Green infrastructure and green infrastructure planning

KGA519 PLANNING PROJECT

Green infrastructure and green infrastructure planning: a review of concepts and practices with particular reference to Berlin, Germany.

Ronald J. Carne Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Planning (Geography and Spatial Sciences, School of Land and Food, University of Tasmania, Australia). October, 2016.

Greenway incorporating pedestrian walkway and cycleway adjacent to Spree River, Berlin. (Photo: R.J. Carne)

The Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th edn (2006, p.730) defines ‘infrastructure’ as the ‘basic physical and organisational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise’. So, when the word ‘infrastructure’ is appended to ‘green’, the resulting phrase elevates the importance of green spaces well-beyond what one normally thinks of as ‘amenity value’. Indeed, the parks, greenways, vegetated vacant lots of cities, and the forests, vegetated river corridors, and nature reserves of rural landscapes are revealed in a new light viz. through the lens of green infrastructure these green spaces are best understood as part of the fundamental structural elements required to maintain society, rather than simply being a pleasant (and disposable) addition to engineered elements.

SUMMARY This study aims to clarify the nature and characteristics of green infrastructure and green infrastructure planning; to identify general planning principles for green infrastructure; and to formulate pertinent research questions with respect to green infrastructure planning. A literature review and Berlin case study are employed to achieve these aims. The term ‘green infrastructure’ was first introduced by Charles Little in reference to greenways in the early 1990s (in the USA) (Sandström 2002). Shortly after, in the context of sustainable development, urban green space in general was termed ‘green infrastructure’ to put it on equal footing with grey infrastructure. Since that time the term has appeared frequently in the environmental planning and design literature. One of the earliest and most frequently cited definitions is provided by Benedict and McMahon (2006, p.1). They describe green infrastructure as ‘an interconnected network of natural areas and other open spaces that conserves natural ecosystem values and functions, sustains clean air and water, and provides a wide array of benefits to people and wildlife’. While there are numerous definitions, two elements occur throughout - multifunctionality and connectivity – these lend some commonality to what may at first appear as disparate definitions. Multifunctionality represents the ability of green infrastructure ‘to provide several ecological, socio-cultural, and economic benefits’ (Hansen et al. 2015, p.9). It is considered central to the green infrastructure approach, and has been comprehensively described by the European Commission (2012). A broad range of potential benefits, falling into 4 categories – environmental, social, climate change adaptation and mitigation, and biodiversity - have also been identified (European Commission 2013). Multifunctionality can be considered a key characteristic of green infrastructure, its importance underscored by the fact that it has been identified as a planning principle (e.g. Rouse and Bunster-Ossa 2013). The other common characteristic, connectivity, is also considered a planning principle by Rouse and Bunster-Ossa (2013). In its simplest form, connectivity is about linking ‘hubs’ to form a network (Benedict & McMahon 2002). Beyond this, it is about creating multi-scale links to connect urban, suburban, and rural landscapes, and across scales to connect site, neighbourhood, city, and region (Rouse & Bunster-Ossa 2013). This ‘multi-scale approach’, with an emphasis on connectivity, is an application of certain key principles deriving from the field of Landscape Ecology (Ahern 2007). Importantly, green infrastructure makes a critical contribution to the three components of sustainability viz. environment, economy and equity. The multifunctional nature of green infrastructure is pivotal in this role, whether one is considering functions or benefits. Its components e.g. public parks and gardens, greenways, and waterways, comprise various elements. These components and elements can be collectively termed ‘green infrastructure assets’ (Table 3). They take many forms, range across landscape scales, have diverse origins, and can be found in both urban and rural landscapes. Green infrastructure planning has been described as ‘a strategic planning approach that aims at developing networks of green and blue spaces in urban areas designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services’ (Hansen et al. 2015, p.9). It aims to create multifunctional networks across landscape scales, from regional to city to neighbourhood. It can be viewed as an activity within the field of landscape planning, and has links to urban planning, regional development planning and social planning.

Green infrastructure and green infrastructure planning: summary&contents |©RJCarne2017

1

Table 3: Green infrastructure assets Components

Elements

public parks and gardens

urban parks, open space reserves, cemeteries and formal gardens

greenways

river and creek corridors, cycleways and routes along major transport corridors (road, rail and tram)

residential and other streets

street verges and associated open space pockets

sports and recreational facilities

ovals, golf courses, school and other institutional playing fields, and other major parks

private/semi private gardens

including shared (communal) spaces around apartment buildings, backyards, balconies, roof gardens and community (productive) gardens

green roofs and walls

roof gardens and living walls

squares and plazas

including public and private courtyards and forecourts

natural green space

including national parks and nature reserves, and coastal margins

waterways

rivers and streams, wetlands, ponds and lakes, day-lighted streams, vegetated swales and drainage corridors, infiltration basins, and mangroves

utility areas

quarries, airports, and large institutional and manufacturing sites (also includes unused land reserved for future use)

agricultural and other productive land, including forests (native & planted)

vineyards, market gardens, orchards, farms, agroforests, grazing lands and multiple-use forests

Source: Adapted from Ely and Pitman(2014) and SBEnrc(2012).

The case study city, Berlin, has a strong focus on green infrastructure planning and has ‘some of the most advanced and sophisticated urban greening policies and programs in the world’ (SBEnrc 2012, p.21). Its green infrastructure assets are spread across the full range of land use types, from agriculture, woodland and water, to buildings, recreational areas and water. Overall, some 44% of Berlin’s total urban area consists of green spaces and waterways (Profé et al. 2012, p.7). Key drivers in the development of its green infrastructure are considered to be an historical and cultural concern for the environment; the urban heat island effect; a focus on quality of life; and waterway protection (SBEnrc 2012).


2

Berlin is involved in regional planning with the surrounding State of Brandenburg. Important planning provisions from a green infrastructure perspective include regional parks to protect the peri-urban landscape from urban sprawl, in addition to conserving land for recreational purposes (Hansen 2015). For Berlin itself, the centrepiece at the city-wide scale is the Land Use Plan, which provides for the future development of the city, including areas are to be retained as open space. In short, the Land Use Plan provides the framework for a city-wide green infrastructure characterised by both connectivity and multifunctionality. The position of this Plan within the plan hierarchy is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Berlin’s plan hierarchy – regional to local area (Source: adapted from Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt 2015). Green infrastructure and green infrastructure planning: summary&contents |©RJCarne2017

3

Plans based on Berlin-specific environmental legislation are also important in green infrastructure planning. The Landscape Programme (LaPro) is of particular significance, being a key element in linking landscape planning (and green infrastructure planning, as part of that) with the statutory land use planning process. The strength of Berlin’s green infrastructure planning lies in the fact that is embedded within the latter via the city’s Land Use Plan. Green infrastructure planning is also informed by a number of informal plans, again via the Land Use Plan, giving it a broader basis than might otherwise be the case. Overall, Berlin has an effective, comprehensive and well-integrated green infrastructure planning program. It has 3 important properties viz. it is integrated within the statutory land use planning process; it has a sound ecological basis; and it gives expression to multifunctionality and connectivity. Three examples of green infrastructure planning principles spanning the years 2006 to 2016 have been reviewed. The influence of landscape ecology is pervasive, particularly in regard to connectivity. Two additional planning principles (along with strategies) have been suggested. The first is: green infrastructure planning should emulate ‘indispensable patterns’ in both urban and rural landscapes; and the second: green infrastructure planning should be aligned with the statutory land use planning process. A number of general and Berlin-specific research questions have been put forward. These relate to green infrastructure planning and biophilic urbanism; green infrastructure planning and landscape ecological principles; green infrastructure planning and the statutory land use planning process; and for Berlin, connectivity across its green infrastructure assets, and the multi-scale approach in the Berlin-Brandenburg Region. It is also suggested there is a need for a comparative case studies between cities, since studies across locations are relatively rare. It is concluded that green infrastructure is a significant and increasingly influential concept. In dealing with this complex and multi-faceted concept, green infrastructure planning has several significant challenges, one of the more important is how to integrate it within the statutory land use planning process, or at the very least, how to maximise its influence on that process. At stake is not only the continued implementation of sustainable development, but also progress in the urgent task of climate change mitigation and adaptation.


4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Abstract

i

Acknowledgements

ii

Table of Contents

iii

List of Figures

iv

List of Tables

iv

1.

Introduction

1

2.

Methodology

1

3.

Green infrastructure: concept, definition and key characteristics

2

4.

Components and elements of green infrastructure

9

5.

Green infrastructure planning

11

5.1

Definition and context

11

5.2

Berlin case study

13

5.2.1

Location, population and biophysical setting

13

5.2.2

Green infrastructure assets

14

5.2.3

Overview of spatial planning: Berlin and Region

18

5.2.4

Urban green infrastructure planning

19

5.2.5

Summary and conclusion

23

6.

General planning principles for green infrastructure

23

6.1

Existing principles: selected examples

23

6.2

Suggestions for additional principles

28

7.

Further research questions

30

8.

Summary

32

8.1

Concept, definition, key characteristics and components

32

8.2

Green infrastructure planning and Berlin case study

33

8.3

General planning principles

8.4

Further research questions

35 35

9.

Conclusion

35

REFERENCES

37


5

List of Figures Figure 1:

Green infrastructure planning in context

12

Figure 2:

Location map

13

Figure 3:

Spree River

14

Figure 4:

The Grünewald

14

Figure 5:

Rooftop gardens

15

Figure 6:

Courtyard gardens

16

Figure 7:

Public parks and gardens

16

Figure 8:

Tiergarten Park

17

Figure 9:

Tree-lined avenues

17

Figure 10:

Plan hierarchy

20

Table 1:

Definitions of green infrastructure

5

Table 2:

Potential benefits provided by green infrastructure

6

Table 3:

Green infrastructure assets

10

Table 4:

Land use in Berlin

15

Table 5:

Categorisation of green infrastructure assets

18

Table 6:

Plans pertinent to green infrastructure planning in Berlin

22

Table 7:

Principles of green infrastructure planning

25

Table 8:


26

Table 9:


27

Table 10:

Categories of planning and their main differences

30

List of Tables


6

Figure 2: Berlin is located in NE Germany within the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region (Source: Britannica Atlas - Germany 2009). Figure 4 (opposite): The Grünewald (Green Woods), part of Berlin’s extensive ‘forest-lake’ landscape setting. Spandau and Charlottenberg are city boroughs (Source: Google Earth 2012).

Figure 9: Tree-lined avenues. The Unter den Linden (‘under the linden trees’) – a beautiful shady avenue in the Mitte district, extending east from the Brandenburg Gate (Photo: R.J. Carne).


7

REFERENCES: Abbott, J 2012, Green infrastructure for sustainable development in Africa, Earthscan, New York. Ahern, J 2007, ‘Green infrastructure for cities: the spatial dimension’, in V Novotny & P Brown (eds), Cities of the future: towards integrated sustainable water and landscape management, IWA Publishing, London, pp.267–283. Austin, G 2014, Green infrastructure for landscape planning : integrating human and natural systems, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon. Babbie, E 2001, The practice of social research, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Bastian, O 2001, ‘Landscape Ecology – towards a unified discipline?’ Landscape Ecology, vol.16, pp.757– 766. Beatley, T & Newman, P 2013, ‘Biophilic cities are sustainable, resilient cities’, Sustainability, no.5, pp.3328-3345. st

Benedict, MA & McMahon, ET 2002, ‘Green infrastructure: smart conservation for the 21 century’, Renewable Resources Journal, vol.20, no.3, pp. 12–17. Benedict, MA & McMahon, ET 2006, Green infrastructure : linking landscapes and communities, Island Press, Washington, DC. Berlin.de 2014, Berlin in Brief: Facts and Figures, retrieved 19 August 2014, < www.berlin.de>. Bowler, DE, Buyung-Ali, L, Knight TM & Pullin, AS 2010, ‘Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence’, Landscape and Urban Planning, no.97, pp. 147-155. Braun, S 2011, In gritty Berlin, green space plays a surprisingly large role, DW On-line, retrieved 24 August 2016,< www.dw.de >. Britannica Atlas 2009, Germay, CD-ROM, Deluxe Edition CD, Encyclopaedia Britannica Australia. Burel, F & Baudry, J 2003, Landscape Ecology Concepts: Methods and Applications, Science Publishers, Inc. Burgess, S 2015, ‘Multifunctional green infrastructure: a typology’, in D Sinnett, N Smith & S Burgess (eds), Handbook on green infrastructure: planning, design and implementation, Edward Elgar Pub.Ltd., Cheltenham. Carne, RJ 1994, ‘Urban vegetation: ecological and social value’, in MA Scheltema (ed.), Vision for a greener city: the role of vegetation in urban environment, Proceedings: 1994 National Greening Australia Conference, October 4, 5 & 6, Fremantle, WA, Greening Australia Ltd, Canberra, pp.211- 225. Civic, K & Siuta, M 2014, Green Infrastructure: training manual for trainers, European Centre for Nature Conservation (ECNC), Budapest, Hungary. Connop, S, Vandergert, P, Eisenberg, B, Collier, MJ, Nash, C, Clough, J & Newport, D 2016, ‘Renaturing cities using a regionally-focused biodiversity-led multifunctional beneﬁts approach to urban green infrastructure’, Environmental Science & Policy, no. 62, pp.99-111. Chang, Q, Li, X, Huang, X, & Wu, J 2012, ‘A GIS-based green infrastructure planning for sustainable urban land use and spatial development’, 2011 International Conference on Environmental Science and Engineering, Procedia Environmental Sciences, no. 12, pp.491-498. City of Melbourne 2012, Urban forest strategy: making a great city greener 2012-2032, City of Melbourne, retrieved 26 July, 2016, < http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/urbanforest >. Cloos, I 2004, ‘A project celebrates its 25th birthday: the landscape programme including nature conservation for the City of Berlin’, Stadt+Grün, no.10, pp.1-6. Coutts, C 2016, Green infrastructure and public health, Routledge, London and New York. Douglas, I, & James, P 2015, Urban ecology: an introduction, Routledge, London and New York. Dramstad, WE, Olson, JD & Forman, RTT 1996, Landscape ecology principles in landscape architecture and land-use planning ,Harvard University Graduate School of Design, Island Press, Washington, DC.


8

Ely, M & Pitman, S 2014, Green infrastructure: life support for human habitats. The compelling evidence for incorporating nature in urban environments, Botanic Gardens of Adelaide, retrieved 3 April 2016, < http://www.botanicgardens.sa.gov.au/greeninfrastructure>. European Commission 2010, Green infrastructure, EC Publications Office, Luxembourg. European Commission 2012, The multifunctionality of green infrastructure, Science for Environment Policy- In-depth Reports, European Commission’s Directorate-General Environment. European Commission 2013, Building a green infrastructure for Europe, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. European Commission 2015, Towards an EU research and innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions and re-naturing cities, Final Report of the Horizon 2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities, Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Everett, G, Lawson, E & Lamond, J 2015, ‘Green infrastructure and urban water management’, in D Sinnett, N Smith & S Burgess (eds.), Handbook on green infrastructure: planning, design and implementation, Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd., Cheltenham, UK, pp.50-66. th

Fainstein, SS & DeFilippis, J (eds.) 2016, Readings in planning theory, 4 edn, Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK. Firehock, K 2015, Strategic green infrastructure planning: a multi-scale approach, Island Press, Washington. Forman, RTT & Godron, M 1986, Landscape ecology, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. Forman, RTT 1995a, Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Forman, RTT 1995b, ‘Some general principles of landscape and regional ecology’, Landscape Ecology, vol. 10, no. 3, pp.133-142. Forman, RTT, and Collinge, SK 1997, ‘Nature conserved in changing landscapes with and without spatial planning’, Landscape and Urban Planning, no.37, pp.129-135. Friedmann, J 1987, Planning in the public domain: from knowledge to action, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Gerring, J 2009, Case study research: principles and practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Gill, S, Handley, J, Ennos, R & Pauleit, S 2007, ‘Adapting cities for climate change: the role of the green infrastructure’, Built Environment, vol.33, no.1, pp.115-133. Gill, G 2016, ‘Briefing note 36.1: green infrastructure and ecosystem services’, in M Potschin, R HainesYoung, R Fish, RK Turner & R Kerry, Routledge handbook of ecosystem services, Taylor and Francis, Florence. George, AL & Bennet A 2005, Case studies and theory development in the social sciences, MIT Press. Hackett, B 1971, Landscape Planning: Introduction to Theory and Practice, Oriel, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK. Hansen, R 2015, ‘Green Surge: Berlin, Germany’, in R Hansen, M Buizer, E Rall, Y DeBellis, C Davies, B Elands, F Wiersum & S Pauleit, Green Surge: Report of Case Study City Portraits, EU Seventh Framework Programme, pp.140-152, retrieved 9 August 2016, . Hansen, R, Buizer, M, Rall, E, DeBellis, Y, Davies, C, Elands, B, Wiersum, F, & Pauleit, S 2015, Green Surge: Report of Case Study City Portraits, EU Seventh Framework Programme, retrieved 9 August 2016, < http://greensurge.eu/products/case-studies/ >. Hobbs, R 1997, ‘Future landscapes and the future of landscape ecology’, Landscape and Urban Planning, no. 37, pp.1–9. Howard, E 1965, Garden cities of to-morrow, FJ Osborn (ed), First published 1898 as: Tomorrow: a peaceful path to real reform, Faber & Faber Ltd., London.


9

IALE (International Association for Landscape Ecology) 2009, What is landscape ecology? IALE, retrieved 23 May , 2009, . Ingegnoli, V 2002, Landscape ecology: a widening foundation, Springer, London. Jim, CY, Lo, A and Byrne, JA 2015, ‘Charting the green and climate-adaptive city’, Landscape and Urban Planning, no.138, pp.51-53 Kambite, C & Owen, S 2006, ‘Renewed prospects for green infrastructure planning in the UK’, Planning, Practice & Research, vol.21, no.4, pp.483-496. Lachmund, J 2013, Greening Berlin: the co-production of science, politics, and urban nature, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Lecy, JD & Beatty, K 2012, ‘Representative literature reviews using constrained snowball sampling and citation network analysis’, SSRN Electronic Journal, pp.1-15, DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1992601. Landscape Institute, 2013, Green infrastructure: an integrated approach to land use, Position Statement, Landscape Institute, London, retrieved 2 October 2016, . Little, CE 1990, Greenways for America, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Living Cities Workshop, 2016, Living Cities Workshop Report, Report on workshop held February 10, 2016 at Parliament House Canberra. Marsh, WM 1983, Landscape planning: environmental applications, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Massachusetts. Matthews, T, Lo, AY & Byrne, JA 2015, ‘Reconceptualizing green infrastructure for climate change adaptation: barriers to adoption and drivers for uptake by spatial planners’, Landscape and Urban Planning, no. 138, pp.155-163. McHarg, I 1969, Design with nature, Doubleday Natural History Press, Garden City, N.Y. Mell, I 2008, ‘Green Infrastructure: concepts and planning’, FORUM Ejournal, no.8, pp.69-80, retrieved 20 September 2016, < http://research.ncl.ac.uk/forum/ >. Mell, IC 2010, Green infrastructure: concepts, perceptions and its use in spatial planning, PhD Dissertation, School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University, UK. Mell, I 2016, Global green infrastructure: lessons for successful policy-making, investment and management, Routledge, London & New York. Natural England 2009, Green infrastructure guidance, retreived 26 September 2016, . Newman, P & Matan, A 2013, Green urbanism in Asia: the emerging green tigers, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore. Norton, BA, Coutts, AM, Livesley, SJ, Harris, RJ, Hunter, AM & Williams, NSG 2015, ‘Planning for cooler cities: a framework to prioritise green infrastructure to mitigate high temperatures in urban landscapes’, Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 134, pp.127-138. Oliveira, ES & Thompson, CW 2015, ‘Green infrastructure and health’, in D Sinnett, N Smith & S Burgess (eds), Handbook on green infrastructure: planning, design and implementation, Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd., Cheltenham, UK, pp.11–29. Opdam, P, Foppen, R & Vos, C 2002, ‘Bridging the gap between ecology and spatial planning in landscape ecology’, Landscape Ecology, no.16, pp.767–779. Orive, LA & Lema RD 2012, ‘Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain: from urban greenbelt to regional green infrastructure’, in T Beatley (ed), Green cities of Europe: global lessons on green urbanism, Island Press, Washington. Profé, B, Renker, U, Thierfelder, H, Wünnecke, A & Haun, G (eds) 2012, Stadtgrün in Berlin: Raum für Freizeit und Naturerleben (Urban Green Spaces in Berlin: Recreation and encounters with nature), Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt, Herausgeber, Berlin.


10

Quintas, A 2015, ‘Planning for urban green infrastructure in metropolitan landscapes’, D Sinnett, N Smith & S Burgess, S (eds.), Handbook on green infrastructure: planning, design and implementation, Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd., Cheltenham, UK, pp.184-202. Rouse, DC & Bunster-Ossa, IF 2013, Green infrastructure: a landscape approach, APA Planning Advisory Service Report No.571, American Planning Association, Chicago. Sandstöm, UG 2002, ‘Green infrastructure planning in urban Sweden’, Planning Practice and Research, vol.17, no.4, pp.373-385. Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre (SBEnrc) 2012, Can biophilic urbanism deliver strong economic and social benefits in cities? An economic and policy investigation into the increased use of natural elements in urban design, Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre, Curtin University and Queensland University of Technology. Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung 2011, Stadtentwicklungsplan Klima: Urbane Lebensqualität im Klimawandel sichern (Urban Development Plan-Climate), retrieved 20 September, 2016, . Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt 2014, Strategie Stadtlandschaft Berlin (Urban Landscape Strategy Berlin), retrieved 16 September, 2016, < http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de >. Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt 2015, Land use plan Berlin 2015: Background and Contents, Revised Edition January 2015, retrieved 19 August 2016, . Senate Department for Urban Development and the Environment 2016, The history of open space development in Berlin, retreived 3 September 2014, . Sinnett, D, Smith, N & Burgess, S (eds) 2015, Handbook on green infrastructure: planning, design and implementation, Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd., Cheltenham, UK. Swaffield, S & Deming, ME 2011, ‘Research strategies in landscape architecture: mapping the terrain’, Journal of Landscape Architecture, vol.6, no.1, pp.34-45. Thierdorfer, H 2015, ‘Strategies for the green Berlin’, URBES Conference, Berlin, 14 January 2015, retreived 22 September 2016, Thompson, S 2007, ‘What is planning?’ in S Thompson (ed.) Planning Australia: an overview of urban and regional planning, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, pp.11-27. Troll, C 1950, ‘Die geographisched Landscahaft und ihre Erforschung’, Studium Generale, no.3, pp.163– 81. Troll, C 1966, Landscape Ecology, ITC-UNESCO Centre for Integrated Surveys, The Netherlands. Turner, MG 2005, ‘Landscape ecology: what is the state of the science?’ Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, no.36, pp.319–44. Tzoulas, K, Korpela, K, Venn, S, Yli-Pelkonen, V, Kaźmierczak, A, Niemela, J & James, P 2007, ‘Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using green infrastructure: a literature review’, Landscape and Urban Planning, no. 81, pp.167–178. UN-Habitat 2016, ‘Statistical Annex’, in Urbanization and development: emerging futures, World Cities Report 2016, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, Nairobi, Kenya, pp.196-231. Victoria Institute of Strategic Economic Studies (VISES) 2015, Green Infrastructure Economic Framework Summary Report, Victoria University, Melbourne. Wickham, JD, Riitters, KH, Wade, TG & Vogt, P 2010, ‘A national assessment of green infrastructure and change for the conterminous United States using morphological image processing’, Landscape and Urban Planning, no.95, pp.186-195.


11

Tiergarten Park, Berlin. A popular and well-known component of Berlin’s green infrastructure. It comprises some 255ha with over 50 trees species represented. Here, a shady, tree-lined walkway leads the pedestrian out of the Park toward the Victory Column on Strasse des 17. Juni (Photo: R.J. Carne).


12