Groupware, Community, and Meta-Networks: the Collaborative Framework of EdNA (Education Network Australia) Jon Mason Education.Au Limited 178 Fullarton Road, Dulwich, SA 5065, Australia
[email protected]
Abstract. This paper describes evolving notions and expressions of community and networks in the context of educational culture which is engaged in the process of discovering the opportunities and challenges presented by Communications and Information Technologies (CITs). Supporting this focus is a brief analysis of socio-cultural change providing a context for presenting a case-study overview of Education Network Australia (EdNA), a governmentsponsored ‘meta-network’ formally launched in Australia in 1997 primarily as an online Information Directory Service. In its current stage of development EdNA has firmed as a framework geared toward fostering collaboration and cooperation throughout the various education and training systems and sectors. As such, it is an exemplar of ‘Community Computing and Support Systems’ which extend collaborative computing beyond the conventional limits of groupware. A key success factor in its development has been the convergence of the structural opportunity inherent within any growing network with the need for strengthening and developing identity within and among related communities.
1
Introduction
Communications and Information Technologies (CITs) provide both enacted and potential opportunities for human communication and interaction which have not hitherto been possible. However, despite this enabling potential, CITs are not intrinsically enabling and evidence exists which suggests the contrary. [2], [11] While this is an important perspective it is still true that CITs have been, and are, pivotal to the emergence and development of so-called ‘electronic communities’, ‘virtual communities’, online ‘learning communities’, and other associated collaborative and co-operative activities which occur in online environments (with ‘online’ being used here in its broad and common usage to include both synchronous and asynchronous computer networks). The communications cultures evolving with usage of these technologies are unprecedented and in educational settings pose transformative challenges (opportunities and threats) for the established pedagogical and organisational cultures. [5], [20] Conceived initially in 1995 as an initiative with a
focus on connectivity and infrastructure, Education Network Australia (EdNA) now represents an exemplar of this new culture with collaboration and co-operation its guiding principles. In the history of education in Australia this collaborative endeavour is unprecedented, thus making EdNA an excellent case-study of Community Computing and Support Systems (CCSS).
2
Socio-Cultural Change
To be rigorous, any analysis of CCSS must be cognisant of the co-evolution of social institutions, organisational structures, and technology. It would be an error to conceive of CCSS as driven primarily by the enabling characteristics of communications technologies, though this terminology lends itself to this kind of association. At the same time, the emergence of the so-called Information Superhighway amidst the complexities of socio-cultural dynamics suggests that recognition of the current historically pivotal role of technology is not unreasonable. [1], [14] On this point, however, Castells concludes: “the dilemma of technological determinism is probably a false problem, since technology is society, and society cannot be understood or represented without its technological tools.” [1]
2.1
The Meaning of Community
In determining the semantic domain of ‘community’ it is worthwhile considering the mission statement of the Center for the Study of Online Community at UCLA: “There are many ways to approach the social, technical, political, economic, and cultural explosion that surrounds computers and the networks that interconnect them. The Center for the Study of Online Community seeks to present and foster studies that focus on how computers and networks alter people’s capacity to form groups, organizations, institutions, and how those social formations are able to serve the collective interests of their members. If you are willing to use the word loosely, all of these social formations can be thought of as some form of community.” [16]
Indeed, the word ‘community’ can be laden with blurred meaning. For example, while one could loosely refer to the ‘Internet community’ or a specific ‘Newsgroup community’, any attempt at an analogous statement applied to telephone or television usage seems absurd. At the recent WWW7 conference held in Brisbane, Australia, there were plenty of examples of discourse adopting this common usage: such as, ‘resource discovery communities’, the ‘Dublin Core community’, the ‘Australian community’, etc. [21] In the bulk of these cases, the semantics indicate some descriptive identity of a particular group. In terminology recently coined by learning theorist Etienne Wenger, “communities of interest” also act as “communities of practice”. [19] Perhaps, though, the wide semantic usage or ‘looseness’ of the word community also points to the fact that it is a term indicative of inclusiveness. It therefore seems that in identifying or defining the elements and drivers of effective CCSS we must proceed with caution. Furthermore, while the word ‘community’ is
likely to conjure up ‘civic’or ‘neighbourly’connotations, more often than not there is evidence to suggest that the early adopters of communications technologies are from either the military or criminal elements of society! The most notable example of this is of course the origins of the Internet itself within a research unit of the USA military in the late 1960s as the world’s first decentralised data communications system. Furthermore, with the (sensationalised) help of the mass media, the presence of ‘unwholesome’ activity and information on the Internet (such as hardcore pornography and all kinds of ‘anti-community’ violence) is what seeded the widespread and ongoing debate on censorship and privacy of recent years. It was indeed a significant win for ‘free speech’ in the USA in 1996 when a three-judge panel ruled to extend the individual’s and community’s rights under the USA First Amendment to cyberspace: they have been quoted as describing the Internet: “as a never-ending worldwide conversation… [and]… the most participatory form of mass speech yet developed.”[10]
2.2
CIT and CMC
Some CITs are geared primarily as ‘groupware’ or software applications designed specifically for enabling collaboration and enhancing workgroup productivity through application and data sharing within an organisation. With the popularisation of the Internet via the World Wide Web, the power of groupware solutions is challenged by the power of the network, though common to both is the lure of efficient communication and data exchange. In the corporate world this challenge has been recognised as a major opportunity – for example, Sun’s ‘the network is the computer’ slogan is also descriptive of its organisational structure where groupware and geographically dispersed networks have merged. But, whether it is groupware supported or an expression of a less cohesive but nonetheless highly functional networked community, the significant cultural component of CIT usage is what is termed Computer Mediated Communication (CMC). Without CMC, groupware and CCSS are meaningless concepts. In many respects, CMC is a pivotal component in contemporary flexible education systems. [12]
2.3
Language, Communication, Education and CMC
It is a rather trite observation that (most) human beings are naturally gregarious. That they are disposed toward the process of ‘networking’ is a little less obvious to some as it is very clear that some individuals and social groups are more disposed to it than others! From an historical perspective, civilisation has been a story of the evolution of small tribal communities into large city-states and nations. Together with this other key historical foundations of civilisation are the evolution of language and technologies for interacting with the environment, and with fellow human beings. In the late twentieth century there is much talk of globalisation, communications revolutions and a new world order, though some commentators have referred to the latter as a new world ‘disorder’. [1], [4] With all this change, however, language can
be regarded as the primary vehicle for communication and in the new world of online learning communities it occupies a primary position. Or, as Castells expresses it: “How specific is the language of CMC as a new medium? To some analysts, CMC, and particularly e-mail, represents the revenge of the written medium, the return to the typographic mind, and the recuperation of the constructed, rational discourse. For others, on the contrary, the informality, spontaneity, and anonymity of the medium stimulates what they call a new form of “orality,” expressed by an electronic text.” [1]
But, he adds, the significance of CMC does not overshadow other socio-political realities: “Because access to CMC is culturally, educationally, and economically restrictive, and will be so for a long time, the most important cultural impact of CMC could be potentially the reinforcement of the culturally dominant social networks, as well as the increase of their cosmopolitanism and globalization.” [1]
Castells’ argument is somewhat more sober than Rheingold’s earlier perspective although for Rheingold the primacy of language is also emphasized while pointing to the fundamentally disembodied character of virtual communities: “People in virtual communities use words on screens to exchange pleasantries and argue, engage in intellectual discourse, conduct commerce, exchange knowledge, share emotional support, make plans, brainstorm, gossip, feud, fall in love, find friends and lose them, play games, flirt, create a little high art and a lot if idle talk. People in virtual communities do just about everything people do in real life, but we leave our bodies behind. You can't kiss anybody and nobody can punch you in the nose, but a lot can happen within those boundaries.” [15]
From more of an educational perspective, Tiffin and Rajasingham provide a theoretical model applicable to online teaching and learning which identifies communication, rather than language, as primary. In developing this model they argue that: “Education systems are communication systems and therefore they are networks which can exist at different fractal levels.” [17]
These fractal levels are categorised as intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organisational, mass, and global where communication is defined as having three key components: transmission, storage, and processing. [17] While ‘community’ as such is not discussed, their model of intermeshed networks may have application in the design and development of CCSS: “Systems for organised learning are complex communications systems concerned with the transmission, storage and processing of information. Their purpose is to assist learners so that from being unable to deal with problems they become proficient problem solvers. This depends on communication networks that intermesh four related factors: learning, teaching, knowledge and problem. There appears to be a fractal dimension in that the network that intermeshes the four related factors can prove to be a node in a network at a higher level. Similarly, a processing node in a network can, at a lower level, prove to be a network. The existence of different levels in a communications system for learning allows learners to shift levels in the process of learning.” [17]
2.4
Meta-Networks, Community and Identity
In a pilot study commissioned by UNESCO in 1997 addressing regulatory issues relating to content on the Internet, it is argued: “It is widely recognised that if the Internet is to be used to its full potential, there is a need for enhanced community understanding of the Internet and the opportunities it offers.” [18]
While such a comment is contextualised within a broad concern for community education it reveals that ‘community’ has a fundamental role for the Internet. After all, as an inter-network or meta-network, it also represents a ‘community’ of users. However, despite the awesome information resources and communications potential of the Internet it is still largely unregulated or uncontained and therefore this very lack of boundary tends to also limit the scope of community as it is conventionally understood. Do we speak of the Earth community? With the Internet clearly established as the Meta-Network of all meta-networks it is identification with a particular community which can make an electronic network truly value-added and conducive toward collaboration. Thus the earlier reference to the profusion of diversely labeled communities at forums such as WWW7 – the ‘Dublin Core community’, for example, clearly identifies a common interest that brings together individuals and other groups. This identification helps build a network. Clearly, there is not much point to building a network from a collection of nodes without some reason that provides meaning. Rheingold’s (1993) exposition of ‘virtual communities’ was mainly concerned with such interest groups who are often organised or share a common purpose. In the case of EdNA (Education Network Australia), it is the education and training communities of Australia, and indeed the Australian focus, which serve to define the identity of the network – or more accurately, this meta-network since it brings together several other large regional networks. Castells lends theoretical weight to this argument in his important recent sociological analysis outlining the “rise of the Network Society”: “New information technologies are integrating the world in global networks of instrumentality. Computer-mediated communication begets a vast array of virtual communities. Yet the distinctive social and political trend of the 1990s is the construction of social action and politics around primary identities, either ascribed, rooted in history or geography, or newly built in an anxious search for meaning and spirituality. The first historical steps of informational societies seem to characterize them by the pre-eminence of identity as their organizing principle.”[1]
3
The Framework of EdNA
Education Network Australia (EdNA) is an initiative of the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments together with key stakeholders from the Education and Training sector within Australia. It has been established to provide value-added online services to this community and as a means of optimizing the potential for communications and information technology in education and training. [6]
Since its original conception, in 1995, EdNA has undergone a number of significant changes. These changes demonstrate to some extent that the sustained response to technological development has been one concerned with facilitating collaboration and the development of professional networks and communities of users. Originally, EdNA was conceived as a physical network with emphasis being placed on infrastructure development and connectivity, particularly for the schools and Vocational Education and Training (VET) communities (AARNet, the Australian Academic and Research Network already being well-established for universities). As Internet usage in Australia has increased over the last few years, EdNA has developed to its current form as a national framework for collaboration between all sectors of the Australian education and training community, with a view to maximizing the benefits of CITs in education. A key component of this endeavour is the building of a valueadded Directory Service that utilises metadata (customised from the Dublin Core) as a means for ensuring that information retrieval and resource discovery is effective, thereby maintaining quality of content. This is currently at an early stage of development but much progress has already been made. In order to proceed along the path of collaboration (and, of necessity, co-operation) a number of consultative groups have been established, which in turn are geared toward facilitating further diffusion of collaboration in the applications of CITs as well as in the ongoing development of the EdNA Directory Service. Sectoral advisory groups have been established to provide input to the development of EdNA from each sector's perspective and to exchange information and ideas about the use of information and communications technologies in education. It can be argued that this framework has an economic agenda in that significant cost savings will likely follow-on through the avoidance of excessive duplication and overlap. Perhaps this is more keenly observed by government stakeholders but it would be quite inaccurate to see this as the primary opportunity or unstated agenda. There is much more to networks than the economics of minimising costs, even though a new economics will also likely ensue in the broader marketplace. Yes, it may be true that the EdNA initiative can be viewed as having a strong economic appeal and it is also very true that there is a decline in public funding of higher education worldwide with governments scrutinizing university management more closely. But the opportunities that accompany the new so-called ‘global’ economy (what some commentators prefer to describe as a trend toward an ‘Informational Economy’ or a ‘Network Economy’) are shaping new economic ‘rules’. [1], [9] A tightening of public funding in higher education may be the downside but as the networks develop so do the opportunities for new alliances and markets. In this scenario it is the connections and the potential for collaboration that will be a driving force for change. As Kelly puts it: “The grand irony of our times is that the era of computers is over. All the major consequences of standalone computers have already taken place. Computers have speeded up our lives a bit, and that's it. In contrast, all the most promising technologies making their debut now are chiefly due to communication between computers - that is, to connections rather than computations. And since communication is the basis of culture, fiddling at this level is indeed momentous. Information’s critical rearrangement is the widespread, relentless act of connecting everything to everything else. We are now engaged in a grand
scheme to augment, amplify, enhance, and extend the relationships between all beings and all objects. That is why the Network Economy is a big deal.” [9]
3.1
Organisational Framework
The sectoral groups and Ministerial nominees, both State and Commonwealth, come together in a common forum as the EdNA Reference Committee to provide advice on matters relating to the use of information technology in education and to the Ministers. The Reference Committee has representatives from each State and Territory school and VET system, from the Catholic school system and the Independent schools sector as well as from the higher education sector. It is currently chaired by the Commonwealth representative. Overall management of the process is effected by a small non-profit company, Education.Au Limited, based in Adelaide and jointly owned by the Ministers of education. Its Board meets regularly and makes policy recommendations to the Ministers. Thus, it is clear that EdNA has established an organisational framework and vision for collaboration with respect to the utilisation and development of online services in educational contexts within Australia. However, while these foundations are in place, their durability and effectiveness in supporting value-added services for the education and training communities is yet to be tested over time. Some commentators warn that such networks may even be short-lived, reflecting the demise of ‘goodwill’ in cyberspace culture as e-commerce gains the ascendancy. [3] The politics intrinsic to the EdNA process is also an important factor in making progress and it would be fair to say that most of those active stakeholders contributing to the process have a developing appreciation for the complexity of agendas and needs that must be considered. The bottom line would suggest that ongoing participation by a number of communities, which vary both in scope and scale, will be the measure of future success. Without doubt, the evolution of EdNA will provide a rich resource for research on determining critical success factors or impediments concerning online culture.
3.2
The EdNA Directory Service
Complementing and supporting the organisational framework is the EdNA Directory Service, an online ‘first entry-point’ (Website) for a wide range of information and resources relevant to education and training in Australia. One key feature of the Website is that the collaborative and co-operative framework is also reflected in its administration. In terms of scale of implementation, this is indeed a unique initiative insofar as CCSS is concerned. Of course, for many people the EdNA Directory Service may be experienced as just another fairly ordinary Website. This is certainly true of its various iterations of interface design to date. However, where content is concerned, both high quality catalogued online information resources are made easily accessible as are a wide range of discussion groups, or ‘communities’, also hosted.
The EdNA Directory Service was officially launched by the Commonwealth of Australia on November 28th, 1997. [6] The following discussion provides an overview of the system, network configuration, software, and category structure for the storage and retrieval of resources. 3.2.1 System Overview The EdNA Directory Service undergoes continued development and enhancement. It is guided by principles of quality information retrieval and resource discovery together with the provision of networking opportunities to its stakeholders. The first version of the Directory went online as a Website in early 1996, although at this time it was very much in a prototype phase. The architecture that was implemented at this time still persists and is based on an Oracle database Web Server, where the bulk of Web pages delivered to the user are dynamically constructed (see Fig. 1 at end of discussion). This is run in conjunction with the Netscape Enterprise and Collabra Servers together with Majordomo which combine to deliver general Web and messaging services. In this configuration, customised PL/SQL code is also implemented, particularly for specific functionality such as the administration of the site, which is based on a distributed model and, as such, mirrors the system and Web architecture itself. That is, all stakeholder groups have an opportunity to participate in the uploading of items into the database, the maintenance of collections relevant to their sector, and various other functions. Users can access information stored on the EdNA Directory through browsing the extensive category tree of core items or through using the search function. Items are indexed and attached to specific categories, with core items having metadata attached to enable well-targeted resource discovery. The database also stores harvested (robotically-collected) ‘non-core’ or ‘leaf-node’ items which are indexed from specified levels referenced from the core items. The Search function allows for retrieval of these resources. Navigation cues on the homepage also provide users with a variety of other options including Noticeboards, a ‘What’s New’list, a Help system, and an entry point into Discussion Groups hosted on the site. Search functions on the Website are built around Harvest Gatherer software in conjunction with the Verity Topic search engine. Users can specify standard search requests based on keywords and ‘freetext’ matches. Resources searched include core items, harvested items that are collected with the Gatherer software, as well as archived discussion lists. There have been various iterations of the search function and in mid 1998 plans to enhance the functionality of search were underway. These include the likely replacement of Harvest with the Netscape Compass (Catalogue) Server and implementation of appropriate thesauri developed specifically for the education sector. Redundancy is built into the system for security and backup purposes. Equipment used consists of 3 Sun Microsystems Sparcstations: one each for development, testing and production. Most users only interact with EdNA-prod though authorised stakeholders use EdNA-test prior to uploading (publishing) any static pages or for evaluating prototype enhancements.
3.2.2 Network Configuration The EdNA Directory Service is currently connected to the Internet via a dedicated 2 megabit per second link. Network infrastructure, however, varies considerably across the various education and training sectors. Universities were the first to establish connectivity to the Internet (in 1989) through the establishment of AARNet (the Australian Academic and Research Network) under the direction of the Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee. In 1997, much activity proceeded throughout the sector as a result of government legislation concerning de-regulation of telecommunications. Universities responded by collaborating in implementation of a number of high-speed ATM regional networks. These regional networks combine to form what is now known as AARNet2. For schools and the vocational training sector the story of connectivity began a little later and in many respects has not been planned – certainly not in the way as it currently is in China! [21] This is not to say that State Governments have not provided resources but what makes this situation different to the universities is the number of institutions involved and the disparity in resources available. Unlike AARNet2, which purchases its bandwidth in bulk from one of the major carriers, schools and TAFE institutes enter into arrangements with local Internet Service Providers, and in some cases State governments have brokered deals. By and large progress on this front has been substantial in the last few years and the initial EdNA vision which was actually framed around addressing the disparities in connectivity is being realised although EdNA does not play a significant role in any roll-out of infrastructure these days. 3.2.3 Category Structure The top level of the EdNA Directory Service category structure is as follows: General References Educational Organisations Adult Community Education (ACE) Higher Education Schools Vocational Education & Training (VET or TAFE) The category tree branches several levels deep and there are over 1000 discrete categories on the Directory Service. While this number may seem large, about 30% of these occur as sub-categories (particularly where location is represented according to State or National coverage). Because of the current size of the category structure, discussions are now proceeding among stakeholders aimed at developing a more efficient architecture. While the Oracle database was important in the beginning process of building the present category structure, and while many iterations and revisions took place, it no longer makes a lot of sense to involve a database query at the level of the category tree itself. With the indexing capabilities of Netscape Compass Server there seems to be a straightforward solution at hand.
An example of branching in the category tree from the Higher Education Teaching and Learning category is as follows: Discussion Forums and Email Lists Educational Multimedia Development Electronic Publications and Journals Libraries and Archives Australian Archives Australian University Libraries International University Libraries Other Library Resources Subject Gateways and Clearinghouses Teaching and Learning Centres Teaching and Learning Resources Administration, Business, Economics, Law Agriculture, Renewable Resources Biological Sciences Built Environment, Architecture Chemical Sciences Earth Sciences Education Engineering, Processing Health and Medical sciences Humanities Mathematics, Computing Physical Sciences Social Sciences Visual/Performing Arts Linked to all these categories are currently around 7,000 core, or ‘approved’ items and a further 15,000 leaf-node items. Of the approved items, 63% represent Australian content.
3.3
Parallels of EdNA
There is an increasing number other developments around the globe which parallel the EdNA initiative to some extent: in the UK, the Department of Education and Employment launched in 1997 a discussion paper, ‘Connecting the Learning Society: National Grid for Learning’ as part of a consultation process concluded at the end of 1997. Implementation was planned to begin in early 1998. [13] In North America, EDUCOM has merged with CAUSE to become EDUCAUSE and released a metadata specification specifically for the education community. This metadata specification is more extensive than EdNA’s but both specifications are based on the Dublin Core
standard and aimed at developing quality online resources useful to education communities. [7] In Europe, the European SchoolNet Project (EUN) is established for the purposes of providing value-added services to the European K-12 community. Its espoused goals are very much framed in language that expresses collaboration and cooperation between key stakeholders. [8]
4
Conclusion
In the case-study outlined the EdNA Directory Service can be characterised as an exemplar of Community Computing and Support Systems (CCSS). However, it did not begin as such. The use of the terminology of CCSS here is intended to be indicative of computer systems which are both complex and dynamic as a direct result of a reflexive relationship with human communities engaged in a common pursuit of developing online support systems. Close analysis of the development of EdNA (and the EdNA Directory Service) reveals that the process is iterative. The EdNA Directory Service began as an online information delivery service but through ongoing and widespread collaboration, aimed at value-adding, it is broadening through developing interactive services and facilitating networking opportunities for its diverse stakeholders. As such, there is a congruence of culture on the one hand and technology on the other. That is, the collaborative and co-operative effort that is manifest in the development of EdNA – itself an expression of networking – maps well to the architecture of the Internet and cyberspace made possible by Communication and Information Technologies. This is a critical point, for without both a viable community and a robust technology expressed as CCSS cannot evolve.
EdNA Web Server
The Net
HTTP www.edna.edu.au
EdNAOracle environment Oracle Web Agent (OWA)
PL/SQL
User’s browser
HTML file
Other CGI
Oracle database
Fig. 1. Dynamic generation of Web pages on EdNA (source: DEETYA, Commonwealth of Australia, 1997)
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