British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, May 2005 32(1), 47–73
Harry Potter in the Gulf: Contemporary Islam and the Occult REMKE KRUK*
Introduction A short item in the New York Times of February 13, 2002, contained the following news item: United Arab Emirates: ‘Potter’ magic denied. ‘Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone’1 has been banned from school libraries because it contravenes Islamic values, the education ministry said, without offering details. J.K. Rowling’s best seller about a boy wizardtrainee was among 26 books banned, but copies remain on sale in bookshops and movies show the film version. The ministry censors school books to make sure they contain no sexual, religious or historical content offensive to Islam, Arabs or government policy. (Agence France-Presse)
To the average American or European reader the news item may not sound very different from the reactions to ‘Harry Potter’ that occasionally are heard from the sterner brand of Christian believers. The ground in both cases is roughly the same: sorcery is forbidden in Islam as well as in Christianity. Yet the actual social context in relation to sorcery in which the Arabic version of ‘Harry Potter’ has to make its way differs considerably from that of the English original.2 It is not my intention here to analyse the reception of ‘Harry Potter’ in various Islamic countries, however interesting that would be. Maybe the future will offer opportunities to carry out the extensive survey needed to answer questions to this effect. The observations following here just intend to bring into focus one specific aspect of the current Islamic approach to magic and sorcery, and to give an idea of the cultural context into which the Arabic translation of ‘Harry Potter’ is launched. Sorcery is an attempt to control the forces of nature, either for good or evil purposes.3 As such, it is forbidden according to orthodox Islam as well as Christianity, unless it is done by God’s explicit permission, as in the case of miracles performed by people specially favoured by Him. In spite of this, magic and sorcery have been practised on a wide scale in Christian as well as in Islamic culture. This is not a thing of the past either, even in Christianity. The views of the Church on these matters have not basically changed: sorcery exists, and it is the work of the Devil and his servants, the witches and sorcerers. God has given the *University of Leiden, The Netherlands. E-mail:
[email protected] 1 This is the American title of Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. 2 For brief introductions to the subject of magic and mantics in Islam I may refer the reader to the publications of Fahd and Lemay included among the references. 3 Rossell H. Robbins, Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. (New York: Crown Publishers, 1959), p. 7. This is the meaning of sihr which is relevant in the context of this article. I do not enter here upon a wider discussion of the various meanings of sihr in Arabic. ISSN 1353-0194 print/ISSN 1469-3542 online/05/010047–27 q 2005 British Society for Middle Eastern Studies DOI: 10.1080/13530190500081626
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Devil the power to possess human beings and use them for his evil purposes. This belief, to quote Sebald,4 is not found ‘only among semiliterate peasants, but is often present among the erudite scholars who indulge in myopic deductions from archaic Church premises’. This, however, is not something most Christians bother about much these days. As Sebald, on the same page, also remarks: ‘If orthodox Christians fail to act on still valid Church dogma, it is mainly because they lack large social support, not because they lack belief in the evils of witchcraft. It is conceivable that they would be willing to take punitive action if they had sufficient power.’ In several Islamic countries, the situation is quite different. There, religious scholars (myopic or not) often have considerable power. Sorcery is forbidden by law in such countries as Saudi-Arabia and Nigeria, and the authorities may take action against people accused of sorcery. This may even lead to execution on the ground of apostasy. And although nothing on the scale of an actual witchhunt has taken place,5 this puts literature featuring a sorcerer-hero such as Harry Potter into a quite intriguing perspective. No one at all familiar with Islamic societies will doubt that magic and sorcery were, and are, a vital element of everyday life and practice. In spite of the negative attitude of official Islam, magic practices have over the centuries become intricately interwoven with religious elements and practices, and the line of demarcation between what is forbidden and what is allowed is so blurred that neither the practitioner nor the client often is aware of transgressing the boundaries of orthodoxy. Abel (1957) has brilliantly analysed how this fusion of magic and religion became well-established from the thirteenth century onwards, with the works circulating under the name of al-Buni6 as its most conspicuous exponent. Formerly, European and American scholars were obliged to travel to Islamic countries to observe these phenomena. All that has changed now. The situation in the Netherlands may be taken as an example: with the labour migrants, these problems and practices have arrived on our doorstep. Traditional Islamic healers have a large cliente`le in cities such as Rotterdam and The Hague; sorcery is often an issue in their patients afflictions; and Arabists/Islamologists may find themselves consulted about these matters. A personal experience may illustrate this. Some time ago an anxious office manager rang me up. They had discovered in their office a paper with Arabic formulas and strange figures, with the names of staff members, in European writing, written in a square in the middle. They connected this with a Moroccan cleaner who was fired some time ago. At my request, they sent me a copy of the paper. I could not find the model of this particular charm in the sorcery books that I had at my disposal, and the formulas used did not make it immediately clear 4
Hans Sebald, Witchcraft: The Heritage of a Heresy. (New York & Oxford: Elsevier, 1978), p. 212. My colleague Prof. Le´on Buskens remarked to me on this subject that it would be very interesting to devote a study to the question why the condemnation of sorcery led to such different results in Christianity, with its ferocious witchhunts, and in Islam, where in spite of the occasional execution or banishment (see, for instance, Edward William Lane, The Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. (London: J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd; New York: E. P. Dutton and Co Inc, 1954), p. 274) the approach was far more relaxed. 6 M. El-Gawhary, Die Gottesnamen im magischen Gebrauch in den al-Buni zugeschrieben Werken. (Diss. Bonn, 1968), cited in the introduction of Dorothee Anna Maria Pielow, Die Quellen der Weisheit. Die arabische Magie im Spiegel des Usul al-H‘ikma von Ahmad Ibn ‘Ali (sic) al-Buni. (Hildesheim etc.: Georg Olms Verlag, 1995), pointed out that the name of Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili, who lived later than al-Buni, is repeatedly mentioned in alBuni’s Shams al-ma ‘arif (Beirut: Al-maktaba al-thagafiyya, n.d.). This might indicate that at least this work was compiled posthumously. 5
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whether the intentions were harmful or beneficiary. One of my colleagues had the idea of showing it to the Moroccan students in class in order to find out more about it. This, however, caused hysterical reactions in some of the Moroccan girls. So I took the paper with me to Morocco on my next visit, where I consulted one of the charm-writers on the Jma al-Fna, the famous central square of Marrakech. The harmful nature of the charm was recognised forth with, and I was advised to have a counter-charm written. With the influx of Muslims into the Netherlands, the current Islamic discourse on these topics, as reflected in books and pamphlets, has also become visible. Islamic bookshops have appeared, sometimes connected to mosques, which sell these books. Even close to home we can nowadays follow the debates that are so vividly depicted by the booklets and pamphlets available in bookshops and pavement exhibitions throughout North Africa and the Middle East. Sermons and pious admonitions against a wide variety of evils form the bulk of such collections.7 Magic and sorcery are an important theme in this kind of literature. The amount of literature on the topic is staggering, and it is difficult to see this other than as a reaction to the widespread existence of the practices condemned. This impression is supported by the fact that, next to the books full of warnings and condemnations, one finds in North African and Middle Eastern bookstalls the handbooks for practitioners of the occult. These include the traditional handbooks as well as modern compilations based on them, such as the innumerable books written by ‘Abd al-Fattah al-Sayyid al-Tukhi. My interest in this type of literature was first raised by a conversation with a Yemeni boy whom I met in a mountain village not far from San‘a during a visit to Yemen in 1995. After telling me about his school and the things he had to learn there, the boy tentatively asked me whether I knew anything about sorcery and magic? For that was what interested him most. He had got hold of a copy of al-Buni’s Shams al-ma‘arif and was fascinated by it, although its contents frequently baffled him. Did we also have books on sorcery in Europe? His friend, about the same age, thought that there must be some fi Ruma fi-l-kanisa, in Rome in the church. As a mainstream Arabist, I had not until then paid much attention to these matters. Sihr, magic or sorcery, was not an aspect of Islamic culture that used to get much attention in academic curricula, although various interesting studies of the subject have appeared.8 It is, in fact, a situation which merits some attention. I know of no general introduction to Islam that pays significant attention to it, even though the existence of sorcery and jinn, spirits, is a basic tenet of Islam and still plays an important role in Islamic life. Is there an agenda here? Do authors consider it an aspect of Islam that does not contribute to the image of Islam as a viable religion for the modern world? The Yemeni boy brought to mind the little Taha Husayn of Al-Ayyam (first published in 1929) and his dabbling in sorcery, described in Chapter 16 of 7 An exhibition of such texts was recently held at the Leiden University Library. For the catalogue, see bibliography, under Arnoud Vrolijk et al. 8 As the bibliography of this article shows, these studies are mostly in French and German, Edward Westermarck’s Ritual and Belief in Morocco (London: MacMillan and Co., 1926) being one of the few exceptions. Michael W. Dols included two chapters on magic and healing in his Majnun: the Madman in Medieval Islamic Society. Edited by Diana E. Immisch. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), but they are not very systematic. Dols makes ample use of the works of Doutte´ and Westermarck.
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volume I. I was still further reminded of this chapter when I surveyed the books for sale at the pavement book-shop near San‘a’s main taxi stand, and saw how similar its range was to the books that constituted the stock-in-trade of the travelling bookseller described by Taha Husayn. In the aforementioned chapter, Taha Husayn gives us an insightful and enlightening picture of the popular Egyptian attitude towards the occult in the early 20th century, and – implicitly – also of his own attitude to these matters as a modern rationalist intellectual. With great perspicacity, Taha Husayn analyses the mental and intellectual makeup of the people in an average Egyptian country village around the turn of the century, where the intellectual outlook of the villagers was predominantly defined in terms of the books that were provided by the booksellers who roamed from village to village in rural Egypt, stocking a selection of literature that, as Taha Husayn remarks, offered ‘perhaps the most truthful picture of what people in rural areas believed in those days’. This selection consisted of pious tracts, Sufi poems, popular stories, books on sorcery and magic, ‘and finally, among all that, there was the Qur’an’. Prominent among the books on magic were the Shams al-ma‘arif al-kubra of al-Buni (d. 622/1225) and another book ‘of which I do not know the name, but which was known as the Diyarbi book’.9 The books for sale at the Yemeni bookstall were not all that different in range of contents from what Taha Husayn describes, and in fact one of the first books I picked up was the ‘Diyarbi book’ reportedly used by Taha and his friend. Since then I have collected any books on the subject that I came across in similar bookshops in various countries. Yemen, of course, being still very traditional, in the sense of continuing many pre-modern practices, might be considered exceptional. But I found that the selection of books did not differ much from that in street stalls and bookshops in Marrakesh or Cairo. Magic and sorcery are extremely well represented in all these shops, both in the form of practical handbooks and in the form of religious pamphlets condemning various practices. The latter are a recent trend. They are part of the orthodox revival of the last fifteen years. In the course of my research, I joined forces with a German colleague, Dr. Sabine Dorpmueller, and we started compiling an extensive catalogue raisonne´e of the books and pamphlets dealing with magic and sorcery that we had collected (we eventually intend to publish this bibliography). A considerable number of the books collected fall into the category of books and booklets written by orthodox religious scholars focusing exclusively on countering the evils brought about by magic practices, practices which they categorically condemn. Their counter measures are strictly based on what is (in their interpretation) explicitly permitted by Qur’an and hadith: reciting the Qur’an and the use of water 9 ‘Diyarbi’ is the usual vocalisation if this name. It is also sometimes written as ‘Diyarbi’, see for instance Taha Husayn Al-Ayyam (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, n.d.; originally published 1929) vol. I, p. 97. C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, Suppl. II p. 445, gives the name of the author as ‘al-Daira-bi’: Ahmad b. ‘Uthman al-Dairabi al-Shafi‘i al-Azhari, d. 1151/1738. For a survey of the contents of his Mujarrabat (or Fath almalik al-majid), see Pielow, Quellen, p. 61 ff. – The other books that formed the stock-in-trade of the travelling bookseller were, according to Taha Husayn (Al-Ayyam I, p. 97): Manaqib al-salihin; ‘stories about ghazawat and futuh’, the legendary early Islamic raids and conquests, often anonymous, but some of them ascribed to pseudo-alBaladhuri; ‘the story of the cat and the mouse’; ‘the discussion of the wick and the oil stove’; Shams al-Ma‘arif alkabir, Al-Buni’s well-known book on magic and sorcery; various pious recitations; stories connected to the Prophet’s birthday celebration; volumes with Sufi poetry; books with pious adhortations; other books with lectures and miraculous stories; various popular siyar: the Sira Hilaliya; Sirat ‘Antar; Sirat al-Zahir Baybars; Sirat Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan.
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over which the Qur’an has been recited or in which Qur’anic texts have been dissolved. Sometimes salt, rose essence, oil of black caraway, or the leaves of the lote tree (sidr or nabq, Zizyphus lotus or spina christi,10 may be added to the water. Fumigation with sandalwood is sometimes recommended. Central, however, stands treatment with texts from the Qur’an. This, however, does not mean that the authors always agree on all aspects and details of the cases involved, for even to them the lines of demarcation are not always clear. This confusion is exactly why magic and sorcery present such an obvious battle ground for the advocates of a purer Islam. The authors often explicitly state that it is their aim to turn people away from illicit practices in warding off evil, and to explain clearly which practices are allowed and which not. Usually, this comes down to ‘Qur’anic treatment’, practices exclusively based on reciting Qur’anic texts, and defining exactly what this implies. ‘Qur’anic treatment’ has nowadays become highly fashionable even among the e´lite, as can be seen for instance in Cairo, where even modern doctors have started to include it in their therapy, recognising its psychological benefits for many of their patients. This is not surprising: many elements of the ‘Qur’anic treatment’ have an obvious psychotherapeutic value. The patient’s confidence in the divine word is of course a major factor, but also to be noted are the emphasis laid on talking about the patient’s troubles, and the repetition of simple rituals within a well-defined time schedule over a certain period of time, to be prolonged if no progress is observed. This is an excellent way to help the patient recover his hold on time and reality, a first step on the way to mental and physical health. These matters, however, are more involved than they may seem to the outsider. This has to do with the fact that the holy names of God and texts from the Qur’an play a major part in the type of magic and sorcery that is traditionally practised. This forms indeed the main subject of the works of al-Buni and their later offshoots, such as the ‘Diyarbi book’ mentioned above. A substantial part of these works is devoted to the khawas: s; : hidden properties, of various Qur’an chapters and verses and of God’s holy names, and describe how they can be put to use with the help of invocations. It is sometimes suggested that the aims for which such help is sought are never damaging to other people, but this is not quite true: all these books contain instructions not only about how to banish, but also about how to destroy and kill enemies and how to drive people apart (tafriq), the latter often in connection with love sorcery.11 To this effect, spirits (either angels or jinn; al-Buni includes both) are invoked, after careful preparation involving cleanliness and observance of religious practice.12 These spirits are connected to the Qur’anic texts or holy names used for these specific occasions, and this shows how difficult it is for strictly orthodox, Wahhabi-orientated scholars to convince people that these practices are, in fact, unlawful. In the following, I will give an impression of the approach of a representative, and prominent, voice in the chorus of anti-sorcery pamphlet writers, namely that of the Saudi shaykh Wahid ‘Abd al-Salam (or Ibn al-Salam) Bali. I will do so by giving a short survey of his best known book, al-Sarim al-Battar. A good reason to focus on this particular book among the many of its kind is that Bali is one of the authors who present their subject matter in an orderly and systematic fashion. A further argument in its favour is that it includes many case histories and 10
See Remke Kruk, ‘sidr’ Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, New edition). For translations of relevant passages from al-Buni’s Usul, see Pielow, Quellen, pp. 125–9; for an example of ‘destroying the wrongdoer’, see Ibn al-Hajj – al-Maghribi al-Tilimsani, Shumus al-anwar, 2 parts in one volume (Beirut: Dar al-Jil, n.d.) II, p. 162. 12 Pielow, Quellen, pp. 121 –5. 11
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references to the author’s own practice. Finally, there is the fact that it has become very widely available. A new and glossier, and also somewhat revised, edition appears almost every year. I have found it, often in large piles, in bookshops from Morocco to San‘a, and also in Jerusalem. My students, who had read it with me in class, discovered it in a mosque bookstall in Rotterdam. Bali’s treatise presents the orthodox Islamic view on magic, sorcery, possession, and Islamic healing from the strictest of angles, namely the Wahhabi point of view. So it gives information about the actual practices as well as about the religious sensitivities involved in these practices and in the methods of counteracting them. My colleague Dr. Arnoud Vrolijk recently discovered a French translation of the book in Paris,13 which he very helpfully presented to me. This translation leaves out source references, often abbreviates the text, and contains a number of mistakes in the choice of French equivalents for Arabic words, which sometimes makes the text incomprehensible. I was also informed recently by Gerard van de Bruinhorst, Ph.D. research fellow at ISIM (Leiden), that a Swahili translation is in preparation.14 Sihr: Concept and Terminology : It is not the aim of this article to discuss the concept of sihr : in Islam, but to show which practices classified as sihr are condemned by contemporary ultra-orthodox Muslim : scholars. For a survey of the discussion about sihr in Islamic history, and about the various uses and implications of the term, including metaphorical ones, the reader may be referred to Toufic Fahd’s article ‘sihr’ in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition. : The scholarly definition of magic traditionally distinguishes natural, or sympathetic, magic from demoniac magic. Natural magic makes use of the hidden properties (in Arabic: khawas: s) : of natural substances, while demoniac magic involves the help of spirits, usually malevolent spirits (demons). Sorcery is most often used for the practice involving such malevolent spirits, but, may also be used for good purposes. As sihr : in Arabic has a wide range of meanings, it is not always easy to find the right term in English. Fahd, in the article mentioned above, tries to stick to ‘magic’ as the translation of sihr, but also occasionally uses ‘sorcery’ and ‘witchcraft’. After ample : deliberation, I decided to use ‘magic’ and ‘sorcery’ (or both together, for idiomatic reasons) as the translation of sihr in the present context. Sometimes I also use : ‘bewitchment’, but I have avoided the use of ‘witchcraft’, which evokes the wrong associations.15 Sihr : referring to material objects is in this article translated as ‘charm’, while mashur is rendered either as ‘bewitched’ or as ‘affected by sorcery’. Another point is : the translation of sar‘ and masru‘. I have usually translated these as ‘possession’ and ‘possessed’; the latter also sometimes as ‘showing signs of possession’. I have 13
For the title, see the list of references at the end of this article. An English translation of the full text can be consulted via my home page. www.tcimo.leidenuniv.nl/ index.php3?m ¼ 2l&c ¼ 30 15 An extensive discussion of the theories and terminology concerning these phenomena lies outside the range of the present article. We may just refer here, firstly, to Robbins Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology, p. 7, that witchcraft is a late medieval Christian heresy, while sorcery is universal: sorcery is an attempt to control natural forces, either for good or evil purposes, and, secondly, to what Edward Evans-Pritchard says in his Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937), p. 21: ‘Azande believe that some people are witches and can injure them in virtue of an inherent quality. A witch performs no rite, utters no spell, and possesses no medicine. An act of witchcraft is a psychic act.’ Sorcerers, on the other hand, make use of evil medicines, and that is what the sahir treated in Bali’s book does. The effect of the evil eye more properly comes under the definition of witchcraft, but is usually treated separately, also by Bali. 14
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avoided translations connecting these terms with epilepsy, because this creates the wrong associations. Sar‘ means that a person shows epileptic symptoms as the result of being possessed by a jinn. About the Author ‘Abd al-Salam Wahid Bali is a practising Saudi shaykh with a traditional Islamic scholarly training along Wahhabi lines. In his second book, al-Sarim al-Battar fi tasaddi li-l-sahara al-ashrar, the one I will discuss here, he occasionally speaks about events from his schooldays, and he also mentions various places in Saudi Arabia. He also refers to cases from his own practice. His first book (also widely available) dealt with jinn and the ways to protect oneself against the harm they can inflict: Wiqayat al-insan min al-jinn wa-l-shaytan. This book was authorised for publishing by Saudi religious authorities in 1409/1988. Just as many of these books, al-Wiqaya is mostly a collection of material gathered from the Qur’an, the hadith and their commentaries. References to modern works are rare. One of the few is a passage in which he disagrees about quoting a certain hadith with an author from the same circle as his own, Dr. al-Sayyid al-Jumayli, author of al-Sihr watahdir al-arwah. The first edition of Al-Sarim that came into my hands was the second, published in Jedda in 1412/1993. As I said earlier, the book has since been reprinted almost yearly, each time glossier and more fancy than the previous. The most recent edition is of 2002. Bali has over the past ten years also produced a steady output of other pious tracts on subjects dear to the orthodox Muslim’s heart. The back cover of the tenth edition (1998) mentions sixteen new titles, all about correct Islamic practice and belief regarding various topics: protecting the house against jinn; paradise and hell; how to give one’s children a pious upbringing; various systems of banking and their respective merits. His rising prestige is also demonstrated by the fact that other pamphlet writers ask him to write prefaces to their treatises, as we see for instance in ‘Abd Allah Nawwara, Sar‘ al-jann li-bani al-insan, Cairo 1418/1997. While Bali’s first book was devoted exclusively to the dangers of jinn and how to protect oneself against them, the second (al-Sarim al-Battar fi al-tasaddi li-l-sahara alashrar) continues with a connected topic: how to deal with sorcery and its evil effects. Jinn are an important element of this, and there are frequent references to the first book. But the second book is far more practical than the first, and often describes actual practice. I will give here a survey of the contents, including translations of a number of passages. The edition I use is that of 1991. For the sake of comparison, I also give the corresponding page numbers of the 1997 edition, which differs on some points. Contents Chapters 1 – 2. Qur’an and Hadith16 As in most books of this kind, the first chapters present, in the form of citations, relevant passages from Qur’an and hadith on the topic. In this case, these are Qur’an and hadith passages where the reality of sorcery is established, as well as statements from hadith implying that Islam forbids it. Needless to say, only well-established Sunni hadith-compilations are used. Opinions of religious scholars on sihr : and related issues are occasionally given, such as for instance those of al-Albani, a modern religious author, whose Takhrij al-halal wa-l-haram is quoted. An example are his 16
Bali, al-Sarim al-battar fitasaddi li-l-sahara al-ashrar (Jedda: Maktabat al-sahaba, 1991), pp.6–26.
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comments on the hadith: ‘Neither the wine addict, nor he who believes in sorcery, nor he who cuts off blood ties will enter paradise.’ ‘He who believes in sorcery’ is a somewhat puzzling statement given the fact that the existence of sorcery is confirmed by the Qur’an, and it is explained by al-Albani as ‘he who has the conviction that sorcery has effect of its own accord, and not because of God’s decision and will.’ This is Bali’s overall approach, as is to be expected of a rigidly orthodox Sunni Muslim. Even purposeful harm can only take effect with God’s permission. Chapter 3. Classifications of Sorcery17 Chapter 3 presents us with some traditional classifications of sorcery. The authors referred to here are Fakhr al-Din al-Razi18 and al-Raghib al-Isfahani, without specification of the works concerned. This chapter is not without importance in view of the severe implications of the accusation of sorcery. Bali indicates that many of the things which these authors include under sorcery cannot really be regarded as sorcery proper, which, in Bali’s view, always implies the involvement of supernatural powers other than God. Accordingly, things such as make-believe, sorcery in a metaphorical sense, and sleight-of-hand do not really come under sorcery. Noteworthy is that Bali silently passes over the fact that al-Razi, rather remarkably, also includes under sorcery the 19 use (isti‘ana, seeking help) of the hidden properties (khawas: s) of foodstuffs, : medicines and unguents. These properties ‘cannot be denied: the effect of the magnet is clearly visible’ (al-Razi). The magnet, with its obvious but unexplained powers, is the example traditionally cited in connection with the mysterious powers of various substances. The belief in such powers is one of the foundations of traditional medicine, still widely practised, and never subject to religious censorship. Bali also does not censor it. His concept of sihr : is much narrower than al-Razi’s, and exclusively focussed on demonic, not on sympathetic magic.20 Bali’s approach is implicitly based on the conviction that all types of sihr : involve the help of malicious jinn. This just as implicitly shows that these practices are forbidden from an Islamic point of view. The practitioner appeals to powers other than God: this is kufr and shirk, the terms constantly used by Bali. Apparently he does not want to complicate matters by entering into a discussion of the khawas: s, : a term which not only refers to the mysterious hidden properties of natural substances, but also of God’s holy names and of various Qur’anic texts. The belief in the powerful effect of the latter is very much a part of Islamic daily practice, and Bali apparently is not eager to attack it. In other books of the same type, however, such as that of al-Mahmud (2001) mentioned below, attempts are made to classify the belief in the khawas: s: of these religious texts also as demonic, and accordingly unacceptable from an Islamic point of view. 17
ibid, pp. 32– 36. Author of al-Sirr al-maktum fi mukhatabat al-nujum (M. Ullmann) Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaften im Islam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1972), pp. 388– 90), a book on astral magic, which is still used, especially in the abbreviated version of al-Fullani, Al-Durr al-manzum wa-khulasat al-sirr al-maktum, printed Cairo 1350/1931. 19 Khawas: s: literally means ‘special properties’, and is sometimes used simply in that sense. In the context of natural philosophy, however, it indicates the virtutes, the hidden or sympathetic properties of natural substances. For a discussion of the concept, see M. Ullmann, ‘Khawass’, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition. It may be noted here that al-Razi does not include under his definition of Khawas: s: the hidden properties of God’s holy names or specificic Qur’anic verses, that occupy such a prominent place in the literature from al-Buni onwards. 20 On the blurred boundaries between these types of magic, however, see for instance Ednond Doutte´, Magie et religion dans l’Afrique du Nord (Paris: J. Maisonneuve, 1994), pp. 307–9. 18
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Chapter 4. How to Invoke a jinn?21 Part of Bali’s policy is to show people how utterly reprehensible the methods of sorcerers are. In line with this, the chapter briefly describes the various ways used by sorcerers to bring jinn under their command. This, by the way, is unusual in this type of literature. Bali’s description aims at bringing out the godless nature of these practices, and accordingly his description emphasises methods involving such disgusting practices as the use of impure substances (menstrual blood), reversal (writing Qur’anic texts in reverse), and blasphemous acts such as putting Qur’anic texts on one’s feet and then entering the toilet.22 All this, by the way, runs entirely counter to what authorities such as al-Buni have to say regarding the preparation for invoking jinn. As was already mentioned earlier, their emphasis is on purification, which includes ritual cleanliness, dhikr, and fasting.23 The subject of invoking jinn is introduced by Bali as follows:24 An agreement between the sorcerer and the Devil usually is established by the sorcerer’s secret or open performance of certain idolatrous (shirkiyya) deeds, or acts of evident unbelief (kufr) and by the fact that the demon places himself at his command or puts someone else at the sorcerer’s service. For the agreement usually is concluded between the sorcerer and a demon who is the leader of one of the tribes of jinn and demons. This leader commands some foolish member of the tribe to serve the sorcerer and to obey him in carrying out his commands. These may contain orders to provide him with information about things that have happened, to cause a rift between two people, to bring about love between them, to ‘block’ a man from having sex with his wife, or some other of the acts that we will explain in detail, if God, exalted is He, wills. Then the sorcerer orders this jinn to do the evil deeds that he wants, and if the jinn disobeys him, the sorcerer gets in touch with the leader of the tribe by way of spells extolling the leader’s greatness and asks him, instead of God, exalted is He, for help. Then the leader punishes the jinn and orders him to obey the sorcerer, or he puts another at the service of this idolatrous sorcerer.
Eight different methods of invoking the assistance of jinn may be used to establish a connection with jinn. I quote the crucial passages regarding each method in full in order to demonstrate Bali’s emphasis on certain elements. 1. First method: Reciting spells (iqsa¯m)25 The sorcerer enters a dark room and lights a fire.26 Then he puts some the kind of incense on it that is in accordance with the goal to which he aspires. If he wants to sow discord between two people or wants to cause enmity, dislike etc., he puts incense with a nasty smell on the fire. If he wants to bring about love or wants to dissolve a spell of ‘being tied’ (rabt) : – a man being ‘blocked’ from having sex with his wife – or to undo sorcery, he puts 21
Bali, al-Sarim, pp. 32–41. Cf. Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, as analysed in A. Abel ‘La place des sciences occultes dans la de´cadence’, in Classicisme et de´clin culturel dans l’histoire de l’Islam, Actes du Symposium international d’histoire de la civilisation musulmane, Bordeaux 1956. (Paris: Besson et Chantemerle, 1957), pp. 296–7; there, too, sinful acts are indicated as preparation for a successful invocation. 23 See also Doutte´, Magie, p. 67. 24 Bali, al-Sarim pp. 32. 25 ibid., p. 34. 26 Lane, Manners, p. 273. 22
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on nice-smelling incense. Then the sorcerer starts to recite his idolatrous spell. This consists of certains charms which imply invoking jinn by way of their sayyid and addressing a question to them by way of their leader. It contains various other kinds of idolatry, such as exalting the headmen of the jinn, asking them for help, and other things. A condition is that the sorcerer – God’s curse upon him – is in ritually impure condition, either by being in a state of major ritual impurity ( junub) or by wearing a dirty garment, etc. When he has finished reciting his idolatrous spell, a ghost appears before him in the form of a dog, a snake or something else, and the sorcerer orders him to do what he wants.
2. Second method: Sacrificing an animal27 The animal to be slaughtered must preferably be black. He (i.e. the sorcerer, tr.) slaughters it without pronouncing God’s name over it. He may or may not smear the blood on the person to be afflicted. Then he throws it away in a ruin, a well or a deserted spot, places usually inhabited by jinn, without pronouncing God’s name as he throws it away. Then he returns home, utters an idolatrous spell, and orders the jinn to do what he wants him to do.
3. Third method: Black (suflı¯, low) magic28 The sorcerer – God’s continuing curses upon him – puts the Qur’an on his feet by way of shoes and steps into the lavatory on it. Then he starts reciting idolatrous magic formulas in the toilet. Then he leaves it, sits down in a room and orders the jinn to do what he wants. You will find that the jinn hasten to obey him and to carry out his orders. The only reason for that is that he has demonstrated unbelief in God, the Most Great, and has become a brother of the demons. He has come up ‘with obvious depravity’ (Qur’an 4: 119), and the curse of God, the Lord of the worlds, is upon him.
The ‘low’ sorcerer must be involved in a number of major sins – apart from those that we have mentioned – , such as incestuous relationships, homosexuality, fornication with a foreign woman, or abusing religion; all this in order to please the demons. 4. Fourth method: Filth29 In this method, the accursed sorcerer writes a chapter from the Qur’an with menstrual blood, or some other unclean substance. Then he pronounces the idolatrous magic formulas. Then the jinn appears and he orders him to do what he wants.
5. Fifth method: Reversal30 In this method the sorcerer – God’s curse upon him – writes a su¯ra from the Qur’an with separate letters and in reverse, that is to say back to front, and then pronounces his idolatrous magic formula. The jinn appears and he orders him to do what he wants.
6. Sixth method: Studying the stars (tanjı¯m)31 This method is also called star-gazing ðrasdÞ; because the sorcerer watches the rising of a : particular star and then starts to address it with magic chants. Then he recites another magic formula that contains elements of idolatry and unbelief that God alone knows. Then he makes certain movements which he pretends to bring down the spiritual powers of that star, but which really are a kind of worship of this star, not of God. Even though the astrologer may not know 27
Bali, al-Sarim, pp. 35. ibid, p. 36. Ibid, p. 36. 30 Ibid, p. 37. 31 Ibid. 28 29
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this, it is an act of worship and glorification of something other than God. Then the demons start to carry out the commands of that accursed sorcerer, and the sorcerer thinks that it is the star that has helped him. The calumniated star, however, does not know anything of this.32
7. Seventh method: The handpalm33 In this method, the sorcerer brings a young boy who has not yet reached puberty. He must not have performed the lesser ablution (wudu¯’). The sorcerer takes the left hand of the boy and draws a square in it. Around this square he writes certain magic formulas, which of course contain idolatry. He writes those magic formulas around the all four sides of the square, and puts some oil and a blue flower, or oil and blue ink, in the middle of the square that is in the palm of the boy. Then he writes some more magic formulas with loose letters on an oblong piece of paper. Then this piece of paper is put as a sun-shade on the boy’s face, and on top of it he puts a cap to keep it in place. Then he covers the whole boy with a heavy cloak. The boy looks into his handpalm but of course sees nothing because of the darkness. Then the accursed sorcerer starts to recite a very strong godless spell, and lo, the child feels as if the atmosphere becomes light and as if he can see in his hand certain moving images. The sorcerer asks him: ‘What do you see?’ ‘A man,’ answers the boy. The sorcerer then says: ‘Tell him that the invoker tells him such-and such.’ And the image will move according to command.34
8. Eighth method: The body trace (atha¯r)35 According to this method, the sorcerer asks the sick person for something that carries a trace of his person, such as a handkerchief, a turban, a shirt, or anything that carries the smell of the sweat of the sick person. Then he makes a knot at the end of the handkerchief and measures a length of four fingers. Then he takes a firm hold of the handkerchief and recites the su¯ra Al-Taka¯thur over it, or any other short su¯ra. He does this aloud, and then whispers an idolatrous magic formula, calls out to the jinn and says: ‘If jinn are the cause of what ails the sick person, shorten the piece; if its is the evil eye, lengthen it; if it is medical, leave it as it is.’ Then he measures the piece of cloth again. If he finds it to be longer than four fingers, he says: ‘You are afflicted by the evil eye.’ If he finds that it is shorter, he says: ‘You are afflicted by jinn.’ If he finds that it still is four fingers long, he says: ‘Nothing is the matter with you; go to a doctor.’36
Of course Bali points out the reprehensible aspects of each method in turn, emphasising the idolatrous aspects, and then lists the things to watch out for if one wants to know the bona fide Islamic healer from the sorcerer:37 If one of the following signs is found in a healer, then he is without the slightest doubt a sorcerer. These signs are: 1. He asks the sick person for his name and the name of his mother; 2. He asks for something that carries a trace of the sick person (a piece of clothing; a cap; a handkerchief; a vest);
32
What is described here is astral magic, which makes use of the spiritual powers of the stars. This method goes back to the star cult of the Harranians. Bali, al-Sarim, p. 38. 34 This practice belongs under mantics rather than under sorcery. The known practice, darbal mandal; is : described for instance by Lane, Manners, pp. 274–82 and Doutte´, Magie, pp. 389. It was called phialomanteia in antiquity, and also attested in early Christianity. See Georg Luck: ‘Witches and Sorcerers in Classical Literature’, in: Bengt Ankarloo et al. Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome (Philadelphia: Un. of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), p. 155. 35 Bali, al-Sarim p. 39. 36 Curiously, Bali does not describe here the very widespread practice of bewitching someone with the help of some of his body substance (for a practical example, see Nayra Atiya Khul-Khaal; Five Egyptian women tell their stories. (Cairo: American University of Cairo Press, 1987), p. 133, but again describes a mantic procedure. 37 Bali, al-Sarim p. 39. 33
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3. Sometimes he asks for an animal with specific characteristics in order to sacrifice it without mentioning the name of God, and sometimes he smears the blood on the places where the sick person feels pain or he throws it away in a deserted place; 4. Writing of magic formulas; 5. Reciting of spells and incomprehensible magic formulas; 6. Giving the sick person an amulet (hija¯b) that contains squares with letters or numbers in it; 7. He orders the sick person to withdraw for a certain time from other people into a room where the sun cannot enter. The common people call this: al-hijba. 8. Sometimes he asks the sick person not to touch water for a certain period, usually forty days. This indicates that the jinn who serves him is a Christian. 9. He gives the sick person things to bury in the earth. 10. He gives him pieces of paper to burn or to fumigate with. 11. He mumbles incomprehensible words. 12. Sometimes the sorcerer tells the sick person his (sc. the sick person’s, tr.) name, as well as where he comes from and the complaint that made him come to the sorcerer (i.e. without having been told these before, tr.). 13. He writes separate letters for the sick person on a piece of paper (hija¯b) or on a plate of white crockery, and tells him to dissolve the writing and drink it.
Chapter 5. Legal Views on the Sorcerer in Islamic Law38 In chapter 5, the legal angles are discussed, such as: must sorcerers be killed? As to the Muslim sorcerer, the answer given by most of the authorities quoted by Bali is affirmative. By appealling to powers other than God, the sorcerer has, after all, shown evidence of kufr, unbelief. Accordingly, the hadd punishment for apostasy : is indicated. A point of discussion is whether the nature of the formulas used, or repentance, must be taken into account. Quoted is, among others, al-Qurtubi: ‘Maˆlik went as far as to say that when a Muslim did personally practise sorcery with words that were godless, he ought to be killed and no repentance was possible. His repentance could not be accepted, because it was a matter that he kept in his heart, just as in the case of the dualist (zindı¯q) and the adulterer.’ A minority of the religious authorities, ash-Shafi‘i among them, considers the death penalty indicated only if the sorcerer confesses to having brought about someone’s death by sorcery. This is also the juridical ground on which nonMuslim sorcerers may be killed. Another legal question is: may sorcery be used to counteract sorcery? No, say many scholars, but some counter-spells that are well-attested in the hadith may according to most scholars be used in spite of their – to us – obviously pagan nature (see below, Chapter 7). Chapter 6. How to Undo Sorcery39 Chapters 6 and 7 deal with the ways to undo the effect of sorcery, and how to cure the various afflictions caused by it. These chapters take up the larger part of the book. Chapter 6 describes nine afflictions caused by sorcery. These represent the 38 39
Ibid pp. 41 –50. Ibid pp. 51 –100.
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standard set of afflictions found in most booklets of this kind, with only slight variations. The first, already mentioned in the Qur’an (Su¯ra 2: 102) and thus clearly of ancient provenance, is tafrı¯q, ‘creating discord, causing a rift’. It may be used to drive apart any two persons that are close, be they husband and wife, family members, or business partners. Most common, however, is the rift caused between husband and wife, as is also implicitly clear from Bali’s description.40 In order to give a good idea of the way these matters are dealt with, both in diagnosing and in treatment, there follows here a full translation of this item (including syntactical non sequiturs), with the exception of the cited Qur’anic passages, which may easily be looked up. After quoting the relevant Qur’an passage and some hadith, Bali tells us which kind of close ties may be damaged by tafriq. He then continues with the symptoms. See Appendix for a translation of this and the following section. The second type of affliction dealt with is tiwa¯la, love sorcery. Its symptoms, as described here, are that a man is totally obsessed by his wife and follows her blindly. It occurs when a woman, out of fear of losing her husband’s attention, goes to a sorcerer to have a spell cast on him. She has to take along a garment worn by her husband, carrying a ‘trace’. The sorcerer then ‘pulls some threads from it, spits on them and knots them. Then he tells her to bury these in a deserted spot. He may also make for her a charm over water or food. The strongest effect has something that is done over a ritually unclean substance, best of all menstrual blood. She must put it in her husband’s food, drink, or perfume.’ Although Bali’s approach is that in all such cases the actual harm that overcomes the afflicted, be it physical or psychological, is always brought about by a jinn acting on the sorcerer’s command, this is not explicitly stated in the case of love bewitchment. No exorcism is performed as in the previous case. Otherwise, however, the treatment is roughly the same. Third on Bali’s list of afflictions is sihr : al-takhyı¯l, hallucination-sorcery. With the help of demons, the sorcerer makes people see things as different from what they really are: small things as large, moving things as static, and the other way round. The case of the sorcerers who made their sticks and ropes look like snakes to Moses is a case in point. Counter-measures consist of anything that chases off demons, such as the call to prayer, the Throne verse, lawful pious formulas, or the basmalah. Fourth is sihr ¯ n, madness-sorcery. Its symptoms are absentmindedness : al-junu and forgetfulness; to speak haltingly; unfocussed looks; not being able to stay in one place; being unable to do something for any longer period of time; not caring about the way one looks. In serious cases, the patient may wander off without any idea of where he is going. This is caused by a jinn who at the command of the sorcerer settles in the victim’s brain and tampers with the brain cells that govern thought and memory. Treatment is by incantations, by checking out whether he is possessed and then driving out the jinn, or, if he is not possessed, by treatment with Qur’a¯nic incantations. In case of a stomach ache, the victim must drink water over which Qur’a¯nic passages have been recited. No tranquillizers must be taken during the treatment, but electric shock therapy is often useful, for it irritates the jinn. Fifth is sihr al-khumu¯l, apathy-sorcery. Evidence of this affliction are: : introversion; persistent silence; a dislike of gatherings of people; absentmindedness; chronic headache; and, in general, being continuously motionless and 40
. For an example, see Atiya, Khul-Khaal, pp. 170–1, 134.
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apathetic. Cause and treatment are the same as in the previous case, but no mention is made of shock therapy. Sixth is sihr al-hawa¯tif, voices-sorcery. Here the symptoms consist of : nightmares, including dreams about falling or being chased by ferocious animals. Also to dream that one is being called by someone, or to hear voices while one is awake without anybody being present. Further: frequent devilish insinuations (waswa¯s, ‘whisperings’) and harbouring suspicions about friends and loved ones. Cause and treatment agree with that of the two previous cases. Seventh is sihr : al-marad, illness-sorcery. Symptoms are: a chronic pain in some part of the body; epileptic fits; paralysis of one of the limbs or of the whole body; the fact that one of the sense organs stops functioning. Since these symptoms may also indicate a somatic illness, one first has to find out whether a jinn is involved or not. This is done by reciting the Qur’a¯nic incantation over the patient. If this makes the patient feel dizzy or numb, or when he gets a headache, feels a tremor in his limbs, or any other change in his body, it is a case of illness-sorcery, which implies that the dysfunctioning is caused by a jinn located in the body. Treatment then is along the same lines as in the previous cases. If no such symptoms manifest itself during the incantation, the problem is caused by a somatic illness which has to be treated by a doctor. Eighth is sihr al-nazı¯f or istih sorcery which causes vaginal bleeding : : ada; : outside menstruation. It comes about by ‘a trampling of the devil on one of the veins in the womb.’ Such a blood flow may go on for months. It can be treated by drinking water over which the Qur’a¯nic incantation has been recited, and bathing with it for three days. Ninth, and last, is sihr ¯ j, sorcery obstructing marriage. This, too, is : ta‘tı¯l al-zawa caused by a jinn who managed to enter the woman’s body when she was vulnerable as a result of fright, anger, absence of mind or strong passion. She may show symptoms such as headaches which do not respond to medicines; a feeling of oppression in the chest; regarding the man who proposes to her as ugly; mental wandering; restlessness during sleep; chronic stomach ache; pain in the lower part of the spine. If the jinn does not manage to enter the woman, he may attempt to work on the man involved, and cause him to dislike the woman. Treatment is along the same lines as in the previous cases. Chapter 7. How to Treat a person Who is Sexually Blocked 41 Chapter 7 is devoted exclusively to sexual afflictions, an area in which the effect of sorcery is particularly feared and, consequently, often effective, because of the psychological factors involved.42 Some of the problems, Bali admits, may have a somatic cause, and in these cases the help of a physician is indicated. There are also complaints, such as premature ejaculation or infertility, that may either have a physical cause or be caused by jinn. A surprising number of complaints, however, are almost exclusively connected with the activities of malevolent jinn. Foremost among them is the condition called rabt; : ‘blockade’ or ‘being tied’. Rabt; : may be of various natures: it may be unexplained impotence in the man, or, in the woman, being unable to have, or to enjoy, sexual intercourse. This includes a condition similar to what we would call vaginismus, and also one in which the man becomes temporarily impotent 41 42
Ibid pp. 103 –122. For examples, see Atiya, Khul-Khaal, pp. 153–154, 169.
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because sorcery deludes him into believing that his virgin bride’s hymen is no longer intact. But when the bewitchment is undone, she turns out to be completely intact. In these cases, just as in many cases of infertility, jinn are at work, acting on the command of a sorcerer. They nestle themselves in the vital nerve centre and block the functions that regulate the sexual act. Treatment, as usual, is by incantation and by using water over which the Qur’a¯n has been recited. In addition to this, however, a number of other methods of healing are described, and this is one of the rare places where there are occasional differences between the earlier and the later editions of Bali’s book. I am not quite sure how significant the differences are. In the later editions, he permits the use of a vessel in which Qur’a¯nic texts have been written and then wiped off with water. In earlier editions, he only mentions wiping them off with oil of caraway, habbasawd a ’; a herb well-known for its power to cure and ward off all sorts of : evils, and already mentioned in the hadith.43 Another means, equally well attested in the hadith, is the use of pounded leaves of the lote tree,44 which are mixed with water in a particular manner and given to the patient to drink. This chapter also speaks, on the authority of Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani,45 about the use of a peculiar kind of incantation, referred to as the ‘Arabic incantation (nushra)’.46 This implies that one goes to a place where thorn bushes grow and then takes with the right hand as well as with the left hand a bunch of leaves, pounds them, recites the Qur’a¯n over them and then washes with them. Here, however, an interesting difference can be noted between earlier and later 47 editions of Al S : arim: The subsequent passages about another kind of nushra are still found in the second edition (1991), but have disappeared from the most recent editions: The learned (al h : afiz; : meant here is again Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani) says: ‘Then I looked at what has been said about this incantation (nushra) in the Kitab al-Tibb alnabawi of Ja‘far al-Mustaghfiri.’ He says: ‘I have found in the handwriting of Nasuh ibn Wasil in a volume of the Commentary of Qutayba ibn Ahmad al-Bukhari that Qatada said to Sa‘id ibn Musayyab: “A man who knew about medicine was kept away from (ukhidha ‘an) his wife. Is it allowed for him to use an incantation?” He said: “There is nothing against it. He wants to use it to get better, and that which proves useful is not forbidden.”’ Nasuh said: ‘Hammad ibn Shakir asked me: “What is ‘the loosening’ (al-hall)? And what is ‘the incantation’ (al-nushra)?” I did not know, and he said: “That is when a man cannot have intercourse with his wife even though he can do so with other women. The man who is thus afflicted must take a bunch of twigs and an axe with two . . .(dha¯ qit: a rayn; sharp edges? 48) place it in the bunch of twigs and then put fire to it so that the axe becomes hot. Then he must take it out and urinate on the hot part. Then he will be cured, if God wills.”’ The patient must not believe in the axe, but know that it is only a means to an end. The steam rising up from the hot axe to the penis of the man has effect on the jinn so that he goes away and the sorcery is undone, with God’s permission.’ 43
For an example, see Ibid, p. 158. Sidr or nabq, Zizyphus spina christi, see Kruk, ‘sidr’. 45 The reference given by Bali is Fath al-Bari X: 233, but I have not been able to trace the quotation in the edition of the Fath al-Bari available to me. 46 Bali, al-Sarim, p. 107. 47 Ibid, pp. 107 –8. 48 The French translation, which regularly omits parts of the text, also omits this word. 44
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Possibly Bali considered the practice described here as too open to wrong interpretations. It is also possible that he was censored for describing it, in spite of the fact that al-Raghib al-Isfahani considered it acceptable, as long is the axe itself was not seen as the magic cure. The omission fits in with Bali’s overall tendency to leave out, as much as possible, practices that may lead people into shirk and kufr by putting their trust in material objects, or more generally, in anything besides God. A large part of the chapter is then taken up by various protective measures to ward off these evils. They largely consist of pious formulas to be spoken at moments of risk, when the body is most vulnerable to attacks from jinn, such as entering the toilet, sexual intercourse, or sleep. Chapter 8. Treatment of the Evil Eye
49
Then there is the evil eye, which is the subject of Chapter 8. The effect of the evil eye does not come about through the activities of jinn. It is a malicious power which is present in some people, and also in some jinn, and which may be activated when they admire something or envy someone. The person who casts the evil eye cannot be held responsible for it, since it is something that happens unconsciously. The only thing he can do is try not to be envious, since this is what activates the evil eye. In addition to what Bali says, we may point out that the evil eye is a condition brought about, according to some scholars, by the particular circumstances prevalent during a person’s birth, notably the nature of the celestial configurations presiding over it. If these are unfavourable, they may cause him to possess the evil eye.50 The effect of the evil eye, too, may be cured by ritual bathing and by pious incantations. Bali concludes with three case histories of people afflicted by the evil eye, the last one concerning himself. Here is what happened to him:51 This case occurred in my own home. Briefly, the matter was that a man and an old woman came to see me. The man came into the parlour with me in order to tell me about his mother, while the old woman went to my wife. Then I summoned her, recited the Qur’an over her, and they went away. I looked into the house and lo, there were an enormous number of white worms. I was highly surprised. My wife started to clean the house with a broom, but straight away the worms appeared again in all the rooms. I said to my wife: ‘Come, let us think about it. What did this old woman say to you?’ She said: ‘She looked everywhere in the house, staring a long time, but did not say anything.’ Then I understood that she had the evil eye, in spite of the fact that our house is very modest. But maybe this old woman lived in the desert and had never seen houses. Anyway, I brought water and recited the incantation against the evil eye over it. Then I started to sprinkle it everywhere in the house. The worms disappeared in no time, and the house was just as it was before.
So far about Bali’s approach. His main goal in the book is to warn people against sorcery, to help them to recognise the sorcerer and to convince them of his infamous 49
Bali, al-Sarim pp. 123–136. The tenth-century philosopher al-Amiri (al-Amiri. Everett K. Rowson (ed. and tr.) A Muslim Philosopher on the Soul and its Fate: al-Amiri’s Kitab al-Amad ‘ala l-abad. (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1988), pp. 126– 7) explains this as follows: ‘For when the configuration of the celestial spheres is associated with the repulsion of corporeal beauty, and that configuration coincides with the birth of some child, then whenever the child observes something which has perfect beauty, his glance is to that thing like poison opposing health.’ This is an excellent illustration of what Abel, ‘De´cadence’, pp. 297–8, 316, pointed out: the khawas: s: -virtutes, the hidden properties of substances- are part of a coherent philosophical-scientific theory, and are of quite a different nature than sorcery. 51 Bali, al-Sarim, p. 136. 50
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nature. Further, how to protect and heal themselves in ways that do not run counter to strictly orthodox views. In view of this, it is important to keep things as unambiguous as possible, and this is best done by connecting as many practices as possible with the involvement of supernatural powers other than God: jinn (including shayatin) and the powers of the : stars. The latter, however, play only a minor role in the discussion. The practices concerned are then condemned on the ground of this involvement, which is classified as shirk, ‘putting powers next to God’. Bali does not give explicit views on invoking spirits with the help of Qur’a¯nic verses or God’s holy names, the al-Buni-type of magic. Taking our clue, however, from the book of a kindred spirit, Qasim Mahmud al-Mahmud, whose views on the ‘spirit servants’ of Qur’a¯nic fragments are given below, we may assume that this type of magic, which is often included in healing practices, is also considered unlawful by the strictly orthodox. In their view, treatment may only consist of reciting and listening to Qur’a¯n and pious formulas, adhka¯r. These are the only ruqa¯ (spells or incantations) allowed. Foremost among them is the so-called ‘Qur’a¯nic incantation (ruqya)’, often simply referred to as ‘the ruqya’ in this type of literature. It must be recited in the ear of the afflicted, and consists of the following Qur’a¯nic verses, formulas and short chapters: 1. a‘u¯dhu-formula; 2. al-Fatiha; 3. a‘u¯dhu-formula; 4. al-Baqara 1–5; 5. a‘u¯dhuformula; 6. al-Baqara 102; 7. a‘u¯dhu; 8. al-Baqara 163–4; 9. a‘u¯dhu; 10. al-Baqara 285–6; 11. a‘u¯dhu; 12. al-Baqara 255; 13. a‘u¯dhu; 14. Al-‘Imran 18–9; 15. a‘u¯dhu; 16. al-A‘raf 54, 56; 117–122; 17. 30x the Qur’a¯nic words: waalqa¯ al-sahara sa¯jidı¯na; 18. a‘u¯dhu; 19. Yunus 81–2, repeated; 20. a‘u¯dhu; 21. Taha 69; 22. a‘u¯dhu; 23. alMu’minuna 115–8; 24. a‘u¯dhu; 25. al-Safat 1–10; 26. a‘u¯dhu; 27. al-Ahqaf 29–32; 28. a‘u¯dhu; 29. al-Rahman 33–6; 30. a‘u¯dhu; 31. al hashr 21–4; 32. a‘u¯dhu; 33. : al-Jann 1–9; 34. a‘u¯dhu; 36. basmala; 37. al-Ikhlas; 38. basmala; 39. al-Falaq, repeated a number of times; 40. basmala; 41. al-Nas. Before reciting the ruqya, the healer must say: ‘I take refuge by God from the damned Satan, from his proddings and whisperings and inspirations, in the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate.’ All treatments of affected people carried out by Bali, with the exception of the evil eye, are based on the assumption that these people are in the power of jinn who act on the command of a sorcerer. The healer has to get in touch with the jinn and to persuade him to leave the person alone, and, if necessary, to point out where the charm is hidden. The usual course of events is that a patient comes to the healer, who recites the Qur’an over him. He, or she, may then show signs of possession (sar‘; ‘epileptic’ symptoms), and a jinn may speak with his tongue. The jinn is then : interrogated by the healer and urged to leave, sometimes also to reveal the place where the charm which initiated the bewitchment is hidden. Often there is no exorcism, just a diagnosis of possession. The patient is then sent home with precise instructions about listening to Qur’a¯n recordings at fixed times during a fixed number of days, and also to bathe with water over which the Qur’a¯n has been recited. Bali strongly condemns the use of amulets of any kind. He does not specify this, and maybe on purpose: technically, all inscribed Qur’a¯nic texts used for protective purposes may count as amulets. In this context it may be noted that Bali never prescribes dissolving texts in water which are written on paper. He only allows writing in bowls with ink that is washed off by the water poured into the bowl. Fumigations, another familiar element of healing practices, are also not among the 63
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things he recommends. He may see them as too closely connected to the rituals in which the sorcerer invokes the help of jinn. Bali’s attitude may be illustrated by what the author of a similar, somewhat more extensive, book of this type has to say. This book appeared in 2001, and its author is a certain al-Mahmud. In his last chapter he describes the results of a ‘field study’ (dira¯sa mı¯da¯niyya) about sorcery which he did in Dubai.52 He interviewed four healers and a leading member of a da‘wa¯ organisation. Three of the four healers admitted to having ties with jinn (‘for the good’) and having the power to ‘make them enter people, and to go out’. Al-Mahmud strongly condemns this, and goes even further: the first healer (who, unpardonably, admits to having Sufi connections, including an ija¯za from a Qadiriyya sheikh in Baghdad) stated that every Qur’anic fragment, even every letter, has its own 53 ‘spirit servant’, kha¯dim ru h : ani; and if one reads the text a fixed number of times according to the abjad, the alphabet arranged according to the numerical values of the letters, one will immediately obtain what one desires. The interviewer objects that there is nothing in the Qura¯n or the sunna to testify to this, and that it is an indication that the shaykh gets help from jinn. So narrow, indeed, is the line that is drawn. It is shirk when one seeks the help of spirits, even in the almost metaphorical sense just described. It is acceptable, on the other hand, to get in touch with jinn in exorcisms, when they are forced to make themselves known and are persuaded (often by threats) to relinquish their victim. Many pious Islamic healers would be quite shocked to hear that their practices amount to shirk, according to Bali’s standards. They consider it completely acceptable to seek the help of jinn (or other spirits, angels for instance) for good purposes, such as to seek protection or to undo sorcery. Kornelius Hentschel, in his Geister, Magier und Muslime; Da¨monenwelt und Geisteraustreibung im Islam, which deals with current practice in Cairo, gives extensive evidence of this. From a strictly orthodox Islamic view, however, these practices are not permitted, and scholars such as Bali are not prepared to allow any leeway here. Another example is an Islamic healer by the name of el-Aissaoui, well-known in the Netherlands, about whom a very revealing and honest TV documentary was made. He is a pious man of Moroccan origin, whom others consider to have much religious power, baraka. His powers, he explains, gradually increased over the years. He works with a fixed number of spirits, one of which already worked with his grandfather. He is always polite to them and always asks them first whether they have time to help him. People come to him with complaints that are usually of a psychosomatic or social nature: sleeplessness, restlessness, stress, headaches. Others come because they are sure that they are bewitched. He describes a clear case of tafrı¯q, driving-apart sorcery: a woman and her children from an earlier marriage lived with a divorced man, and all was well, until one morning a black mat was found in front of the door. This was interpreted as proof that the man’s former wife had bewitched the house, and everybody fled as soon as they could leave. The treatment which this healer prescribes often consists of bathing with water in which Qur’a¯nic texts, written on paper, are dissolved. Herbs are also used. 52 al-Mahmud, Qasim Mahmud- ‘Abu ‘Uthman’ Al-sihr fi ’l-shari‘a al-islamiyya; nash’atuhu, hukmuhu, al-wiqaya minhu. (‘Amman: Dar Wa’il, 2001), pp. 236 –245. 53 This agrees with what al-Bu¯nı¯ (n.d.) says, Shams al-ma‘arif al-kubra (Beirut, Al-maktaba al-thaqafiyya), part III, pp. 404–16; El-Gawhary, Gottesnamen, p. 198.
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He also describes a case of marriage-obstructing sorcery, ta‘tı¯l al-zawa¯j: a woman does not manage to react adequately when people are interested in marrying her. This healer also performs exorcisms (a session was shown in the documentary), even by telephone. Many of his practices certainly are not be acceptable according to Bali’s standards. He inscribes texts on lead, melts it, and throws it into water to drive out the evil; he uses a magic cloak; he is assisted by spirits, even though they are ‘good’ ones. So he drives out sorcery with sorcery, something absolutely forbidden by Bali. I chose to discuss Bali’s text here not because I consider it to be the last word on Islam and sorcery, and also not because its contents are basically different from that of the large number of similar booklets that are offered for sale. I merely present it as a good representative specimen of its kind. I also noticed that this particular text is very widely available, and so we may assume that many Muslims looking for guidance in these matters will pick it up and follow its lead. This may not be without relevance in actual situations, even in Europe. In the Netherlands, for instance, there are a number of Islamic healers.54 Open-minded doctors and psychatriatic hospitals are prepared to involve them in treatments, which often proves useful. These well-meaning people, however, often become caught in a tangle of people representing different Islamic factions and advocating different ideas as to what is ‘Islamically’ acceptable. They may find information of the type provided here useful. With stricter and more intransigent forms of Islam everywhere on the increase, the attack on magic practices that used to be well integrated into Islamic life (see, again, Abel’s article, mentioned earlier) obviously is gaining force. The widespread availability of booklets such as Bali’s is a clear indication of this. It is not even unthinkable that religious people, from West-Africa to the Gulf, would welcome counter-measures against what they see as the widespread evil of sorcery. Seen from that perspective, the complications around the Arabic version of ‘Harry Potter’ reported in the New York Times item cited at the beginning of this article are maybe not as lighthearted a matter as they may have seemed at first sight. References Abel, A. (1957) ‘La place des sciences occultes dans la de´cadence’, Classicisme et de´clin culturel dans l’histoire de l’Islam, Actes du Symposium international d’histoire de la civilisation musulmane, Bordeaux 1956, pp. 291– 318 (Paris: Besson et Chantemerle). al-‘Amiri. (1988) in Rowson, Everett K, (ed.) A Muslim Philosopher on the Soul and its Fate: al‘Amiri’s Kitab al-Amad ‘ala l-abad (New Haven: American Oriental Society). Arberry, A. J. (1955) The Koran Interpreted (London: Collier Books– Macmillan Publishing). Atiya, Nayra. (1987) Khul-Khaal; Five Egyptian women tell their stories (Cairo: Originally published 1984 American University of Cairo Press). Bali, Wahid ‘Abd al-Salam. (1988) Wiqayat al-insan min al-jinn wa-l-shaytan (Cairo: Dar al-Bashir li-l-nashr wa-l-taw-zi‘, 1409/1988). Bali, Wahid ‘Abd al-Salam. (1991) Al-Sarim al-battar fi tasaddi li-l-sahara al-ashrar (Jedda: Maktabat al-Sahaba, 2nd ed., 1412/1991), Reprinted many times, in various places. In some editions the author writes his name as Wahid ibn ‘Abd al-Salam. The other edition used here is the 10th edition, Cairo 1417/1997 and 1418/1998, here referred to as Bali 1997. Bali, Wahid Abdulsalam. (n.d.) Le Sabre Tranchant Contre les Magiciens Me´chants Tr. Mohammad Al-Hamoui (Beyrouth-Le Caire: Dar al-Hikam al-Diniyya). 54 Extensive study of them was made by Cor Hoffer, whose books on this topic (see list of references at the end of this article) deserve to be translated into English.
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al-Buni, Abu al-‘Abbas Ahmad. (n.d.) Shams al-ma‘arif al-kubra 4 parts in one volume (Beirut: Almaktaba al-thaqafiyya). Abu al-‘Abbas Ahmad al-Buni (n.d.), Manba‘ usul al-hikma. Wa-yaliha risalatan, 1. Al-shaykh Muh. al-Shafi‘i al-Khalwati al-Hanafi, Al-sirr al-mazruf fi ‘ilm basat al-huruf, 2. ‘Ali b. Muh. alTanta’i al-Qari’, Al-durra al-bahiyya fi jawami‘ al-asrar al-ruma’iyya. (N.p.) Daxelmu¨ller, C. (1993) Zauberpraktiken. Eine Ideeengeschichte der Magie (Zu¨rich: Artemis und Winkler). al-Dayrabi., See: al-Diyarbi al-Diyarbi. (n.d.), Mujarrabat al-Dayra-bi al-kabir al-musamma bi-Fath al-Malik al-Majid alMu’allif li-naf‘ al-‘abid wa-huwa yashtamilu ‘ala fawa’id jalila wa-khawass wa-asrar li-l-ayat al-qur’aniyya naffa‘a Allah bihi al-muslimin amin. In the margin: Al-Sanusi, Abu ‘Abdallah Muh. ibn Yusuf, Kitab al-Mujarrabat. (San‘a: Maktabat al-Sanhani- Beirut: Al-Maktaba al-haditha) N.B.: C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, Suppl. II, p. 445, gives the name of the author as “al-Dairabi” Dols, Michael W. (1992) in Immisch, Diana E., (ed.) Majnun: the Madman in Medieval Islamic Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Doutte´, Edmond. (1994; originally published 1908) Magie et religion dans l’Afrique du Nord (Paris: J. Maisonneuve, P. Geuthner S.A.). El-Gawhary, M. (1968) (Diss. Bonn) Die Gottesnamen im magischen Gebrauch in den al-Buni zugeschrieben Werken. Evans-Pritchard, Edward. (1937) Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Fahd, Toufic. (1966) ‘Le monde du sorcier en Islam’, Sources orientales VII, pp. 157– 204 (Paris: Le Seuil). Fahd, Toufic, et al. (1992) ‘La connaissance de l’inconnaissable et l’obtention de l’impossible dans la pense´e mantique et magique de l’Islam’, in Regourd, Annick, (ed.) Sciences occultes et islam. Bulletin des e´tudes orientales XLIV, pp. 33 – 44. Fahd, Toufic. ‘Sihr’, Encyclopaedia of Islam. New edition. XI vols. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1960– 2002), XI, pp. 567– 571. Fahd, Toufic. ‘Khawass al-kur’an’, Encyclopaedia of Islam. New edition. XI vols. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1960– 2002), IV, pp. 1133– 1134. Hentschel, Kornelius. (1997) Geister, Magier und Muslime. Da¨monenwelt und Geisteraustreibung im Islam (Mu¨nchen: Eugen Diederichs Verlag). Hoffer, Cor. (1994) Islamitische genezers en hun patie¨nten; Gezond-heids-zorg, religie en zingeving (Islamic healers and their patients; health care, religion and meaning) (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis). Hoffer, Cor. (2000) Volksgeloof en religieuze geneeswijzen onder moslims in Nederland; Een historisch-sociologische analyse van religieus-medisch denken en handelen (Popular belief and religious healing among Muslims in The Netherlands; A historical-sociological analysis of religious-medical thought and practice) (Amsterdam: Thela Thesis). Husayn, Taha. (n.d.; originally published 1929) Al-Ayyam Vol. I (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif). Kruk, Remke. ‘Sidr’, Encyclopaedia of Islam. New edition, XI vols. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1960– 2002), IX, pp. 349– 350. Lane, Edward William. (1954; originally published 1860) The Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. Introduction by M. Saad El-Din (London: J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd; New York: E.P. Dutton and Co Inc). Lemay, R., et al. (1992) ‘L’islam historique et les sciences occultes’, in Regourd, Annick, (ed.) Sciences occultes et islam. Bulletin des e´tudes orientales XLIV, pp. 19 – 33. Luck, George, et al. (1999) ‘Witches and Sorcerers in Classical Literature’, in Ankarloo, Bengt, (ed.) Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press). al-Mahmud, Qasim Mahmud- “Abu‘Uthman”. (2001) Al-sihr fi-l-shari‘a al-islamiyya; nash’atuhu, hukmuhu, al-wiqaya minhu (Amman: Dar Wa’il). al-Maghribi., see al-Tilimsani, Ibn al-Hajj
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Pielow, Dorothee Anna Maria. (1995) Die Quellen der Weisheit. Die arabische Magie im Spiegel des Usu von Ahmad Ibn ‘Ali (sic) al-Buni (Hildesheim etc. Georg Olms Verlag). : ˆ l al-hikma : : Regourd, Annick, (ed.) et al. (1992) in Sciences occultes et islam. Special issue of Bulletin d’Etudes orientales, XLIV. Robbins, Rossell H. (1959) Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology (New York: Crown Publishers). Rowling, J. K. (2000) Hari Butir wa-hajar al-faylasuf (Cairo: Nahdat Misr). Abu ‘Abdallah Muh. ibn Yusuf al-Sanusi, Kitab al-Mujarrabat. In the margin of: al-Diyarbi, q.v. Sebald, Hans. (1978) Witchcraft: The Heritage of a Heresy (New-York – Oxford: Elsevier). Sengers, Gerda. (2000) Vrouwen en demonen; Zar en Korangenezing in hedendaags Egypte (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis). al-Tilimsani, Ibn al-Hajj –al-Maghribi. (n.d.) Shumus al-anwar wa-kunuz al-asrar al-kubra. Two parts in one vol (Beirut: Dar al-Jil, n.d.). Ullmann, Manfred. (1972) Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaften im Islam (Leiden: E.J. Brill). Ullmann, Manfred. ‘Khawass’, Encyclopaedia of Islam. new edition, XI vols. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1960– 2002), IV, pp. 1097 –1099. Vrolijk, Arnoud, et al (2001) Duistere Machten; gestalten van het Kwaad in de wereld van de Islam: catalogus bij een tentoonstelling van recente boeken uit de Arabische wereld, Turkije en Indonesie¨ in de Leidse Universiteitsbibliotheek, 6 december 2000– 29 januari 2001 (Leiden: Universiteitsbibliotheek). Westermarck, Edward. (1926) Ritual and belief in Morocco (London: MacMillan and Co.). Wieland, Almut. (1994) Studien zur Djinn-Vorstellung im modernen A¨gypten (Wu¨rzburg: Ergon Verlag).
Symptoms of tafrı¯q-sorcery:55 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
a situation where love suddenly turns to hate; there is a lot of suspicion between them; not trying to look for excuses; making much of causes of disagreement, even if they are only very minor; the image of the man in the eyes of the wife changes, and so does the image of the woman in the eye of the husband. The husband sees his wife as ugly, even though she may be one of the most beautiful among women. In fact it is the demon responsible for the sorcery who makes her face appear ugly. The woman, in her turn, sees her husband as frightening and horrible; (6) the bewitched dislikes everything which the other party does; (7) the bewitched dislikes the place in which the other party resides, so that you see that the husband is in good psychological condition as long as he is out of his house but as soon as he enters the house he experiences severe psychological oppression. (. . .) How does tafriq sorcery come about? 56 The man goes to a sorcerer and asks him to cause a rift between so-and-so and his wife. The sorcerer then asks him for the name of the man whom he wants to bewitch, and for the name of his mother. Then he asks him for a ‘trace’ of his 55 56
Bali, al-Sarim pp. 55–76. Ibid pp. 57 –58.
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person (some hair; a piece of clothing; a cap). If he cannot procure this, the sorcerer makes for instance a charm for him on water, and orders him to throw this on the path of the person whom he wants to bewitch. When he [the victim] steps on it, he is struck by the sorcery. He can also put it on the person’s food or his drink.
Treatment:57 The treatment consists of three stages: I. Stage one 1. To create the proper religious atmosphere. Remove all pictures from the house of the person that you are going to treat, so that the angels may enter the house. 2. To remove any amulets or talismans that the patient has on him, and burn them. 3. To make the place free of singing and oboe (mizma¯r) music. 4. To make the place free of things that are against the law, such as men who wear gold, women who wear makeup or men who smoke. 5. To give the patient and his wife a religious lesson by which you do away with the attachment of their hearts to anything except God. 6. To diagnose the condition by asking the patient some questions in order to make sure whether the symptoms, or at least the majority of them, are present: (a) have you ever seen your wife looking ugly? (b) do you have disagreements about insignificant things? (c) do you feel all right when you are outside the house, but experience a feeling of oppression upon entering the house? (d) does either of the spouses have unpleasant sensations during sex? (e) does either of them suffer from disturbed sleep or unpleasant dreams? Then continue questioning him, and if two or more symptoms turn out to be present, you must continue with the treatment. 7. You must perform the lesser ablution before starting the treatment, and order those that are with you also to perform it. 8. If the patient is female, you must not start the treatment before she has properly covered up and drawn her clothes so carefully around her that she cannot become uncovered during the treatment. 9. Do not treat a woman who is dressed in a manner that is against the law, such as a woman with an uncovered face, or one who wears perfume or nail polish just like non-believing women. is present. 10. Only treat a woman while a close male family member (mahram) : 11. Do not let any other person than her close male family members (mah : arim) enter with you. 12. Take care that you have finished saying: ‘There is no might and power unless with God’ and ask the help of God, exalted and high is He.
57
Ibid pp. 58 –68.
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Second stage: the treatment Place your hand on the head of the patient and recite the following incantation (ruqya) in his ear with musical intonation (here follows the ‘Qur’a¯nic ruqya’; I will give the full contents of this below, tr.). After you have recited this incantation in the ear of the patient with musical intonation and raised voice, he will be in one of the three following states: and the jinn First state: The patient shows signs of being possessed ðyusra‘uÞ; : responsible for the bewitchment talks through his mouth. In that case, you must deal with the jinn in exactly the same way as you do in cases of being ‘touched’ (mass, being ‘touched’ by jinn, tr.). I have explained this in detail in my Kitab al-Wiqaya, and I will not mention it here again for fear of making it too long; one can look it up. Then you must ask this jinn a certain number of questions: (1) ‘What is your name? What is your religion?’ Then you must deal with him according to his religion. If he is not a Muslim, offer him Islam, and if he is a Muslim, make clear to him that what he does, namely serving the sorcerer, is contrary to Islam and not permitted. (2) Ask him the place where the charm is to be found, but do not believe him until it is clear to you that what he says is true. If he says to you: ‘The charm is in such and such a place’, you must send someone to get it from that place. If he finds it, then fine, and if not, the jinn is lying. For there are many liars among the jinn. (3) Ask him whether he alone is responsible for for the bewitchment or whether there is another one beside him. If there is someone else, ask him to present him to you and try to come to an understanding with him, as I have mentioned in the other book. (4) Sometimes the jinn will say to you: ‘Such and such a person has gone to the sorcerer and asked him to make this charm.’ Do not believe the jinn in that case, because he wants to cause enmity between people, and because his testimony is legally unacceptable on account of the fact that he is a sinner ( fa¯siq). His sinfulness is obvious from the fact that he serves the sorcerer. God, exalted is He, says: ‘O believers, if an ungodly man comes to you with a tiding, make clear, lest you afflict a people unwittingly and then repent of what a t; 6) you have done.’ (Su¯ra 49, al hujur : When the jinnı¯ has told you the place of the charm and you have brought it forth, you must recite these verses over water: “And We revealed to Moses: ‘Cast thy staff’.” And lo, it forthwith swallowed up their lying invention. So the truth came to pass, and false was proved what they were doing. So they were vanquished there, and they turned about, humbled. And the sorcerers were cast down, bowing themselves. They said: ‘We believe in the Lord of all Being, the Lord of Moses and Aaron.’” (Su¯ra 7, al-A‘raf, 117– 122). Recite these verses over water in such a manner that the vapour that comes out of your mouth together with the recited verses descends on the water. Then dissolve this charm in the water, no matter whether it consists of pieces of paper, perfume ðt : ıbÞ or something else. Then you must throw the water away in a place that is far removed from the places where people go. 69
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When the jinn says that the bewitched has drunk the charm, ask the patient whether he often feels pain in the stomach. If this is the case, the jinn speaks the truth; if not, he is lying. When the truthfulness of the jinn is clear to you, you must arrange with him, i.e. the jinn, to leave the [body of the] patient and not to return to him, and you must say that you will render the bewitchment powerless, if God wills. Then recite the verses mentioned before over water, and add to them verse 102 of Su¯ra 2, al-Baqara. The patient must then drink the water and bathe with it during a certain number of days. When the jinn says: ‘The bewitched has stepped on the charm’, or ‘the bewitching has been done over something that belonged to him (i.e. his hair or his clothing)’, you must recite the verses mentioned above over water, and the patient must drink it or bathe with it during a certain number of days, outside the bathroom. The water must be thrown out in the street, for instance, or in any other place outside the toilet, in order to make the pain stop. Then you must order the jinn to leave him and not return to him again. You must make a binding agreement with him on this (the author says in a footnote that one may use here the oath given in his first book, Al-Wiqaya, p. 86, or any other lawful form of binding agreement) and order him to leave. The patient must then return to you after a week, and you must recite the ruqya (Qur’a¯nic incantation, see below) over him again. If he does not feel anything, he is no longer bewitched, God be praised. If the patient shows again signs of possession, the jinn has lied and has not left him. Ask him then why he has not left, and treat him with kindness. If he answers, God be praised; if not: beating, recitation of the Qur’a¯n and other kinds of painful treatment. If the patient does not show signs of possession but feels dizziness, a tremor or something like that, you must give him a tape recording of the Throne verse, repeated for a whole hour. He must listen to this three times a day for a whole month with headphones on. After this month, he must come back to you and you must recite the Qur’a¯n over him. He will then be cured – if God, exalted is He, permits – , and if not, you must make a tape recording for him of the su¯ras Al-Saffat, Yasin, al-Dukhan, and al-Jinn. To this he must also listen three times a day for three weeks, and then he will be cured, if God, exalted is He, permits. If not, you must extend the period for him. Second state: during the ruqya the patient experiences dizziness, trembling, shivering, or a violent headache, but shows no signs of possession. In this case you must repeat the ruqya three times over the patient. If he shows signs of possession, you must give him the same treatment as in the first case. If he does not show signs of possession, but the trembling and headache diminish and calm down, you must recite the ruqya over him during a certain number of days, and then he will be cured, if God, exalted is He, permits. If he is not fully cured you must do as follows: 1. Make a tape recording for him of the complete su¯ra al-Saffat, one time, and of the Throne verse a number of times. He must listen to this three times a day. 2. He must take care to perform the sal : at with a group of other people. 3. After the sal : at of daybreak he must say a hundred times during a whole month: ‘There is no God but God alone, He has no companion, to Him belongs the kingdom, to Him is the praise, and He has power over everything.’ It should be 70
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noted that his pains will increase during approximately the first ten or fifteen days, and then they will gradually start to diminish. By the end of the month, the pain will have disappeared. Then recite the Qur’a¯n over him, and, if God, exalted is He, wills, he will then feel nothing, and the bewitchment has lost its effect. Sometimes the pain continues to increase during the whole month. This is accompanied by a violent sense of constriction in the chest. He must then come to you and you must recite the ruqya over him a number of times. He will then show signs of possession, if God, exalted is He, wills, and you must treat him in the same way that we have mentioned for the first state. Third state: the patient does not feel anything at all during the ruqya. You must then ask him again about his symptoms. If you do not find the majority of symptoms present, this person is not bewitched and not ill. You may repeat the ruqya three times to make sure. If the symptoms are clearly there, and you repeat the ruqya and he does not feel anything (which rarely happens), you must give him the following: 1. Make for him a tape recording of the su¯ras Ya Sin, al-Dukhan and al-Jinn, and let him listen to this three times a day. 2. Let him frequently ask God for forgiveness: a hundred or more times a day. 3. Let him frequently say: ‘There is no power and no might except with God’, a hundred or more times a day. All this for a period of a month. Then you must recite the ruqya over him and treat him in the same way as in the first two states. The third stage of the treatment: the stage which comes after the treatment When God has cured him by your hands and he feels in good health again, you must praise God, blessed and exalted is He, Who has permitted you to do this successfully, and you must be even more humble towards God so that He will also grant you success in treating other cases. Let it not prompt you to be proud and vainglorious: “For your Lord had declared: ‘If you give thanks, I will bestow abundance upon you: but if you deny My favours, My punishment is terrible indeed.’” (Su¯ra 14, Ibrahim, 7). At this stage, the patient is at risk of being bewitched again, because many of those who meddle with sorcery go back to the sorcerer when they hear that the patient has gone to a healer in order to be treated. They then ask him to make a new charm for them. For that reason, the patient must not tell anybody about it. In any case, you must give him these protective measures: 1. Taking care to perform the sal : at with a group of other people. 2. No listening to songs or music. 3. To perform the (lesser) ablution before going to sleep, and to recite the Throne verse. 4. To use the basmala with everything. 5. After the sal : at of daybreak he must say a hundred times: ‘There is no God but God alone, He has no companion, to Him belongs the kingdom, to Him is the praise, and he has power over everything.’ 6. No day must go by without him reading something from the Book of God, or listening to it, if he cannot read. 71
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7. To associate with pious people. 8. Taking care to pronounce the pious formulas for the morning and the evening. A case history of the treatment of tafrı¯q-sorcery: the case of the jinn Shaqwa¯n This woman felt an enormous aversion to her husband. The signs of bewitchment were clear and obvious, to the extent that she was annoyed with the house of her husband and even with the husband himself. She used to see her husband as frightening and terrifying, as if he were a wild beast. Her husband then took her to a Qur’a¯nic healer. The jinn spoke, and said that he had come to her through bewitchment, and that it was his task to cause a rift between this man and his wife. The healer gave him a strong beating, but he did not respond. The husband said to me that he had continued to take his wife to this healer for a month. At last the jinn had asked him to divorce his wife, if only with a single repudiation, and then to take her back. The woman had been cured for a week, but then he came back to her. The man then came with her to me, and when I recited the Qur’a¯n over her she showed signs of possession. The following discussion took place, which I will report in abbreviated form. I said: ‘What is your name?’ He said: ‘Shaqwa¯n.’ I said: ‘What is your religion?’ He said: ‘Christian.’ I said: ‘Why have you entered this woman?’ He said: ‘To cause a rift between her and her husband.’ I said: ‘I will put something before you. If you accept, then God be praised; if not, the choice is yours.’ He said: ‘Do not exert yourself; I will not leave her. He has gone with her to so-and-so and so-and-so. . ..’ I said: ‘I have not asked you to leave her.’ He said: ‘Then what do you want?’ I said: “I want to explain Islam to you, and if you accept it, then God be praised; and if not: ‘there is no coercion in religion’.” Then I explained to him the Islam, and after some discussion and debate he converted to Islam, God be praised. I said: ‘Have you really converted or are you deceiving us?’ He said: ‘You cannot force me to do anything. I have converted from my heart, but. . ..’ I said: ‘What?’ He said: ‘I now see before me a crowd of Christian jinn who threaten me, and I am afraid that they will kill me.’ I said: ‘This is a very simple matter. If it is clear to us that you have converted from the heart, we will give you a strong weapon that will make that none of them can approach you.’
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He said: ‘Give it to me now.’ I said: ‘No, only after the session is completed.’ He said: ‘What do you want further?’ I said: ‘If you really and truly have converted to Islam, then you will complete your repentance by refraining from doing harm to this woman and leave her.’ He said: ‘Yes, I have converted, but how can I cut my ties with the sorcerer?’ I said: ‘This is an easy matter, but then you will have to agree with us.’ He said: ‘Yes.’ I said: ‘So then, where is the place of the charm?’ – meaning, in the courtyard of the house – ‘where the woman He said: ‘In the hawsh’ : lives.’ He continued: ‘However, I cannot tell the exact place of the charm because there is a jinn responsible for guarding this charm, and every time that the place becomes known he moves it to another place.’ I said: ‘For how many years have you worked with this sorcerer?’ He said: ‘For ten or twenty years – I do not know exactly – , and I have entered three women before this woman.’ Then he told me the histories of these three. When his truthfulness was clear to me I said to him: ‘Take the weapon that I have promised you.’ He said: ‘What is it?’ I said: ‘The Throne verse. Every time that a jinn comes near you you must recite it, and then he will flee from you. Do you know it by heart?’ He said: ‘Yes, I know it by heart because this woman has repeated it so many times.’ He said: ‘But how will I be able to cut away from the sorcerer?’ among jinn who are I said: ‘Go away now, go to Makka and live there in the haram : believers.’ He said: ‘But will God accept me after I have committed all these sins? I have caused her much pain, and have also caused pain to the women I have entered before her.’ I said: ‘Yes, because of God’s wonderful words: ‘Say: “Servants of God, you that have sinned against your souls, do not despair of God’s mercy, for God forgives all sins. It is He who is the Forgiving One, the Merciful.”’ (Su¯ra 39, al-Zumar, 53).’ Then he cried and said: ‘When I leave her, ask this woman to forgive me for all the pain I have caused her.’ Then he took the pledge and left her. Thereupon I recited for this man verses from the After some time, the man sent Qur’an over water and told him to sprinkle it in the hawsh: : me a message, saying that she was okay, God be praised. This had nothing to do with me: the whole matter was Gods.
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