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ScienceDirect Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 8 (2016) 346 – 352

Florence “Sustainability of Well-Being International Forum”. 2015: Food for Sustainability and not just food, FlorenceSWIF2015

Green Jobs and policy Measures for a Sustainable Agriculture Adele Bianco* Dipartimento di Scienze Psicologiche della Salute e del Territorio Università degli Studi "G. D'Annunzio" Campus Universitario - Via dei Vestini -66013 CHIETI ITALY

Abstract This paper explores the green agriculture as a pivotal issue in the 21st century and assigns it a key role in fostering social development and sustainability. In fact, a more sustainable agriculture makes food security possible, particularly in developing countries. This study follows the following structure. The first paragraph investigates the issues and the opportunities connected to today’s global agriculture sector, including forestry and fisheries. In this context we will see the potential underlying sustainable agriculture in creating green jobs, and special emphasis will be devoted to the analysis of green farming practices. This includes the rehabilitation of degraded crop and the role played by pasture land in improving agro-ecological farming practices. In the second paragraph, special emphasis will be devoted to the analysis of green farming practices. This means: a) the introduction of technologies that mechanize farming operations so that agricultural productivity will significantly increase; b) improvements of transport infrastructures and facilities in reducing post harvest losses; c) the certification and branding for a sustainable production. The third paragraph focuses on the policy measures that are needed to put in place a sustainable agriculture. In fact, for this to happen it is necessary that governments, particularly in developing countries, pay attention to programs for environmental conservation and rehabilitation and to the creation of green jobs. The policy options analyzed for intervention in this sector include both financial and regulatory measures, such as subsidies, taxes, public R&D, international assistance and regulated standards, as well as marketing processes (e.g., eco-labeling and certification programs). 2015 The Authors. Published © 2016 Published by byElsevier ElsevierB.V. B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of Fondazione Simone Cesaretti.

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Peer-review under responsibility of Fondazione Simone Cesaretti doi:10.1016/j.aaspro.2016.02.030

Adele Bianco / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 8 (2016) 346 – 352

Introduction This paper explores green agriculture and green jobs as a pivotal issue in the 21 st century, and assigns it a key role in fostering social development and sustainability. This study is structured as follows. The first paragraph investigates the issues and the opportunities connected to today’s global agriculture sector, including forestry and fisheries. In the second paragraph, special emphasis will be devoted to the analysis of green farming practices. This includes the rehabilitation of degraded crop and the improvement of agro-ecological farming practices. The second paragraph analyzes a new cultivation system, the new organization of Farm-to-Market Food Systems. This means in particular: a) the introduction of technologies that mechanize farming practices so that agricultural productivity will significantly increase; b) improvements in infrastructures and facilities resulting in a reduction of postharvest losses; c) the certification and branding of ecofriendly production practices or a sustainable production. The third paragraph focuses on the policies that are needed to implement a Sustainable Agriculture. This requires governments, particularly in developing countries, to pay attention to i) programs for environmental conservation and rehabilitation and ii) financial and regulatory measures (subsidies, taxes, public R&D, assistance according to international standards) as well as marketing processes (e.g., eco-labeling and certification programs) and iii) the creation of Green Jobs.

1.

The Relevance of Sustainable Agricuture

Since the beginning of mankind, agriculture has always been one of the most productive economic sectors, and will continue to be as such in future times. Indeed, the increasing demand of agricultural products is connected to the increasing demand in global food. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, the improvement of living conditions, especially in developing countries and, as a consequence, the change in food habits, particularly among local middle classes. Secondly, a demographic growth is expected to occur in the next decades. «Current projections indicate that the world will need 70 per cent more food in 2050 (compared with 2000) for the anticipated 9.2 billion people. Achieving food security globally continues to be a challenge, not only for developing, but also for developed nations» (ILO, 2012, p. 20).This is the reason why it is very important to make considerable progress in the fields of sustainable agriculture and green jobs. Sustainable agriculture is broadly defined as the use of farming practices and technologies that simultaneously: (i) maintain and increase farming productivity and profitability while ensuring the provision of food on a sustainable basis, (ii) reduce pollution and other negative externalities and gradually lead to positive ones, and (iii) rebuild ecological resources (i.e. soil, water, air and biodiversity as “natural capital” assets) and make an efficient use of resources. A shift towards a sustainable agriculture will depend on many frameworks, including soil biology and fertility, water management, biodiversity conservation and food systems, encompassing many cross cutting socioeconomic issues (Dag Hammarskjold Report 1975; Harborth 1992; IPCC 2014). Among the economic and social factors, a sustainable agriculture can be achieved by supporting small farmers in poor countries, by promoting farming techniques that are environmentally sustainable, by using efficient technologies and by organizing a labour intensive method of production. Agriculture is the economic sector that employs the highest number of people sectors/agriculture-plantations-other-rural-sectors/lang--en/index.htm). (http://ilo.org/global/industries-andAgriculture is not a very profitable sector and, exception made for the multinational companies operating within the agroindustrial sector, those who live on agriculture are usually poor. In addition to that, and considering the low profitability of agriculture, the use of natural resources tends to be irrational and improper, leading to soil degradation and to the loss of biodiversity and precious resources like water. Also, it shall be noted that agriculture is a polluting sector because of the high levels of greenhouse emissions that it produces. That is the reason why it is imperative that agriculture becomes environmentally sustainable. Moreover, a more sustainable agriculture makes food security possible, particularly in developing countries and to the benefit of small and poor farmers (FAO, IFAD, WFP, 2015). Examples of good practices in sustainable agriculture and rural development

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have been implemented f. i. in Uganda. In 2011 the country had 226,954 hectares under organic agricultural management up from 210,245 hectares in 2008/09 (ILO 2012, p. 27). Other examples are: i) the Indian farmers, who adopt green method in cultivation. They save money in reducing use of agro-chemical products; ii) the highvalue vegetable exports from Madagascar based on a single company, encouraging low-impact cultivation methods; iii) the coffee farmers’ cooperative in Ethiopia (ivi, pp. 28 ff.). Two other sectors have to find application within sustainable agriculture: forestry and fisheries. Forestry is a vital component of agriculture and it houses a large number of renewable energy sources. For this reason, its degradation can lead to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, damage to water bodies and an increase in greenhouse effect. Greening the forest industries means i) to create protected areas also to control forest degradation; ii) to improve reforestation and afforestation also to reduce the over-exploitation of forests resources; iii) to implement combination of agriculture with forest activity and to manage forest ecosystems; iv) to apply policy instruments like regulation and law enforcement; the adoption of certification schemes; to create protected areas Forestry includes three sectors: agroforestry activities, woodworking production of cellulose and paper. For many countries, forestry is a central economic sector. Worldwide, it supports at least 2 million jobs. The number of hectares certified as being managed in a sustainable way is the basis to calculate the number of generated green jobs. The Brazilian f.i. policies provide examples for good work practices in the forests, for the improvement of working conditions and for the promotion of workers’ rights employed in this sector, such as freedom of association and the respect of indigenous communities (ILO, 2012, Ch. 3). Fishery is the primary source of proteic food for around one billion people globally. This sector employs around 45 million people, 95% of which are employed in developing countries. One of the main problems connected to this sector is the protection of fish and the marine and coastal ecosystems. This sector has a major impact on employment, as it includes direct fishing activities, aquaculture breeding and fish processing. As a poor employment sector, fishery has traditionally faced low wages. Therefore measures should be adopted in order to a) support the workforce with professional training programs, b) promote and finance specific projects to support small producers and c) foster the creation of cooperatives of small producers (ILO, 2012, Ch. 4). As examples of greening of enterprises, there are the Norway’s response to overfishing, the sustainable seafood initiative launched by Walmart in 2006 (ivi, pp. 67 ff.). As examples of improving Job quality in this sector, there is to remember the case of Brazil. Brazil extende social protection measures to informal workers too. 2.

Green Farming practices and methods

Sustainable agriculture means a new organization of cultivation systems. There is a set of green agriculture methods and green farming practices, as well as organic and ecological agriculture, to be implemented. This would make it possible to secure market branding certifications such as Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), which represent the various forms of “green” agriculture (UNEP, 2011). Among the advanced countries the EU is implementing a Green Growth Strategy for 2020 (OECD, 2013, p. 34). Among the emerging countries, Korea’s government launched in 2008, a “Low Carbon, Green Growth Strategy” (ivi, pp. 109 ff.) and Mexico in 2012 a Natural Resources Programme in order to implement green growth in the agri-food sector and a National Strategy for Climate Change establishing objectives and goals (ivi, pp. 109 ff.). There are several land management activities to be taken into account. Among them, conservation tillage, multiple crop rotations, agro-forestry, integrated plant-animal systems and rehabilitation of degraded crop and pasture land can improve soil productivity. The “Push Pull” is another relevant agroecological farming practice. This technique combines several crops as a natural barrier to insect and weed infestation, while simultaneously enriching the soil. This practice was successfully implemented in Eastern Africa (Kenya represents a best practice of it) (FAO, 2012, p. 9). The ‘Push Pull’ farming provides both nutrients to the soil and forage crops for livestock. With increased livestock operations, the farmers are able to produce meat, milk and other dairy products. In addition, they use manure as an organic fertilizer that returns additional organic nutrients to the fields. These organic farming methods restore ecological processes, biodiversity and cropping cycles that are in so doing adapted to the local conditions, in line with local


climates and practices. Organic farming in Denmark is an important driver of green growth. This strategy plans to increase the area used for organic production from 6% in 2007 to 15% in 2020. It represents an outlay of almost DKK 350 million a year. (OECD, 2013, p. 18). Another important aspect within sustainable agriculture is the introduction of technologies that mechanize farming operations, so that agricultural productivity may significantly increase. Farm mechanization makes it possible to generate a greater output per unit of land and human labor. In so doing, agricultural productivity can be increased by a) replacing physical strength with machine and fossil fuel power; b) enabling larger areas of arable land to be cultivated in less time; c) pumping irrigation so that farmers can extend the length of their growing season. It is particularly interesting the introduction of nanotechnology. It can help the agro-food sector in the sustainable production, in plant and animal health, in food processing and packaging, as well as in reducing the environmental impact of agricultural operations (OECD 2013, p. 36). The introduction of farm mechanization has to be coordinated with manual labour, firstly because agriculture (especially in developing countries) is a labour intensive sector, and secondly because organic agriculture requires manual, yet skilled, labour (UNCTAD, UNEP, 2008). Along with a new land management, a more sustainable agriculture can also be achieved in terms of local food distribution systems. Farm-to-Market Food systems mean food security through improvements of transport infrastructures and facilities, while also playing a role in reducing post-harvest losses. Transport infrastructures and facilities have to be implemented, and the certification and branding for a sustainable production has to be developed. In this case, eco-labels could be adopted for products to ensure food safety the consumers, to inform and to empower them in relation to their purchasing choices. It is also crucial to develop local food systems, in order to support local food economies, to make them more self-reliant and to shorten the routes from the countryside to the city where foodstuffs are being handled. 3.

Policy measures for Green Jobs and Sustainable Agriculture

This section focuses on the policy measures that are needed to implement a Sustainable Agriculture. In fact, for this to happen it is imperative that governments, particularly in developing countries i) pay attention to programs for environmental conservation and rehabilitation; ii) improve social programs and promote Green Jobs; iii) adopt financial and regulatory measures, such as subsidies, taxes, public R&D, international assistance and regulated standards, as well as marketing processes (e.g.: eco-labeling and certification programs). Many policy makers welcome programs with a long term, economically and environmentally beneficial impact. They acknowledge farmers’ and foresters’ efforts in restoring and sustainably maintaining local rural ecosystems in a healthy state. That is the reason why such efforts require financial support. Among the programs available for environmental conservation and rehabilitation, one of the most important is the so called Payments for Environmental Services (PES). PES monetizes the value of reduced environmental pollution and other ‘externality costs’. In order to encourage the transition towards a greener agriculture, such PES arrangements should be structured so that small-scale farmers and communities, not just large landowners, are able to benefit from it. In addition to protecting the ecosystem and creating employment, these initiatives also contribute in reducing migration from rural to urban areas. As far as the financial measures are concerned, the policy options include both subsidies and taxes. Among the subsidies, there are interventions like financing public investment and assistance in R&D («Public spending on agricultural research as a proportion of total support to agriculture is very high in Australia and New Zealand only (28% and 21% in 2009-11, respectively)», OECD, 2013, p. 38), regulating trade and implementing marketing processes (e.g.: eco-labeling and certification programs). Such policy options are also important in connection to other enabling conditions, particularly investing in infrastructures, like the construction of roads, rural electrification and facilitating IT communication, i.e. developing internet access. Other financial measures consist in tax reform in order to expand ecotaxation or to promote tax exemption. In the first case, increasing ecotaxes means reducing payroll taxes. This is a stimulus for the economic activity and for employment. In the second case, tax exemption aims at reducing the environmental impact of pesticides, fertilizers, manure waste and energy use. Also, it may contribute in subsidizing the transition from inefficient to sustainable farming practices (e.g.: excessive use of fossil fuel based inputs; monoculture crop production; etc.).

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Some OECD countries (Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the Netherlands) adopted environmental taxes on agricultural inputs as a part of fiscal policy (OECD, 2013). Moreover, it may be useful to link green subsidies and tax incentives to private businesses, upon condition that they guarantee a decent pay, benefits and safe working conditions to their workers. In order to encourage eco-labeling practices, it is necessary to motivate manufacturers to design and sell more ecofriendly products, and to certify them according to international quality standards. Moreover, consumers have to increase their awareness in relation to their purchasing choice. Other general enabling conditions include infrastructure and institutions (roads, power, telecommunications, schools, hospitals, access to credit, health and crop insurance, etc.) and an increased governance transparency (long term national planning, commitments to food and nutrition security, land rights reforms and the elimination of subsidies for unsustainable farming methods and inputs). A transition to sustainable agriculture does not only mean a shift to more sustainable practices and to greener technologies. Social aspects also come into play. Governments, particularly in developing countries, have to pay attention to programs in the field of rural development. This means reducing the excessively fragmented rural property (ILO, 2012, Ch. 2), empowering farmers with a technological know-how, enabling them in fostering “green” practices and promoting the creation of cooperatives. Particular importance is to be assigned to social policy measures, investments in education and the promotion of green jobs. Generally speaking, a green job contributes to preserve or restore the quality of the environment within the economic sectors, by cutting the consumption of energy and raw materials and by reducing greenhouse emissions. In so doing, the companies and the population involved become more environmentally sustainable, as they limit the risk of environmental pollution and desertification (Bowen, 2012, pp. 3 ff.). It is difficult to provide a clear definition for the term “green job” because specific green products or services are not necessarily derived from green production processes (UNEP, ILO, IOE, ITUC 2008, p. 3 and pp. 35-37; ILO, 2012, p. 7). Improving green jobs is important not only from the quantitative point of view – sustainable agriculture is projected to create additional employment (over 200 million full time jobs in 2050) – but also from the qualitative one, because it means bettering the work quality, improving decent work. We can define decent work as employment «under conditions of freedom, equity, security and dignity, in which rights are protected and adequate remuneration and social coverage is provided» (UNEP, ILO, IOE, ITUC, 2008, pp. 278 ff.). Consequently, it can help rural populations to benefit from a long-term income. Employment growth would include more labor intensive green farming practices operations, management and preservation of ecosystems, research and development and training of rural populations in the use of green agriculture technologies (UNEP, ILO, IOE, ITUC, 2008; World Bank, 2008). Promoting green jobs implies taking action into several dimensions. The first one is taking into account that working in agriculture is extremely risky. Therefore, measures are needed to ensure safety and security in the workplace. Moreover, agriculture is a labour intensive sector and specific measures shall be put in place, including the implementation of social security actions (like insurance coverage for natural disasters), ones that prevent rural families/communities from falling into poverty. A second relevant dimension that may improve the working conditions in this sector is the access to education and training, to which agricultural workers have usually limited access to. This also means improving minimum wages (ILO, 2015; Cunningham, 2007; Herr, Kazandziska, 2011). Legislation should also support adequate training and educational opportunities in order to provide green jobs skills, with particular emphasis on the promotion of gender equality. It is also essential to promote the participation in decision and policy-making processes. A third dimension has to do with supporting small farmers and making them competitive in the market. In order for this to happen, the barriers that smallholder farmers traditionally face need to be removed. Such barriers are ascribable to the lack of land access, which is particularly essential to agricultural activities. Other remarkable challenges for small farmers are connected to the possibility to get financial credit, to reduce their traditional lack of access to technology, and to gain access to equipment and training. Governments have to promote these actions so that the small farmers’ capacity and their technical and managerial skills can be empowered (UNDESA, 2011). Last but not least, it has to be considered that agriculture is an economic sector where a high number of women


are employed. The promotion of gender equality has to be a crucial target in the development of green jobs. In fact, women are disproportionately affected by extremely poor working conditions (ILO, 2010, Ch. 2). Positive actions have to be taken also to benefit young people. Young people face critical challenges in finding gainful work in rural areas (UNEP, ILO, IOE, ITUC, 2008; ILO, 2011b). They currently account for 47 percent of the total unemployed globally (ILO, 2010, pp. 9-12). In order to promote youth employment, major rural development policies and investments should specifically address the views and needs of young people, and include technical and vocational education training as integral elements of funded programs (ILO, 2011a, 2011b). 4.

Conclusions

Global environmental issues pose a common challenge to the North and the South of the world in terms of development of new technologies and affirmation of new professions (such as green jobs). The transition to a more sustainable agriculture delivers more employment opportunities and better working conditions. These two elements are relevant for developed as well as for developing countries. In fact, it can be observed that in the 21st century sustainable agriculture is expected to improve the working conditions and the life standard of economically backward and vulnerable groups (and this would already be a good result). At the same time, it will provide the opportunity to implement a sustainable development model. From the point of view of production, technological advancements and their implementation in the production processes are a breakthrough. Indeed, technological advancements prove to be environmentally sustainable, but also socially sustainable from the workforce viewpoint. More in general, we believe that this is the road map to be followed in order to create a more equitable society and to guarantee a decent future to the upcoming generations. References Bowen, A., 2012. ‘Green’ growth, ‘Green’ jobs and labor markets. The World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 5990, http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2012/03/07/000158349_20120307084323/Rendered/PDF/WPS5990.pdf. Cunningham,W. V., 2007. Minimum Wages and Social Policy: Lessons from Developing Countries, The World Bank, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/6760/405260Minimum0101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf?sequence=1 Dag Hammarskjold Report, 1975. What now? The 1975 Dag Hammarskjöld report: prepared on the occasion of the Seventh Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly. Uppsala: D.H. Foundation. FAO, 2012. Green Jobs for a Revitalized. Food and Agriculture Sector, www.fao.org FAO, IFAD, WFP, 2015. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015. Meeting the 2015 international hunger targets: taking stock of uneven progress. Rome, FAO, http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4646e.pdf Harborth, H.J., 1992. Sustainable development - Dauerhafte Entwicklung. In Nohlen, D., Nuscheler, F. (Eds.) Handbuch der Dritten Welt, 1. Grundprobleme - Theorien – Strategien. Bonn: J.H.W. Dietz Nachf., 231-247. Herr, H., Kazandziska, M., 2011. Principles of minimum wage policy : economics, institutions and recommendations, Geneva: ILO, http://www.global-labour-university.org/fileadmin/GLU_Working_Papers/GLU_WP_No.11.pdf 2010. Global employment trends: January 2010. Geneva, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/--ILO, emp_elm/--trends/documents/publication/wcms_120471.pdf ILO, 2011a. Skill for green jobs. http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_159585/lang--en/index.htm. ILO, 2011b. Towards a greener Economy: The Social Dimension. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--dcomm/--- publ/documents/publication/wcms_168163.pdf. ILO, 2012. Working towards sustainable development. Opportunities for decent work and social inclusion in a green economy. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_181836.pdf. ILO, 2015. Global Wage Report 2014/15: Wages and income inequality. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--dcomm/--- publ/documents/publication/wcms_324678.pdf. IMF, 2014. World Economic Outlook:Legacies, Clouds, Uncertainties (October). http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/pdf/c2.pdf. IPCC, 2014. Fifth Assessment Synthesis Report, Climate Change 2014 – Syntesis Report. http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/.OECD/MartinezFernandez, C, Hinojosa, C, Miranda, G., 2010, “Green jobs and skills: the local labour market implications of addressing climate change”, 8 February 2010, working document, CFE/LEED, OECD, www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/43/44683169.pdf?conte nt Id=44683170 OECD, 2013. Policy Instruments to Support Green Growth in Agriculture , http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264203525-en UNCTAD, UNEP, 2008. Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa, http://unctad.org/en/docs/ditcted200715_en.pdf UNDESA, 2011. World Economic and

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Adele Bianco / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 8 (2016) 346 – 352 Social Survey 2011. The Great Green Technological Transformation, www.undesa.org UNEP, 2011. Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, www.unep.org/greeneconomy UNEP, ILO, IOE, ITUC, 2008. Green Jobs: Towards Decent Work in a Sustainable, Low-Carbon World, http://www.unep.org/PDF/UNEPGreenjobs_report08.pdf. World Bank, 2008. World Development Report 2008. Agriculture for Development, www.worldbank.org