Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies

Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies 1

2

3,

Minghua Li , Rovshan Mahmudov , C. P. Huang *

ABSTRACT:

This

review

covers

publications

Physical Treatment

in

biological, chemical, and physical technologies for the

Adsorption: Janos et al. (Janos, Hula et al. 2009)

treatment of hazardous wastes and remediation of

studied the reduction and immobilization of Cr(VI) by

contaminated sites published in 2009.

oxihumolite and iron humate. Although both materials reduced the Cr(VI) to Cr(III) which was subsequently

KEYWORDS:

hazardous,

bound to humic acid matrix, iron humate was found to be

anaerobic,

functional at wider pH range of 1 to 5 than oxihumolite.

adsorption, filtration, coagulation, flocculation, advanced

Li et al. (Zhao, Chen et al. 2009) treated Cr(VI)

oxidation, ozonation, fenton, fenton-like, photocatalysis,

contaminated water by nanoparticles of a mixed hydroxide

photo-electrochemical, ultrasound.

of aluminum and magnesium with various Mg/Al molar

doi: 10.2175/106143010X12756668801770

ratios. It was found that the mixed Mg/Al hydroxide with

chemicals,

treatment,

physical,

temediation,

biological,

aerobic,

Mg/Al molar ratio of 3 had the largest adsorption capacity ————————— 1

and

Gupta et al. (Gupta, Chauhan et al. 2009) studied

Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los

As(III) and As(V) removal from natural ground water using

Angeles, 90095.

Fe-modified chitosan. The adsorbent had successfully

2

Post-doctoral

fellow,

attributed to its small particles size and high zeta potential. Department

of

Civil

and

reduced the total As to < 10 µg/L and interference anions

Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware,

did not interfere significantly the performance. Wang and

Newark, DE 19716

Lo (Wang and Lo 2009) used synthesized mesoporous

3

*Donald C. Phillips Professor, Department of Civil and

magnetic γ-Fe2O3 to removal Cr(VI) from contaminated

Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware,

water. Mesoporous magnetic iron oxide exhibited similar

Newark, DE 19716. Tel: +1 (302) 831-8428, email:

adsorption capacity as nonporous nano-γ-Fe2O3 (10 nm) but

[email protected]

is faster in its separation due to larger size. Grover et al.

Laboratory

Manager,

Department

of

Civil

(Grover, Komarneni et al. 2009) studied the uptake of

1720

Water Environment Research, Volume 82, Number 10—Copyright © 2010 Water Environment Federation

arsenite by layered double hydroxides, hydrotalcite and

Arkas and Tsiourvas (Arkas and Tsiourvas 2009)

hydrocalumite. Steady state adsorption was reached within

prepared hybrid silica nanoparticles with low cost

8-16 hr and more than 80% removal was achieved by both

poly(ethylene imine) hyperbranched polymer. This hybrid

materials.

material exhibited much higher adsorption capacity for two

Doula (Doula 2009) used clinoptilolite and its Fe-

different categories of pollutant, i.e. heavy metal, such as

modified form to remove Cu, Mn and Zn from drinking

Pb2+, Cd2+, Hg2+, and polycyclic aromatic compounds, such

water. Amorphous iron oxide coated with clinoptilolite

as pyrene and phenanthrene, compared to the bare silica.

exhibited higher heavy metal adsorption capacity than the

Aroua et al. (Aroua, Yin et al. 2009) modified activated

bare minerals. Ozay et al. (Ozay, Ekici et al. 2009) used

carbon surface with polyethyleneimine (PEI) and tested its

magnetic hydrogel prepared in 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-

Pb2+ adsorption behavior. With 16.68 and 29.82 % mass

propansulfonic acid to remove metal ions from aqueous

loading of PEI, the uptake rate increased by 4.7 and 8.4%

solutions. The hydrogel network with magnetic property

respectively.

provided high metal adsorption capacity. Aguado et al.

Mak et al (Mak, Rao et al. 2009) investigated the

(Aguado, Arsuaga et al. 2009) used amine-functionalized

effect of hardness, alkalinity and organic matter on the

mesoporous silica to remove heavy metal from wastewater.

removal of As(V) by zero-valent iron. Due to co-presence

The

metal

of HCO3- and Ca2+, the removal rate of As(V) increased

adsorption capacity than bare silica while maintaining

with increase of concentration of both ions. However,

porous structure.

formation of Ca-humate complex inhibited the removal of

functionalized

materials

showed

higher

Chen et al. (Chen, Hu et al. 2009) studied the

As(V). Chen et al. (Chen, Shan et al. 2009) studied the

adsorption of Ni(II) and Sr(II) using multiwalled carbon

effect of Cu(II) on the adsorption of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol

nanotubes/iron oxide magnetic. The composite material

on multi-walled carbon nanotubes. It was found that

showed much higher adsorption capacity than multiwalled

oxidation treatment of multi-walled carbon nanotubes

carbon nanotubes or magnetic iron oxide alone. The

increased the surface area and the adsorption capacity. The

desorption occurred with acidic condition, making it a

presence of Cu(II) suppressed the adsorption of 2,4,6-

promising candidate for pre-concentration of heavy metal

trichlorophenol due to formation of surface complexes.

ions.

Duran et al. (Duran, Tuzen et al. 2009) treated

Lertpaitoonpan et al. (Lertpaitoonpan, Ong et al.

multiwalled carbon nanotubes with o-cresolphthalein and

2009) investigated the effect of organic carbon and pH on

tested the adsorption capacity for various metals. Results

the sorption of sulfamethazine by soil. Increase in pH

indicated that the complexed materials concentrated Cu(II),

reduced the partition coefficient (Kd) significantly, and a

Co(II), Ni(II), and Pb(II) as much as 40 times in mass.

stepwise linear regression model incorporating the anionic fraction of sulfamethazine ionization and soil properties

1721


described the process well.

Alkaram et al. (Alkaram,

TEC was achieved after 16 cycles of injection within 10

Mukhlis et al. 2009) studied the removal of phenol using

days.

surfactant modified bentonite and kaolinite. The phenol adsorption

capacity

of

clays

with

effect of membrane degradation on the removal of

and

pharmaceutical compounds. After 18-h of exposure to

phenyltrimethylammonium bromide exhibited higher than

chlorine the rejection of target compounds was declined,

the unmodified samples and overall increased by increasing

whereas exposure to dilute hypochlorite solution increased

of pH value.

the rejection.

hexadecyltrimethylammonium

modified

Simon et al. (Simon, Nghiem et al. 2009) studied the

bromide

Yangali-Quintanilla et al. (Yangali-

Quintanilla, Sadmani et al. 2009) studied the performance Filtrations: Chang et al. (Chang, Chen et al. 2009)

of nanofiltration membrane, NF-200 and NF-90, on the

compared the removal of natural organic matter (NOM)

removal of pharmaceuticals and endocrine compounds.

from the water of Tai Lake, Taiwan, using nanofiltration

Results indicated that NF-90 had more than 95% rejection

(NF), ultrafiltration (UF), sand filtration (SF), and SF-NF.

of target compounds regardless of fouling.

Results indicated that SF-NF was the recommended

Jermann et al. (Jermann, Pronk et al. 2009) studied

treatment process which NOM removal was up to 94% and

the role of NOM on the separation of estradiol and

had lower energy consumption than UF-NF. Chen et al.

ibuprofen during ultrafiltration. Fouling by NOM led to a

(Chen, Su et al. 2009) developed cellulose acetate-graft-

significant increase of estradiol retention, while the impact

polyacrylonitrile

radical

on ibuprofen was negligible due to low KOC value. Ates et

polymerization process. The membranes showed 100 times

al. (Ates, Yilmaz et al. 2009) studied the removal of

higher water flux than the cellulose membrane with good

disinfection by-products by ultrafiltration and nanofiltration

oil fouling resistance.

membrane. Although ultrafiltration and nanofiltration

membranes

via

the

free

Ladhe et al. (Ladhe, Frailie et al. 2009) prepared

membranes showed high rejection of high-molecular-

silica membrane modified with mercaptopropyltrimethoxy

weight DOC, only 1.5-30% rejection was achieved for low-

silane to capture Ag ion from aqueous solution. The

molecular-weight fraction.

membrane showed good selectivity to Ag+ ion against competing cations, such as Ca2+.

Parshetti and Doong

Coagulation and Flocculation: Li et al. (Li, Yan et

(Parshetti and Doong 2009) treated trichloroethylene

al. 2009) evaluated the influence of ozone pretreatment on

wastewater by PEG/PVDF and PEG/Nylon 66 Ni/Fe

the size, zeta potential, fractal dimension, and effective

composite membranes. The removal efficiency increased

density of coagulated flocs. Their results revealed that the

with increase of Ni loading and complete dechlorination of

fractal dimensions increased with increasing ozone does, resulting in densely packed flocs. Chiang et al. (Chiang,

1722


Chang et al. 2009) tested the effects of pre-ozonation on the

solution of pH 7, 97% phenol removal was obtained after 2

removal of THM by coagulation. Pre-ozonation altered the

h, attributed to the combined effect of sweep coagulation

hydrophobicity of NOM, thus enhanced the removal.

and adsorption.

Gerrity et al. (Gerrity, Mayer et al. 2009) compared the Chemical Treatment

performance of photocatalysis and enhanced coagulation for the removal of disinfection byproduct on pilot scale.

Ozonation: Biard et al. (Biard, Couvert et al. 2009)

Photocatalysis by TiO2 led to increased chlorine demand

tested dimethyl disulphide removal using ozone and

and trihalomethane formation potential, which made it less

hydrogen peroxide by a compact scrubber configuration.

favorable compared to enhanced coagulation.

With this configuration, the removal of dimethyl disulphide

Guo et al. (Guo, Wu et al. 2009) studied Sb(III) and

increased from 16 to 34% attributed to the improved mass

Sb(V) removal by coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation

transfer rate.

using different coagulate agents. It was found that the

evaluated the effect of several metal oxides and metal

coagulant type, Sb species and pH had more pronounced

oxides supported on activated carbon on ozone degradation

influence on the performance than coagulant dose and

of three compounds, aniline, sulfanilic acid and Acid Blue

initial metal concentration.

Aber et al. (Aber, Amani-

113. Those metal oxides containing mixtures of cerium and

Ghadim et al. 2009) studied Cr(VI) removal from synthetic

manganese or cerium and cobalt exhibited the highest

and real wastewater using electrocoagulation process and

mineralization degree. Coelho et al. (Coelho, Sans et al.

modeled the results with artificial neural network.

2009) treated dichlofenac with ozone and tested its

Maximum removals were achieved by Al and Fe at

biodegradability

concentration of 0.15 and 0.98 mg/L, respectively and the

dichlofenac removal and 24% mineralization were achieved

model correlated the results reasonably well with a R2 of

with 0.68 mM of ozone in 30 min. Additionally, the treated

0.976.

water

Hyung and Kim (Hyung and Kim 2009) investigated

Faria et al. (Faria, Monteiro et al. 2009)

exhibited

and

less

toxicity.

toxicity

More

than

potency

99%

and

of

more

biodegradability compared to the parent compound.

the removal of C-60 by conventional drinking water

Rivas et al. (Rivas, Gimeno et al. 2009) investigated

treatment processes. Conventional water treatment process

the degradation kinetics of a pharmaceutical compound,

efficiently removed the pristine C-60 but organic matter

ranitidine,

coating reduced the efficacy slightly. Abdelwahab et al.

mineralization was achieved and only at alkaline condition,

(Abdelwahab, Amin et al. 2009) treated phenol containing

i.e., pH = 11 was capable of increasing the conversion to

oil wastewater by electrochemical process using a cell with

70%. Rosal et al. (Rosal, Rodriguez et al. 2009) treated

horizontally oriented aluminum cathode and a horizontal

caffeine by ozonation in aqueous phase and investigated the

aluminum screen anode. At high current density and a

parameters that affected the kinetics. Results indicated that

1723

by

ozonation.

However,

only

20-25%


alkaline condition led to higher ozone decomposition and

reaction, comparing with dark that yielded only 57%

caffeine degradation.

mineralization.

De Witte et al. (De Witte, Van Langenhove et al.

assessed

Balci et al. (Balci, Oturan et al. 2009)

the kinetics

and

mechanisms of

atrazine

2009) studied levofloxacin ozonation in aqueous phase

degradation by electro-Fenton reaction. Up to 82%

under various conditions of pH and initial chemical

mineralization was achieved with absolute rate constant of

concentrations. The degradation rate doubled at pH 10

2.54 x 109 M-1s-1.

compared to pH 7, indicating direct ozonation was the dominant mechanism.

Ben et al. (Ben, Qiang et al. 2009) investigated the

Lucas et al. (Lucas, Peres et al.

degradation

of

six

veterinary

antibiotics in

swine

2009) treated vinery wastewater with ozonation process in

wastewater by Fenton process. Under optimal conditions,

a pilot-scale bubble column reactor. A steady COD

high COD removal was achieved and was indifferent to the

reduction was observed and the reaction rate increased with

background COD and suspended solids.

increase of pH.

(Melero, Martinez et al. 2009) evaluated the performance

Melero et al.

of Fenton-like process to treat industrial pharmaceutical Ultrasound Treatment: Nakui et al. (Nakui, Okitsu

wastewater. The TOC degradation was 50% after 200 min

et al. 2009) studied the effect of coal ash and pH on the

in a batch stirred tank reactor and 60% in a fixed bed

decomposition and adsorption behavior of hydrazine in

reactor.

sonochemical treatment. It was found that the ultrasonic

Trovo et al. (Trovo, Nogueira et al. 2009)

decomposition occurred at pH 1 and 8. However at pH 4,

investigated sulfamethoxazole degradation by solar photo-

hydrazine was removed mainly by adsorption, and no

Fenton process in distilled water and seawater. Due to ion

decomposition by ultrasonic irradiation was observed.

interference, the degradation and mineralization of parent

Panchangam et al. (Panchangam, Lin et al. 2009) evaluated

compounds were hindered in seawater compared to

the role of sonication in the photocatalytic decomposition

distilled water. Sirtori et al. (Sirtori, Zapata et al. 2009)

of perfluorooctanoic acid. The authors reported that

studied the feasibility of using solar photo-Fenton to treat

physical dispersion of TiO2 and improved mass transfer

industrial pharmaceutical wastewater. The toxicity of the

enhanced the degradation rate.

wastewater was decreased due to the increase of biodegradability which led to over 95% of DOC removal.

Fenton/Fenton-Like Treatment:

Kassinos et al.

Masomboon et al. (Masomboon, Ratanatamskul et al.

(Kassinos, Varnava et al. 2009) compared the Fenton

2009) treated 2,6-Dimethylaniline by Fenton process under

degradation of atrazine and fenitrothion in dark and light in

various conditions. At pH 2, 2 mM of ferrous ion, and 20

the presence of H2O2. Both parent compounds were

mM of hydrogen peroxide conditions, 70% COD removal

completely eliminated within 5 min with photo-Fenton

was achieved and the intermediates identified were 2,6-

1724


dimethylphenol,

2,6-dimethylnitrobenzene,

2,6-

reaction was orbital-controlled and were highly influenced

dimethylbenzoquinone, 3-hexanone, maleic acid, acetic

by adsorptive capacity.

acid, formic acid, and oxalic acid. Gonzalez-Olmos et al.

Antoniou et al. (Antoniou, Nambiar et al. 2009)

(Gonzalez-Olmos, Roland et al. 2009) treated MTBE with

investigated the degradation pathway of creatinine by

Fenton-like process using iron-containing zeolites, Fe-

photocatalysis. It was found that the initial pH governed the

ZSM5 and Fe-Beta, in the presence of H2O2. Results

reaction pathway and additional transformation steps were

showed that Fe-Beta had slower reaction rate but higher

identified under acidic condition. Bastos et al. (Bastos,

H2O2 utilization than Fe-ZSM5.

Eriksson et al. 2009) studied the degradation of

Guan et al. (Guan, Dong et al. 2009) evaluated the

polybrominated phenoxyphenols, metabolized compound

effect of competing anions on As(III) removal during

of brominated flame retardants, using photolysis under

KMnO4-Fe(II) process. The presence of competing anions

various conditions. Results indicated that the degradation

decreased As(III) removal in the decreasing order of

rate was highly dependent on solution pH, and the presence

phosphate > humic acid > silicate > sulfate. Iurascu et al.

of hydrogen peroxide, but was indifferent to the chemical

(Iurascu,

structure of the compounds.

Siminiceanu

et

al.

2009)

evaluated

the

performance of Fe-laponite Fenton agents prepared at

Arslan-Alaton et al. (Arslan-Alaton, Olmez-Hanci et

various temperatures using phenol degradation as an

al. 2009) evaluated treatment of four commercial aryl

indicator. Complete phenol removal was achieved with all

sulfonates, namely, naphthalene sulfonic acid, H-acid, K-

Fe-laponite and the catalyst prepared at 350 oC had the best

acid, J-acid and benzene sulfonic acid using H2O2/UV-C

performance.

photohydrolysis. This photodegradation process was not

Martinez and Bahena (Martinez and Bahena 2009)

effective in dealing with aryl sulfonates, especially

treated chlorbromuron urea herbicide by electro-Fenton

trisulfonated K-acid. Echavia et al. (Echavia, Matzusawa

process with a reticulated vitreous carbon cathode and

et al. 2009) investigated the photo-degradation of three

platinum anode. Total organic carbon removal efficiency

pesticides, acephate, dimethoate, and glyphosate, in water

was influenced by cell voltage, pH and initial herbicide

using

concentration.

decomposition of target compounds was achieved within

UV

light

and

TiO2-silica

gel.

Complete

60 – 105 min. Miranda et al. (Miranda, Yanez et al. 2009) Photocatalytic

Treatments:

Bekbolet

et

al.

studied

the

removal

of

methylmercury

by

TiO2

(Bekbolet, Cinar et al. 2009) used quantum mechanical

photocatalytic reaction assisted by UV-A irradiation. Under

approach (Density Function Theory) to explain the

optimal conditions, more than 95% of methylmercury was

degradation mechanism of dinitronaphthalene isomers by

removed within 2 min irradiation.

Degussa P25 TiO2 nanoparticles and reported that the

1725


Chin et al. (Chin, Jurng et al. 2009) prepared various

synthesized CNT-TiO2 composites by sol-gel method and

V2O5/TiO2 nanoparticles and evaluated their catalytic

tested its photocatalytic activity by degrading methylene

capability exemplified by 1,2-dichlorobenzene oxidation.

blue. The initial oxidation rate was enhanced by one fold

Results revealed that the target compound was removed at

compared to pure TiO2 sample due to the supporting CNT.

46 and 95% at 150 and 200 oC, respectively. Devi et al.

Belessi et al. (Belessi, Lambropoulou et al. 2009)

(Devi, Murthy et al. 2009) studied the photo-degradation of

prepared a magnetic photocatalyst by modifying TiO2

five synthetic dyes using TiO2 and Mo-doped TiO2 under

nanoparticles with γ-Fe2O3. All magnetic photocatalysts

solar light. Slight acidic environment was favorable for the

exhibited good catalytic activity towards propachlor

degradation of anionic dyes and pH 8.0 condition is more

degradation and were reused several times without losing

favorable for removal of cationic dyes.

their photoactivity. Chang et al. (Chang, Hou et al. 2009)

Chan and Chu (Chan and Chu 2009) studied the

prepared Zr-doped TiO2 nanoparticles and assessed their

effect of cobalt on the degradation of atrazine by TiO2

photocatalystic activity. The sample calcinated at 950o C

heterogeneous photolysis process. The treatment efficacy

exhibited 40 times higher activity than P25 due to the co-

was pH dependent; the highest degradation rate was

doping of TiO2 surface with Zr4+ and phosphate species.

observed at neutral pH range. Among the cobalt salts

Malagutti et al. (Malagutti, Mourao et al. 2009)

studied, only CoCl2 inhibited reaction rate. Bassaid et al.

studied the photocatalytic activity of Ag-doped TiO2

(Bassaid, Robert et al. 2009) found that the performance of

nanostructured thin film using rhodamine B degradation as

TiO2 photocatalyst was improved in the presence of

indicator. Results indicated that Ag(0.25%):TiO2 thin film

calcium oxalate and attributed the improvement to the high

enhanced the photocatalytic activity due to the electron

adsorption capacity of target compounds onto TiO2.

transfer from TiO2 to Ag that reduced electron-hole

Esquivel et al. (Esquivel, Arriaga et al. 2009) loaded

recombination.

Wang et al. (Wang, Geng et al. 2009)

TiO2 on semi-conductive optical fiber electrode and

prepared Au/ZnO nanorodes with large surface area and

assessed its performance in a photoelectrochemical reactor.

controllable spatial distribution and concentration of Au.

The photo-generated H2O2 increased by 50% with this

The

configuration compared to other types of TiO2 film.

compared to other TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles exemplified

Bouazza et al. (Bouazza, Ouzzine et al. 2009) prepared

by degrading Rhodamine B.

photocatalyst

showed

higher

degradation

rate

CNT-TiO2 hybrid materials with various crystal structures

Hou et al. (Hou, Li et al. 2009) loaded Cu2O highly

and compared their photocatalytic activity. The degradation

oriented on TiO2 nanotube array and compared its

rate of propene strongly depended on the crystalline

photocatalytic efficiency with non-coated TiO2 electrode in

composition following the order: rutile < anatase
Pt >> Ti/RuO2. Gao et al. (Gao, Zhao et al. 2009) studied the effect of

Chemical Reductions: Cao et al. (Cao, Wu et al.

microwave radiation on the electro-chemical degradation of

2009) studied the effect of multicomponent gas additives

1728


on NO reduction. Both experimental and model results

site derived clay sediments with 19.59% removal only.

indicated that CO, CH4 and H2 addictives decreased the

Geng et al. (Geng, Jin et al. 2009) studied the effect of

optimal temperature for NO reduction.

Nakatsuji et al.

chitosan coating on the removal of Cr(VI) by ZVI

(Nakatsuji, Yamaguchi et al. 2008) studied NOx reduction

nanoparticles. Results indicated that the chitosan coated

with Rh-based catalysts in presence of SOx. NOx was found

ZVI had great stability and exhibited 3 times higher Cr(VI)

to be selectively reduced with CO at a high efficiency and

reduction rate than the ethanol-water stabilized ZVI.

SOx drastically enhanced the selectivity of NOx reduction.

Chemical Soil Remediation: Gomez et al. (Gomez,

Jagtap et al. (Jagtap, Umbarkar et al. 2009) synthesized

Alcantara et al. 2009) developed a two-stage process using

Ag/Al2O3 catalysts with 1 (wt) % of SiO2 or TiO2 doping

electrokinetic to mobilize beno[a]pyrene from kaolin and

and tested the catalytic activity by reducing NOx. Ag/Al2O3

electrochemical method to degrade the target compounds.

doped with TiO2 or SiO2 showed consistent NOx reduction

They demonstrated that 76% of benzo[a]pyrene were

with high SO2 tolerance.

recovered from kaolin at pH 7 and 73% could be degraded

Lin et al. (Lin, Liou et al. 2009) investigated the reduction

of

trichloroethylene

bimetallic

2009) treated diesel fuel polluted soils by surfactant

nanoparticles. Dramatic enhancement of degradation rate

washing. Results showed that the sodium dodecyl sulfate

was observed with more than 99% of mineralization.

removed 97% of diesel fuel after 4 hr treatment in column

Garetto et al. (Garetto, Vignatti et al. 2009) prepared

experiments.

Pt/Al2O3 catalyst and

tested

by

Pd/Sn

within 16 hr. Khalladi et al. (Khalladi, Benhabiles et al.

its capability of the

Alcantara et al. (Alcantara, Gomez et al. 2009) treated

hydrodechlorination of tetrachloride. The catalyst showed

PAH contaminated soil by surfactant desorption followed

good reactivity and was regenerated under air with full

by electrochemical degradation. Among the five tested

recovery of its catalytic capability.

surfactants, Tween 80 exhibited the best mobilization of

Rao et al. (Rao, Mak et al. 2009) investigated the

PAH from kaolin. In the electrochemical treatment process,

effect of humic acid on arsenic removal by zero-valent iron

the degradation rate of PAH tested followed the order of

from groundwater. It was found that the reduction reaction

benzanthracene > fluoranthene > pyrene, which was the

was inhibited by the presence of humic acid due to the

same order of their ionization potential.

formation of soluble Fe-humate.

Katsenovich and

Kim et al. (Kim, Ryu et al. 2009) studied the

Miralles-Wilheim (Katsenovich and Miralles-Wilheirn

feasibility of catholyte conditioning with acidic solution as

2009) studied ZVI and palladized bimetallic particle on the

pretreatment to remediate Zn and Ni contaminated soils.

degradation of trichloroethene in batch and column

The acidic pretreatment enhanced the Zn and Ni removal

experiments.

by 41 and 40% , respectively, after 4 weeks of operation.

Results

indicated

that

the

palladized

bimetallic particles were less active compared to ZVI in the

1729


Biological treatment

Fenton oxidation process as a pretreatment substantially

Aerobic treatment: Belfoldi et al. (Felfoldi, Szekely et al.

improved the removal of pharmaceuticals prior to discharge

2010) studied the treatment of coal coking wastewater by

to municipal wastewater treatment plant. O’Grady et al.

aerobic activated sludge process. Phenol degradation at

(O'Grady,

concentrations up to 1500 mg/L was achieved. Members of

biodegradation of 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol (EE2) by

the Thiobacillus genus were detected in the activated

Rhodococcus species. Results showed that when an

sludge, and were supposedly responsible for the intensive

alternative carbon source was available Rhodococcus

thiocyanate biodegradation observed in the system. Essam

erythropolis and Rhodococcus equi removed EE2 up to

et al. (Essam, Amin et al. 2010) isolated a phenol degrading

47% in 13 h and 39% in 65%, respectively. Wang et al.

strain

the kinetics of phenol

(Wang, Lee et al. 2009) studied biological degradation of

degradation. Alcaligenes TW1 utilized phenol as both

acrylic acid from municipal and industrial wastewaters

carbon and energy source and its growth kinetics were well

using two strains: Ralstonia solanacearum and Acidovorax

described by the Haldane kinetics model. Liu et al. (Liu,

avenae. Generally Ralstonia solanacearum showed better

Nikolausz et al. 2009) isolated two strains (Acinetobncter

ability to degrade acrylic acid and also tolerated

sp. XA05 and Sphingomonas sp. FG03) from activated

acrylonitrile toxicity than Acidovorax avenae.

(TW1) and

studied

Evangelista

et

al.

2009)

studied

the

sludge and phenol contaminated soil that showed high

Shnghal and Thakur (Singhal and Thakur 2009)

phenol degradation. Experiments in suspended and attached

isolated three fungus strains from pulp and paper mill

cells showed that the latter had slightly better phenol

wastewater which showed capable of significantly reducing

degradation.

color (more than 50%) and lignin content (35-40%).

Moussavi et al. (Moussavi, Khavanin et al. 2009)

Asgher et al. (Asgher, Azim et al. 2009) utilized a white rot

studied the phenol removal by a catalytic ozonation process

fungus for the degradation of dyes in textile industrial

combined with biological treatment. The process was most

wastewater.

efficient at pH of 8 and was not affected by water salinity

temperature, and starch concentration as a carbon source.

up to 50 g/L of NaCl.

El-Rahim et al. (El-Rahim, El-Ardy et al. 2009) studied the

The

process

was

optimized

for

pH,

Badawi et al. (Badawy, Wahaab et al. 2009) and

effect of pH on the degradation of “textile direct violet dye”

Sirtori et al. (Sirtori, Zapata et al. 2009) studied a combined

by Aspergillus niger fungal strain. At optimum pH value of

Fenton oxidation as pretreatment step for the treatment of

2, 3, 8, and 9, 98.9, 97.3, 97.0, and 97.3% color removal

wastewaters

containing

was achieved, respectively.

pharmaceutical

compounds

pharmaceuticals. were

not

removed

The by

Kim et al. (Kim, Ahn et al. 2009) isolated three

conventional biological wastewater treatment process and

bacterial strains from pulp wastewater treatment plant

were found to adsorb on sludge flocs. The application of

sludge, e.g. Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella oxytoca,

1730


and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia that showed capability

sufficiently for the sludge to be suitable for landfill

of phenanthrene degradation. Results showed that the

disposal.

bacterial consortium successfully degraded phenanthrenen

Sattler et al. (Sattler, Garrepalli et al. 2009)

while very low phenanthrene degradation was observed in

studied carbonyl sulfide (COS) removal in anaerobic

pure cultures.

biofilter using three types of media including aged compost, fresh compost, wood chips, or a compost/wood

Anaerobic treatment: Cagnetta et al. (Cagnetta, Intini et

chip mixture. Results showed that H2S did not have adverse

al. 2009) utilized isolated aerobic bacteria Burkholderia

effect on

xenovorans to degrade PCB in marine sediments.

compost/wood chip mixture. Also the age of the compost

Combination

had no effect on COS removal rate.

of

mechanochemical

two (MC)

complimentary pretreatment

techniques followed

COS

degradation

for the

compost and

by

Zupancic and Gotvajn (Zupancic and Gotvajn

biological treatment was shown to be an effective method

2009) studied anaerobic biodegradation of pharmaceutical

for PCB degradation in marine sediments with 50% of PCB

waste fermentation broth mixed with pig slurry and corn-

removal in less than 8 days under proper operating

grass silage. At low concentrations of the pharmaceutical

conditions.

broth with organic loading rate (OLR) of 1.8 kg/m3-d (in

Chen et al. (Chen, Lin et al. 2010) studied the

addition to OLR of pig slurry and corn grass silage of 1.5

effect of oxygen on the reductive dehalogenation of

kg/m3-d) resulted in 79% of COD removal and methane

pentachlorophenol (PCP). Results showed that the highest

production rate of 30.9 L/d. However, the process failed

dehalogenation

after 20 days when pharmaceutical broth concentration was

was

achieved

at

headspace

oxygen

increased

reductive dechlorination of PCP was negligible.

pharmaceutical broth was used with adding a mixture of

Pehilivanoglu-Mantas and Ozturk (Pehlivanoglu-

to

OLR

of

2.2

kg/m3-d.

percentage (HOP) of 40 to 60%, while at HOP of 80-100%

When

only

pig slurry and corn-grass silage the process failed in 10

Mantas and Ozturk 2009) studied sludge stabilization from

days.

leather and textile industries under aerobic and anaerobic

Chen et al. (Chen, Kao et al. 2009) studied the

conditions. Aerobic treatment resulted in greater volatile

biodegradation of tetracyanonickelate (TCN) by Klebsiella

suspended solids (VSS) and total organic carbon (TOC)

oxytoca under anaerobic conditions. K. oxytoca utilized

removal for sludge from leather industry, whereas both

TCN as the nitrogen source and complete TCN degradation

aerobic and aerobic stabilization gave similar results for

was achieved in 14 days. Methane was the final product of

sludge form textile industry. In both cases, however, VSS

TCN biodegradation The study also showed that TCN

and TOC removal was in the range from 38 to 60%,

degradation was impacted by high concentrations of nitrate,

indicating that the sludge organic content did not decrease

nitrite, or ammonia.

1731


Pires and Momenti (Pires and Momenti 2009)

titrate and ammonia inhibited TCN biodegradation. The

studied the combination of anaerobic biodegradation with

end product of TCN degradation was methane with

ozonation, UV radiation and ozonation in the presence of

optimum pH of 7.1.

UV radiation to remove highly persistent compounds from the wastewater of a cellulose kraft pulp plant. Only

Bioreactors: Vlyssides (Vlyssides, Barampouti et al. 2009)

anaerobic degradation in horizontal anaerobic immobilized

studied the effect of ferrous iron on the performance of

sludge bed (HAISB) allowed 50% removal efficiency for

upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) for the treatment

COD and adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) and 80%

of diary wastewater with COD of 1500 to 11000 mg/L. The

removal efficiency for BOD. Application of post ozonation

addition of ferrous iron resulted in substantial improvement

brought the combined removal efficiency for AOX and

in COD removal rate. The sludge settling characteristics

COD to 96% and 70%, respectively. Application of post

also improved with increase in feed COD that was

advanced oxidation processes (AOP) did not affect BOD

attributed to the formation of ferrous sulfide.

concentration, which allowed the wastewater to be

Zhang et al. (Zhang, Zhao et al. 2009) employed

processed by a second step biological treatment to further

combined UASB with microbial fuel cell-biological aerated

reduce the organic content of the wastewater.

filter (UASB-MFC-BAF) for the treatment of molasses

Karadima et al. (Karadima, Theodoropoulos et al.

wastewater (COD = 127,500 mg/L) with parallel electricity

2009) evaluated the toxicity of wastewater from cheese

generation. The process allowed 53.2, 52.7, and 41.1%

manufacturing after anaerobic treatment for hydrogen

removal of COD, sulfate, and color, respectively, while

production. Results showed that the effluent toxicity to

generating electricity with power and current densities of

zebrafish, Thamnocephalus and Daphnia was due to high

1410.2 and 4947.9 mA/m2, respectively.

concentrations of PO43-, SO42-, NH3, and NO3- in the treated

Combination of catalytic advanced oxidation

effluent. Sakai et al. studied (Sakai, Kurisu et al. 2009)

process (CAOP) O3/MgO/H2O2 with biological treatment in

isolated a culture from lotus fields that degraded benzene

a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) also showed a great

under methanogenic conditions. Results implied that

potential for the treatment of wastewater with high

benzene was degraded by sequential degradation by

concentration of formaldehyde (Moussavi, Yazdanbakhsh

fermenting bacteria, hydrogen-producing acetogens, and

et al. 2009). CAOP removed 75 and 65.6 % formaldehyde

methanogens.

and COD, respectively. The final effluent after SBR was

Chen et al. (Chen, Kao et al. 2009) studied the

free of formaldehyde and contained less than 60 mg/L

effect of nitrogen sources and pH on the anaerobic degradation

tetracyanonickelate

(II)

COD.

[K-2[Ni(CN)(4)]

Leitao et al. (Leitao, Araujo et al. 2009) studied

(TCN) by Klebsiella oxytoca. Results showed that nitrate,

anaerobic degradation of coconut husk liquor (CHL) in

1732


UASB. CHL was effectively treated even at high OLR of

advantage of removing the remaining phenol from

10 kg/m3-d generating biogas with methane concentration

hydrolytic/acidogenic reactor.

of 75%. COD and tannins removal efficiency was 80% and

Zang et al. (Zhang, Huang et al. 2009) studied a

78%, respectively.

combined biofilm electrode reactor for phenol degradation.

Wijetunga et al. (Wijetunga, Li et al. 2010) used

A 100% phenol degradation rate in the biofilm supported

UASB to treat wastewater from textile industry. The study

on a TiO2 electrode was achieved in 18 h, which was better

involved discoloration of the wastewater with different dye

than separate electrochemical and biological treatment.

concentrations and COD loading of up to 3000 mg/L. It

COD removal of such a combined bioreactor was at 80% in

was found that more than 85% color removal at all dye

16 h also outperforming separate electrochemical and

concentrations and COD loading was due to biodegradation

biological treatment. Bajaj et al. (Bajaj, Gallert et al. 2009)

of Acid Red 131 and Acid Yellow 79 while Acid Blue 204

studied the degradation of phenol by a mixed culture in

was removed due to adsorption onto anaerobic granules.

aerobic fixed bed reactor at concentrations of 7 mmol/L.

Gonzalez-Gutierrez

(Gonzalez-

The growth kinetics were well described by the Haldane

Gutierrez and Escamilla-Silva 2009) studied azo dye

kinetic model with rate constant of µmax = 0.3096 h-1, half

reactive red 272 degradation in hybrid UASB and activated

saturation constant Kx = 0.7933 mmol/L, and inhibition

carbon bed. The main factors that affected the dye removal

constant Ki = 6.887 mmol/L. The very high Ki value

efficiency were initial concentrations of dye, electron donor

indicated high adaptability of the mixed culture to phenol

and the residence time in the reactor. Annuar et al.

degradation.

and

Escamilla-Silva

(Annuar, Adnan et al. 2009) studied azo dye Trypan Blue

Ince et al. (Ince, Kolukirik et al. 2009) studied the

degradation by fungal biomass of Pycnoporus sanguineus.

effect of toluene on composition and activity of acetoclastic

The discoloration efficiency was directly proportional to

methanogens in UASB. Results showed that the inhibition

the dye concentration and temperature with first order

of methagenic activity was directly proportional to the

degradation rate.

increase in

toluene

concentration. The

activity

of

Donoso-Bravo (Donoso-Bravo, Rosenkranz et al.

acetoclastic genus Methanosaeta was shown only slightly

2009) studied phenol degradation in Anaerobic Sequencing

affected by toluene concentration. Martinez-Hernandes et

Batch Reactors (ASBRs). The feed contained 5 g/L of COD

al. (Martinez-Hernandez, Olguin et al. 2009) studied the

derived from phenol and glucose as a co-substrate. Nearly

effect of carbon source, e.g. acetate, on the treatment

100% phenol degradation was achieved in 10 days in a

toluene contaminated wastewater in UASB. Decrease in

single stage reactor (hydrolytic/acidogenic reactor). A two

acetate loading resulted in reduction of toluene degradation

stage reactor (hydrolytic/acidogenic –methanogenic) had an

and nitrogen consumption rates. Three times increase in acetate-C/toluene-C ration resulted in two-fold increase in

1733


toluene degradation rate. Camarill and Rincon (Camarillo

surface of activated carbon was covered with biofilm

and Rincon 2009) studied the inhibition of microbial

eliminating the adsorption as one of possible ways of VOC

activity by various organics such as olive oil, ethanol and

removal.

phenol in UASB. Results showed that the COD removal

Hort et al. (Hort, Gracy et al. 2009) studied the

rate was independent on olive oil concentration. The

removal of ammonia and volatile sulfur containing organic

methanogenic activity, however, was strongly affected by

compounds (VOSC) by sewage sludge and yard compost as

the presence of ethanol and phenol at concentrations of 250

a biofilter media. Removal efficiencies of 100% for VOSC

and 150 mg/L, respectively.

and 94% for ammonia were achieved.

Biofilters: Wang and Wu (Wang and Wu 2009) studied the

Bioremediation: The use of genetically engineered

removal of high-molecular-weight organic compounds in

endophytic

membrane bioreactor. Organics with molecular weight in

phytoremediation of TCE contaminated sites (Weyens, van

the range of 100 kDa were degraded to lower molecular

der Lelie et al. 2009). Introducing the TCE degrading strain

weight in the range from 10 to 100 kDa. Under oxic

Pseudomonas putida to TCE contaminated soils showed to

conditions a small fraction of the organic matter was

reduce evapotranspiration of TCE by 90% in the field

transformed to higher molecular weight compounds that

conditions. The poplar root endophyte P. puptida W619-

were further retained by the membrane.

TCE was engineered by horizontal gene transfer of TCE

Cai and Sorial (Cai and Sorial 2009) utilized a combination

of trickling

bed

biofilter

with

bacteria

substantially

enhanced

metabolic activity.

cyclic

Lee et al. (Lee, Yoon et al. 2009) combined

adsorption/desorption bed to treat a mixture of volatile

bioleaching with electrokinetics that showed a substantial

organic compounds (VOCs), e.g. toluene, styrene, methyl

cost saving for arsenic removal from mine tailing soil under

ethyl ketone (MEK), and methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK).

anaerobic condition. In anaerobic conditions arsenic was

Below critical loading of 34.0 g/m3-d, 99% COD removal

mobilized by anaerobic culture that utilized As(V) as an

efficiency was achieved. At COD loading rate above the

electron acceptor. Anaerobic mobilization followed by

critical value also stable degradation of the VOCs was

electrokinetic precipitation allowed 66.5 % of arsenic to be

observed, but with efficiency less than 99%.

removed from soil.

Smolin et al. (Smolin, Shvidenko et al. 2009)

Xie et al. (Xie, Tang et al. 2009) isolated an XP-

studied the removal of aromatic compounds, e.g. o-

M2 strain from Pseudomonas genus that successfully

nitrophenol, o-aminobenzoic acid with activated carbon

degraded aromatic compounds in soils. The culture

biofilter. The removal mechanism was shown to be solely

degraded 10 mg/L of benzoate in 12 h. The kinetic

due to biodegradation of the aromatic compounds. The

1734


parameters

for

the

Andrews

model

for

benzoate

supplied as electron acceptor benzene was only partially

degradation were KS = 2.47 g/L and KI = 3.81 g/L.

degraded. When chlorate was used for in-situ oxygen

Bhowmik et al. (Bhowmik, Asahino et al. 2009)

generation, benzene was completely degraded within four

studied the bioremediation of ground water form PCE

weeks. Kang et al. (Kang, Park et al. 2009) studied the

contaminated

sites

and

effect of aging on bioremediation of crude oil contaminated

biostimulation.

During

soil

sites by a diesel degrading strain Rhodococcus sp. YS-7.

microbial culture was found to be dominated by multiple

The strain disappeared in aged soils 36 days after the

species, while during biostimulation the dominant species

inoculation. The study showed that saturated aliphatic (SA)

were β-proteobacteria species. PCE degradation was shown

and aromatic hydrocarbon (AH) fractions of the aged crude

to proceed via reductive dehalogenation.

oil contaminated sites were the most toxic to the

via

natural

natural

attenuation

attenuation

the

Rhodococcus sp. YS-7.

Perpetuo et al. (Perpetuo, Marques et al. 2009) Chromobacterium

Kalyani et al. (Kalyani, Sharma et al. 2009)

violaceum with a cloned phenol monooxygenase gene from

studied the biodegradation of soils contaminated with

Escherichia coli. The phenol degradation showed the

endosulf, a widely used pesticide. A strain that degraded

accumulation of two reaction intermediates catechol and

endosulf was identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which

hydroquinone implying that orto or para hydroxylation of

was capable of degrading α- and β-endosulf with only

phenol was the main initial step in phenol degradation.

2.12% production of endosulfan sulfate during 20 days of

Nagamani et al. (Nagamani, Soligalla et al. 2009) isolated a

innoculation.

studied

phenol

degradation

by

strain (Xanthobacter flavus MTCC 9130) that was capable

Matsumura et al. (Matsumura, Hosokawa et al.

of utilizing phenol as a sole carbon source in phenol

2009) isolated 26 bacterial strains capable of degrading

contaminated soils with phenol at concentrations up to

bisphenol-A

1100 mg/L, but bacterial growth was suppressed at higher

from 85 contaminated soils samples in Japan. The isolated

phenol concentrations. Dastager et al. (Dastager, Deepa et

strains belonged to Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, and

al. 2009) reported isolating a strain (Pantoea strain NII-

Bacillus groups. HPLC analysis suggested different

153) that utilized phenol as a sole carbon source and used

bisphenol-A degradation pathways within the groups, but

for wastewater treatment and soil remediation. The strain

all of them could be used for the bioremediation of

showed high tolerance for phenol at concentrations up to

contaminated soils.

900 mg/L.

(BPA,

2,2-bis(4-Hydroxyphenyl)propane)

Muller et al. (Muller, Vogt et al. 2009) isolated

Langenhoff et al. (Langenhoff, Richnow et al.

toluene degrading bacterial consortium from BTEX

2009) studied the remediation of soils contaminated with

contaminated aquifer under anoxic conditions. Analysis

benzene under anaerobic conditions. When nitrate was

showed that the consortium was comprised of 12 strains

1735


types mainly composed of Deltaproteobacteria (several

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1739


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1740


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1741

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1742


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1744


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1746


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1747


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