Pool (Source: URL-9).
Figure 8: Alternative Tourism Types in Kaiserwinkl Destination Source: URL-10, URL-11, URL-12, URL-13, URL-14 142
In Kaiserwinkl destination, there are prominent alternative tourism types other than these. For example; in Walchsee and Rettenschöss towns, there are trekking, cycling and water skiing and in Schwendt town, there are line fishing opportunities (Figure 8). Again in Walchsee town, there are adrenaline activities called as “Sommerrodelbahn” (Figure 9). So, it was tried to ensure tourist satisfaction without destroying the nature by creating alternatives convenient for the field of interest of the tourists visiting the region. Undoubtedly, socio-cultural sustainability is important at least as much as economic and ecological sustainability. When the real owners of a touristic destination are the local people living that region, being transferred of their own values and cultures by the people to the next generations and so, strengthening the social culture are very important in terms of sustainable tourism development. In the destination of Kaiserwinkl, it is encountered with good samples in the scope of socio-cultural sustainability. Especially various festivals organized in the region (Figure 10) both strengthen the local identity and give the opportunity for tourists to learn a different culture.
Figure 9: Sommerrodelbahn – Walchsee (Source: URL-15, URL-16).
Figure 10: The Festivals in Kaiserwinkl Destination Source: URL-17, URL-18, URL-19, URL-20, URL-21
In Kaiserwinkl destination, another interesting application in terms of sustainable tourism development is again related to ‘ecological sustainability’. In order to be less vehicle traffic for the destination, the roads were made narrow and the nature has been protected. Instead of this, using public transportation has been incited to be used. For example; tourists entering from Kufstein train station to the region can access to Kaiserwinkl easily by the buses moving from the front of the station. When the tourists are settled in the facility where they will accommodate, they are given card called as “Kaiserwinkl Card” (Figure 11). During the time when tourists accommodate in the region, they can make use of public transportation free by using this card. Again thanks to this card, tourists can make use of this opportunity of the hotels which are out of the facility where they accommodate and which have swimming pools free. 143
In Kaiserwinkl destination, while the accommodation facilities are planned, it was made swimming pools in each hotel to protect the environment but the hotels made agreement between themselves in order that the tourists having holiday in the region can make use of this opportunity. So, the tourists accommodating in any region in the facility were given the opportunity to make use of the activities of hotels thanks to “Kaiserwinkl Card’.
Figure 11: Kaiserwinkl Card (Source: URL-22, URL-23)
This application constitutes a good sample for the coordination between the tourism organizations in this destination. Kaiserwinkl Card not only provides these opportunities but presents deduction opportunities to the tourists in making use of various activities (horse riding, doing shopping, using telpher, adrenaline sports such as sommerrodelbahn, playing golf etc.). 4. CONCLUSION In any countries, the development of tourism mostly in developed regions creates some regional differences and class inequities problems. As a result of this, the development problems caused by tourism in the country may arise. For this reason, in order to mention about sustainable tourism concept, spreading tourism activities throughout a year and its spatial distribution are also important. For this reason, the carrying capacities of the regions having tourism potential in tourism planning studies must be taken into account and new investments must be oriented according to these planning studies. In this study, the applications in Kaiserwinkl destinations presented as a sample case must be described as reference for tourism plans to be prepared in developing countries. Besides, the development of tourism especially in the underdeveloped regions is not so easy. Especially in underdeveloped vicinities and regions where there is a basic substructure deficiency, the development of tourism will be difficult, because substructure development generally requires intensive capital investment. On the other hand, that the tourists expect the facilities and services with the standards of their own countries obstructs the case more. Actually, it is very difficult to use scarce capital to form a substructure for tourism in underdeveloped regions. For this reason, the capital investments in the regions already having substructure may be more attractive (Tosun, Timoty & Öztürk, 2003). This difficulty mentioned leads to emerge some unbalances between developed and underdeveloped regions. Therefore, in the destinations that may be relatively small like Kaiserwinkl, it is needed some arrangements that will not obstruct the substructure or that will give the most optimal service with the available substructure. On the other hand, while carrying out tourism planning studies, raising awareness in local people has a different importance. Especially in the regions that have newly begun to develop in tourism, there are some obstacles for local people to make use of the incentives. Although there is no legal limitation in being made use of tourism incentives by local people, bureaucratic formalities and big tourism institutions' being deprived of necessary education and specialty may limit the local people to make use of tourism incentives. In such periods, it is needed to consultancy services to help local people to carry out and expand their own traditional operating activities (Tosun et al., 2003). On the other hand, in tourism plans to be prepared to reach the goal of sustainable tourism development, the necessity of taking into account the regional and local conditions is in question. It doesn't seem possible to reach this goal with a planning approach at macro and international level. Instead of this, it is needed to specific plans specific plans at regional and destination level (Tosun & Timoty, 2001). 144
Limitations and Suggestions for Further Researches This compilation research is limited to current literature information. In the future studies, the empirical studies to be carried out about sustainable tourism development in Kaiserwinkl destination to relevant literature. The mentioned empirical studies can be performed on local people as well as the perceptions of the tourists who visit the destination can be examined by empirical researches. On the other hand, this study is limited with Kaiserwinkl destination of Austria. There are many destinations similar to Kaiserwinkl sample of Austria. In the next researches, the other destinations may be made the examination topic. Even similar studies can be carried out on the destinations that may constitute a sample for sustainable tourism development in the other countries of the world. Acknowledgement This study has been submitted to the Symposium of International New Orientations in Social Sciences organized in Milano city of Italy as a proceeding. REFERENCES Akis, S.; Peristianis, N.; Warner, J. (1996). Residents' Attitudes to Tourism Development: The Case of Cyprus. Tourism Management, 17(7), 481 – 494. Akoğlan Kozak, M.; Evren, S.; Çakır, O. (2013). Tarihsel Süreç İçinde Turizm Paradigması. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 24(1), 7 – 22. Avcıkurt, C. (2009). Turizm Sosyolojisi Genel ve Yapısal Yaklaşım. Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Ayaş, N. (2007). Çevresel sürdürülebilir turizm gelişmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(1), 59 – 69. Beyhan, Ş. G.; Ünügür, S. M. (2005). Çağdaş Gereksinmeler Bağlamında Sürdürülebilir Turizm ve Kimlik Modeli. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Dergisi/Mimarlık-Planlama-Tasarım, 4(2), 79 – 87. Biçici, F. (2013). Datça’da Yerel Halkın Sürdürülebilir Turizm Gelişimine ve Turizm İşletmelerine Yönelik Tutumları. Seyahat ve Otel İşletmeciliği Dergisi, 10(1), 19 – 36. Boukas, N.; Ziakas, V. (2014). A Chaos Theory Perspective of Destination Crisis and Sustainable Tourism Development in Islands: The Case of Cyprus. Tourism Planning & Development, 11(2), 191 – 209. Budeanu, A. (2005). Impacts and Responsibilities for Sustainable Tourism: A Tour Operator’s Perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, (13), 89 – 97. Butler, R. W. (1999). Sustainable Tourism: A State of the Art Review. Tourism Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment, 1(1), 7 – 25. Cascante, D.; Brennan, M. A.; Luloff, A. E. (2010). Community Agency and Sustainable Tourism Development: The Case of La Fortuna, Costa Rica. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(6), 735 – 756. Choi, H. S.; Sirakaya, E. (2006). Sustainability Indicators for Managing Community Tourism. Tourism Management, (27), 1274 – 1289. Çalışkan, C.; Tosun, C. (2014). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Gelişimi Açısından Turizmin Gelecek Nesil Üzerindeki Etkilerinin Paydaşlarca Algılanması. 14. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, 5 – 8 Aralık, Kayseri, 1276 – 1288. Çevirgen, A.; Baltaci, F.; Oku, O. (2012). Residents’ Perceptions Towards Sustainable Tourism Development: The Case of Alanya. 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, pp.65-76, May 31 - June 01, Sarajevo. Dabphet, S.; Scott, N.; Ruhanen, L. (2012). Applying Diffusion Theory to Destination Stakeholder Understanding of Sustainable Tourism Development: A Case from Thailand. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(8), 1107 – 1124. Demir, C.; Çevirgen, A. (2006). Turizm ve Çevre Yönetimi. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara. Doan, N. T. K. (2010). Sustainable Tourism Development in Vietnam. In (Ed, T. Hundloe) Linking Green Productivity to Ecotourism: Experiences in the Asia-Pacific Region. Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization Publication, pp. 249 – 263. Dolmacı, N.; Bulgan, G. (2013). Turizm Etiği Kapsamında Çevresel Duyarlılık. Journal of Yasar University, 29(9), 4853 – 4871. Duran, E. (2013). Yerel Halkın Sürdürülebilir Turizm Gelişimine Yönelik Tutumları: Bozcaada Örneği. Uluslararası Hakemli Beşeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi, 2(3), 76 – 94. Ekinci, M. B. (2014). The Cittaslow Philosophy in The Context of Sustainable Tourism Development: The 145
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Chapter 11 Innovative Planning in Thermal Tourism Destinations: Balikesir-Güre Thermal Tourism Destination Case Study Melike GÜL*, Kudret GÜL** INTRODUCTION Innovation and planning in thermal tourism destination is an emerging research theme, and there is a growing understanding of the frameworks for involving innovative activities. Ilban, Köroğlu and Bozok (2008) indicate that thermal tourism is the type of tourism that developed in the areas of healing waters with beneficial minerals, medicinal mud and steam with unique climate conditions. Akbulut (2010) and Kervankıran (2014) state also that thermal tourism expresses a versatile kind of tourism with drinking and external application of mineral waters and hot springs including transportation, accommodation and other services to meet the requirements of health conscious customers. According to Kim and Ko (2015) thermal and health tourism differs from other tourism activities with its emphasis on treatment and medical care to improve one's health, and serves the purpose of improving the participant's quality of life through active participation. Rosenbaum (2014) reports that spa services marketed as an alternative vision of contemporary society that revolved around the interrelated themes of nature, “modernness,” and cosmopolitanism as well as a cure for the disorienting experience of contemporary life with modern treatments, amenities and accommodations. With another approach, Speier (2011) indicates that health tourism industry combine health cure, travel and business activities not only for people who seeking health and spa treatment, but also for generale clientele and youngers. But, accordig to Serbulea and Payyappallimana (2012) inducement and insurance coverage is a key determinat for improving health tourism. Naraindas and Bastos (2011) report that thermal spa services are supervised and supported by the states and are reimbursable medical expense to varying degrees in the different countries in the European continent. But, spa as medicine slowly fizzled out from the early part of the twentieth century, reappearing instead as an alternative healing practice in America or Brazil. Naraindas (2011) states also that the Kur treatment would be either fringe or alternative in the Anglo-American world, it is seen as part of medicine in the legal entity in Germany. As a result, Lee et al (2014) declare that spa brands tend to have short trend cycles as fast fashion and corporate profitability is sensitive to consumers' attitudinal changes in the worldwide. contribution of the health tour to subjective well-being to be more positive than non-seekers. Speier (2011) asserted also that most of spa hotel managers declare that patient tourists hear about the spa hotels from word of mouth, via internet and holiday web sites. Patient tourists try to combine their health treatment and spa procedures with their holiday, relaxation and leisure. On the other hand, the product diversifications that aim at attracting new customer groups by enhancing the customers’ memorable experiences play important role for prolonging visits or extending the season in the destination (Hjalager and Flagestad, 2012). Choi et al. (2015) claim also that functional and wellness values are also two aspects of perceived value in spa, whereas functional value represents visitors’ utilitarian aspects of perceiving the value of spa experiences, wellness value reflects the benefits of spa experiences in terms of enhancing physical, mental, and spiritual health. Planning a destination is the key driver for gaining required economic, social, cultural and environmental benefits in the thermal tourism. According to Dredge and Jamal (2015) tourism planning and policy issues can be systematized as rational scientific planning and policy processes, spatial *
Lect. Dr. M. GÜL, Balıkesir University, Sındırgı Vocational School Tourism and Hotel Management Department. ** Assist. Prof. Dr. K. GÜL, Balıkesir University, Balıkesir Vocational School
planning and development models (physical destination development), economic tools (growth and development), institutional theories (roles and responsibilities of government, business and community), the relational turn in planning and policy, critical turn, community engagement (public interest), priorities, evaluation and monitoring, dynamics and knowledge flows (managing change, mobilities, interrelations between policy makers) and reflexive practices. Vogt et al. (2016) report also that a collaborative locally driven tourism plan that is grounded with the participation of local residents and administratively mandated by government motives economic benefits as well as well-being and quality of life. With a similar approach, Rivera et al. (2016) report that tourism development positively impacts the happiness of residents through combined effects on social, environmental, socio economic, macroeconomic, and cultural dimensions. Hatipoglu et al. (2016) indicate also that lack of institutional structures for effective collaboration and leadership, stakeholders' narrow vision, lack of strategic orientation and financial focus based on self-interest may impede the realization of sustainable tourism despite the local community's involvement in the planning process. Moreover, Lozano-Oyala et al. (2012) report that six core factors need to be addressed in the case of the economic dimension in the destination planning. These are; economic benefits from tourist activities for the local community, the quality of the tourist offer available at the destination, new tourism products that attract low season visitors, local community employment levels, visitor accessibility and the tourism exploitation of resources. The temperature and discharge level of thermal waters depend on several factors such as changes of temperature with depth, underground conditions and dilution of the heated water in depth (Sadeghi and Khalajmasoumi, 2015). According to Kervankıran (2014) unproductive and inefficient usage of thermal water jeopardizes the sustainability of sources. Necessary precautions should be taken such as the protection of thermal waters, drilling and distributing. Thus, limited resources of thermal waters make it difficult to allocate among alternative usages.The complexity of thermal water usage forces it for good intersectoral coordination. This coordination may be arranged among local municipalities and goverments (the establishment of central cure treatment and distribution of thermal sources), ministry of environment and urban (from sources to the business), ministry of health (cure treatment control), ministry of culture and tourism (regulations for business and accomodation) and thermal tourism businesses (cure treatment business, accommodation, food and beverage, and other services). Ersun and Arslan (2011) report that all thermal tourism destination’s geography, position and superstructure differ from each other, and they have many common features such as the healing resources that create a gravitational force, cure services, accommodation, food and beverage services, entertainment and recreational services. On the other hand, Kim and Ko (2015) state that active leisure activities positively affect subjective well-being. As a result, there is a need for coordination of all activities in a thermal destination. This requires a necessity for integrated and innovative destination planning. On the other hand, Olalı and Korzay emphasize the importance of having adequate financial resources for the implementation of a plan. Healing resources, infrastructure, supper structure, cultural and social opportunities, relaxation, entertainment and adequacy of shopping opportunities should be also take into consideration in the thermal destination planning (Ersun and Arslan, 2011; Kavacık, Zafer and Inal, 2012). In addition to physical attractiveness factors, it is very important to be sensitivity for the protection of environmental factors such as plants, animal life and landscape usage (Kutvan and Kutvan, 2013). Chen (2015) satates also that tourists exhibit the strongest interest in sustainable tourism development comparing with residents and tourism businesses, and a positive attitude toward environmental protection and cultural preservation is considered as the driving force in promoting sustainable operations. On the other hand, Borović and Marković (2015) suggest that innovative geothermal utilization can be supported by energy self-sufficient tourism facilities with low environmental impacts. As a requirement of systematic destination planning, choosing the right market segmentation for a thermal tourism destination is very important. Positioning the destination depending on its attractiveness may be also useful for the selection of right marketing strategies. Therefore, it is important to balance between purpose of tourists visiting and destination's attractiveness in the destination positioning (Karabıyık ve İnci, 2012). In addition, Supak et al. (2015) assert that geospatial demand for destinations 150
can improve management decisions affecting destination planning, marketing, natural preservation, and resident as well as visitor experiences. On the other hand, it will be the most appropriate solution to be constructed environmentally sensitive hotel investments by taking into account the local characteristics with different types and design in the destination. Another point to be considered in destination planning is the creation of suitable transport infrastructure to the destination (Kutvan ve Kutvan, 2013). Thermal destination planning should be done in accordance with integrity, conservation, development and participation criteria. In this approach, integrity requires sectoral developmentalism that supporting physical form of the strategic plans with environmental sensitiveness and natural conservations. Conservation requires a way to pass on to future generations of natural, cultural and historical assets. Developmentalism requires dealing economic, social and the spatial development all together, and the participation requires an applicable plan that ensuring the participation of all social actors in the planning process (www.csb.gov.tr). On the other hand, institutional innovation is one of the main drivers for a destination planning. According to Hjalager and Flagestad (2012) institutional innovation is concerned with creating new modes of collaboration and establishing organisations, and it aims to reap economic benefits (in terms of visitors, spin-off effects, etc.) which could not be harvested by single stakeholders acting alone. Institutional innovations are also bridging sectoral barriers or linking mental frameworks and pooling resources in new ways, as well as regulating this collaboration. It requires also collaborative structures for ensuring renewable resources and commercial success depending on public-private sector partnerships in the capacity utilization. As the Turks are a bath loving people, this cultural advantage has given rise to certain unique cultural health practices such as Turkish bath. Historically, this cultural health practices made also common usage of thermal waters in the Turkish baths. But there are several reasons for transformation from cultural traditions to modernization. Turkish bath practices have an inherent link with the cultural traditions. Today, beyond this tradional dimension, increase in the both internal and international travel has been changed these practices. The trends seem biased towards holiday and leisure rather than beneficial of thermal waters. As cure prescriptions are uncommon in the traditional practices, the length is much shorter for cure treatment and generally limited with massage. Thus, the benefits of visitors may not be fully obtained indicating the deterioration of knowledge and cure practices. MATERIALS AND METHODS The aim of the study is to investigate current destination planning approach and to provide an innovative destination planning model for Güre Thermal Tourism Destination. The case study includes expert interviews and questionnaire that consists of 6 ranking questions and 12 open-ended questions. Ranking questions include economic and environmental factors as well as the priorities in branding, touristic product development and improving thermal services that affect thermal tourism destination plan. In order to calculate mean value of the each factor, the highest score is given the most important factor to be considered and the lowest score for the least important (exp. mean value of a variable that consist of eight factors, 8 point is given the most important factor and 1 point for the least important factor, and then multiplied by the number of frequencies). Ural and Kılıç (2011) state that variables are ranked according to the degree of importance to each other in the ranking scale. Fabris (2013) indicates that the implementation of the ranking technique is based on ranking the items from most important to least important by the participants in a given subject, according to a predetermined structure. Methodology included also web site content analysis of 8 thermal and spa hotels, participants observation, informal and formal interviews with Edremit district municipality representatives. Data obtained from 8 interviewers that consists of 6 thermal and spa hotel representatives, South Marmara Development Acency representative and Balıkesir Province Culture and Tourism Directorate representative. Turkey is the leading country in the Europe with its high geothermal potential and therapeutic hot springs. Thus, health tourism depending on geothermal resources has emerged as a significant alternative tourism in Turkey in recent years. However, the country are not competitive enough with European leading countries due to inability to have a reputation of thermal destinations and lack of cure centers in terms of quantity and quality. In order to solve the problem, a master plan has been prepared 151
in the Turkey's Tourism Strategy 2006-2023 Action Plan and four regions including Southern Aegean (Aphrodisia), Southern Marmara (Troy), Phrygia and Central Anatolia is selected as the leading thermal tourism destinations. In this way, it is intended to maximum utilization of the benefits of the aging population of Europe, the Middle East market share, advantages of spreading tourism to 12 months and permanent employment, investment and business profitability and high domestic demand as a regional development tool. Balıkesir with Bursa, Çanakkale and Yalova is in the South Marmara health tourism and thermal tourism development plan. Thermal sources of Balikesir province is also designed in accordance with thermal destination planning criteria in the same action plan. In this framework, in addition to Edremit-Güre and Gönen thermal tourism centers that previously declared as thermal tourism centers in 1993, other destinations that Gönen-Ekşidere, Bigadiç-Hisarköy, Manyas-Kızık, Susurluk-Kepekler, Sındırgı-Hisaralan and Balya Şifa thermal tourism destinations have been also declared as thermal tourism centers and a total of 57 000 beds is foreseen across the province at the end of planned period. It is also planned 35 000 beds for other thermal centers at a total of 92 000 beds across the province (www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr; www.balikesir.bel.tr). Master plan of the thermal tourism centers is integrated with other types of tourism such as cultural tour routes, ancient cities and natural itineraries. 21-day cure program is also predicted with at least 14day tour programs for thermal tourism centers. Thus, the opportunites of entertainment and relaxation is provided to the tourists whose coming to the thermal tourism centers (www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr). As a result, developments during the action plan shows that Güre is emerging not only as a thermal tourism destination, it also conducive to sea, sand, sun, historical and natural tourism. In other words, although these destinations planned as a thermal tourism center in the action plan, inadequate cure treatments in these centers emerged them as holiday, entertainment and leisure destinations as well as thermal tourism destinations. Thus, it may be suggested that the targets can not be properly identified for those thermal tourism centers in the Turkey's Tourism Strategy 2006-2023 Action Plan. As a result, these centers are emerging as holiday centers instead of cure treatment centers. This problem is the main driver of the study. A destination grows with market demand and changes in response to internal and external environments. According to Zhang and Xiao (2014:228) a destination development has five stage depending on market demand upgrade and evolution of driving forces. These are; Exploration stage; Promotion by social elites and the beauty of natural scenery were the major drivers of tourism development. During this stage, local government became gradually involved in developing tourism. Starting stage; Inside and outside accessibility increases and institutional change generates the pull of institutional environment. Conflicts amongst institutions occurred and continued to drive a new round of institutional change. Fluctuation stage; Basic tourism facilities come up, and the pull of governmental investment and marketing take place. Investment and capital raised by both local government and private enterprises in the subsequent phases of fluctuation and acceleration which are the main catalysts of destination development. Acceleration stage; Comfortable tourism facilities and services raises, and the pull of entrepreneurial investment and marketing become more commen. The growth of domestic markets and competition amongst domestic destinations drove the upgrade of facilities and services. Transition stage; Market differentiation and comprehensive experiential projects take place, and the pull of product innovation and brand image become more important. Possessing high-quality facilities and service become the bottleneck for the acceleration of the destination’s development. According to Hjalager and Flagestad (2012) diversifications that comprise festivals and events, seasonenhancing products and products for new target groups expand the conception of well-being in this stage. Our research that carried out based on web pages of thermal tourism business, the data of Balikesir Province Culture and Tourism Directorate, Balikesir Municipality and investors declaration indicates that capacity increase with new investments and renovation investments is 260 beds in Gönen, 180 beds in Gonen-Ekşidere, 1200 beds in Bigadic-Hisarkoy, 436 beds in Sındırgı-Hisaralan, 600 beds in 152
Susurluk-Kepekler and 200 beds in Balya Şifa thermal tourism destinations. There is no capacity increase in the Manyas-Kızık thermal tourism center in this period. The maximum capacity increase has been faced in Edremit-Güre thermal tourism destination and it ranks first in the increase of bed capacity with 4546 in this period. The investments that made in the destinations in the last 10 years as follows (table 1). Table 1. Actual Investment in the Planed Thermal Destinations Between 2006-2016 in Balikesir Province Thermal Destination Center Edremit-Güre Gönen Gönen-Ekşidere Bigadiç-Hisarköy Manyas-Kızık Susurluk-Kepekler Sındırgı-Hisaralan Balya Şifa TOTAL
Room 776 129 60 300 148 90
Apart Flat 784 464 34 -
Bed 4546 260 180 1200 600 436 200 7422
Depending on a destination development stages and drawing upon implementation in Güre thermal destination, this paper demonstrates thermal facilities and services in driving destination change. By taking into account the existing structure of Güre thermal destination, the following innovative destination planning model is developed and visually depicted in Figure 1. The model could be useful for examining destination development in Güre. It may be possible that this inductively derived model could be verified and empirically tested in other destination contexts for its explanatory capacity. As Jones et al. (2011) reprorted, a modelling may contribute to destination planning by seting an information system for individuals and groups, cooperation betwen groups, institutional learning, and assist assumptions. The offerings detailed above illustrate a variety of approaches that related to Turkish thermal baths traditions. Within these traditions, thermal water experiences are vital, and these experiences entail a strong emphasis of relaxation and comfort. It is also demonstrate that some innovations concern minor issues, details and incremental improvements in the thermal destination planning. RESULTS Permanent population of Edremit district is 140 857. But it is supposed that the population is almost 1,500,000 in the destination during summer times, especially with the impact of seconday residence holidaymakers. The destination has significant geothermal resources and 2742 houses is also heated with these resources. The geothermal resources are particularly available in Güre and Bostancı neighborhood in the distict (www.gazeteyenisoz.com). The flow of thermal water in the destination is about 232 cubic meters per second. The temperature of thermal water ranges from 40-68°C (South Marmara Development Agency, 2015). Edremit-Güre destination is generally used by domestic tourists and many hotels have been set up near hot springs. Thermal water is offered in the spa centers and thermal pools in each hotel to attract tourists in the destination. Güre thermal water contains magnesium, iron, potassium, calcium, sodium and aluminum. With these contents, it is used in the treatment of skin, thyroid, arthritis, kidney stones, liver disease and some women diseases (www.tatilbudur.com). Local manucipality has an authorty on how to use thermal spring and resources. There are 8 thermal and spa hotels. Spa hotels and resorts are trying to develop their health cure and leisure services in specific ways that are oriented toward market-based consumption. There are also a few SMEs hostels that use thermal water in their room and bathing in order to atract tourist. This situation leads to destructive competition for businesses in the scope of research. It is used as creating image strategy by SMEs. But, according to Song at al. (2005) using hot spring water in the hotel rooms and bathing has radon levels in indoor air exceeding relevant guideline levels and thus might have potential health risks through inhalation. Also rooms in ground floor with floors contacting with soils should be avoided to be used as hotel guestrooms. However, health tourism 153
has been growing rapidly with the new globalized spa hotels that offering high quality thermal service. The destination is also trying to gain its reputation as a holiday and health resort for people from all over the country.
Figure 1. A process-driven model for innovative thermal destination planning.
Thermal and spa hotels have their own unique designs, facilities and service structure that differ greatly from other hotel facilities. These hotels are often preferred by the customers who are more sensitive about health services. Internet is one of the most effective ways of advertising tool for these hotels to promote their spa and health services in the both national and international tourism market. In the study, the websites of 8 thermal and spa hotels that operating in Edremit-Gure thermal destinations were examined and these sites were evaluated for their thermal and spa services offered at the hotels. The data that obtained as a result of web sites content analysis and participant’s interview is in the table 2. Table 2 shows that all hotels provide thermal pool and traditional Turkish bath facilities. Sauna and steam room is also much common. Some hotels have also therapy pools, thermal jacuzzi, vitamin bars, cap type baths, snow room and salt room facilities. Massage, foam and scrubs, facial and skin care services are also much common. According to interview results and data obtained from 8 participants, economic priorities that affect Güre thermal tourism destination as follows (table 3). Extending season is 10.83, the number of visitors is 10.28, infrastructure investment is 10.25, superstructure investment is 9.83, imployement is 9.57, product diversification is 7.83, businesses earning is 7.17, destinational competitive advantage is 7.00, room rates is 7.00, locals earning is 6.60, the earning of affiliated sectors is 5.67, guilds earning is 4.40 and the existence of financial institutions is 2.50 (Max. 13.00). Accordance with importance, the most important enviromental priorities are ranked as protecting plant cover is 7.83, natural view is 6.63, sea pollution is 6.50, land pollution is 5.67, wastage pollution is 5.63, noice pollution is 5.00, coastal demolution is 4.86 and air pollution is 3.33 (max. 9.00).
154
155
* Data is obtained via interview and web sites contents analysis of thermal and spa hotels
Table 2. The Facilities and Services Offered by Thermal and Spa Hotels in the Güre Thermal Tourism Destination
Table 3. Destinational Economic and Enviromental Priorities in the Güre Thermal Tourism Destination
Existence of Financial Ins.
Guids Earnings
Earning of Affiliated Sec.
Local Earnings
Room Rates
Des. Competitive Ad.
Businesses Earning
8 10.25
Product Diversification
7 10.28
Imployement
Infrastructure Investment
6 10.83
Superstructure Investment
Number of Visitors
Frequencies Weighted Avarages
Extending Season
Economic Priorities
6 7 6 6 5 7 5 6 5 6 9.83 9.57 7.83 7.17 7.00 7.00 6.60 5.67 4.40 2.50
Wastage Polution
Noice
8 6.50
6 5.67
8 5.63
7 5.00
7 4.86
Increase in Population
Land Polution
8 6.63
Air Polution
Sea Polution
6 7.83
Coastal Demolution
Protecting Natural View
Frequencies Weighted Avarages
Protecting Plant Cover
Enviromental Priorities
6 3.33
6 1.83
We investigated also the priorities of destinational brad equity, products, thermal facilities, thermal and spa services in the study. According to participants view, related destinational priorities determined as follows (table 4). In accordance with importance of participants’ opinion, cure treatment (7.87), eco tourism (5.00), meeting and conference (4.83), cultural tourism (4.57), sea and sun (4.50), history and mythology (4.43), holiday and entertainment (3.28) and sportive activities are the main priorities for creating brand equity for destination (max. 8.00). Participants indicate also that cure treatment (11.75), accommodation (9.25), sightseeing tours (8.00), food and beverage (7.57), conference organizations (6.83), cultural activities (6.83), entertainment (6.50), sea and sun (6.17), recreational activities (5.83) and sportive activities (5.57) are the main products that attract tourist to destination (max. 12.00). According to participants’ perception, the priorities of thermal and spa facilities ranked as thermal pool (9.87), Turkish bath (8.12), therapy pool (7.75), steam room (6.17), sauna (5.43), thermal jacuzzi (5.00), salt room (4.67), cap type bath (3.50), snow room (3.17) and vitamin bar (2.43) in accordance with importance (max. 10.00). The priorities of thermal and spa services ranked as hydrotherapy (14.5), massage types (14.25), respiratory cure (12.17), mud bath (12.0), herbal bath (11.67), facial and skin care (11.6), moss care (10.83), reflexology (10.8), aroma therapy (10.25), relaxing (9.85), foam and scrubs (8.2), balneotherapy (7.33), adventure shower (7.0), detox (6.17), coffee peeling (6.0), honey cure (5.2) and milk bath (4.69) (max. 17.00). Descriptive analysis methods were used in the clasifying of the participants' answers to open-ended questions in the study. Participants suggest that establishing a cure center based on cooperation between stakeholders, diversification in thermal cure services and improving new cure services that are prescribed by doctors, diversification in massage rituals, honoring refreshments, treatment with stones, improving geriatric and respiratory services are the innovative services that increase destinational attractiveness. 156
157
Table 4.The Priorities of Destinational Brand Equity, Products, Thermal Facilities, Thermal and Spa Services.
Four participants support health insurance coverage for thermal cure and spa stays. Two participants support thermal cure based on adequate infrastructure. One participant proposes a sample application. One participant had no comment. Four participants suggest that a well-planned health insurance coverage system should be based on the referral of patients through the health authorities, doctors’ authority and prescription. Participants claim that such a system will be increase thermal hotel revenues. They also suggest that financial and prescription control is necessary. One participant said, “Protecting the system against misuse is very important. There may be incorrect, unnecessary and blowing bill cure and prescription”. Another participant said, “The infrastructure of the thermal hotels and spas must be inspected and accreditation is vital”. Another participant said, “There are many patients waiting for healing within the country and abroad. We have opportunities to meet this demand. The problems we face in agreement with the insurance companies. Govermental support and coordination is necessary”. Another participant said, “If all patients demand thermal cure, system can not be run anymore. Delimitations and restriction is mandatory for a well-run system”. Four from eight thermal hotels that operating in the destination provides their thermal water requirement over priced cubic meters from local municipality. Two thermal hotels use their own drilling that only charged with operating license per year. Two businesses that their own drilling is no sufficient use both local government and their own resources. Except one, participants support central cure investment project under the leadership of local government. They think that such a project could be applied in cooperation with stakeholders such as local municipality, governorship, businesses, opinions leader, commercial and non-commercial organizations. Bureaucratic obstacles are considered as the most important challenges. Participants evaluate that such a project requires high investment cost. Thus, it is stated that investment incentives and state support is required. One participant suggests that such an investment will provide cost benefits and competitive advantages. But some investors who have high quality services may not support this project. Another participant suggests that cure complex requires high cost and qualified staff. This may lead a well-run cooperation with ministry of health. Business representatives who opposed the view declared: “such a project will be used to ignore our existing drilling licence and the rights to use thermal water with lower cost. We believe that such a project is a violation for our commercial interests”. Traditional usage of thermal water in the destination is problematic for international competitive advantages. Central cure complex investment evaluated as a tool for the transition from the traditional use of the thermal water through the modern use. Participants indicate that 14-21 days cure package is necessary under doctor’s authority. They also indicate that cure service diversification, prescription based cures, insurance coverage, customer awareness about thermal cure and the role of cure complex would be beneficial for modern thermal water use. These applications will be improve quality of thermal and spa services. Using thermal water in the rooms or not is one more issue in the thermal tourism destinations planning. Six participants do not support thermal water usage in the rooms. They emphasize that the risk of using thermal water out of doctors’ authority, unconscious and wild usage, waste and depletion of natural resources, faster deterioration of facilities and short stays. Hovewer, two participants claim that using thermal water in the rooms are considered more attractive compared to the common areas and the ease of use by customers. Emphasize that all rooms have thermal water has also marketing and advirtisement advantages. Participants agree for thermal water distribution policies under the control of local government. They indicate that thermal water should be distributed from one center, and formalization of reserves, distribution according to needs, considering the characteristics of the thermal water in the spa services, control of the heat losses and to prevent mineral losses by using heat exchanger system is necessary. One participant suggests that if the thermal water is not sufficient, high standard hotels should have priority. Another participant emphasized health use priority in the thermal water instead of the alternative use. The advantages of Güre thermal tourism destination are listed as nature, oxygenrich clean air, 158
history and mythology, Kazdağı, plant cover, fresh water, climate, mineral-rich thermal water, eko tourism, cultural tourism, water and outdoor sports, proximity to large cities such as İstanbul, Bursa, Eskişehir and İzmir. Desadvantages of destination are listed as low brand equity, low recognition of destination in the country and abroad, lack of advertising and promotion, transportation, short season, lack of qualified personel, secondary houses, local development policies and practices, inadequate and substandard facilities, weak connections with travel agents and international organizations. Participants also indicate that it would be beneficial for the destination to improve competitive products such as making the mesurement of oxygen and improving it for respiratory cure, integrated tours (Kazdağı, mythology, history, eco, local culture etc.), extreme sports, gastronomy, olives and olive oil and new recreational activities. Destinational planning priorities are listed by participants as environmental sensitivity, the adequacy of infrastructure and transportation, harmony with nature and technology in the structuring, priority in horizontal structures instead of vertical, quality and high standard facilities, take precautions against noise, air, sea and land pollution, sustainability, landscaping, protection of cultural values, destinational branding, sensitivity in changing customer needs, efficient thermal water distribution policy and water use, facilities in different price and quality and to improve 14-21 days cure packages. Participants indicate that sustainability in thermal water depend on use of renewable resources, making necessary regulations and inspection on this issue, making the necessary infrastructure investments for the return of thermal water to wells, efficiency in the use of thermal water with the central complex, the establishment of wastewater collection center by municipality and the adoption of policies for public as providers and buyer for private sector in the thermal water resources, no force for carrying capacity and the policies for extending public holidays. Participants agree also that using destination as respiratory cure and sports medice is not attractive well enough. Hovewer, they indicate that these activities may be integrated with other attractiveness in order to improve destinational image. They also claim that there should be respiratory cure and sportive camp center in Kazdağı (Mount Ida). One participant proposed that the trail map of Kazdağı is necessary for athletes in order to satisfied hike. Finally, participants emphasize that coordination and participation of stakeholders makes easy to reach the target of a destination plan with the concept of “first quality servive after profit”. Participants proposed also that destination should be planned as thermal cure and spa cluster center, and other service providers and suppliers (accommodation, food and beverage, entertainment, leisure, sports, culture, history etc.) should be integrated to this system. DISCUSSION Today, healty life demand, sensitivity about wellness, environmental sensivity, indulgence in good food and community interactions had a multidimensional health and well-being effect on thermal tourism. But inadequate awareness of cure treatment among the public, insufficient research on thermal theraphy and lack of insurance coverage are some of the major challenges in the sector. According to Pforr and Locher (2012) focus on a thermal destination’s core competence as well as its unique endogenous potentials, increased levels of interconnectedness and network building between the various service providers stemming from the integration of a wide range of health-related products and services increase competitive advantage of a destination. Our research findings support this opinion. According to participants’s view point, thermal cure centers and cluster buildings that managed by the regional organization such as local government, provincial administrations and businesses has been facilitated in the innovative planning process. Innovative thermal spring destination planing should also focus on the new spa trends through youth, beauty and anti-stress programs. In this way, the spa hotels can meet the expectation of different clienteles who have no serious sick. According to Verykios et al. (2015) converting or promoting traditional thermal hotels as clinic/thermal properties is also another trend in thermal tourism destinations. On the other hand, Smith and Puczko (2010) indicate that European health tourism trends shift away from medically orientated and curative treatments for the physical body, towards a greater degree of self-responsibility through lifestyle based, preventative wellness activities. They also report that these trends differ depending on geographical and cultural differences between Northern, Western, Southern, and Central and Eastern European regions and countries. Some countries mainly focused on 159
holistic body-mind-spirit products and services in addition to beauty-based luxury spas, whereas others have traditionally focused on medical baths which cure and rehabilitate physical illnesses. In our case study, we revealed that all hotels provide thermal pool and traditional Turkish bath facilities to their clients. Sauna, steam room, massage types, foam and scrubs, facial and skin care services are also much common. These findings indicate that thermal and spa hotels in the destination focus on private use of thermal water with traditional way instead of cure applications. This trend can be considered as a handicap in terms of competitive advantage for the destination. In order to solve these structural problems, we improved a model for the the destination in the study. Although not a full consensus among participants, there is a strong desire for the model to be adopted into a broad range of planning processes. The issues have been raised on the agenda and there is strong support to use the model for upcoming planning processes. In order to ensure support for improved model among stakeholders in Güre, it is necessary to take certain steps at various hierarchical levels. First, it is essential to provide legal regulations about thermal water distribution as well as strategic planning documents. Centralized cure services is vital. Moreover, it is necessary to establish standardization and certification of thermal facilities by taking into account internationally accepted standards. The next step is to brand destination. Furthermore, existing cure services have to be converted into innovative product diversification. Thermal resources are also economically utilized with higher degree of capacity utilization by extending the season. Thermal tourism based on these starting points will be able to provide a year-round business, and may improve image of destination. It will be also lead to greater financial and economic benefits. Two companies use their own drilled water and six company use thermal water provided by local municipality in the destination. Few small companies that operating Turkish bath use also thermal water. The drilled thermal water is used as if it will never end and there is no return process to the wells. In the same basin, the existence of low standard small facilities jeopardize to the future of qualified facilities and the image of destination. To provide independent thermal services by large scale and SMEs facilities is a serious problem in the basin. Existing thermal water distribution policy threatens the renewability and sustainability of thermal water and decreases the quality of the thermal services. In order to solve problem, a central thermal cure and treatment center that operated by municipality should be established. Thus, visitors of destination can get high quality thermal cure and treatment services, and each accommodation facilities can focus on core services such as accommodation, food and beverage, relaxing, recreation and entertainment. Prolonging the season in a tourism destination is one of the main issues. As Peršić and Janković (2012) stated taht health tourism provides a higher degree of capacity utilization in tourist destinations by prolonging the season. In accordance with the participants’ consensus, thermal tourism could play important role for extending the season in the Güre tourism destination. On the other hand, Güre thermal destination is generally preferred by domestic visitors. The number of international visitors is almost none. There is a need to create international thermal competitive advantages by packaged and coordinated thermal offerings to foreign tourists. Verykios et al. (2015) suggest that introducing more health and wellness activities in the services offered at thermal establishments could further induce international demand. They also indicate that targeting and capturing more international business may serve as a good “safety net” that could assure healthy business results, but this extroversion would only bring results provided that the owners of the thermal properties would invest in required renovations. CONCLUSIONS Notably, with respect to sustainability in economic and environmental terms, a key point is perhaps to achieve a well-planned destination development depending on regulations on allocation of geothermal sources, providing central cure services and involvement of all related parties for future development of a thermal destination. Thus, sustainability of a destination development could be formulated together for business orientations and strategies for both public and private sector. The interviews with both commercial and public sector actors point to a range of future developments as innovative destination planning, and the analysis of the previous researches underline the need for a more detailed and inclusive strategic approach. The integration of respondents' individual opinions and group consensus results indicate also that more advertisement which includes special 160
products and services about thermal destinations such as thermal cure and recuperation are needed to develop in the Güre thermal tourism destination. As a result, despite the singularity of the Güre case and perspectives of the authors, it is suggested that the driven innovative planning model may be empirically verified in future undertakings on thermal destination planning in different contexts. Thermal cure and therapy is not currently covered by social security institution in Turkey. It makes difficult to improve these services. Thus, it is recommended that both private and state health insurance system should cover cure services and stays. Thermal water should be distributed from a main center and return process should be applied to wells by the local municipality in the Güre thermal tourism destination as well as all other destinations in Turkey. It is recommended that thermal water distribution policy should be regulated centrally depend on sustainability policy. Speier (2011) states that spas are traditionally ‘medical’ in nature. But shifting their focus toward relaxing and anti-stress of therapies is necessary under the global trends of spas in the global market. In line with these trends, it is recommended that additional activities sould be take into account in the destination planning. Fresh and oxygen-rich air is the main advantage in the Güre destination. Thus, it is recommended that madical tourism should be encouraged in the destination, especially based on sports health and asthma. The study contributes the literature by providing an innovative thermal tourism destination model. Data gathered with limited stakeholders is the main weakness of the case study. However, applying interviews with more stakeholders in the future studies will make the study findings more meaningful. A detailed project on proposed model will also be tested in future. REFERENCES Akbulut, Gülpınar. (2010). Türkiye'de Kaplıca Turizmi ve Sorunları. Gaziantep Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 9 (1), 35-54. Balikesir Metropolitan Municipality. (2015). 2015-2019 Strategic Plan. http://www.balikesir.bel.tr/ documents/ file/bb_StrategicPlanFiles/Dosya_1-4ea95334-71ae-47bf-b41e-9fab3fcc73de.pdf accesed date 26 May 2016. Borović, S. and Marković, I. (2015). Utilization and tourism valorisation of geothermal waters in Croatia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 44, 52-63. Chen, J. S. (2015). Tourism stakeholders attitudes toward sustainable development: A case in the Arctic. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 22, 225-230. Choi, Y., Kim, J., Lee, C-K. and Hickerson, B. (2015). The Role of Functional and Wellness Values in Visitors’ Evaluation of Spa Experiences. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 20(3), 263-279. Dredge, D. and Jamal, T. (2015). Progress in tourism planning and policy: A post-structural perspective on knowledge production. Tourism Management, 51, 285-297. Ersun, N. ve Arslan, K. (2011). Turizmde Destinasyon Seçimini Etkileyen Temel Unsurlar ve Pazarlama Stratejileri. Marmara Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, Cilt: XXXI, Sayı: II, ss. 229-248. Fabbris, L. (2013). Measurement Scales for Scoring or Ranking Sets of Interrelated Items.Survey Data Collection and Integration, (Edd.: Davino, C. ve Fabbris, L.), Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. Hatipoglu, B., Alvarez, M. D. and Ertuna, B. (2016). Barriers to stakeholder involvement in the planning of sustainable tourism: the case of the Thrace region in Turkey. J.of Cleaner Production, 111, 306-317. Hjalager, A-M. and Flagestad, A. (2012). Innovations in well-being tourism in the Nordic countries. Current Issues in Tourism, 15(8), 725–740. İlban, M. O., Köroğlu, A. ve Bozok, D. (2008). Termal Turizm Amaçlı Seyahat Eden Turistlerde Destinasyon İmajı: Gönen Örneği. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Yıl: 7( 13), 105129. Jones, T., Glasson, J., Wood, D. and Fulton, E. A. (2011). Regional Planning and Resilient Futures: Destination Modelling and Tourism Development-The Case of the Ningaloo Coastal Region in Western Australia. Planning Practice and Research, 26 (4), 393-415. Karabıyık, N. ve İnci, B.S. (2012). Destinasyon Pazarlamasında Pazarlama Stratejisi ve Konumlandırma Çalışmalarına Kavramsal Yaklaşım. Istanbul Journal of Social Sciences, 2012 Summer (1), 1-19. Kavacık, M, Zafer, S. ve İnal, M.E. (2012). Turizmde Destinasyon Markalaması: Alanya Örneği. Erciyes 161
Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Ocak-Haziram, 169-192. Kervankıran, I. (2014). The sustainable usage of geothermal sources and their importance in tourism in Afyonkarahisar. Journal of World of Turks, 6(1), 201-212. Kervankıran, İ. (2014). The Sustainable Usage of Geothermal Sources and Their Importance in Tourism in Afyonkarahisar. Zeitschrift für die Welt der Türken, 6(1), 201-211. Kim, H. J. and Ko, T. G. (2015). A comparative study of health tourism seekers and non-seekers’ satisfaction and subjective well-being evaluation: The case of Japanese and Korean Tourists. 5th AHTMM Conference, 18-21 June 2015, Japan. Kutvan, A.B. ve Kutvan, S.A. (2013). Turizm Planlamasında Destinasyon Çekiciliklerinin Ölçümü: Bir Yöntem Yaklaşımı. International Journal of Economic and Administrative Studies, Yıl: 6 (11), 159-184. Lee, C. H., Ko, E., Tikkanen, H., Phan, M. C. T., Aiello, G., Donvito. R. and Raithel, S. (2014). Marketing mix and customer equity of SPA brands: Cross-cultural perspectives. J.of Business Res., 67, 2155-2163. Lozano-Oyola, M., Blancas, F. J., González, M. and Caballero, R. (2012). Sustainable tourism indicators as planning tools in cultural destinations. Ecological Indicators, 18, 659-675. Milena Peršić and Sandra Janković. (2012). The assessment of opportunities and assumption of the Croatian health tourism development. Journal of Business Management, 6, 88-104. Naraindas, H. (2011). Of relics, body parts and laser beams: the German Heilpraktiker and his Ayurvedic spa. Anthropology & Medicine, 18 (1), 67-86. Naraindasa, H and Cristiana Bastos, C. (2011). Healing holidays? Itinerant patients, therapeutic locales and the quest for health. Anthropology & Medicine, Special Issue for Anthropology & Medicine, 18(1), 1-6. Olalı, H. ve Korzay, M.(1993), “Otel İşletmeciliği”, Beta yayınları, İstanbul. Pforr, C. & Locher, C. (2012). The German Spa and Health Resort Industry in the Light of Health Care System Reforms. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 29, 298–312. Rivera, M., Croes, R. and Lee, S. H. (2016). Tourism development and happiness: A residents’ perspective. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 5, 5-15. Rosenbaum, A. T. (2014). Grounded Modernity in the Bavarian Alps: The Reichenhall Spa Culture at the Turn of the Twentieth Century. Central European History, 47, 30-53. Sadeghi, B. and Khalajmasoumi, M. (2015). A futuristic review for evaluation of geothermal potentials using fuzzy logic and binary index overlay in GIS environment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 43, 818-831. Serbulea, M. and Payyappallimana, U. (2012). Onsen (hot springs) in Japan: Transforming terrain into healing landscapes. Health & Place, 18, 1366–1373. Smith, M. and Puczko, L. (2010). Taking your life into your own hands? New trends in European Health Tourism. Tourism Recreation Research, 35(2), 161-172. Song, G., Zhang, B., Wang, X., Gong, J., Chan, D., Bernett, J. and Lee, S. C. (2005). Indoor radon levels in selected hot spring hotels in Guangdong, China. Science of the Total Environment, 339, 63-70. South Marmara Development Agency (GMKA). (2015). Geothermal investor's guide. Balıkesir, 1-84. Speier, A. R. (2011). Health tourism in a Czech health spa. Anthropology & Medicine, 18 (1), 55–66. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, Mekansal Planlama Genel Müdürlüğü, Yozgat-Sivas-Kayseri Planlama Bölgesi 1/100 000 Ölçekli Çevre Düzeni Planı. http://www.csb.gov.tr/db/mpgm/editordosya/file/CDP_1 00000/ ysk/ysk_PLAN_ACIKLAMA_RAPORU.pdf access date 30 may 2016. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Yatırım ve işletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü, Termal Turizm Master Planı, Hedefler; Kısa, Orta ve Uzun Dönem (2007-2023). http://www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr/ Eklenti/21666,ttmp.pdf?0 access date 30 may 2016. Tatilbudur.Com: Güre Otelleri. Available at; http://www.tatilbudur.com/yurtici-oteller/balikesir/edremit/ gure- otelleri? gclid=CI2A3sba-MwCFckaGwodrUgHmg Accessed date 26 May 2016. Ural, A. ve Kılıç, İ. (2011). Bilimsel Araştırma Süreci ve SPSS ile Veri Analizi. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Verykios, P., Papadimitriou, P. and Poinelli, E. (2015). In focus: thermal hotels and spas in Italy. HVS Global Hospitality Report, Milan, Italy, 1-6. Vogt, C., Jordan, E., Grewe, N. and Kruger, L. (2016). Collaborative tourism planning and subjective wellbeing in a small island destination. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 5, 36–43. Yeni Söz News Portal: Edremit Körfezi’nde tatil sezonu uzadı. Available at; .http://www.gazeteyenisoz .com/haber-10388-edremit-korfezinde-tatil-sezonu-uzadi.html Accessed date 23 May 2016. Zhang, C. and Xiao, H. (2014). Destination development in China: towards an effective model of explanation. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(2), 214–233. 162
Chapter 12 Attitudes of University Students towards Mobile Marketing of Food and Beverage Goods and Services Nuray TETİK, Göksel Kemal GİRGİN** 1. INTRODUCTION Mobile communication systems are devices that allow delivering messages fast, share information among users (Barutçu, 2011, 7) and, allow people to communicate with others without being tied to a physical location. These characteristics offer significant opportunities for marketers to reach customers at anytime and anyplace (Cleff, 2010, 158). As mobile technology applications continue to increase, so do the number of mobile subscribers (Soroa-Koury & Yang, 2010, 103). By September 2012, the usage of mobile phones was 67,16 million in total and the penetration of mobile phones has almost reached %89, 9 in Turkey. With the introduction of 3G service in July 2009, the usage of 3G services reached 40,3 million in the same period (ICTAT, 2012, 33). These indicators show that there is a high potential of growth in the GSM sector in Turkey. A market research which was done by Information and Communication Technologies Authority of Turkey (ICTAT) revealed the fact that when comparing usage duration of mobile phone with those in European countries, Turkey took the first place with the average of 299 minutes per month in the third period of 2012. Spain (247 min.), Belgium (242 min.), Sweden (235 min.) and Germany (221 min.) followed Turkey respectively (ICTAT, 2012, 54). The developments in information and communication technologies have provided marketing opportunities for companies. For example, companies had very effective marketing, advertising and sales tools owing to the invention of phone, TV and the internet. Beside internet, the second important technological development that affect marketing facilities is the usage of mobile phones as a mobile marketing channel (Barutçu, 2008, 15; Barutçu, 2011, 7). Tähtinen (2006, 152) also supported this idea and mentioned that importance of mobile marketing arose with the improvement of mobile technology. Early scholars (e.g. Woodside and Soni, 1991) conclude that mobile marketing provides marketers with a real opportunity to get a high response rate compared to traditional media. The justification for that is that people within the mobile marketing network such as customers, businesses, advertising agencies, marketers and brands can interact with each other in more creative and fashionable way unlike before (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 28). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Leppäniemi et al. (2006) carried a comprehensive review about mobile marketing research and found that academicians have used different terms interchangeably, such as mobile advertising, wireless marketing and wireless advertising which all refer to mobile marketing (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29). For example, Kalakota and Robinson (2002) use the term mobile marketing when referring to distribution of messages and promotion, in Stafford and Gillenson (2003) m-commerce refers to the same phenomenon, and in Pura (2002) the term is mobile advertising (Tahtinen, 2005, 152). Moreover, Balasubramanian et al. (2002, 329) stated that there is no conceptual agreement about the definition of mobile marketing, besides most of the proposed definitions mainly focused on the technology itself rather than trying to go beyond that to clearly relate such technology into the marketing field (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29).
Dr., Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Guidance, Balıkesir Dr., Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Gastronomy and Kitchen Arts, Balıkesir
**
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Mobile marketing or wireless marketing is a subset of e-marketing (Bamba & Barnes, 2007, 816) and is defined by Scharl, Dickinger and Murphy (2005, 165) as “using a wireless medium to provide consumers with time-and-location-sensitive, personalized information that promotes goods, services and ideas, thereby benefiting all stakeholders”. This definition includes an important concept of adding value not just for the marketing party, but also for the consumer (Tetik, 2008, 17). Mobile Marketing Association (MMA, 2006), defines mobile marketing as "the use of wireless media as an integrated content delivery and direct response vehicle within a cross media or standalone marketing communications program" (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 28; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010, 574). Mobile marketing can also be seen as; "all activities required to communicate with customers through the use of mobile devices in order to promote the selling of products or services and the provision of information about these products and services" (Ververidis & Polyzos, 2002, 3). The growth potential of mobile communication market attracts the attention of marketers and gives them many opportunities to reach the consumers directly (Eren, 2008, 3). Since the mobile phone is a very personal device, (Tahtinen & Salo, 2004, 3; Valsecchi, Renga & Rangone, 2007, 755) mobile marketing which has personalization features (Tsang, Ho & Liang, 2004, 68; Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Tripathi & Nair, 2007, 1024; Eren, 2008, 15; Xu, Liao & Li, 2008, 711; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2) provides consumers with personalized information based on their time of day, location and interests (Lee & Lee, 2010, 350; Eren, 2008, 15; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2). It is also ubiquitous (Lee & Lee, 2010, 350; Yuan & Cheng, 2004, 462; Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Pousttchi & Wiedemann, 2006, 2; Schierholz, Kolbe & Brenner, 2007, 834; Eren, 2008, 16; Mehta, 2008, 98) that enables the business entities to reach their customers through mobile devices anywhere at anytime (Tsang, Ho & Liang, 2004, 68; Bouwman, et.al., 2007, 150; Cleff, 2007, 262; Ngai & Gunasekaran, 2007, 4; Valsecchi, Renga & Rangone, 2007, 755; Barutçu, 2008, 15; Eren, 2008, 16; Gurau & Ranchhod, 2009, 496; Akın, 2010, 2; Banerjee & Yancey, 2010, 98; Broeckelmann, 2010, 416). Being interactive is another important feature of mobile marketing (Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Schierholz, Kolbe & Brenner, 2007, 834; Cudmore & Patton, 2008, 77; Eren, 2008, 4; Akın, 2010, 3; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010, 574; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2), because it is crucial to enable users reply to a mobile marketing message immediately. Mobile phone holds all the specifications that are needed for a close dialogue between brands and consumers (Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Okazaki & Taylor, 2008, 5; Akın, 2010, 3). In addition, companies have more knowledge about their client pool than ever before. This is because mobile communication technology brings together a broad range of information regarding its users, ranging from location and transaction details tor personally identifiable information (Cleff, 2007, 262; Xu, Lee & Li, 2008, 711). This provides businesses with the opportunity to reach their prospects when and where it is most appropriate for the effectiveness of a marketing campaign (Gratton, 2002, 59). As well as these features; it is cost effective (Eren, 2008, 4; Usta, 2009, 295; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2), measurable, (Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2), controllable (Pousttchi & Wiedemann, 2006, 2) and effective way of reaching the target market of the companies (Eren, 2008, 4; Usta, 2009, 295). It is possible not only to build brand awareness and change brand image; but also to promote sales and generate brand loyalty (Pousttchi & Wiedemann, 2006, 6; Valsecchi, Renga & Rangone, 2007, 756; Cudmore & Patton, 2008, 78; Karaca & Gülmez, 2010, 74). Thus, it is focused on the customers and customer satisfaction (Cudmore & Patton, 2008, 77; Xu, Liao & Li, 2008, 710). However, it is important to bear in mind that; familiarity of mobile marketing depends on age, gender and educational level of users (Akın, 2010, 3). On the other hand, ease to locate and communicate with mobile phone users (Gratton, 2002, 59; Gurau & Ranchhod, 2009, 496), unless carefully monitored, may become an extremely intrusive practice (Gratton, 2002, 66; Cleff, 2007, 263; Merisavo, et. al., 2007, 42; Soroa-Koury & Yang, 2010, 104). The possibility to utilize personal and location information in order to create customized and personalized advertising messages can easily assemble detailed user profiles. Therefore, the privacy risks have to be considered and appropriate data protection and privacy safeguards must be guaranteed 164
(Cleff, 2007, 263). As Barwise and Strong (2002) stated mobile users have said that they would accept mobile advertising provided that they had given prior consent (Soroa-Koury & Yang, 2010, 104). Additionally, a company could irritate customers by bombarding them with different messages from separate areas of the organization (Eren, 2008, 27). If the consumer is interrupted during his or her daily activities this can severely damage brand image (Bamba & Barnes, 2007, 817). Moreover, mobile information access must cope with mobile environment problems and restrictions such as display size, battery, memory size, processing power, narrow bandwidth and restricted resources (Rau & Chen, 2006, 905; Xu, Lee & Li, 2008, 710; Mehta, 2008, 100). Today, there are a variety of technological platforms such as rich voice, wireless application protocol (WAP) and message services (SMS, MMS) that are available to support mobile marketing applications (Steinbock, 2005, 202; Tetik, 2008, 17; Akın, 2010, 6; Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29; Karaca & Gülmez, 2010, 74; Zengin, 2010, 24). Such formats are regarded as valuable and helpful channels for direct marketing and promotional activities. Therefore, it is expected to achieve higher response rates compared to e-mail marketing since such formats are sent more personally (Al-Alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29). The literature (Barwise & Strong, 2002, 14; Dickinger, et al., 2004, 5; Bauer, et al., 2005, 181; Scharl, Dickinger & Murphy, 2005, 160; Bourke, 2006, 5; Okazaki & Taylor, 2008, 4; Salo, Sinisalo & Karjaluoto, 2008, 501; Phau & Teah, 2009, 97; Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29; Zengin, 2010, 41) shows that the most popular mobile application among them, which is widely used as a mobile marketing tool, is SMS. For example, SMS ads, messages are more likely to be viewed (70%) than email marketing messages (30%) (Timpson & Troutman, 2009, 57). The growth of the mobile industry has attracted attention on mobile marketing, especially in two thousand years, as it is a new field of academic research. When considering the studies on mobile marketing and advertising, theoretical and empirical studies which focused on different aspects have been conducted in this field. For example, prior studies have examined mobile marketing in terms of its acceptance by consumers (Bauer, et.al. 2005; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010; Gao, et.al. 2013; Grant, 2007; Leppäniemi & Karjaluoto, 2005; Merisavo, et.al. 2007; Persaud & Azhar, 2010; Rau, et.al. 2014; Rohm, et.al. 2012; Sultan, Rohm & Gao, 2009), privacy concerns (Cleff, 2007; Cleff, 2008; Cleff, 2010; Phelps, Nowak & Ferrell, 2000; Xu, et.al. 2011), permission-based use (Bamba & Barnes, 2007; Barwise & Strong, 2002; Gurau & Ranchhod, 2009; Im & Ha, 2013; Salo & Tahtinen, 2005; Tezinde, Smith & Murphy, 2002) and the importance of personalization (Chen & Hsieh, 2012; Cudmore & Patton, 2007; Xu, Liao & Li, 2008; Yuan & Tsao, 2003). However, most of the studies focused on consumer perceptions and attitudes towards mobile marketing and advertising. They approached the subject in terms of negative and positive factors that influence the perceptions of mobile marketing. Some examples of these studies were given at Table 1. On the other hand, there is little empirical research on perceptions of consumers towards mobile marketing in terms of sectors. Especially researches on mobile marketing by taking into consideration of food and beverage sector is scarce. So this study was conducted to fill this gap by examining university students' attitudes towards mobile marketing. 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study aimed to determine undergraduate students' attitudes towards mobile marketing services (MMS) of food and beverage goods and services. The research was carried out at Balikesir University Tourism Faculty. In order to reach the aim, close-ended questionnaire form was designed for collecting data by based on former studies (Bamba & Barnes, 2007; Banerjee & Yancey, 2010; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010; O’Doherty, Rao & Mackay, 2007). The sample included 400 students. Questionnaires were distributed to students in classrooms by the authors of this research in January 2014. Out of the 400 distributed questionnaires, 384 with a response rate of 89%, were returned. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. Students' profiles were tried to be determined in the first section. The second section asked students to rate mobile marketing services. In order to reach the aim, ten items were developed. Each item was evaluated by using a five-point Likert Scale, ranging from “strongly disagree (1)” to “strongly agree (5)”.
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Table 1: Studies about Influential Factors on Mobile Marketing
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Table 1: Continued
Data obtained from questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS Program Version 16.0. Descriptive statistics including frequencies and distribution percentage were evaluated to determine students’ profiles. Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated to test the reliability of the scale and was obtained 0.790. This result indicated that the scale was acceptable and reliable. Then mean scores and standard deviations of the items were calculated. One Sample KolmogorovSmirnov (K-S) Test was applied for determining whether the data set was well-modeled by a normal distribution or not. The result showed that the data were not normally distributed (P=0.000; p1,200). The cruise travel offers a fully organized program. Average cost of the travel is $125-200 per day per person depending on the cabin category and duration of the travel. Medium market: The consumers in this group have medium purchasing power. This group makes up the largest share of the market. The cruise ships in this group have passenger capacity of 500 to 2,200. Annual income of the cruisers in this group range from $40,000 to $59,000. And the average cost of the cruise travel per day per person is $250-300. Luxury market: Cruise travellers in this group have high purchasing power. The ships used for the travel of this group are smaller, with a capacity of 700 passengers. The cabins have more space and they are larger. There are also more staff serving for passengers. The consumers in this group have annual income higher than $60,000 and the cost of travel per person is more than $350 per day. Special market: Consumers in this group expect adventure and services specially designed for them. The cruise travel is made on small ships and large yachts, with a capacity of 50 passengers. Cruise travellers are also classified in Cruise Market Watch (2015b) according to geographic factors (country of origin, language, culture), economic & demographic factors (income, age, life stage, gender, education, social status) and psychographic factors (interest, life goals, media usage, cruise brand exposure, peer status, active or passive leisure engagement, service expectations, attitudes towards groups and travel, past travel experiences in terms of recency, frequency, amount spent, type and duration) which were then used to establish the segments of cruise travellers listed as explorers, admirals, marines, little mermaids, escapers, souvenirs and adrift. Explorers: Passengers in this group take four or more vacations per year and they take longer, exotic and cultural learning cruises. It is important for them to be involved in a social cause. This small and more saturated segment cares making friend and socializing. This group is considered as the future opportunity, thus it is considered significant to retain them by satisfying their expectations. 338
Admirals: Cruise travellers in this group seek traditional experience and they choose their preferred cruise service provider. They are inclined to keep using their favourite cruise provider until the provider becomes incompetent in offering new services or starts offering the attributes in an unrecognizable manner. This group is considered as great consumers yet they display little room for growth. Marines: This segment involves cruisers who are upscale, motivated and active young professionals. The cruisers in this group prefer a cruise holiday with activities and they always look for better ships even if they are new cruisers. This curious and media-involved group considers that not only being active but also being in challenge is important. This group of passengers have the potential to increase market share, especially for the cruise ships offering active sports. Little Mermaids: Upper middle class families make up this segment. The difficulty of being stuck in between the daily activities and limited time, their desire is to maximize the travel experience with leisure activities that can be performed as a family and also involves quality-bonding opportunities. Escapers: Consumers in this group are the most desirable and form the core of the market. All they want is to escape from the harsh conditions they have experienced all year long, and they would like to just sit by the pool, relax and see a few places. They do not expect much and thus, they do not worry or complain much. Consumers in this group are slightly price sensitive.
Figure 3: Key decision making factors of cruise clients Source: CLIA (2016b)
Souvenirs: Cruisers in this group are price-conscious and thus, the line of the ship is not important for them. They do not prefer specific destinations or activities. The cruise experience is just a trip for them. They do not have much interest in the world outside and they have the tendency to take a cruise vacation when the price is considered as a good deal. Adrift: This segment embraces consumers who do not have interest in travel experience and who do not have the sufficient income for such an experience. Therefore, they cannot be considered as a target for cruise market. A study which was carried out by CLIA (Cruise Lines International Association) in 2016 with the travel agents of cruise services on the factors that determine the cruise selection behaviour of cruise travellers is presented in Figure 3 (CLIA, 2016b). It is clear that whereas overall experience of the travel and its cost is very important in choosing a cruise holiday, loyalty to cruise brand or the type of the cruise ship is not considered important by the travellers. The plan of the cruise trip is listed as the third significant factor for passengers which is followed by safety, onboard amenities and port of embarkation. It is clear that like in other tourism contexts, cruise passengers have different expectations and desires in terms of experiences the cruise ship offers. This difference results not only from demographic 339
or geographic differences of cruisers, but also the behavioural patterns and personality traits that shape their expectations. The industry has already started adjusting itself by classifying the cruise ships as luxury, premium and standard (CLIA, 2004). The increasing competition in the industry requires cruise companies and tour operators to analyse the passenger types and the factors that affect their purchase and repurchase tendencies. This will result in providing suitable services for the passengers, which will lead to customer satisfaction just like in other marketing situations. Supply Side of the Cruise Tourism: Destinations & Products Cruising is a unique product which is defined, just like tourism, as the blend of 5A’s: attractions, activities, access, accommodation and amenities (Tukamushaba, Xiao & Ladkin, 2016). These aspects are emphasized in the brochures of cruise travels together with the word “luxury”. This intensely service-oriented sector grows with the establishment of new destinations, appreciation of already existing destinations and building new cruise ships tailored according to the current demands and expectations of cruise passengers. Currently the leader of cruise market is Carnival Cruise Lines with a share of 48.1% of passengers and 42.2% of the revenue (Cruise Market Watch, 2015c). The company has 25 ships operating to Bahamas, Caribbean, Europe, Mexican Riviera, Alaska, Hawaii, Canada, New England, Bermuda, Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Carnival is followed by Royal Caribbean Cruises whose market share of passengers is 23.1% and revenue is 22.1% globally. The company has 25 ships visiting 77 ports in 6 continents. And the third company competing in the global cruise market with its 13 cruise ships is Norwegian Cruise Line. The market share of the company in terms of passengers is 10.4% and in revenue is 12.4%. In terms of cruise destination, Caribbean has been leading the market. However, thanks to the market expansion strategies of cruise companies, besides Mediterranean, other regions like Australia and Asia, who constitute a smaller part of the industry, have displayed an increasing demand regarding the cruise travel (Pallis, 2015). The changes in terms of regional cruise fleet deployment are presented in Figure 4. It is clear from the figure that the last decade has witnessed the decrease in previously popular destinations and an increase in demand of new cruise ports.
Figure 4: Global Deployment Shares 2005/2015 Source: MedCruise Report, 2015
Increasing number of destinations around the world has resulted in simultaneous increase in importance of the ports. A major factor in the supply side of the cruise tourism, ports can act as determinants of cruise itineraries through five factors (Pallis, 2015). The first one is the location of port which affects its being included in popular itineraries. The second factor is attractiveness of the destination for cruise travellers. Many items can be listed under this title of destination attractiveness such as climate, cultural factors etc. Another factor determining success of the port is accessibility of the 340
port which includes proximity or connection to airport, train connections and highway connections. The fourth factor is the facilities and services provided by the port (Table 1). The final factor affecting success of a port is the port fee. It is acknowledged that a port failing to perform successfully in the first three factors could not be chosen as a cruise destination. In addition to these success factors, ports are classified according to various criteria, which again contribute to their success as a desired destination. The first criterion is the nature of the port, which includes dedicated terminal, dedicated pier and multi-purpose facility options. The ownership type of the ports and size are also used in classification. Moreover, factors like function in itinerary, seasonality, destination attractiveness, integration with local and regional destination and ease of accessibility to the port are used in classifying the ports (Pallis, 2015). Entrance & berth facilities Manoeuvrability Draught Berth dimensions Anchorages Bollards Fenders
Cruise ship & services
Passenger services
Dedicated cruise ship piers Berth reservation process Tug boats Pilotage Fuel service Fresh water services Food and drink/beverages Waste reception facilities Quality of shipping agents Speed of ship clearance Stakeholders cooperation (port and other local stakeholders)
Separation of pier uses in port Pedestrian paths Tourist information Cleanliness Immigration quickness Port aesthetics Ship to coach quickness Sufficient availability of coaches/ taxis
Presence of passenger terminal Parking facilities (short & long term) Shops Passenger throughout range Security procedures Availability of baggage storage
Home-port Only
Generic Facilities
Table 1: Expected cruise port facilities and services
Source: Pallis (2015, p.30)
The cruise travels are performed by ships which are designed to suit different preferences and needs of travellers. The general categories are ocean voyages, standard cruises, river / canal cruises, destination / expedition cruises, day cruises, contemporary cruises, luxury cruises and specialty cruises. Growth of the cruise tourism resulted not only in the emergence of new destinations and improvement in the services offered by the ports, but also new forms of cruise travels offering opportunities for different experiences were introduced. Cruise markets that have different operations are presented in Table 2. In addition to the above-mentioned alternatives, cruise travel can be classified according to the prevailing cruises offered for different segments (CRISIL, 2005). One of them is cruises for family segment which includes moderately priced holiday targeting young passengers. Senior citizen segment is for the travellers who have considerable purchasing power and are interested in cruise travel. This group is the largest growing segment. Conferences and incentives segment targets travellers who would like to combine business with leisure. Ships featured with modern facilities try to attract the business segment. Theme cruises offer new routes or add specialized products to the current itineraries. This segment can be exemplified by the Paradise ship of Carnival for non-smokers or cruise travels dedicated to wine tasting. Another category is adventure cruises. These cruise travels have modest demand and companies operating with this purpose do not belong to big groups. The trio of cruise travel supply, which are destination, port and ship, have evolved into different forms in the last decades. It is this change observed in the services offered and destinations included in 341
cruise travel that has made cruise holiday a new alternative for most of the passengers who have never cruised before. But the industry still has new markets to expand by attracting new consumer segments through new products and services offered. Table 2: Overview of Cruise Markets Location / Type Special interest (sailing education, exploration)
Comment Several markets according to location World-wide markets, highly differentiated
Long distance ocean cruising
Single world market
Extended ferry mini-cruises
Usually domestic World market, heavily dominated by US
River, canal, lake cruises
Short ocean cruises
Supply/markets Small, shallow vessels, often domestic markets Purpose-built vessels, specialist crews, degree of monopoly through differentiation Large vessels, often relying on tradition and luxury, resources acquired internationally Joint product with car ferries Mostly large purpose-built vessels
Source: Bull (1996, p.29)
Responsible Cruise Tourism The quick growth of cruise industry has brought both economic improvements and concern for social and natural environment. There is debate about the economic impacts of cruise tourism, its impact on local culture and society and about environmental impacts. These concerns are discussed within the concept of responsible tourism. Capetown Declaration, which was avowed in International Conference on Responsible Tourism in Destinations in 2002, defined responsible tourism as having focus on the economical, environmental and social impacts of tourism while considering ethics and human rights from consumers’ and societies’ perspective (Responsible Tourism in Destinations, 2002). The principles discussed in this declaration are also applied to cruise tourism. The effect of cruise tourism on these three main topics is discussed below. Economic Impacts Cruise tourism directly and indirectly affects the economy of a destination (Brida & Zapata, 2010). Direct effect generated from expenditures is on the supplier providing goods and services to cruise vessel, passengers and crew. Cruise vessel expenditures are listed by the authors as port costs, marine expenses, food and beverages, fuel, water and maintenance. Passenger expenditures include the costs incurred by cruisers that are not part of the cruise travel, such as taxis, souvenirs, shore excursions, food and beverages, etc. The authors enumerated crew expenditures as restaurants, retail goods, recreational activities, transport, etc. These direct expenditures result in indirect effect of cruise tourism on the economy of a destination due to the purchases made by the direct suppliers from other companies. A framework was developed by Dwyer and Forsyth (1998) displaying the types of cruise expenditures and their national and regional effects (Table 3). The table details onshore costs that are incurred by the passengers and by the operator. With the changing structure of cruise ships from allinclusive travel to user-pays situation, the passengers are also spending onboard for facilities like extra tariff restaurants and food outlets, recreational activities, mini bars, same-day newspapers, etc. This structure generates local and regional revenue through land-based tours and shopping programs (Najafipour et al., 2014). Braun and Tramel (2006) state that the economic gain from operator and passenger spending depend on various factors such as expected fleet size, passenger capacity, length of cruise itinerary, port attractiveness for port of call and size of homeport’s industry cluster. In addition to the economic benefits obtained during cruise travel from the expenditures of operator and passenger, cruise tourism also contributes the economy through ship building and maintenance companies. It is approximately 10 times more profitable to build vessels for nautical tourism than to build vessels for other purposes (Kalanj, 2014). Besides building ships for different purposes, it is necessary to provide maintenance services for these cruise ships to serve for repair, spare part, paint needs, etc. 342
Table 3: Cruise Expenditures and Their Effects Type of Expenditure Passenger Airfares to/from destination Internal travel Add-on expenditure turn around Port expenditure Operator Port expenditure
Provedoring Crewing
Item Purchases Road, rail, air Accommodation, meals, tours and attractions Meals, tours, shopping State/government Port charges Towage Stevedoring Bunkering Stores Services (waste, water) National crew Port expenditure foreign crew
Ship maintenance Marketing at the destination Income tax, customs duty, departure tax Source: Dwyer & Forsyth (1998, p.399) Taxes
Impact National National, regional fares National, regional share Port region State and regional Regional Regional Regional National National and regional Regional National Regional Regional National and regional National and regional
The overview presented above indicates the direct and indirect economic contribution of cruise tourism through operator expenditures and passenger spending. It can be deduced that thanks to the growth in the industry, the economic benefits derived from the industry will increase. It is necessary to sustain competitive advantage by the state-of-the-art investments operating in alternative destinations for different consumer segments and thus, it will be lucrative not only for local and regional economies, but also for economic actors in the national level. Social Impacts Cruise tourism enables cultural exchange, revitalization of culture, encouragement of social involvement which are listed among its positive impacts. It contributes in increasing the vitality of the destination. Also both visitors and local people will have the chance of developing sympathy, understanding and tolerance. However, cruise tourism causes more negative perceptions than its positive impacts. In discussing these negative impacts of cruise tourism, three main issues foreground among a range of topics, which are people pollution, cultural heritage degradation and labour issues (Brida & Zapata, 2010; Klein, 2011; UNWTO, 2016). People pollution refers to disruption created by the visitor flows in local traffic and pedestrian roads when the carrying capacity of a destination is exceeded. Overcrowded ports have recently become a problem since the number of ships and their capacities have increased. This situation affects not only the experience of cruisers but also the local people and may generate negative attitude towards tourists. It will also cause problems for stay-over tourists who have to spend more time to experience the destination due to daily cruise visitors. An example of this phenomenon occured in Key West, Florida where curise tourism exceeded the carrying capacity of the city. This affected the residents and landbased tourism alike and the city was labelled as “getting ugly” by National Geographic Traveller in 2004 (Klein, 2011). Tourists are blamed for lowered life standards in such cases. Limiting the number of cruise ships will be a solution for this problem. Yet, in many cities, key-decision makers welcome any cruise ship that wants to visit and they do not consider the social impacts. The impact of cruise tourism to the cultural heritage of a destination results from too many cruisers’ visiting a place in finite periods. This would cause wear and tear on the site. The number of passengers has negative impacts also on the experience. Another point in terms of cultural heritage may 343
be in rural areas where the attraction of the destination will be their intangible cultural heritage and interacting with tourists will be a threat for this. Therefore, local people will be unwilling to interact with cruisers (UNWTO, 2016). Cruise passengers should be careful and treat local cultures respectfully. The increase in the number and size of cruise ships becomes a challenge for such places but as the ship turns out to be the destination itself, most of the passengers do not want to leave the ship for local visits. This indicates the insensitivity of cruise tourism to locals, cultural heritages in the port and the economy relying on this industry. Another negative impact from social perspective is labour issue. ITWF (International Transport Worker’s Federation) affirms the fact that most of the cruise personnel is working for long hours, paid low, is subject to racism and other forms of discrimination (Najafipour et al., 2014). Workers accept these conditions in order to earn money for their families. Employees are also stratified in three groups where the officers are Norwegian or Italian, staff are Western European or North American, and crew are Asian, Caribbean and Eastern European (Wood, 2000). Environmental Impacts Environmental impact of cruise tourism is handled from the perspective of cruise ships, passengers and suppliers. It is important to handle waste and pollutants properly and plan and implement the management process accordingly to eliminate the negative effects of cruise ships on environment. Some of the major cruise lines have taken firm steps regarding this impact but measures should be taken to completely eliminate the negative effects of cruise tourism on environment. The wastes of cruise ship, which damages the environment, are listed as blackwater, graywater, solid waste, hazardous wastes, bilge water, ballast water and air pollution (Brida & Zapata, 2010). Description of each waste and the damage created by a ship for 3,000 passengers in these waste categories are presented in Table 4. Sweeting and Wayne (2006) cited the challenges caused by some of these wastes and responses of the industry in terms of measures taken to prevent the damages. Table 4: Type of waste and damage produced Type of waste Blackwater Graywater Solid waste
Description Is sewage, wastewater from toilets and medical facilities, which can contain harmful bacteria, pathogens, diseases, viruses, etc. Is wastewater from the sinks, showers, galleys, laundry and cleaning activities aborad a ship Includes glass, paper, cardboard, aluminium and steel cans, and plastics
Includes discarded and expired chemicals, medical waste, batteries, fluorescent lights, and spent paints and thinners, among others Contains solid wastes and pollutants containing high Bilge water amounts of oxygen-demanding material, oil and other chemicals Often contains non-native, nuisance, exotic species that can Ballast water cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems Generated by diesel engines that burn high sulphur content fuel, producing sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and Air pollution particulate, in addition to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons Source: Brida & Zapata (2010, p.219) Hazardous wastes
Damage for a large ship with 3,000 passengers 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per day 90,000 to 225,000 gallons per day 24% vessel worldwide (by weight) comes from cruise ships Quantities are small, their toxicity to sensitive marine organisms can be significant An average of 8 metric tons of oily bilge water for each 24 hours of operation Little cruise-industry specific data on the issue Little cruise-industry specific data on the issue
In addition to the wastes damaging the water, cruise ships also pollute the air by emission from their engines. Cruise tourism is responsible for 60,000 deaths worldwide each year with daily emission 344
of a ship likened to the impact of 12,000 automobiles (Klein, 2011). Measures are taken by the governments and regulating institutions to curtail air pollution created by the ships. It is clear that the industry takes necessary precautions to prevent pollution of the environment which is the main attraction for cruise passengers. They are adopting ‘zero discharge’ approach “which means that nothing is discharged into the world’s oceans at any time” (Najafipour et al., 2014, p.221). It is also the responsibility of destination authorities to monitor the cruise ships and take necessary measures. Both industry players and destination authorities should cooperate with NGOs and scientific organizations to determine and overcome the negative impacts of cruise tourism on environment. An overview of cruise industry impacts reveal that it is crucial to ensure responsible cruise tourism and also it will cost high. However, the sustainability of the industry depends on protecting natural and social resources together with local economies. As Hall (2001, p.610) states, an understanding of tourism policy is at the center of the goals of coastal tourism management and planning for tourism is “an amalgam of economic, social and environmental considerations. A framework for sustainable tourism has been developed by Global Sustainable Tourism Council, whose criteria could well be applied to cruise industry. Four key areas of the criteria are (UNWTO, 2016, p.60): Demonstrate effective sustainable management; Maximize social and economic benefits to the local community and minimize negative impacts; Maximize benefits to cultural heritage and minimize negative impacts; Maximize benefits to the environment and minimize negative impacts. CONCLUSION The scope of cruise industry is likely to expand globally with its strong market potential (Sun et al., 2011). The number of cruise destinations has increased in the last decade with similar increase for destinations that have not been so much an attraction for cruisers. Moreover, cruise industry offers alternative products for travellers from different segments with varying needs and expectations. This increase in both supply and demand of cruise tourism is an indicative of its young and evolving nature and the future economic opportunities it provides not only for cruise companies but also for the economies of the destinations. Cruise is defined as a kind of forced relaxation (Berger, 2004) and it is appealing more and more travellers every year. The beginning of the industry has attracted mostly the people with high purchasing power and who were generally retired due to the length of time a cruise travel requires. However, with the changing cruise tour alternatives young people, families with small children or passengers who are expecting to spend an adventurous holiday are beginning to prefer cruise tourism. The industry began to provide solutions for the concerns of travellers regarding the cost, its addressing a certain segment of society, its insufficiency in terms of attractions for families or for young people. The industry has some negative socio-cultural, economic and environmental impacts besides the opportunities it offers. Dowling (2006b, p.424) states that “[d]eveloping sustainable tourism is one of the challenges in working towards an environmentally friendly, economically viable and socially aware future for previously deprived regions. The only way to ensure a positive future is if mass tourism – in its current form and at its current levels – meets the criteria for sustainability with increasing regularity”. Especially in terms of its effects on environment, some strict measures are taken within the last decade. Yet, there still remains much work to be done in order to minimize the negative effects of cruise industry on society, economy and environment. In addition to the above-mentioned effects, cruise industry incorporates concerns on safety and security of the travel. These factors should not be overlooked and necessary precautions should be taken against these points as they are among the items that prevent some travellers from taking a cruise travel. Overall, it is premused that the industry will continue this growth and profit trend if a holistic perspective embodying not only the suppliers but also the demand side of the cruise travel is considered. With the participation of all stakeholders, this growing industry will contribute not only its own improvement but also to the development of destinations and to the protection of environment, which is the main source of this travel type.
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REFERENCES Berger, A. (2004). Ocean Travel and Cruising: A Cultural Analysis, Haworth Hospitality Press. New York. Braun, B. M. & Tramel, F. (2006). The Sources and Magnitude of the Economic Impact on a Local Economy from Cruise Activities: Evidence from Port Canaveral, Florida. In: Ross K. Dowling (ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism, Chapter 26, p.280-290, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Brida, J. G. & Zapata, S. (2010). Cruise Tourism: Economic, Socio-Cultural and Environmental Impacts. International Journal of Leisure and Tourism Marketing 1(3), 205-226. Bull, A. O. (1996). The Economics of Cruising: An Application to the Short Ocean Cruise Market. Journal of Tourism Studies 7(2), 28-35. CLIA, (2004). 2004 Cruise Manual. Cruise Lines International Association, New York. CRISIL (2005), “Cruise Tourism Potential & Strategy Study”, Ministry of Tourism, India. Dowling, R.K. (2006a). The Cruising Industry. In: Ross K. Dowling (Ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism. Chapter 1, p.3-18, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Dowling, R.K. (2006b). Looking Ahead: The Future of Cruising. In: Ross K. Dowling (Ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism. Chapter 38, p.414-435, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Dwyer, L. & Forsyth, P. (1998). Economic Significance of Cruise Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 25(2),393-415. Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and Coastal Tourism: The End of the Last Frontier? Ocean & Coastal Management 44,601-618. Johnson, D. (2002). Environmentally Sustainable Cruise Tourism: a Reality Check. Marine Policy 26, 261270. Kalanj, M. (2014). Development of New Cruise Products. Singidunum University, Department of Postgraduate Studies. Business Systems in Tourism & Hospitality, unpublished Master’s Thesis. Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible Cruise Tourism: Issues of Cruise Tourism and Responsibility. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 18, 107-116. MedCruise Report (2015). Cruise Activity in Medcruise Ports: Statistics 2015. Medcruise Association. Najafipour , A. A.; Marzi, V. & Foroozanfar, M. H. (2014). The Future of Cruise Ship Industry: the Challenges of Cruising Market and Operations Management. Journal of Social Issues and Humanities 2(7), 213-224. Nilsson, P. A. (2007). Cruise Tourism and the New Tourist: the Need for a New Typology? In: M. Lück, Elmsford (Ed.) Nautical Tourism: Concepts and Issues. Chapter 7, p.92-106, Cognizant, USA. Pallis, T. (2015). Cruise Shipping and Urban Development: State of the Art of the Industry and Cruise Ports. OECD International Transport Forum, Discussion Paper No. 2015-14. Parasuraman, A. & Grewal, D. (2000). The Impact of Technology on the Qaulity-Value-Loyalty Chain: A Research Agenda. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 28(1),168-174. Poon, A. (1993). Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies, CAB International Wallingford, UK. Sun, X.; Jiao, Y. & Tian, P. (2011). Marketing Research and Revenue Optimization for the Cruise Industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management 30,746-755. Sweeting, J. E. N. & Wayne, S. L. (2006). A Shifting Tide: Environmental Challenges and Cruise Industry Response. In Ross K. Dowling (Ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism, Chapter 30, p.327-338, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Tukamushaba, E. K.; Xiao, H. & Ladkin, A. (2016). The Effect of Tourists Perceptions of a Tourism Product on Memorable Travel Experience: Implications for Destination Branding. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation 7(1), 2-12. UNWTO (2016). Sustainable Cruise Tourism Development Strategies – Tackling the Challenges in Itinerary Design in South-East Asia. World Tourism Organisation and Asia-Pasific Tourism Exchange Center, UNWTO, Madrid. URL: CLIA (2011). 2011 Cruise Market Profile Study, Cruise Lines International Association, New York. Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/docs/default-source/ market-research/2011-market-profilestudy.pdf?sfvrsn=0 (access date: 23.07.2016). URL: CLIA (2016a). 2016 State of the Industry, Cruise Lines International Association, New York. Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/about-the-industry/research/2016-state-of-the-industry (access date: 22.07.2016). URL: CLIA (2016b). Travel Agent Cruise Industry Outlook, Cruise Lines International Association, New 346
York. Retrieved from http://cruising.org/about-the-industry/ research/travel-agent-outlook (access date: 24.07.2016). URL: Cruise Market Watch (2015a). Retrieved from http://www.cruisemarketwatch.com/ growth/ (access date: 22.07.2016). URL: Cruise Market Watch (2015b). Retrieved from http://www.cruisemarketwatch.com/ market/ (access date: 23.07.2016). URL: Cruise Market Watch (2015c). Retrieved from http://www.cruisemarketwatch.com/ market-share/ (access date: 24.07.2016) URL: Responsible Tourism in Destinations (2002). Capetown Declaration, Retrieved from https://www.capetown.gov.za/en/tourism/Documents/Responsible%20Tourism/Toruism_RT_2002_Cape _Town_Declaration.pdf (access date: 25.07.2016). Wood, R. E. (2000). Caribbean Cruise Tourism: Globalization at Sea. Annals of Tourism Research 27(2), 345-370.
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Chapter 26 Evaluation of Potential Wellness & SPA (Thermal) Tourism in Aydın Province Gülseren YURCU* INTRODUCTION Many factors are exposed daily life of modern man brings negative consequences to their health. Individual responsibility intended health enhancer, preservative and preventive services against diseases changes in the population structure andgeneral expenses growing field of health will gain more meaning in the future (Ergüven,2010,93).Wellness practices is important for the prevention of disease and maintaining well-being. After re-definitionThe World Health Organization (WHO) health “is not only the absence of disease and disability, but also physical, mental and social complete well-being” the importance of Wellness&SPApracticeshas increased. Wellness&SPA treatments are examined in a very wide context. In manyways, beautification,health, physical fitness, psychology, socialization, relaxation, etc. the person is treated as a whole. Wellnessrefers being fit in mind,body, spirit and relationships. Wellness tourism is defined as travel for the purpose of enhancing individuals` wellbeing and protecting it (www.itb-kongress.de). In this context,all kinds of massages, such as facials, mud and seaweed baths, bath treatments, balneotherapy, thalassotherapy and body care with nature and natural products, the methods of healthy living that could make the person himself spiritually, physically and mentally feel good and energetic,is within the scope of wellness. The term SPA that refers “good / health coming with water”and formed from the initial letters of Latin word “Salus Per Aquam”, defines healing as a result odf drinking water /hot and cold and in different formats (pouring, dripping, showering, such as injection), the health from water and rest and feeling of relief by dint of water in the early of 19thcentury (Apaydın, 2009)."The goodness that comes with water” is used mainly for thermal or seawater, the care and treatment of the body since Roman times (Yücel,2003). Wellness&SPA treatments date back to Greek civilization.It spreadfrom Romans to the entire world.Mesopotamian, Greek, Romans and other cultures have experienced the completely healing power of regular Bath application. This trend in relaxing and rewarded working individuals increased in 21th century. Wellness today shows itself as new life style, new style in nutrition and a new style of holiday. Wellness is accepted not only as a trend but also as a lifestyle philosophy (Ergüven,2010, 87). According to the report of the world tourism industryin 2013-2014, Wellness&SPAtourism expenditures Wellness & SPA tourism industry also covers 14% of the world tourism expenditure is stated to be 439 billion dollars (Ellis,2013). The average residence time in Wellness& SPA tourism is longer than the others. The average stays in the spa in Germany 6, in France 17-18, in Czechoslovakia 18nights. The number of overnight stays of foreign visitors in Turkey is 4,1 average income is 700 US dollars, it can be considered that Wellness&SPA overall average of incoming foreign visitors have a minimum expenditure of up to two times (Yücel,2003). The average expenditure of wellness tourists in the region and the world is 2066 dollars and the Europeans were the people who are spending most with respect to regions (158.4 billion dollars) (http://www.itb-kongress). International SPA Association (ISPA-EUROPA) classified SPAs according to supply and demand as Club SPA, Cruise Ship-Cruise SPA, Day SPA (The Elements),Visit/ Destination SPA Vacation, Health/ Medical/ Medical SPA, Thermal/ Mineral/ Spring (Geothermal), Vacation/Resort/ Hotel/Resort. Wellness&SPA treatments examine a very broad concept.All these practices allow individuals to feel good about themselves. Individuals want to experience this kind of tourism because they want to *
Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Tourism Faculty, Recreation Management Department
gain back their health, have fun, relax, etc. Due to the individual person to take a holistic approach is offered as private applications / it should be presented. To reassure individuals with a holistic approach, beauty, kindness aimed at improving the wellbeing Wellness & SPA applications can be classified as follows.A classification is split as shown in figure 2.
Figure 1: Global tourism ındustry expenditures (Source: Ellis, 2013).
Figure 2: Wellness&SPA classification
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Wellness&SPA treatments are used in conjunction with the choice of the individual.For example; Individual relax by taking a walk in nature, balneotherapy (thermal) can take a walk in nature or can relax after the application of a thermal bath center applications. They can do exercises by the sea in the pool (hydrotherapy). SPA Tourism (Thermal) Potentialin Turkey It is expressed that the diversity of the geological features of the different regions of the world cause differences in SPA applications (Schlessinger, 2008: 403-411).In terms of Wellness SPA tourism as new hotels related Wellness SPA are built, existing hotels are also includes “Wellness&SPA” services (Apaydın, 2009: 214).Countries that have cultural, natural, social, historical features are important tourism resources.Located in the Alpine-Himalayan geothermal generation Turkeyhas important advantagesfrom the use of thermal water inWellness SPA tourism. Geothermal energy has a wide range of using from energy production to heating, fishing to thermal tourism. In terms of geothermal water resources Turkey located on Alpine - Himalayan Geothermal Belt is very rich (Aydıngöz, 2005:17).The Alpine orogenic belt, known as a young mountain chain and at the same time, located on an important geothermal belt, thermal waters in Turkey, in terms of flow and temperatures, also carry the more superior qualities of thermal waters than Europe with various physical and chemical properties (Piri, 2011:2). Thermal and geothermal heat applications in the World Top 5 ranking the countries, China, Japan, USA, Iceland and Turkey (Yörükoğlu,t.y,1). Looking at the dispersion geothermal resources by geographic regions in the country,the highest share (77.94%) had taken the Aegean Region, Eastern Anatolia Region with %4.77 is located fourth after the Marmara Region(Toy et al.,2010,1).There are 1300 thermal sources in Turkey with 20-110 C and 2 - 500 l /sec rating. Turkey is in 3rd after Italy and Germany with 190 health resort(Hemidov,2012,33). Geothermal resources in the country are volcanic product that continued activity with breaking points of northern Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia and Western Anatolian. High-temperature contained geothermal field is typically located in the west of the country due to young tectonic effects.Low and medium-temperature areas under the influence of volcanism and the occurrence of the fault and the Middle East are located along the north Anatolian and East Anatolian breaking points(Hemidov, 2012,33). Geothermal systems in western Anatolia are usually a high temperature, and due to opening tectonic they are typically located in grabens. The most important of geothermal systems that located East-west and northwest-southeast trending trending young grabens were developed Menderes and Gediz grabens. The breaking points that forming this grabens active in terms of seismicity and geothermal aspect.Within the Menderes Graben, the highest temperature in Turkey is the Denizli-kızıldere geothermal field (2420C), Aydin-Germencik geothermal field (2320C), Aydin-Salavatli geothermal field (1710C), Aydin-YilmazkoyImamkoy geothermal field (1420C). Geothermal fields in the Gediz graben; Manisa - SalihliCaferbeyli field (1550C), ManisaSalihli-Kurşunlu court (96oC),Manisa-Alasehir-, Kavaklidere field (1160C) and Manisa-TurgutluUrganli field (860C).Developing in similar graben system,the Kutahya-Simav geothermal field (1620C) Gediz and Kutahya –Monument geothermal field (97oC) are in high temperature areas.Gölemezli geothermal area (650C), Karahayıt field (55oC) and Pamukkale (350C) field within the Çürüksugraben usually has lower temperature.Other geothermal systems in western Anatolia are located in fields where northeast-southwest trending grabens and volcanic activity exist.These geothermal fields are Izmir-Urla area (1530C),Izmir Balçova field (130oC), Izmir-standing range (1300C), Izmir Aliaga field (960C) and Izmir Cesme geothermal field (620C). Apart from these fields, Western Anatolia in the northern part of the Çanakkale-Tuzla geothermal field (174oC), Balıkesir-Bigadiçarea (950C), Balıkesir-Hisaralan field (1000C) and Balıkesir-Gönen field (80oC) are significant geothermal areas. Depending on compressive tectonics and young volcanism in the Aegean there are -Gregory (740C) and Manisa-Kula-Order geothermal areas (630C) with lower temperature.Geothermal systems in Central Anatolia are usually depending on volcanic activity and have lower temperatures than in western Anatolia. Major geothermal fields in this region; Ankara-Kızılcahamam field (860C), KırşehirTerme field (570C), Afyon-OmarGecekto the field (980C), Afyon-Sandıklı field (700C), NevşehirKozaklı field (930C), Aksaray-Ziga field (650C), Sivas-hot Cermik field (490C) and Yozgat query the field (750C). Volcanic and tectonic activity in Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia developed relating major geothermal fields; Van-Ercis 350
field (800C), Agri-Diyadin (780C), Bitlis-Nemrut field (590C), Diyarbakir-Cermik field (510C) and Urfa-Karaali (490C). Developing important geothermal fields along the North Anatolian Fault; SakaryaAkyazı field (840C), Bursa-Çekirge field (820C), Yalova-Armutlu field (770C), Yalova-Terme field (660C), Çankırı-Kurşunlu field (540C), Tokat-Reşadiye field (470C), Bolu-kaplıca field (450C). Apart from these sitesthere is Rize-Ayder (560C) geothermalfield in Eastern Black Sea (Arslan, Darıcı & Karahan, 2001, 24-26).
Figure 3:Main neotectonic lines and hot spring distribution of Turkey Source: Parlaktuna et.al., 2013.
The SPA Tourism Goals ofTurkey between 2000 and 2025 Despite the rich thermal springs that Turkey has, due to the negative effects of reasons such as the lack of facilities located on these resources, infrastructure problems in the region's resources, transportation problems, trained skilled personnel shortages, continued traditional using of SPA use,it is impossible achieved goals unless these resources converted into modern facilities. SPA usage is increasing focus of attention by domestic and foreign tourists (Göçmen, 2008,78). For this reason, tourism diversification across the country is emerging as a sector that should be treated as a priority in studies of thermal tourism. In terms of facility and bed capacity, according to data in 2003, capacity of thermal tourism inTurkey isstated 18585 bed capacity. But according to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in the number of long-term thermal tourism master plan (2017-2023) is planned to be 500,000 beds (http://www. isktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.t). Culture and Tourism Ministry's "health tourism and thermal tourism" related targets; Troy, Phrygia and Aphrodisias will be developed as thermal and regional destination, providing integration with thermal and alternative types of tourism; it will be based on the capacity of cultural tourism in the vicinity of other cultural and natural values. Studies in stages for the evaluation of all areas that have geothermal resources will be continue evaluated. So far announced by the Ministry of Culture and tourism, thermal tourism center revision and zoning plans, planning studies related to the development will be completed. It will be provided as the first destination in thermal tourism in Europe. For the purpose of effective distribution of geothermal water, work will be carried out towards the establishment of the Union and the distribution companies in the designated pilot regions. Areas that could be announced as geothermal resource-oriented "tourism center" and / or "Culture and Tourism Conservation and Development Area" after the completion of the physical plan,allocation for tourism investors will take place in a short time" (Göçmen, 2008:79). The thermal tourism understanding of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is to create facilities such as“washing purposes except for Human Health, Wellness, recreation, entertainment, recreation and sports facilities that can provide services for up to 12 months”. In order to improve health and thermal 351
tourism, Culture and Tourism Ministry have been identified new areas of geothermal potential in Turkey within “Thermal Tourism Cities Project"(http://www.kultur.gov.tr). These areas; South Marmara Thermal Tourism Region (in Canakkale, Balikesir.Yalova), Phrygia Thermal Tourism Region (Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya, Uşak, Eskişehir, Ankara), South Aegean Thermal Tourism Region (Izmir, Manisa, Aydın, Denizli) and Central Anatolia Thermal Tourism Region (Yozgat, Kirsehir, Nevsehir, Nigde). It is aimed to develop this areas as destination centers and to integrate them with other tourism types such as nature tourism, water sports and cultural and natural values.In line with this objectives , Culture and Tourism Ministry is planning 250 bed capacity in short term after the creation of the landscaping in the area; taking advantage of the experiences in the pilot area in designated provinces to rich one million bed capacity in the medium term: to make Turkey as a first destination in Europe by the arrival of 15 million tourists and opening 500 thousand thermal tourism facilities in the long–term (Toy et.al., 2010: 3-4). Mineral Properties of the Thermal Waters From the depths of the earth, thermal waters reach the surface. Surface water different elements carries by contact with underground rocks and soil (Camgöz et al., 2010:78). Overall 180ºC thermal springs are used for geothermal energy production, 45-180°C heating fluid and thermal waters for housing and greenhouse, the resources between 30-45°C for bathing and drinking cures and thermal treatment. Thermal treatment according to the standards of internationally German SPA Union recognized, “thermal water” is the healing waters of the natural temperatures over 20ºC, water containing dissolved minerals at lower temperatures and has 1g dissolver minerals per liter is “mineral water”, water containing both heating and 1 g dissolved minerals per liter is “thermo mineral water” (Hot mineral waters) (Özbek and Özbek, 2008). In terms of human health, there are some standards that should have important features of groundwater (Aslan, 1995: 40-42). These standards are evaluated in the following manner for some minerals. pH : pH is a term which represents the intensity of feature of solution of acid or base. According to the standardsTSE-266 pH limit in drinking water has been identified as 6.5-9.2. Nitrate -nitrite: Nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) ions are commonly found .The World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency limit for nitrate in drinking water determined by rearranging the levels. Both organizations determined limit values for nitrate (NO3) 50 mg / L (50 ppm), for nitrite (NO2) 0.1 mg / L (0.1ppm). Table 1: Geothermal power generation in Turkey Location Denizli Kızıldere I Kızıldere II Sarayköy Aydın/Sultanhisar Salavatlı Salavatlı Salavatlı Aydın/Germencik Ömerbeyli Hıdırbeyli Bozkoy Bozkoy Çanakkale Tuzla Total
Power Plant
Startup Date
Reservoir Temperature (oC)
Average Reservoir Temperature (oC)
Power Capacity (MWe)
Zorlu-Kızıldere Zorlu-Kızıldere Bereket
1984 2013 2007
242 -
217 145
17.4 60 7.5
Dora-1 Dora-2 Dora-3
2006 2010 2013
172 176 -
168 175 -
7.35 11.2 17
Gurmat İrem Sinem Deniz
2009 2011 2012 2012
232 190 -
220 170 -
47.4 20 24 24
Tuzla
2010
174
160
7.5 243.35
Source: Baba, 2013. 352
Sodium: Sodium, one of the most abundant chemical element elements in the world is very active and has too much water solubility, because of it, sodium found in compounds in nature .According WHO standards, nako standard concentration in drinking water is 200 mg/L. Standard intake of sodium is electrolyte-balancing in the body. It was observed that an excessive amount of NA intake has become corrupted on blood pressure. Potassium (K) is a soft, grayish color and a very active element. According to TSE-266 standards Potassium concentration in drinking water is 12 mg/l. Calcium (Ca): ions physiological role is to decrease the permeability of the cell wall and the cuticula of water and ions.According to standard of TSE-266 Ca concentration in the drinking water is 200 mg / L. Magnesium (Mg): Chlorophyll magnesium in water for plants is vital.According to TSE standards; the standard of magnesium in drinking water is 50 mg/l. Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mg):In terms of drinking or usage waters, it is difficult to use them, because they are found with high-level concentrations in ground waters almost always but in surface waters in some months of year.According to TSE-266 standards for Fe the limit values is 0.2 mg/l and for Mn is 0.05 mg/L. Existing iron regulations in the blood, is good for rheumatism and decrease weakness (Hemidov, 2012,40). Cooper(Cu):Copper has a reddish color, readily soluble and formed metal.For people, the limit values for copper in drinking water is 1.3 mg/L and 0.5 mg/L for the animals.According to TSE-266 standards, limit are determined 3 mg/L. Cobalt (Co): Cobalt and its compounds in nature are found in rocks, soil, water and plants. Co is a necessary element for health and body development.Because it contains vitamin12 that required for nutrition.Cobalt with production of red blood cells is an effective element for the treatment of anemia.However intake in high doses is harmful.It can cause pneumonia nausea, vomiting, and eye diseases. Silver (Ag): Silver is a substance that is usually found in compounds in nature.Ag limit in drinking water, according to TSA-266 standard is 0.01 mg/L. Aluminum (Al): The Al metal in the world which has the features of most founding, is found in soil, water and air.All amounts in drinking water should be around 5% for a human adult. This limit according to WHO standards and TSE-266 is 0.2 mg / L.Al is known as a non-toxic element.Aluminum is an element that is also used in Alzheimer's disease and diabetes. Arsenic (As): Arsenic is known as a poison since ancient times.Asin drinking water is taken to the various organs of body by blood flow. It is found in hair and nails with high doses.In drinking water as long-term intake of Al has been observed to cause thinning and discoloration of the skin, nausea, diarrhea, a fall in the production of blood cells, heart palpitations, numbness in the hands and feet .According to WHO standards, the amount of As must not exceed0.05 mg/l .When standard dose is exceeded, it is found to cause bladder skin, liver, and kidney cancer. Boron (B): boron is very rich in terms of minerals in Turkey and takes the first place in the world. American public health service recommends boron concentration in drinking water 1.0 mg/l (max 5.0 mg/l), and most irrigation waters in the 0.7 mg/L . Barium (Ba): Barium is silvery-white color element, that is mostly found oxygen, sulfur and carbon compounds in nature.according to TSE-266 standards Ba standards in drinking water was determined0.3 mg/l. Nickel (Ni): Nickel concentration in ground water depends on using of the soil, pH and water depth. With acid rain increases the variability of Ni in the soil and hence the concentration of Ni in water also increases.If pH
