Handbook of Petroleum Processing - Springer

Handbook of Petroleum Processing

Handbook of Petroleum Processing Edited by

DAVID S. J. “STAN” JONES† retired chemical engineer (Fluor) Calgary, Canada

and ´ PETER R. PUJADO UOP LLC (retired)-Illinois, U.S.A.

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-13 978-1-4020-2819-9 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-2820-5 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com Contributing Editors: L. C. James, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA G. A. Mansoori, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

Printed on acid-free paper

First published 2006 Reprinted 2008

All Rights Reserved.
C 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Contents

1. An introduction to crude oil and its processing The composition and characteristics of crude oil The crude oil assay Other basic definitions and correlations Predicting product qualities Basic processes The processes common to most energy refineries Processes not so common to energy refineries The non-energy refineries References

1 1 6 9 18 27 28 37 40 45

2. Petroleum products and a refinery configuration 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Petroleum products 2.3 A discussion on the motive fuels of gasoline and diesel 2.4 A refinery process configuration development Conclusion

47 47 48 63 76 109

3. The atmospheric and vacuum crude distillation units 3.1 The atmospheric crude distillation unit Process description The development of the material balance for the atmospheric crude distillation unit The design characteristics of an atmospheric crude distillation fractionating tower The fractionator overhead system The side streams and intermediate reflux sections Calculating the main tower dimensions The crude feed preheat exchanger system design An example in the design of an atmospheric crude oil distillation tower

111 112 112

v

115 119 122 128 137 142 146

vi

CONTENTS

3.2 The vacuum crude distillation unit Process description The vacuum crude distillation unit’s flash zone The tower overhead ejector system Calculating flash zone conditions in a vacuum unit Draw-off temperatures Determine pumparound and internal flows for vacuum towers Calculate tower loading in the packed section of vacuum towers Appendix

169 169 171 172 176 177 178 179 183

4. The distillation of the ‘Light Ends’ from crude oil A process description of a ‘light ends’ unit Developing the material balance for light end units Calculating the operating conditions in light end towers Calculating the number of trays in light end towers Condenser and reboiler duties Tower loading and sizing Checks for light end tower operation and performance

189 189 191 196 199 203 205 214

5. Catalytic reforming Feedstocks Catalysts Process flow schemes Advantages of CCR Platforming Catalysts and suppliers References

217 219 227 232 234 236 237

6. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) Fluidization Process control Reaction chemistry and mechanisms Gas oil cracking technology features Cracking for light olefins and aromatics Nomenclature References Appendix 6.1. Commercially available FCC catalysts and additives

239 244 247 248 250 271 278 279

7. Distillate hydrocracking Brief history Flow schemes Chemistry Catalysts

287 287 288 292 298

282

CONTENTS

vii

Catalyst manufacturing Catalyst loading and activation Catalyst deactivation and regeneration Design and operation of hydrocracking reactors Hydrocracking process variables Hydrocracker licensors and catalyst manufacturers

300 305 306 308 312 319

8. Hydrotreating Brief history Flow schemes Chemistry Catalysts Catalyst manufacturing Catalyst loading and activation Catalyst deactivation and regeneration Design and operation of hydrotreating reactors Hydrotreating process variables Hydrotreaters licensors and catalyst manufacturers

321 322 323 327 334 337 340 342 344 347 353

9. Gasoline components 9.1 Motor fuel alkylation Introduction History Process chemistry HF alkylation process flow description Sulfuric acid alkylation Stratco effluent refrigerated alkylation process Alkylate properties Recent developments Conclusions References 9.2 Catalytic olefin condensation Introduction History Catalytic condensation process Catalytic condensation process for gasoline production Hydrogenated versus nonhydrogenated polymer gasolines from the catalytic condensation process Selective and nonselective gasoline production with the catalytic condensation process Catalytic condensation process as a source of diesel fuels Petrochemical operations Dimersol process

355 355 355 355 356 360 364 366 370 370 371 371 372 372 373 373 376 379 383 385 386 389

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CONTENTS

Other dimerization or oligomerization processes Recent developments Catalytic olefin condensation with the InAlk process Catalyst suppliers Conclusions References 9.3 Isomerization technologies for the upgrading of light naphtha and refinery light ends Introduction Process chemistry of paraffin isomerization Primary reaction pathways Isomerization catalysts I-80 catalyst development and applications LPI-100 catalyst development and applications New isomerization process technologies Isomerization process economics Other applications Conclusions References Bibliography 10. Refinery gas treating processes Introduction The process development and description Common processes Other gas treating processes Calculating the amine circulation rate Calculating the number of theoretical trays in an amine contactor Calculating absorber tray size and design Calculating the heat transfer area for the lean/rich amine exchanger The stripper design and performance Removing degradation impurities from MEA Appendix 10.1 The process design of an amine gas treating unit 11. Upgrading the ‘Bottom of the Barrel’ The thermal cracking processes ‘Deep oil’ fluid catalytic cracking Residuum hydrocracking Conclusion Appendix 11.1 Sizing a thermal cracker heater/reactor

391 392 393 398 398 399 400 400 401 403 404 406 409 410 412 415 415 416 416 417 417 417 419 423 424 425 428 428 429 430 431 447 448 458 469 472 473

CONTENTS

ix

12. The non-energy refineries Introduction 12.1 The lube oil refinery Lube oil properties A description of major processes in lube oil refining 12.2 Asphalt production 12.3 The petrochemical refinery The production of aromatics Process discussion Appendix 12.1 Sizing a bitumen oxidizer

483 483 483 486 487 494 508 508 511 512

13. Support systems common to most refineries 13.1 Control systems Definitions Reflux drums The control valve 13.2 Offsite systems Storage facilities Atmospheric storage Pressure storage Heated storage tanks Calculating heat loss and heater size for a tank Product blending facilities Road and rail loading facilities Jetty and dock facilities Jetty size, access, and location Waste disposal facilities The flare Effluent water treating facilities Other treating processes Utility Systems Brief descriptions of typical utility systems Steam and condensate systems Fuel systems Water systems The “hot lime” process The ion exchange processes Compressed air system 13.3 Safety systems Determination of risk Definitions Types of pressure relief valves Capacity

521 521 522 523 528 533 533 534 536 537 538 542 545 549 549 552 559 565 567 568 569 569 570 575 581 581 585 587 587 588 591 593

x

CONTENTS

Sizing of required orifice areas Sizing for flashing liquids Sizing for gas or vapor on low-pressure subsonic flow Appendix 13.1 Example calculation for sizing a tank heater Appendix 13.2 Example calculation for sizing a relief value Appendix 13.3 Control valve sizing 14. Environmental control and engineering in petroleum refining Introduction 14.1 Aqueous wastes Pollutants in aqueous waste streams Treating refinery aqueous wastes Oxidation of sulfides to thiosulfates Oxidation of mercaptans Oxidation of sulfide to sulfate Oil–water separation The API oil–water separator Storm surge ponds Other refinery water effluent treatment processes Reference 14.2 Emission to the atmosphere Features of the Clean Air Act The major effects of air pollution and the most common pollutants Monitoring atmospheric emission Reducing and controlling the atmospheric pollution in refinery products Controlling emission pollution from the refining processes 14.3 Noise pollution Noise problems and typical in-plant/community noise standards Fundamentals of acoustics and noise control Coping with noise in the design phase A typical community/in-plant noise program Appendix 14.1 Partial pressures of H2 S and NH3 over aqueous solutions of H2 S and NH3 Appendix 14.2 Example of the design of a sour water stripper with no reflux Appendix 14.3 Example design of an API separator

595 600 600 602 606 607

611 611 611 612 616 621 623 624 624 625 628 629 630 631 631 634 639 640 643 646 646 647 652 653 657 667 672

CONTENTS

15. Refinery safety measures and handling of hazardous materials Introduction 15.1 Handling of hazardous materials Anhydrous hydrofluoric acid The amines used in gas treating Caustic soda Furfural Hydrogen sulfide, H2 S Methyl ethyl ketone, MEK 15.2 Fire prevention and fire fighting The design specification Fire prevention with respect to equipment design and operation The fire main Fire foam and foam systems Class B fire foams Class A fire foams 16. Quality control of products in petroleum refining Introduction 16.1 Specifications for some common finished products The LPG products The gasolines The kerosenes Aviation turbine gasoline (ATG) and jet fuels The gas oils The fuel oil products The lube oils The asphalts Petroleum coke Sulfur 16.2 The description of some of the more common tests Specific gravity (D1298) ASTM distillations (D86, D156) Flash point test method (D93) Pour point and cloud point (D97) Kinematic viscosity (D446) Reid vapor pressure (D323) Weathering test for the volatility of LPG (D1837) Smoke point of kerosenes and aviation turbine fuels (D1322)

xi

675 675 675 675 681 683 687 690 693 696 696 697 701 701 703 704 705 705 706 706 706 708 708 710 712 713 713 714 715 715 715 716 718 718 721 723 724 726

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CONTENTS

Conradson carbon residue of petroleum products (D189) Bromine number of petroleum distillates (D1159) Sulfur content by lamp method (D1266) Octane number research and motor Conclusion 17.1. Economics—Refinery planning, economics, and handing new projects 17.1.1 Refinery operation planning Running plans Developing the running plan Background Basis for assessing requirements The results The refinery operating program 17.1.2 Process evaluation and economic analysis Study approach Building process configurations and the screening study Example calculation Investment costs for the new facilities Preparing more accurate cost data Summary data sheets Capital cost estimates Discounted cash flow and economic analysis Results Using linear programs to optimize process configurations Executing an approved project Developing the duty specification The project team Primary activities of the project team Developing the operating manual and plant commissioning Process guarantees and the guarantee test run Appendices 17.1.1 Refinery plan inadequacies report 17.1.2 Crude oil inventory schedule 17.1.3 Product inventory and schedule 17.1.4 Outline operating schedule 17.1.5 Detailed operating program and schedule 17.1.6 Typical weekly program

731 733 734 736 737

739 739 740 743 745 746 747 748 752 752 756 758 762 767 771 775 784 793 794 799 799 806 807 822 830 836 837 838 839 840 841

CONTENTS

17.1.7 Typical factors used in capacity factored estimates 17.1.8 Example of a process specification 17.1.9 Example of a process guarantee

xiii

842 842 844

17.2. Economic analysis Introduction Analysis at one point in time Cost of production Reporting parameters Appendices 17.2.1 Background for economic calculations 17.2.2 Progressions 17.2.3 Loan repayments (mortgage formula) 17.2.4 Average rate of interest

851 851 852 859 864

18. Process equipment in petroleum refining Introduction 18.1 Vessels Fractionators, trays, and packings Drums and drum design Specifying pressure vessels 18.2 Pumps Pump selection Selection characteristics Capacity range Evaluating pump performance Specifying a centrifugal pump The mechanical specification The process specification Compiling the pump calculation sheet Centrifugal pump seals Pump drivers and utilities Reacceleration requirement The principle of the turbine driver The performance of the steam turbine 18.3 Compressors Calculating horsepower of centrifugal compressors Centrifugal compressor surge control, performance curves and seals Specifying a centrifugal compressor Calculating reciprocating compressor horsepower Reciprocating compressor controls and inter-cooling

877 877 877 878 908 914 924 928 929 929 934 936 937 938 938 943 946 949 950 951 954 956

869 873 874 875

963 968 975 979

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CONTENTS

Specifying a reciprocating compressor Compressor drivers, utilities, and ancillary equipment 18.4 Heat exchangers General design considerations Choice of tube side versus shell side Estimating shell and tube surface area and pressure drop Air coolers and condensers Condensers Reboilers 18.5 Fired heaters Codes and standards Thermal rating Heater efficiency Burners Refractories, stacks, and stack emissions Specifying a fired heater Appendices 18.1 LMTD correction factors 18.2 Heat of combustion of fuel oils 18.3 Heat of combustion of fuel gasses 18.4 Values for coefficient C 18.5 Some common heat transfer coefficients 18.6 Standard exchanger tube sheet data

982 990 999 1002 1005 1006 1016 1025 1029 1040 1043 1045 1047 1051 1053 1058 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1070

19. A dictionary of terms and expressions

1071

Appendices A Examples of working flow sheets B General data B1 Friction loss for viscous liquids B2 Resistance of valves and fittings B3 Viscosity versus temperature B4 Specific gravity versus temperature B5 Relationship between specific gravity and API degrees B6 Flow pressure drop for gas streams B7 Relationship of chords, diameters, and areas C A selection of crude oil assays D Conversion factors E An example of an exercise using linear programming Linear programming aids decisions on refinery configurations

1285 1285 1290 1291 1300 1301 1302 1303 1305 1307 1308 1330 1332

Alphabetic index

1349

1333