Higher Education English Language Teaching and Research in Mexico

Higher Education English Language Teaching and Research in Mexico Edited by: Patricia Grounds and Caroline Moore

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Project coordinator Patricia Millán Editors Patricia Grounds Caroline Moore Publishing editors S+S Editores Cover design and layout A. Cynthia Castañeda Hernández Photography British Council images bank Higher Education English Language Teaching and Research in Mexico First edition, 2017 D. R. © British Council México Lope de Vega 316, Colonia Chapultepec Morales C. P. 11570, Delegación Miguel Hidalgo, México, D. F. www.britishcouncil.org/mexico.htm ISBN 978-0-86355-858-0 © All rights reserved. No part of this text may be reproduced, published, distributed, displayed, performed, copied or stored for public or private use in any information retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any mechanical, photographic or electronic process, including electronically or digitally on the Internet or World Wide Web, or over any network, or local area network, without written permission of the rights holder. © Todos los derechos reservados. No está permitida la reproducción, publicación, distribución, exhibición,


copia o almacenamiento, para uso público o privado, por cualquier sistema de recuperación de datos, ya sea electrónico, mecánico, fotográfico, o por medios electrónicos o digitales a través de Internet, o mediante cualquier otra red de área local, sin permiso por escrito de los propietarios de los derechos. The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international organisation for cultural relations and educational opportunities. We are a registered charity in England and Wales. We create international opportunities for the people of the UK and other countries and build trust between them worldwide. El British Council es la organización internacional del Reino Unido para las relaciones culturales y las oportunidades educativas. Estamos registrados como una organización sin fines de lucro en Inglaterra y Gales. Creamos oportunidades internacionales para la gente del Reino Unido y otros países y construimos la confianza entre ellas en todo el mundo.

Printed in Mexico • Impreso en México Higher Education English Language Teaching and Research in Mexico terminó de imprimirse en marzo de 2017 en los talleres de XXXXXXXXX(Nombre del impresor), S. A. de C. V., (XXXX Dirección del impresor), México, D. F.

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Table of Contents Page Chapter 1 Contextualising Teacher Development in English language Teaching in Higher Education in Mexico: Moving towards the PhD. Patricia Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 2 Developing Autonomous and Communicative Skills in Groups of Beginner English Language Learners at a Mexican University Ma. de Lourdes Rico Cruz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Chapter 3 The Emerging Identity of Pre-service Teachers during the Practicum Component of a Second Language Teacher Education Programme at a Mexican State University Ana María Elisa Díaz de la Garza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Chapter 4 The Challenge of EFL Writing Assessment in Mexican Higher Education Elsa Fernanda González . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Chapter 5 Researching Attitudes towards English in Higher Education Gandy Griselda Quijano Zavala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Chapter 6 Current Trends in English Language Teaching in Mexico Caroline Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

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Chapter 1

Contextualising Teacher Development in English Language Teaching in Higher Education in Mexico: Moving Towards the PhD

Patricia Grounds

The British Council/University of Southampton Online MA in ELT: Founding e-tutor

Introduction The aim of this introductory chapter is to provide a context that underlines the significance of the research projects included in this volume. Four of the five studies are original PhD research projects by Mexican doctoral students who were supervised by the University of Southampton. The studies were presented at the foreign language seminar at the 2015 Guadalajara International Book Fair. The significance of these research projects can be partly appreciated through an understanding of the importance of this international event. However, by retracing some of the key steps in the gradual construction of a career path for English teachers in Mexican public higher education (HE) institutions over more than twenty-five years, I hope to emphasize the value and the implications of current doctoral research being undertaken in Mexican universities. It can take decades to plan and implement changes in English language policies at a national level, and to develop a parallel training and professionalization process for the teachers who have to put the innovations into practice. The research which is going on at PhD level in Mexico today proves that the days when simply speaking English well was enough to earn a place as a university English language teacher are over. It has been a long 1◗


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Higher Education English Language Teaching and Research in Mexico

journey, involving many international collaborations; however, I will only refer to those in which specific UK and Mexican organizations have had a part to play. At university level, this began with the introduction of initial pre- and inservice courses in English language teaching (ELT), then undergraduate and MA courses. Now, some 25 years later, an MA in ELT is coming to be seen as the minimum professional requirement for university English teachers in Mexico. Many aspire to earn their PhD and beyond. For members of the many different institutions who have in some way participated in this journey, reading about research at this level is quite edifying. It is also important for research that is going on in Mexico to be shared with other professionals in the field, in order for these contributions to reach the wider local and international academic discussion on ELT. This chapter sets out to very simply describe some of the major teacher training and development projects that have been jointly planned by Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP (Mexican ministry of education) and the British Council, together with UK and Mexican HE specialists and institutions. This will show the process through which the professional profiles of English teachers at Mexican HE establishments have developed over the past 25 years. It will also provide a context for the papers on PhD research projects that were presented by Mexican HE teachers at the FIL 2015. I will conclude the chapter by briefly introducing the researchers. They all have taken part in this process in some way, in addition to their respective research projects. Starting in the present: The year of the UK in Mexico and the Guadalajara International Book Fair 2015, The Year of the UK in Mexico, heralded a program of special projects to further existing links and create new connections between the two countries. In short, the overarching aim of The Year of the UK in Mexico was to reposition each of the two countries in the perceptions of their people and enrich relationships at all levels of society. This was done through numerous activities in culture, education and business. Much of this work has been the focus of the British Embassy and the British Council office in Mexico City. Both institutions work to strengthen cultural relations between the UK and Mexico through building links between UK people and institutions and their Mexican counterparts. ◗2


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Patricia Grounds ◗ Chapter 1

The Guadalajara International Book Fair, second in the world only to the book fair held in Frankfurt, is hosted by the University of Guadalajara. In 2015 the FIL chose to invite the UK as its Guest of Honour. Every year, since 1993, this privilege has fallen to a different country and is an essential facet of the event. It underscores the international and multicultural vision of the fair. In 2015, this honour provided an opportunity for the United Kingdom to showcase the best of the British publishing industry and present current trends in literature, culture and education. No fewer than 1 983 publishers from 44 different countries exhibited at the fair. According to the official FIL website, 787 435 members of the public attended in person. Some 607 books were presented. Alongside these presentations, there were a further 124 literary fora and 94 other cultural events. A selection of the rich and diverse cultural life associated with the United Kingdom, including performing and visual arts, music and cinema, were brought to Mexico at the FIL. Running parallel to the activities already mentioned were fora in education. The subjects covered in the FIL academic programme are always wide ranging. This year, some 21 separate academic events took place and attracted outstanding academics from institutions all over Mexico and the world. It was this academic programme that the six authors of this volume participated in, and which inspired this publication. English teachers who have worked, and most of whom are still working full time, in English language departments at Mexican public universities, wrote the chapters here. Four of the authors, Ana Maria Elisa Díaz de la Garza, Elsa Fernanda González Quintero, Gandy Griselda Quijano Zavala and Maria de Lourdes Rico Cruz, are currently completing their PhD studies at the University of Southampton, UK. For over a decade, the University of Southampton has played a key role in the development of on-going teacher education opportunities for Mexican university teachers. This volume provides a snapshot of the range of University of Southampton PhD research projects that are currently being carried out in Mexican public HE institutions. Each of the four articles provides an example of the quality and impact that current collaboration between the UK and Mexican governments and HE institutions is making in public university English language teaching. These 3◗


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collaborations also strengthen important internationalization policies. The other two contributors to the volume, Patricia Grounds and Caroline Moore, as well as participating with the University of Southampton online MA in ELT from its earliest beginnings, have both been involved in other British Council and Mexican Government teacher training projects for English language teaching at different levels. Since the 1990s they have participated on panels, along with other experts from the University of Southampton and the British Council (UK), in the academic programme at the FIL. Here, Grounds and Moore each share their perspectives on the professionalization of English language teaching across Mexico and the direction in which ELT has been moving since the end of the last century. Over twenty-five years of UK collaboration with Mexican HE institutions Ever since the British Councils’ establishment in Mexico in 1943, it has collaborated with the SEP and other UK and Mexican institutions to provide different types of teacher training support for English teachers. They have run large and smaller-scale projects in both the public and private sectors and at all levels of education. These have included conventional, distance and online training. As the demand has grown and changed in nature, technology development has stimulated continuous innovation. The point of focus of this book, however, is principally the public HE sector. Intense and on-going discussions of English language policy in HE between the SEP, the British Council and Mexican HE institutions go back to the early nineties, when political and other events suddenly put English language teaching and learning into the spotlight in Mexico. Work towards the accomplishment of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, signed in December 1992 and instigated in January 1993) was well under way by then. Those with a vision of the future could see an inevitable increase in demand for Spanish/English bilingual Mexican professionals in all fields, in the imminent and continuing future. The NAFTA agreement, conceived to stimulate growth in trade and international relations among the participating countries, justified a significant investment in the improvement of English language teaching and learning policies and practices. Additionally, experiments in using educational technology and a growing awareness of the probable benefits of autonomous learning were ◗4


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already burgeoning in public education systems in other parts of the world. The Mexican government began to see possibilities for combining these developments in their education policies in general, and more specifically in the development of new approaches to English language teaching at their public universities. In 1990, SEP set up an initial scheme—with the help of the British Council Mexico and the University of Cambridge, UK—to provide training for university teachers of ELT in each of the 32 states of the country. This was through the Certificate for Overseas Teachers of English or COTE, now updated and entitled the In-service Certificate in English Language Teaching or ICELT. In Mexico today, this qualification is officially recognised by the SEP as a minimum professional requirement for teachers in public schools and universities all over the country. It is also acknowledged as one of the key requirements (in combination with qualifications, tests and experience) to earn a BA in ELT offered by the SEP. A year later, in 1991, the Mexican Advanced Professionalization Programme or MAPP project, for the upgrading of training and qualifications among English teachers at Mexican public universities was formally introduced. The idea of this project was to build on the initial training made available through COTE/ICELT courses and certificates, and provide access to BAs in ELT. This capacity-building project became possible thanks to the strengthening relationship between the British Council, Mexico, the Mexican government (SEP) and the British government, as well as through the support of the Overseas Development Organization (later restructured as the Department for International Development). Five British Universities and 31 Mexican public universities took part. All five BA courses were given by UK university specialists and held at different locations in Mexico; the success rate of these early international BA courses was calculated at 75 per cent (Treffgarne 1999). Teachers from all 31 public universities participated and many graduated successfully. Later, research was carried out in all the universities that had allowed teachers to participate in the BA programmes, to measure the impact of the training and capacity building they had received (ibidem). A summary of anticipated and non-anticipated benefits for institutions whose teachers participated (Aguilar 1997: 197) included such elements as: 5◗


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“greater professionalism, better problem management/identification, better job opportunities for women, having more women in key positions in language departments/schools, enhanced interest in teacher training and education, interest in postgraduate education, more academic dialogue, decision making that results in learner benefits, awareness of teachers’ role in the education system, awareness of change, a new conceptualization of teaching, learning and language, interest in learning how to learn and autonomous learning, more learner-centred decision making, more reflective/analytical teachers, an interest in research and better management of change.”

Not only had there clearly been positive outcomes from these initial training activities, the demand for qualified English teachers continued to grow. Universities began to include English in the wider undergraduate curriculum on a massive scale and the numbers of young people being admitted to HE institutions snowballed with national population growth, especially of this age group. The existing capacity to offer English classes in the faculties and language centres was not able to supply this new, nationwide and rapidly increasing demand for English. Only a few of the existing teachers from each of the 31 public universities had been able to participate in the UK/Mexican BA programmes; only a small number of local universities were in a position to offer their own undergraduate programmes in ELT. COTE/ICELT courses continued in different parts of the country, but urgent measures had to be taken immediately to create greater access to English language learning facilities. It was thought that educational technology and autonomous learning facilities, made available to motivated students in new or renovated spaces equipped for independent learning, could perhaps help to fill this gap. This would also require the training of staff and the development of context-sensitive learning to learn programmes. The aim of these programs would be to stimulate greater initiative and autonomy in the teachers and learners, and help them to use the proposed new resources to the best advantage. In 1993, teacher graduates from the UK/Mexican BA in English language teaching (ELT) programmes were either putting their new knowledge and skills into effect at their local universities or going on to study MAs in ELT abroad with government grants. The Mexican National Self-access ◗6


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Centres (SAC) Project was conceived and inaugurated. Thanks to a series of continuing agreements signed by the SEP, the British Council Mexico and the chancellors of 34 Mexican public HE institutions, this project lasted from November 1993 until the end of 1997. Courses that developed teachers’ understanding of the theory and skills underlying successful autonomous learning, and learning to learn strategies were implemented. Other courses in designing, setting-up and running SACs, took place both in Mexico City and in other regions over these four years. British Council national and international training specialists visited the participating Mexican universities to give on-site training and consultancy. These specialists always stressed the importance of adapting theory and experience, developed and derived from other contexts, to the needs of local institutions, teachers and students. The SAC facilities’ equipment and resources were jointly funded the by the institution and the SEP. Each of the 34 higher education institutions found or built a new space for their SAC and appointed staff to set-up and run them. Selected SAC staff received more specialised training in academic management and administrative skills and competences. This included the development of strategies for sustainability, to ensure the dynamic durability (Grounds, 2008) of their SAC. It was hoped that further specialised training for SAC administrators and tutor/counsellors would increase the chances of survival of the SACs. Networking activities across the country and with UK institutions had increased since the beginning of the MAPP project, supporting the continuation of ELT and specialised SAC training. Gradually, both federal and state institutions realized that an ICELT/COTE certificate, a BA in ELT and specialized training in theories and practices surrounding SAC learning were still only steps in the creation of a more complete career structure. This was especially the case if an operational professional body of English language teachers was to be created and expanded as an on-going process. Consequently, in 1997, joint funding was found for a number of SAC staff to participate in a Distance MA in Educational Technology run by the University of Manchester. Gradually, SEP grant awarding bodies began to make it possible for increasing numbers of teachers to go to the UK and other English speaking countries to study an MA in ELT.

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The urgent demand for properly qualified English teachers in other sectors of education in Mexico continued to grow. New educational reforms at the beginning of the 21st century brought English language learning to sixth form colleges, secondary and primary schools, and even pre-schools. More Mexican university English language departments had to prepare themselves to become trainers of English teachers to supply the demand for qualified teachers in their own states. A body of more specialized ELT professionals was also needed to guide policy dialogue and decisions in the future. The demand for qualified English language teachers at all levels of education could not be supplied by providing grants for teachers to study MAs and PhDs in other countries alone. This demand is still growing today, as the number of undergraduate students continues to boom, and the establishment of specific levels of English as an undergraduate exit requirement becomes increasingly generalized across HE institutions. At the time of writing, in an effort to train teachers for their own communities increasing numbers of Mexican private and public universities are creating or consolidating their own BA–or MA–in ELT. As the nineties progressed, SAC facilities continued to complement English courses and support the growing demand for English in HE. Many universities set-up more centres on each of their campuses, and some even installed a centre in every faculty, school or institute. Innovations in ICT and their increased use for the enrichment of learning continued to inspire new options for learning in general, and likewise for language learning. Unfortunately, it seemed that many SACs had not updated their learning resources and approaches over almost a decade. In 2002, the British Council funded a piece of research with the purpose of collecting and analysing data to show how the SACs were working as part of English language teaching programmes at universities. The findings (recorded in an internal document) suggested that further training/updating of SAC staff was advisable. This was aimed at to stimulating and supporting the development of an on-going and never-to-end process of innovation for the future. So from 2003–2007, the British Council worked together with the SEP, UK and Mexican institutions on a new SAC project. This time, the focus was on training activities to help SAC staff to actively engage with online learning resources. A repository for products of this training was set up through a new project, in the form of a ◗8


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national, shared, online bank of practice materials for independent study in English for specific purposes (ESP). Undergraduates in health sciences, business administration, TEFL and tourism would be able to study English using materials related to their studies. Through the same project, an exchange programme was set up among a number of UK and Mexican universities. This project built upon internationalization policies, promoted professional networking, and improved knowledge and skills through international experience. A second aim of this project was to provide in-country experience for SAC staff and students. Through this programme, each participating Mexican university sent at least one member of its SAC staff to a UK university. There they worked with UK colleagues in a SAC for a three-month attachment period. At the same time, each Mexican university received a UK undergraduate in foreign languages to work as an assistant counsellor in their SACs. In this way, Mexican SAC staff were able to familiarize themselves with other ways of working in SACs in the UK. At the same time, Mexican undergraduates, often located in towns where there were very few opportunities for interaction with native English speakers, had the chance to get to know a young Briton from their own age group. They built academic and often social relationships, using English as the tool for communication. From the early nineties on, and much more intensively after the year 2000, traditional opportunities for state-funded HE in each state have been extended by rapidly expanding “sub-systems”. Technological universities have grown in strength and number, with over a hundred spread across the country at the time of writing. In the year 2000, the new system of polytechnic universities was established, and by 2015, over 60 of these were already offering a wide range of BA and some MA course in subjects related to administration, industry and commerce. All of these institutions include English in their broader curriculum, and a certain level of English, which varies from one institution to another, has become an exit requirement for all subject areas. Added to these 160-plus newer universities are the over 30 autonomous public universities, some with ten or more campuses across their state. Since these new institutions also included English as a curricular subject, some technological and polytechnic universities participated in 9◗


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the new 2003–2007 SAC project. Some of the original public universities did not. Over 70 self-access counsellors across the country participated in training sessions to improve their knowledge and skills in developing computer-based and online English learning resources. The aim of this was to make these digital tools an integral part of the self-access learning experience. It was hoped that these teacher/counsellors would, in turn, go on to train their colleagues in their respective universities. The repository of materials on which course participants collaborated was found at the public website English for universities, E4U . Towards the end of the project period, in 2006, the Universidad Veracruzana, UV (university of Veracruz) took over the general coordination of the E4U website, having hosted the platform since its inception. All 32 universities participated in the SAC exchange programme. The greatest number of exchanges was made possible through the initiative and support of Professor Clare Mar-Molinero and her team at the University of Southampton. The Universities of Leeds and Nottingham Trent also participated actively. All 39 Mexican SAC counsellors who were sent on attachments to UK universities were invited to attend professional development courses during their work attachment periods in England. Building on this opportunity, several decided to enrol on an MA in ELT. Some stayed on at their UK host university, while others came back to Mexico to find ways of funding their postgraduate studies. According to research carried out by Dr Rod Bolitho, of the University College of St. Mark and St. John, UK (2006), based on data from all the Mexican universities who had participated, the second SAC project was successful in many ways. The report comprised a data-driven description of Bolitho’s evaluation and perception of the quality of training and exchange activities. It included examples of good practice, emphasized possible risks to the innovations and made a number of strong recommendations in relation to project sustainability and future development. At the time of writing, some universities are still taking advantage of continuing opportunities to send their SAC staff to the University of Southampton for work attachments. However, many public universities in Mexico have been experiencing a high staff turnover rate. Just as was the case after the first SAC project, it is difficult to ensure that staff who receive specialized training ◗ 10


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will stay in their posts indefinitely. It is not even sure that they will share their new knowledge and experience with their colleagues in order to strengthen the impact of the innovations. Equally serious, it is becoming hard to predict how much longer the SACs will continue to exist. Unless they continue to innovate and offer new services to learners that cannot be accessed anywhere else, there will very soon be little point in going to the SAC to access online materials. These are now widely available through smart phones, laptops and home computers. Many universities, whether autonomous (for example, the autonomous university of the State of Hidalgo, or the Juarez university of the State of Durango) or technological (for example, Universidad Tecnológica de Sonora) are currently experimenting with custom-made teaching materials. These include blended and online English courses. In the future, students will not necessarily need to go to conventional classes, or even to the SAC. We have reported what learners would like to see in their SACs and made suggestions for possible changes in the future (Moore and Grounds 2016a). While these national projects were developing, individual public universities, such as the Universidad Autónoma de Yucatan, the Universidad de Colima, the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, among others, were contracting different kinds of training for their staff. These included further online courses in e-tutoring, training in the design of online courses, training the trainers courses (to develop cadres of trainers within individual institutions who could develop counselling skills and plan research projects), among other things). A major project to develop affordable standardized English proficiency tests at the University of Veracruz, with consultancy from the University of Cambridge local examinations syndicate research and validation team and a specialist from Surrey Roehampton University set a precedent for high-quality test development in Mexico. Several publications have emerged from this endeavour, and the EXAVER exams today are officially acknowledged by the SEP for accreditation of English proficiency. This is alongside international exams such as those awarded by Cambridge English Language Assessment and Trinity College. One area of English language teaching professionalization, which is rapidly gaining momentum amongst English language teachers not only within HE in Mexico but also around the world, is the development and 11 ◗


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certification of teachers via virtual learning environments. I will go on to examine this trend in the following section. Opening up opportunities for online study The British Council Mexico, began to develop online training opportunities for English language teachers and set up its own open and distance learning unit at the beginning of the 21st century. The unit aimed to develop on-line training courses for English teachers and consultancy services for schools and universities at a time when many were already contemplating integrating e-learning into their curricula. The first Online Course in E-tutoring was developed at the request of SEP, and aimed to train teachers at public universities. After the initial project was completed in 2005, there was a continuing demand from universities to train more teachers in e-tutoring skills, as well as in the development of online learning materials and courses. The University of Colima, in the west of Mexico, at the vanguard of virtual learning in Mexico, received a substantial number of trainings from the unit, as did others, over the following years. At the same time, an Online ICELT and an Online Diploma in the Development of ESP Materials were developed, and specialists from the University of Southampton carried out an external evaluation of the diploma course in 2007. Dr. Vicky Wright (then Director, Centre for Language Study) and Professor Clare Mar-Molinero (then Head of Modern Languages), found the course to be a well-run, well-organised course with exemplary content and pedagogical underpinning. They congratulated the course leader, Dr. Simon Harris, on the management, organisation and delivery of the course. As a result of these evaluation activities, discussions began between the British Council Mexico and the University of Southampton regarding the joint development of a postgraduate certificate that would include and build on this existing diploma. In 2008, the Postgraduate Certificate in English Language Teaching (PGCert)—a new online English language teacher education qualification leading to a University of Southampton award—was delivered to teachers working at the public universities of Baja California, Campeche, Carmen, Colima, Durango, Hidalgo, Michoacán, and Nayarit by the British Council Mexico. This was made possible through a number of strengthening ◗ 12


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partnerships. First, the University of Southampton provided academic consultancy, assessment and validation of the postgraduate certificate course, lending it recognition on the international stage. Then the SEP supported the project, encouraging universities throughout Mexico to enrol English teachers. It provided funding for them through a grant-awarding body known as the Programa de Mejoramiento del Profesorado PROMEP (programme for the professional development of teachers) currently restructured and entitled Programa para el Desarrollo Profesional Docente, PRODEP. Last but not least, the public universities already mentioned by name above, whose teachers comprised the first cohort of students, facilitated the coordination of activities to allow teachers to participate in the course. Mexican teachers now had access to an online English language teacher education qualification. This was awarded by the University of Southampton and run in collaboration with the British Council, using the Moodle course management system. The postgraduate certificate consisted of four units of course work, each worth 15 postgraduate credits. Participants completing the first two units (two semesters) of the certificate, would obtain the British Council Diploma in Teaching ESP, recognised by SEP as equivalent to an especialidad, and by the University of Southampton as a full 30 postgraduate credits. To earn the full postgraduate certificate, equivalent to 60 postgraduate credits with the University of Southampton, two further semesters would need to be completed. A successful candidate could then apply for an MA in ELT, which would consist of a further 60 coursework credits and a dissertation (also worth 60 credits). After piloting, partly funded by SEP, and regular updating and improvement of materials and affordances on the basis of data collected through course evaluations every semester, the MA in ELT: Online was developed. This has now become a joint global project shared internationally between The British Council and the University of Southampton and currently offers access to online MA studies. Of the 63 students who received Mexican government grants to complete the PGCert (later, the MA in ELT: Online), ten have already gone on to continue with PhD studies at the University of Southampton. Others have been accepted to PhD programs in Mexico and abroad. In the new global 13 ◗


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cohort, that includes students from different contexts, from all over the world, many self-funded, there are currently 85 participants working on the various courses. Some 50 of these are Mexican university teachers funded by the Mexican government, while the remainder are mainly self-funded. The 45 Mexican teachers currently at some stage of the distance PhD process run by the University of Southampton also receive funding from the SEP. Before concluding, it is important to underline the important contributions to teacher education and development also made by other UK institutions over the years of work covered in this paper. As mentioned before, it is natural to have focused on those teams with whom I worked most closely, as a colleague. Nonetheless, simply by looking at the qualifications of Mexican academic staff working on the BA and MA programmes now running at Mexican universities, the Universities of Manchester, Kent, Warwick, Aston, Canterbury Christ Church and the University College of St Mark and St John all stand out as key contributors to the process of professionalization supported by UK/Mexican collaboration. By reading the work of Ana Maria Elisa Díaz de la Garza, Elsa Fernanda González Quintero, Gandy Griselda Quijano Zavala and Maria de Lourdes Rico Cruz, presented at the FIL 2015, it is clear that tremendous progress has been made in teacher education at public universities in Mexico over the last 25 years. It is no longer a distant dream to think of English teachers as researchers. Joint projects such as those developed by the British Council with the SEP and UK and Mexican universities have gradually raised expectations of employers and English teachers. Emerging from a nonexistent professional career structure, a vision of an on-going progress that begins with basic pre- or in-service training in the form of COTE/ICELT, and moves on to a BA in ELT and MAs in ELT is becoming more readily accessible to Mexican university English teachers. There is already a palpable demand for PhD options. Introduction to the authors and their research Here, I will introduce the writers and briefly mention the nature of their contributions to this book.

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Ma. de Lourdes Rico Cruz works at Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, UAQ (the autonomous university of Queretaro). She was one of the participants in the initial SAC project from (1993–1997). She went to the UK for a work placement during the period of the second SAC project (2003–2007). She went on to complete her MA in ELT and now she has just successfully finished her PhD at the University of Southampton. During her 20 years of professional experience, she has been involved in teaching English, teacher training and the design and implementation of numerous ELT projects. These include setting up and coordinating SACs at the different campuses of the UAQ, setting up and coordinating different language centres, and the joint administration of the National English Programme for English in Basic Education (NEPBE) for the State of Queretaro. Her general research interests include the cognitive, affective and social domains of collaborative foreign language learning, teacher and learner autonomy and second language acquisition. In Chapter 2, Rico Cruz writes about her research into self-regulation as a support for English language learning among groups of Mexican undergraduate students working in a SAC. She reports on her mixedmethod research concerning the regulatory mechanisms of 16 beginner English language learners interacting in groups while completing languagelearning tasks. Ana Maria Elisa Díaz de la Garza is a teacher trainer at Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas (autonomous university of Chiapas). She has successfully completed the COTE and has earned a M.Ed. in Teacher Training of English Language Teachers from the University of Exeter, UK. She is a member of a research group investigating professional development and language teaching and has carried out various research projects and published articles. In Chapter 3, she writes about her doctoral thesis Emerging Pre-service: Teacher Identity Throughout the Practicum Component of Second Language Teacher Education, with which she has just successfully finished her PhD at the University of Southampton. The focus of her study is to examine how the practicum influences early professional identity construction; how personal- and school-related factors influence early identity construction; and how reflective practice in the practicum influences PST and professional identity development. 15 ◗


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Elsa Fernanda González works at Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas (the autonomous university of Tamaulipas) where she is the coordinator of the BA in Applied Linguistics. Her main research interests are testing and writing in English as a Foreign Language (EFL). She was awarded the British Council Prize for Research in Testing in 2015. In Chapter 4, she writes about her PhD research project, describing the preliminary results of an on-going study, funded by the British Council and carried out under the 2015 Assessment Research Awards and Grants (ARAGs) program. The study explores the difficulties that EFL teachers face when assessing writing in their classrooms; Gonzalez starkly contrasts these difficulties with the constraints decision makers face when managing an EFL program in Mexican universities. Gandy Griselda Quijano Zavala has an MA in Linguistics from the University of Ohio. She began her teaching career by giving English lessons to adolescents and later she taught adults who were working for oil companies in the State of Campeche. She has been working for the Universidad Autónoma del Carmen (autonomous university of Carmen) for 15 years. She first taught English at the language centre and later became part of the academic staff of the Department of Education. She continues to work as a teacher trainer on courses for future English language teachers. Some of her main interests include: motivation in language learning, testing, teaching methodology and sociolinguistics. In Chapter 5, she describes her quest for deeper understanding of the process of English language learning and factors that favour or hinder the learning of a foreign language. She is now close to finish her PhD at the University of Southampton. All credit for Chapters 2–5 in this volume must go exclusively to the PhD candidates themselves, and their PhD supervisors, at the University of Southampton. Caroline Moore has an MA in Applied Linguistics from the University of Essex, UK, and PhD in Language Studies from the University of Kent. She has been involved in ELT and teacher education since the 1990s. She has worked with the University of Guadalajara as a full-time lecturer and for the British Council as an academic consultant. She is a senior tutor at the Southampton ◗ 16


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online MA in ELT, in collaboration with the British Council, Mexico. In the final chapter, she describes tendencies in ELT that have become apparent in Mexico as we have moved out of the 20th and into the 21st century. She goes on to describe trends that seem to be gathering strength in ELT in the various sectors of education. She discusses market needs, the national curriculum for preschool, primary and secondary schools, the relevance of ELF and CLIL approaches, the advantages of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) as a national benchmarking tool, the appropriateness of current English language achievement and proficiency standards, and current developments in self-directed learning in Mexico. Pat Grounds holds a PhD from Canterbury Christ Church University, an MA in Applied Linguistics from UKC, Canterbury and a BA in German and Russian from the University of Reading. She worked as a full time member of British Council Mexico’s ELT department for 16 years and has been involved in various projects for teacher development in HE in Mexico, including COTE/s. She participated as tutor on the BA in ELT from Thames Valley University, and has coordinated two national SAC projects, the British Council/University of Veracruz EXAVER project, and other major projects in ELT in Mexico and Cuba. She is currently an independent consultant, while continuing to work as senior e-tutor for the British Council/University of Southampton’s online MA in ELT. Her involvement in the numerous projects described in sections 3 and 4 above places her in an excellent position from which to reflect back on the process of teacher development in Mexico since the early 1990s. The lessons learned from these decades of fruitful collaboration and partnerships with the Mexican government, its higher education (HE) department, and major UK and Mexican HE institutions and their staff, have contributed to the professionalization of ELT in Mexico. In the public sector of HE in particular, this is a process that benefits from collaborative efforts and stakeholders with a strong commitment to achieving change. It is hoped that through on-going policy dialogues and international discussion, UK/Mexican collaboration in providing quality ELT services for teachers and learners will continue.

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Concluding remarks The purpose of this first chapter has been to situate the research projects presented at the 2015 FIL Guadalajara by Mexican university teachers and leading academics from the Autonomous University of Queretaro, Autonomous University of Chiapas, Autonomous University of Tamaulipas and the Autonomous University of Carmen. There has also been an examination of the wider context of the development of a sound career structure for English teachers in Mexican HE through international collaborative projects. The focus on what has been happening in HE, as described in this chapter and in the four research projects presented hereafter, feeds into our closing chapter. This takes a step back from the sector of HE to look at trends in ELT from a broader educational context within Mexico. I began by describing something of the nature and importance of the FIL and then retraced some of the key events in the development of a career path for English teachers in Mexican public higher education (HE) institutions. Any emphasis that may be perceived is more to do, first, with the specific roles I played myself, and second, with the project documents to which I still have access, rather than any intention to imply that some stages of development have been more important than others. What I have tried to underline is how the existing professional development opportunities for English teachers in HE in our context, which now include the whole range of education opportunities from pre-service training to PhD research, are the result of a solid history of collaboration between Mexican and international organizations. Again, it is important to stress that other countries and other organizations have also intensely engaged in this process, but I have recalled only major undertakings which were jointly planned by SEP and the British Council, together with a number of UK and Mexican HE specialists and institutions. There is also some emphasis on support received from the University of Southampton, from whose PhD programme the four research articles are derived (Chapters 2–5). The profiles of the researchers and their respective research projects speak for themselves. The ELT departments and schools in Mexican public universities are achieving a better understanding of the English language learning process than ever before and their academics are able to contribute to international discussion in our field. ◗ 18


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Those who have participated in the creation of this publication hope that it will serve to inspire those involved in ELT in institutions all over Mexico and in other countries across the globe. It is necessary to provide the conditions for English teachers to continue with their education as a lifelong project. It is equally important to understand that it takes years of consistent and concerted effort to create appropriately qualified bodies of professionals, on a national scale, at any level of education. We hope that employers and employees will increasingly come to see research as an essential part of the lifelong-learning process of English teachers in higher education. By engaging in this process, teachers will not only participate in international projects and exchanges, but also instigate them. They will not only become better implementers of policy and curriculum decisions, but also achieve the status of decision makers themselves. This authority will come not just from taking courses, but also from a solid background of accumulated experience in practical investigation for the improvement of the quality of learning. References Aguilar, J. (1997), ‘Determining the Unanticipated Outcomes and Using These as Benchmarks for Future Projects’, in McKay, V. and K. Treffgarne (1999) (eds.) Evaluating Impact. Education Research Paper No. 35. DFID. Bolitho, R. (2006), ‘External Evaluation Report: Inglés Virtual en tu Centro’, internal document of the British Council Mexico. Grounds, P. E. (2004), ‘Ten Years of Collaboration in ELT: Accounts from Mexico’ [CD], Chapter 18 (Mexico: British Council). McKay, V. and K. Treffgarne (1999) (eds.) Evaluating Impact. Education Research Paper No. 35. DFID. Moore, C. and Grounds, P.E. (2016) ‘The Evolution of the Self-Access Centre in Mexican Higher Education Institutions: Listening to the Student’s Voices’. (211–240 ), in R. Espinoza Sánchez and M. Vargas Aceves (eds.) Encuentros y Desencuentros Disciplinares en Investigacion: Estudios Sociales y Económicos (México: Universidad de Guadalajara).

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Chapter 2

Developing Autonomous and Communicative Skills in Groups of Beginner English Language Learners at a Mexican University

Ma. de Lourdes Rico Cruz

Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, México

Abstract Over the last few decades, researchers in applied linguistics have shown interest in developing a better understanding of self-regulated learning and its association with success and autonomy. Sociocultural theory claims that self-regulation initially emerges from a dynamic social mediation that serves to gain control of strategic actions towards learning—a process that cannot be separated from the act of receiving assistance from others (Lantolf and Thorne 2007). However, very little has been done to understand group regulation mechanisms in education; that is, the degree of control the learners have over their learning, while interacting in groups, without the guidance of a teacher. For the purposes of this study, a mixed method research model was designed and included a detailed analysis of forty hours of conversations among students engaged in group activities. Sixteen adult learners of English at a beginning level of proficiency (A1-A2 in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, CEFR) participated by interacting in groups of four people. They were audio and video recorded during their weekly learning meetings in a self-access centre at a Mexican university over a nine-week period.

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The findings reveal that beginner learners interacting in group-work face the challenge of finding solutions to problems by negotiating and sharing meaning. Under favourable circumstances, English learners can improve their communicative skills and practise their autonomy in such activities. Key words: group work, autonomy, communication, beginners Introduction Current trends in global education policy have introduced a discourse oriented towards actions for the development of autonomous citizens. Much has been said about the importance of helping learners to develop learning to learn skills. These skills aid lifelong learning, help learners become more autonomous and thus create a more democratic world. For instance, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has emphasized the necessity to foster self-regulated learning and skills for collaboration and teamwork as well. Similarly, The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has placed their focus on the relevance of learner-centred education; that is to say, aligned with the learners’ needs and interests. English language learning has not been excluded from the discourse used in general education. For example, The Council of Europe proposes through the CEFRL the use of portfolios (Goullier 2007) as a strategic action to help learners to develop autonomy. In the document Common European Framework and Portfolios (2007), Goullier suggests that autonomy could be fostered in language learners through self-assessment, their control over the decisions of their learning pathways and reflection on the process. Autonomy, self-assessment and learner-centredness in English language learning still seem far beyond the realities of the Mexican context. According to published statistics in the last decade, teachers are more professionally equipped and cognizant of the discourse of new pedagogical trends than in the early 1990s, when important efforts to train teachers were made by SEP (Nieto 2009). Despite this fact, it is still common to observe practices of teacher-centred instruction, which do not seem to have an effective impact on students’ learning results (Nieto 2009). Some studies (RamírezRomero and Pamplón 2012) have pointed out that English classes in Mexican institutions are mainly grammar focused rather than centred on the learner’s ◗ 22


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Ma. de Lourdes Rico Cruz ◗ Chapter 2

needs. Correspondingly, there is a lack of exposure to communicative practices because the time assigned during the language class is often consumed by the excessive practice and completion of grammatical exercises in textbooks. Additionally, the situation becomes more complex when involving beginner English language learners, as it is believed that they do not have enough linguistic resources to communicate effectively in the target language. There are still few opportunities given to English language learners for communication through activities where they could exert some level of control over the learning situation. Since the sustainability of the philosophy of autonomy in English language learning depends greatly on the degree of control that language learners take over the decisions regarding their learning (Clandfield 2014), learners need to be provided with opportunities to communicate and engage in the process (Little 2013). Context of the study The inclusion of learner autonomy in English language education in Mexico presents a series of opportunities and challenges due to some specific features of the context. In order to meet the learners’ needs and foster autonomous skills, more than 64 self-access centres (hereinafter SACs), were implemented in public universities in Mexico (Chávez 1999) from 1993 to 1997. These centres emerged from a British Council initiative, in collaboration with Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP (Mexican ministry of education) and public universities in the country. The purpose was the inclusion of the philosophy of learner-centredness in tertiary education, which definitely implied the promotion of autonomy and an active role from the students (Gardner and Miller 1999). The creation of SACs started as an innovative alternative for learners (Espinoza and Grounds 2004) to access facilities with resources, equipment, materials and tutoring support in their language learning (Lázaro, Reinders, and Burns 2008; Morrison 2008). At the same time, SACs intended to encompass a variety of materials for experiencing new ways of language learning, according to the learners’ needs, styles and learning assets as individuals. Among the expected benefits were the stimulation of learning, leading to increased motivation, self-responsibility and autonomy. This was 23 ◗


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due to the fact that the learners could have some control over the content, pace and method of their learning (Reinders 2012). On the whole, these resource centres afforded opportunities to their users in their development of both English proficiency and independent learning skills. Each self-access centre created practical models that put into practice their conception of autonomy as it was perceived differently from one context to another. What was common in all of them was that learning seemed to be understood as an individual and isolated process, where the learner “takes charge” of their own learning (Holec 1981:3). This definition of autonomy demands a certain level of self-regulation from the learners. The ability “whereby learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior. This is guided and constrained by their goals and the contextual features in the environment” (Pintrich 2000: 453). Under the circumstances mentioned, the SACs in Mexico tended to offer a large number of “learning to learn” courses to language learners. The teaching was focused on strategies to plan, monitor, control and evaluate their own learning. This means courses for teaching learners about how to learn better, which does not necessarily lead to the experience of learning as a result. This is analogous to the fact that learning about the use of language does not necessarily mean that learners will be able to communicate effectively (Swain and Lapkin 2002). The way to learn to speak a language is by speaking (Daniels, 2008). It is therefore in the provision of learning opportunities that learners can experience the use of the knowledge they have. Continuing with the same argument, English language learners need to be provided with learning situations where they regain control of their own learning process in formal education settings. An alternative for this is through the promotion of collaborative work in groups. It is in group work that learners put their individual differences in learning styles, interests, motivations and personalities to the service of a common purpose: the solution to a problem.

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Theoretical background Autonomy in language learning has become a subject of interest in the field of applied linguistics in recent decades (Benson and Voller 1997; Benson 2007; Pemberton, Toogood, and Barfield 2009). This has perhaps been generated from a special emphasis on the development of life-long learning. This skill is expected to prepare individuals to contribute effectively to our modern and global society (Hoskins and Fredricksson 2008). At the same time, one of the most attractive phenomena in the eyes of scholars in education is self-regulated learning as it has been associated with the development of autonomy. This interest has transcended the field of applied linguistics and the concept of self-regulation has been explored in pursuit of finding ways to help language learners to become more strategic, reflective and successful in their L2 learning. Furthermore, this concept involves learners taking control of diverse aspects of their learning (Baumeister and Vohs 2004; Forgas, Baumeister, and Tice 2011; Oxford 1989), which in the end is the main purpose of autonomy in learning. In this respect, a wealth of literature in applied linguistics has focused on the individual characteristics of “successful” learners to understand how they learn (Dörnyei 2005; Oxford and Schram 2007). Consequently, researchers have invested their efforts in tracing the strategies that these language learners use. Many of the studies on strategies have focused on the cognitive processes that learners go through. Cognitive studies tend to be approached by looking at the psychological dimension of language learning (Hsiao and Oxford 2002; O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford 1989; Oxford and Schram 2007; Rubin 2001). Following the psychological perspective of language learning processes, self-regulation is defined as an individual process whereby learners manage their own learning. In other words, language learners take control of the different actions that could lead them to successful learning, guided by their own motivation and the goals that they set for themselves (Forgas, Baumeister, and Tice 2011; Pintrich 1995; Schunk and Zimmerman 1994). The latest current learning approaches accentuate the inclusion of the social and cultural components in learning as essential to the development of cognitive activity. Since the mid-1990s, Lantolf and his colleagues (Lantolf 2000; Lantolf and Appel 1994), have integrated 25 ◗


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sociocultural theory (SCT) into the discipline of applied linguistics in language learning, basing its principles on the work of the developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1980, 1997). Researchers with this standpoint claim that learning occurs during social interaction rather than individually. That is, interaction with others supports the development of higher mental functions (such as analysing, classifying and defining, among other functions), thought and knowledge (Wertsch 1985). Within this process of learning during social interaction, it is essential to acknowledge the function of regulatory processes, not from an individualistic view but from social mediation (Lantolf and Thorne 2007). Regulation or mediation, for the purposes of this chapter, is defined as the different mechanisms of organization and control that learners exert over the different elements of learning while interacting with others. These mechanisms go through several stages, from object-regulation to other-regulation and ends in self-regulation (Lantolf and Thorne 2007; Vygotsky 1980; Wertsch 1985), which can be identified in terms of subordination. For instance, learners tend to subordinate to objects such as dictionaries and computers to approach their learning. They rely on the assistance coming from others (parents, peers and so on) and they end up attempting “to accomplish activities with minimal or no external support” (Lantolf and Thorne 2007: 200). As the process seems to be developed during social activity, a sociocultural view of regulation needs to be oriented towards the promotion of dialogue in collaboration, which in most of the cases involves solving a problem in a task (DiCamilla and Antón 2004). Still very little has been researched with regard to the interactions that groups of learners shape in collaboration, looking at how they make decisions in relation to their learning while they are engaged in group work. This study attempts to offer a wider understanding of the regulatory mechanisms evidenced in interactions and conversations from a sociocultural perspective. The results lead to a discussion of cognitive, affective and social regulatory processes, with a special interest in groups of beginning English learners. The research takes into consideration the participants’ own reflections and the support that they give to each other.

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This is manifested in their ability to co-regulate their learning as they interact and communicate. Since the 1990s, interaction in L2 has attracted the attention of researchers. Studies in the field have caused debate with regard to the benefits and drawbacks of communicative-based learning, in terms of competence and proficiency. It is important to highlight that sociocultural researchers emphasize interaction, taking into consideration the learners’ communication needs rather than individual levels of proficiency in their language production or output. Therefore, social mediation/regulation (these two terms are used indistinctively in this study) play a fundamental role in language learning and hence deserve deeper investigation. The study of how regulation takes place in complex social interaction, such as group work, and what its characteristics are, has the potential to make an important contribution to our understanding of the processes related to communicative and autonomous skills in language learning and the means learners use to develop them. The interaction undertaken in language learning activities, whether in dyads, triads or groups, generates a common environment of regulation of actions that lead the learners to the achievement of their learning goals. In the process of the interactions, they regulate each other’s cognitive activity; in other words, while the subjects interact, the activation of the internal mental cognitive dimension of the subjects takes place. The inter-mental activity in the group leads to the intra-mental appropriation of knowledge (Kim 2001; Lantolf and Thorne 2006). The regulation that comes from other people occurs in communication, when another person regulates or controls the learning activity. Individuals share thinking, social practices and tools in groups, communities or societies. When people work together, they do not only interact, but also think together, and remember collectively (Hadwin and Oshige 2011). The participants of a group mix their knowledge and ways of doing things as essential resources in the pursuit of completing a task. The learners, in this case, support each other to achieve a common goal, they explain, imitate, support, and encourage each other to learn. The activity of collaboration leads to the sharing of common tasks and goals through interpersonal interactions. This regulatory process relies on 27 ◗


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the inter-subjectivity within the members of the teams. It involves sharing facts, ideas and explanations around a common task (Hadwin et al, 2005). In collaborative groups, there is a collective regulation in which groups develop shared awareness of progress, and individuals share regulation processes together as a collective process. At the same time, they develop selfregulatory behaviour to promote future performance without mediation. In collaborative learning tasks, learners get involved in interactivity. In the process, one learner provides assistance to help another to accomplish a specific part of the task (Pifarre and Cobos 2010) by prompting or discussing a possible solution. Sometimes, the help is provided to encourage other learners to move forward in the process. This intentional help provided by the “others” implies that this “other” has a better understanding of a certain topic or has qualities that might assist another group member to improve his/her performance (Swain et al. 2002). When learners share responsibilities in the completion of a task in social mediation, they also share strategic actions that shape the performance in the group. Once mediation is not needed, the individuals become more independent (Frawley 1997). Once again, it is important to highlight that a sociocultural perspective differs from a cognitive perspective of group regulation. The former is oriented towards the understanding of group processes, not individual and isolated achievement. Although extensive research has been carried out in attempts to understand cognitive, affective and social regulation as separated elements, there has been little discussion about the overall process of group regulation. Concerning group interactions, a large quantity of dialogues has been analysed, through both the micro and macro analysis of discourse (Hadwin et al. 2011; Swain et al. 2010; Swain and Lapkin 2002). Some findings concerning language in collaboration has afforded remarkable results with reference to dialogues among basic and intermediate English language learners. For example, it has been found that beginner learners use elliptical utterances or short, economical forms to say things and answer questions. This is because of a lack of vocabulary or grammatical resources. In other words, beginner learners of English generally tackle problems in the use of appropriate syntax of the language (Wells 1999). This phenomenon causes the learners to search for strategic ways to communicate more meaningfully ◗ 28


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and negotiate either in L1 or the target language when doing collaborative work. It is therefore important to say that in this study language use in dialogues is submitted to analysis for evidence of group mediation rather than attempting to analyse the structure of the language. Methodology a. Research questions Most of the research which has already been carried out with regard to strategic actions that learners develop in autonomous learning situations involves the participation of intermediate and advanced learners of English as a second language. The fact that beginner-level English language learners have not been included in these studies is worth noting. Some results in these studies suggest that the more proficient the learners are, the more independent they become (Lantolf and Thorne 2006); this might be a reason for the lack of research using beginner-level learners as participants. Considering the above, the present study poses the following questions: 1. Are beginner-level English language learners able to take control of their own language learning when interacting in groups in order to complete communicative tasks? 2. What kinds of autonomous manifestations can be observed when beginner language learners interact in group-work? These questions were formulated to explore the strategies that learners used to solve the problems they faced within their groups. b. The participants This study was conducted at a self-access centre in a Mexican public university. 16 beginner English language learners participated, grouped into fours. The sampling strategy used to select the participants for the purposes of this study was non-probabilistic, convenient captive sampling (Teddlie and Yu 2007). They were part of a group of 49 teachers who were taking an English course at an elementary level at a Mexican university. They were asked if they would like to volunteer to participate in collaborative learning activities in conversation clubs in the SAC. 29 ◗


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After the call for participation had been opened for this specific group of learners, 16 of them volunteered. All of them were in-service teachers of basic education (primary and/or secondary school), who worked for SEP and taught general subjects in Spanish to children from 6 to 12 years of age. All of the participants worked at elementary public schools in Mexico. All of the participants were adults, six men and ten women whose ages varied from 21 to 35. All of them shared the same demographic characteristics; they were Mexicans born in the centre of the country, so they were Spanish native speakers and they were studying English as a foreign language. Pseudonyms are used to protect the identities of the participants and preserve the confidentiality of the information presented below, bearing in mind the ethical issues surrounding this type of research. The subjects of the study were taking three English classes of one hour per class, weekly. Additionally, and as a requirement to achieve official accreditation for the course, the learners had to study at least one extra hour at the SAC. This requirement was twofold: first, to practise the contents that they had already learned during the course, and second to develop their independent study skills. Concerning the level of language, all the participants were false beginners; that is, they had studied English before in high school or even at a language centre. Their level of English varied from A1 to A2. They took a basic level A2 course, according to the CEFRL. The objectives of this course are based on the development of the four major linguistic skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking). During classes, learners were introduced to the linguistic skills of the English language with an emphasis on grammatical and lexical aspects of the language at a basic level. The factors that motivated the learners to participate in the study were a) to practice their English (44 per cent), b) to improve their communicative skills (31 per cent) and c) to increase their self-confidence and meet people with the same level of English proficiency (25 per cent). It is important to mention that, prior to these sessions learners had not met each other, since they were taking courses at different times with different language instructors.

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c. The study Each participant was assigned to a specific group and each group consisted of four members. Every group was given three tasks to complete, each to be done over three sessions. Each group met for one hour every week at the SAC to organize their activity and to discuss and complete the task. The conversations were audio and video recorded, with the participants’ written consent. Special emphasis was placed on the kinds of interactions and dialogues that emerged. Participants were also given a diary format to be completed individually, after each group session. This format was designed to help these learners to write down their reflections and impressions about their learning. This provided a further data set for analysis. Triangulation with results of the analysis of other sets of data provided stronger validation of possible research findings. During their interactions, the learners decided how to arrange their seats to work; they normally formed circles or semi-circles. They read the instructions and started the conversation. After they had completed the task, participants were given a new worksheet with the task to perform. It was meant to be completed after three sessions. There was no intervention from teachers or tutors in the session at all. However, the session was wrapped-up with some feedback from a tutor. This feedback was related to the correction of mistakes, with an emphasis on common problems in the students language use. After the completion of a task, each team was given a group assessment rubric. An evaluation format with prompts to help learners discuss how they felt, what they noticed about their knowledge or performance as a group, and, finally to self-assess their progress and interactions. In summary, there was a set of three tasks to be performed in a nine-week period. The groups met one hour per week to solve the problems contained in the tasks. In general, the tasks followed the same sequence of steps (see Figure 1); a) learners were randomly assigned a group; b) a worksheet describing the task to be carried out was given to each group; c) participants completed the task; d) participants reflected on their learning during the session and reported on their reflections through the completion of a diary format; e) a tutor wrapped up the session with feedback on any repeated mistakes made during the session. After they had finished one 31 ◗


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1. The group is given the task

6. The conversations are transcribed

7. Data analysis (transcriptions, diaries and rubrics)

2. The interactions are observed and video recorded

5. The groups assessed their performance with a rubric

8. Quantitative and qualitative data are triangulated

3. The conversations are audio recorded

4. The learners complete a diary format

9. Interpretation

Figure 1: Data collection and interpretation

complete task, on average every three weeks, the teams assessed their performance as a group using a rubric designed by the researcher. It is important to bear in mind that learners were encouraged to complete the self-assessment stage of this specific study in groups. They were able to use their L1 (Spanish) to compensate for their low level of English. This was a descriptive, mixed method mode of research (Creswell and Clark 2011) in which learners’ interactions, participation and discourses were video- and audio-recorded during their dialogues. The function of the tutor was limited to the role of an observer who provided some feedback on specific language points at the end of the task. d. The tasks A communicative task is generally focused on meaning rather than form or accuracy (Nunan 1989), and is structured to solve a problem through the interaction of participants (Ellis 2003; Lee 2000). An extensive amount of applied linguistics research has used communicative tasks to understand language and the second-language teaching process (Lee 2000; Samuda and Bygate 2008; Swain and Lapkin 2000). Tasks are used in that sense, to provide learning opportunities that encourage learners to communicate and express their ideas and viewpoints. ◗ 32


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Due to the need for collecting samples of the inter-language (or whatever language learners produced) and for analysing learning processes, three concrete learning tasks were designed for this study. Tasks were used as mediating resources, to provide the learners with opportunities to experience communication using meaning-focused language (see Appendix). The tasks were meaning oriented and even when they were principally designed for oral production, they included the practice of other linguistic skills such as reading, listening and writing. Every worksheet consisted of a pre-activity (to warm up and prepare the learners to be ready to work on the topic), several main tasks (they normally had two or three activities to complete) and a follow up activity (this was to close the discussion on that topic). Even when the tasks were communicative, they were challenging to learners. The tasks required using the knowledge they had been taught during their language courses to communicate at their basic level. Before designing the tasks, a review of the contents of the course program was done. The purpose of this was to interconnect form and function through practicing language they had already learned in their course. Every task was directed towards four main purposes: a) to engage learners in the discussion of a topic and prompt them to give their points of view, b) to solve a problem, c) to stimulate learners to take control of their learning (Gánem 2008; Swain and Lapkin 2000), and d) to develop and practice their communicative competences. For the purposes of this paper, one activity from task 1 will be presented. The complete task 1 was named “successful people” and was composed of nine activities. All of the activities related to physical descriptions and general information about successful people. The purpose of this activity was to generate basic communication through simple questions and answers. Questions such as: “What is his/her name?”, “Where is he/she from?”, “When was he/she born?” and “Why is he/she successful?” were the target language (see Table 1).

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Table 1: Activity 1 Task 1

Name

Profession / Occupation

Where is he/she from?

When was he/she born?

Why is he/she successful?

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

On the one hand, the learners would discuss who the successful people were and they would have to search for specific personal information about them. On the other hand, they were directed to use some specific grammar, such as the verb “to be.” A wide range of lexical and semantic groups such as nationalities, professions, dates, and adjectives was also part of the target language. e. Research instruments Using diverse methods of data collection enables the researcher to explore the complexity of the elements involved in the learning processes. Using multiple methods to collect data, followed by triangulation of findings can help to validate research (Creswell and Clark 2011). For this reason, data was collected through audio and video recordings of the interactions that the learners had during their completion of problem-solving tasks. Additional data came from the researcher’s observations, entries made by learners in their diary formats, and a group assessment and evaluation comment sheet (following a suggested rubric). Observation notes made by the researcher are used systematically as a technique to gain rich data from the interactions of the participants (Marshall and Rossman 2006). In this study, these were expected to complement information emerging from analysis and interpretation of the transcripts. They were mainly collected through video recordings. The written diary was used as a complementary means of capturing participants’ personal insights into their own actions, thoughts and feelings. Here, they reflected on the day-to-day activity of learning (Jacelon and Imperio 2005). ◗ 34


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Considering that for some of these learners, this was the first time they had ever used such diaries, a format was designed to help scaffold the reflection process. This provided them with some ideas on what to focus on during their writing. The group assessment rubric was designed with the purpose of eliciting group insights into the performance of the group during group work. The parameters included descriptors; these were included so that the learners could assess the nature and effects of their respective roles and collaboration in their group. The main body of data was comprised of the conversations that were recorded in the groups. Segments of the conversations generated were transcribed, analysed and categorized. f. Data analysis In all, 36 sessions were recorded, transcribed and transferred to the software data manager NVIVO 10. The dialogues were analysed and interpreted, then put into categories according to the repeated features that emerged in them. The process of coding took several stages, visiting and revisiting the data and going through a meticulous analysis of emerging patterns. g. Ethical considerations The research protocol of the study, the participant information sheet, consent form and the risk assessment formats were submitted to, and gained approval from, the Ethics and Research Governance Online (ERGO) at the University of Southampton. Once the application to conduct research had been authorised by the ethics committee, the authorities of the SAC in the public university selected for the study granted permission to implement the research with volunteer adult beginner-level English language learners. Additionally, it was important to guarantee the recognition of participants’ right to feel safe and respected at all times. To that end, each volunteer participant also signed a consent form, granting permission for the researcher to observe and record them. This was to avoid any possible complaint with regard to their being observed and recorded during data collection activities. As a way of further gaining the participants’ trust, the 35 ◗


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use of pseudonyms was promised and implemented, to protect their identity and to keep the information they provided strictly anonymous. Discussion of the results The analysis of segments of conversation was focused especially on the three main dimensions of learning: cognitive, affective and social (Forga et al. 2011; Hadwin et al. 2011; Vauras et al. 2003). In these interactions, the learners were expected to put their cognitive, affective and social resources into the achievement of common group objectives. The cognitive domain includes all comprehension efforts and learning strategies the learners use to solve the problems they faced in the conversations. The affective domain refers to the emotional control and motivation that the learners exerted in the completion of the tasks. The last domain points out the social skills that language learners in this study developed while engaging in the task. The research questions attempted to explore any evidence of autonomous actions within any of these domains. Analysing what actions the groups employed in order to overcome learning difficulties arising during these conversations. In the analysis of conversations, it was expected to find evidence of the groups of beginner level English language learners gaining control over their own learning process. Learners would face challenges in communicative situations, making learning a dynamic activity. They would exert a level of control over the interactions during the conversation. This was in order to find a solution to each problem. It is important to note, the emphasis of the study falls less on the individual than on the development of cognitive activity in group interactions. The learners in the groups first read the task and identified the problem or the activity to complete. This was an important stage in the process of learning. Once the learners had identified that they were going to solve a problem, it was then, that they understood that the activity required them to get engaged in the conversation, negotiate and agree with the other learners to complete the task. They also interacted with the learning objects they had around them: dictionaries, computers, the Internet, cell phones, and pictures. Learners had these tools readily at hand and could rely on them for assistance in solving a problem. ◗ 36


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The second level of interaction was the interpersonal. As they were working in groups, the learners had to rely on either implicit or explicit mediation or assistance from the other people in their group (Lantolf and Thorne 2007). This guidance, feedback or scaffolding was immediate. Communication was what mattered most in the completion of these specific tasks and the members of the teams demonstrated continuous mutual support throughout the task stages. In the transcripts of the group interactions, it was possible to see that the cognitive, affective and social domains of the learners dynamically intertwined in the conversations. The participants seemed to be developing skills to manage their language use in the pursuit of completing the tasks. Some specific characteristics in beginner English language learners were noted. At this level, what is discussed in the groups went beyond the grammar and vocabulary of L2. The interactions encompassed the control that beginner level learners of English are able to exert, in conversation management, mediation and negotiation. In order to illustrate the effects of the developing levels of control that the learners manifested in their interactions, an extract of one conversation produced by a group engaged in the completion of Activity 1, Task 1, “Successful lives”, is presented below. (See Task 1 and Appendix). The analysis of the transcript will serve to show how the findings of this research became apparent. The snippet of conversation in the appendix demonstrates several levels of control of the learning situation. It provides some evidence of the capacity of the group to take charge and direct their actions towards the accomplishment of their objective. In Line 1, Paco started to organize the activity, by eliciting the name of the “next” successful person. Nelly then took the floor in the conversation and proposed “Walt Disney” (Line 3). Lalo wrote the answer and asked the others for confirmation (Line 5). Additionally, whenever the group faced a lexical problem, that is, when they did not know how to say a given word in English (see Lines 8, 12, 15, 16), they followed certain strategies, such as looking up the word in the dictionary (Lines 13 and 23). When the learners did not find the correct word to express themselves they used their creativity to find other ways to solve their immediate 37 ◗


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problem of communication (see Lines 16, 17, 19 and 21). These learners, to solve vocabulary problems, used creativity. This is a skill that also requires collaborative work, where members of a group agree upon the understanding of the emergent modes of communication. Repetition of the same word or phrase, or the use of words related to the same semantic field is another common strategy used by beginner learners of English (see Lines 23–26, 29–37 and 39–52). This strategy starts when one learner models a sentence or a word, and another continues by repeating and using the same words from the previous learner’s intervention. In doing this, they show that they are capable of negotiating meaning and understanding each other. In the segment of conversation analysed in this document, there is evidence that suggests learners were in control when making decisions during group-work. It is here, in the cognitive domain of the group, where the main objective was met: to achieve the goal and solve the emerging obstacles. Similarly, there is a simple example of affective control of the work. In Line 53, Paco sighed and made a comment, gave a positive assessment and expressed a note of relief at having completed the task. Laughs (Lines 17, 19 and 22) are included in the study as regulators of affective participation. However, it should be noted that these non-verbal characteristics in the conversation have not been deeply studied, as paralinguistic elements are not the immediate focus of this piece of research. In general, the analysis undertaken shows that beginner learners of English develop strategies through mutual cognitive, affective and social support when they are working in independent groups. When looking at Figure 2, we can see an example of the learners making decisions related to the organization of work (Lines 1 and 7). Members of the group also took the initiative to use dictionaries to look up a word and were creative with their limited linguistic resources. On the whole, during group discussions, the participant’s employed all their resources to support to each other. This was guided by the final aim of completing the task. They developed communicative skills by negotiating meaning through the creative use the language and the repetition of words and phrases (as seen in Figure 2). In terms of affective support, they used ◗ 38


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Cognitive, affective and social support

Group discussion

Communicative skills

Autonomous skills

Task completion

• Negotiation (through creativity, repetition of words and phrases) • Remarks of support

• Organization of the task and turns • Learning to learn skills, such as looking up in the dictionary and other resources. • Taking decisions over their learning enviroment such as changing the positions of the chairs

Figure 2: The group regulation work

a series of evaluative remarks such as “good”, “fine” and “excellent”. There is also evidence that they were able to take control of their actions towards the achievement of their learning goals; they organized the tasks, their turns, the activities, and their environment, as well as using their resources for the completion of the task. In the end, the learners were empowered to regulate their learning. They used this opportunity to communicate effectively using the target language. What is especially valuable is that their conversation became meaningful and the target language was used for real communication and negotiation. The learners engaged socially with one another through collaboration, completing the task and taking the responsibility for their learning. Furthermore, they made decisions concerning the activity itself. Conclusions Investigating how a group of beginner level English language learners managed their learning provided an important insight into the process of 39 ◗


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English language learning. Language teachers tend to focus on grammar and vocabulary. Teachers decide what the learners have to do, and when and how they are to do it. This seems inevitable in formal education. However, giving the learners the opportunity to work independently with peers, may let them take control of, and responsibility for, their own learning. The findings of the study show that regulation in beginner-level group work is noticeable and can be developed. Essentially, it is a dynamic process where learners negotiate meaning in order to communicate in the target language. The activity of solving problems together can make the learners optimize situational learning. This can lead them to develop autonomous skills, like the ability to take control and make decisions about the resources they have at hand. This regulatory activity in groups also fosters friendship, support, empathy and positive attitudes in language learning. The participants of the teams played an important supportive role in each other’s development, which is ideal for social mediation. References Baumeister, R. F., and Vohs, K. D. (2004) (eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications (London: Guilford Press). ——— ——— (2007), ‘Self-Regulation, Ego Depletion, and Motivation’, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1/1: 115–28. Benson, P., and Voller, P. (1997), Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning (Longman Publishing Group). Benson, P. (2007), ‘Autonomy and Its Role in Learning’, in J. Cummins and C. Davison (eds.), International Handbook of English Language Teaching, 733–45, published online . Chávez, M. (1999), Centros de Auto-acceso de Lenguas Extranjeras en México. Directorio Descriptivo (Ciudad de México: CELE, UNAM). Clandfield, L. (2014), ‘Letting Go Can Be Difficult for the Teacher’, Independence, 60: 8–10. Creswell, J. W., and Clark, V. L. P. (2011), Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research (SAGE). Daniels, H. (2008), Vygotsky and Research (London: Routledge) DiCamilla, F. J., and Antón, M. (2004), ‘Private Speech: a Study of Language for ◗ 40


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Thought in the Collaborative Interaction of Language Learners’, International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14/1: 36–69, published online Dörnyei, Z. (2003), ‘Attitudes, Orientations and Motivations in Language Learning: Advances in Theory, Research and Applications’, Language Learning: A Journal of Research in Language Studies, 53/1: 3–32, published online Ellis, R. (2003), Task-based Language Learning and Teaching (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Espinoza, A., and Grounds, P., ‘Será la UV Centro Nacional del Proyecto Virtual de Inglés’, Gaceta, (nueva época), 78/81, (Xalapa: Universidad Veracruzana), published online Forgas, J. P., Baumeister, R.F., Tice, D.M. (eds.) (2011), Psychology of Self-Regulation: Cognitive, Affective, and Motivational Processes (New York: Taylor and Francis). Frawley, W. (1997), Vygotsky and Cognitive Science, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press). Gánem, G. G. A. (2008), ‘Microgénesis, Method and Object: A study of Collaborative Activity in a Spanish as a Foreign Language Classroom’, Applied Linguistics, 29/1: 120–48, published online . Gardner, D., and Miller, L. (2010), ‘Beliefs About Self-access Learning: Reflections on 15 Years of Change’, Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 1/3: 161–72. Goullier, F. (2007), Council of Europe Tools For Language Teaching: Common European Framework and Portfolios (Paris: Didier), published online . Hadwin, A. F., Järvelä, S., and Miller, M. (2011), ‘Self-regulated, Co-regulated and Socially Shared Regulation of Learning’, in Zimmerman, B., and Schunk D., Handbook of Self-regulation of Learning and Performance (London: Routledge), 65–84. ———, Wozney, L., and Pontin, O. (2005), ‘Scaffolding the Appropriation of Selfregulatory Activity: A Socio-cultural Analysis of Changes in Teacher-Student Discourse About a Graduate Research Portfolio’, Instructional Science, 33, 413–50. ———, and Oshige, M. (2011), ‘Self-Regulation, Coregulation, and Socially Shared Regulation: Exploring Perspectives of Social in Self-Regulated Learning 41 ◗


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Theory’, Teachers College Record, 113/2, 235–39. Holec, H. (1981), Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning (first published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe), (Oxford: Pergamon). ——— (2007), ‘A Brief Historical Perspective on Learner and Teacher Autonomy’, in Lamb, T.E., and H. Reinders (eds.), Learner and Teacher Autonomy. Concepts, Realities and Responses (Amsterdam: John Benjamins). Hoskins, B., and Fredricksson (2008), Learning to Learn: What Is it and Can it Be Measured? (Italy: CRELL) Hsiao, T. Y., and Oxford, R. L. (2002), ‘Theories of Language Learning Strategies: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis’, The Modern Language Journal, 86/3: 368–83. Jacelon, C. S., and Imperio, K. (2005), ‘Participant Diaries as a Source of Data in Research With Older Adults’, Qualitative Health Research, 15/7: 991–97, published online Kim, Y. (2001), ‘Self-Regulation in L2 Oral Narrative Tasks Performed by Adult Korean Users of English’ (Doctoral Thesis, Austin: The University of Texas at Austin). Lantolf, J. P., and Thorne, S. L. (2006), Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second Language Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press). ——— ——— (2007), ‘Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning’, in Bill Van Patten and Jessica Williams, Theories in Second Language Acquisition: an Introduction (New York), 197–220. Lazaro, N., and Reinders, H. (2007), ‘The State-of-the-art of Self-access in New Zealand: Results of a SWOT Analysis’, TESOLANZ Journal, 15: 42–48. ——— ——— (2008), Independent Learning Centres: Tips for Teachers (Sydney: NCELTR). ——— ——— and Burns, A. (2008), ‘Teaching and Learning in Independent Learning Centres’, Innovation in Teaching. Lee, J. (2000), Tasks and Communicating in Language Classrooms (Boston: McGrawHill). Little, D. (2013), ‘The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the European Language Portfolio: Some History, a View of Language Learner Autonomy, and Some Implications for Language Learning in Higher Education’, Language Learning in Higher Education, 2/1: 1–16, published online Marshall, C., and Rossman, G. B. (2006), Designing Qualitative Research (SAGE). Morrison, B. (2008), ‘The Role of the Self-access Centre in the Tertiary Language Learning Process’, System, 36/2: 123–40, published online Nieto, de P. D. M. (2009), ‘Análisis de las Políticas para Maestros de Educación Básica en México’ OECD [website] Nunan, D. (1989), Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). O’Malley, J. M., and Chamot, A. U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Oxford, R. L. (1989), ‘Use of Language Learning Strategies: A Synthesis of Studies with Implications for Strategy Training’, System, 17/2: 235–47, published online ——— (1996), Language Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross-cultural Perspectives, (Natl Foreign Lg Resource Ctr.). ——— (1997), ‘Cooperative Learning, Collaborative Learning, and Interaction: Three Communicative Strands in the Language Classroom’, The Modern Language Journal, 81/4: 443–56, published online ——— and Schram, K. (2007), ‘Bridging the Gap Between Psychological and Sociocultural Perspectives on L2 Learner Strategies’, in A. D. Cohen and E. Macaro, Language Learner Strategies (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 47–68). Pemberton, R., Toogood, S., and Barfield, A. (2009), Maintaining Control: Autonomy and Language Learning, (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press). Pifarre, M., and Cobos, R. (2010), ‘Promoting Metacognitive Skills Through Peer Scaffolding in a CSCL Environment’, International Journal of ComputerSupported Collaborative Learning, 5/2: 237–53, published online Pintrich, P. R. (1995), ‘Understanding Self-regulated Learning’, New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1995/63: 3–12, published online ——— (2000), ‘The Role of Goal Orientation in Self-regulated Learning’, in M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrick, and M. Zeider (eds.), Handbook of Self-regulation (San Diego: Academic Press), 451–502. ——— (2004), ‘A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Motivation and Self-regulated Learning in College Students’, Educational Psychology Review, 16/4: 385–407, published online Ramírez-Romero, J. L., and Pamplón, N. (2012), ‘Research on FLT in Mexico: 43 ◗


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Main Findings’, in Roux, R., Mora, A., and Trejo, P. (eds.) Research in English Language Teaching: Mexican Perspectives (Bloomington: Paribrio) Reinders, H. (2012), ‘The End of Self-Access?: From Walled Garden to Public Park’, ELTWorldOnline.com, published online Rubin, J. (2001), ‘The Study of Cognitive Processes in Second Language Learning’, Applied Linguistics, 11/2: 117–13. ——— (n.d.), ‘Language Learner Self-management’, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 11/1: 25–37. Samuda, V., and Bygate, M. (2008), Tasks in Second Language Learning. Basingstoke, (London: Palgrave Macmillan). Schunk, D. H., and Zimmerman, B. (1994), ‘Self-regulation of Learning and Performance’, (Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates). Swain, M., Brooks, L., and Tocalli-Beller, A. (2002), ‘Peer-peer Dialogue as a Means of Second Language Learning’, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22: 171–85, published online ——— and Lapkin, S. (2000), ‘Task-based Second Language Learning: the Uses of the First Language’, Language Teaching Research, 4/3: 251–274, published online . ——— ———, S. (2002), ‘Talking it Through: Two French Immersion Learners’ Response to Reformulation’, International Journal of Educational Research, 37: 285–304. Teddlie, C., and Yu, F. (2007), ‘Mixed Methods Sampling: A Typology with Examples’, Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1/1: 77–100, published online . Vauras, M., Iiskala, T., Kajamies, A., Kinnunen, R., and Lehtinen, E. (2003), ‘Sharedregulation and Motivation of Collaborating Peers: A Case Analysis’, Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 46/1: 19–37, published online . Vygotsky, L. S. (1980), Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological Processes (Boston: Harvard University Press). ——— (1997), Educational Psychology, (CRC Press). Wells, C. G. (1999), Dialogic Inquiry: Towards a Sociocultural Practice and Theory of Education, (New York: Cambridge University Press). Wertsch, J. V. (1985), Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) ◗ 44


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Appendix: Sample of conversation Transcription conventions !

indicates surprise or shock

…

indicates an unfinished idea

[

represents overlapping simultaneous speech or interruption

boldface

transcription in L1 (Spanish)

(unclear)

incomprehensible talk

---

a section not transcribed

[ ]

indicates a note from the transcriber/researcher

/now/

translation into the target language (English)

((laugh))

indicates non-linguistic features in the dialogues such as laughter and sighs

° °

lowered volume ((whispering))

(0.2)

silence (minutes. seconds)

Sample of a segment of conversation 1

Paco

2

All

Next, next

Organisation of the work

(unclear) ((laughs))

3

Nelly

Walt Disney

4

Paco

Walt Disney. Walter Elias Disney

5

Lalo

Walter, ¿así? /like that?/ writing

6

Paco

Walter Elias Disney, full name

7

Lalo

Takes the floor of the conversation Ask for confirmation while

Profession? Ah, how do you say inventor in English?

8

Paco

9

Lalo

Inventor?

10

Nelly

Inventor,

They face a lexical problem

11

Paco

Inventor? of the… (0.3) the Walt Disney Company

12

Tita

How do you say empresario /businessman/? In English

13

Lalo

I don’t know [takes the dictionary and searches the word]

14

Paco

°¿Y esto? ° °/and this?/ °

15

Tita

How do you say?

uses resources

45 ◗


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16

Paco

How do you say? (0.4) mmmm, father of Mickey Mouse

17

Tita

((laugh)) …. and creator, creator of Mickey Mouse

They give a creative

18

Paco

Yes

solution to

19

Nelly

And father ((laugh)), and father de/of/ princess

the lexical problem

20

Paco

Yes

21

Tita

And father de Pepe Grillo [Jiminy Cricket]

22

All

((laugh))

23

Lalo

Businessman, busi-ness-man in the dictionary

24

Nelly

business

25

Lalo

businessman and in-[ven-tor

26

Tita

[inventor, inventor

27

Lalo

where from?

28

Tita

Where from? Es de… /He is from…./

29

Nelly

USA,

30

Tita

USA, the USA y /and/ was from

31

Paco

Chicago

32

Nelly

Chicago, Illinois.

33

Paco

[Illinois

34

Nelly

[Illinois Chicago, Illinois,

35

Tita

°°Illinois?°°

36

Nelly

Illinois

37

Paco

Illinois, ok.

38

Lalo

Why successful?

finds the word

repetition

repetition

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39

Nelly

Co-fundator de/of/ Walt Disney Company

40

Lalo

Cofundador/cofounder/

41

Tita

Inventor, inventor de Walt Disney Company

42

Paco

(unclear) Yes

43

All

44

Nelly

Because he co-founder, co-funder, co- fundator, co-fundador

45

Tita

How do you say cofundador/cofounder/ in English?

46

Lalo

Co-funder (mispronounced), co-funder?, uhmmm,

((laughs))

47

Tita

Cofunder?

48

Lalo

Cofounder?

49

Paco

I don't know.

50

Nelly

Co funder? (.08) The Walt Disney Company

51

Tita

The Walt Disney Company

52

Lalo

Because he was cofounder (.05)

53

Paco

Very good, ahh, [sighs in satisfaction]

54

Lalo

OK

repetition

Affective domain

47 ◗


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Chapter 3

The Emerging Identity of Pre-service Teachers during the Practicum Component of a Second Language Teacher Education Programme at a Mexican Public University

Ana María Elisa Díaz de la Garza Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas

Abstract This paper reports on the design, implementation and findings of a doctoral study that was carried out at a public university in the State of Chiapas, Mexico, in the spring of 2014. The study included 10 pre-service teachers (PST), all participants in a second language teacher education (SLTE) programme. The theoretical framework draws on sociocultural theories of learning (Freeman and Johnson 1998; Johnson 2009), more specifically those of identity formation (Beijaard, Paulien, Meijer, and Verloop 2004) and situated learning theory (Lave and Wenger 1991) within communities of practise (CoP) (Wenger 1998). The aims were to examine: 1) how the practicum influences early professional identity construction; 2) how personal and school related factors influence early teacher identity construction and 3) how reflective practice in the practicum influences PST professional identity development. To this end, I invited pre-service teachers to reflect upon the challenges they faced during the practicum component of their SLTE programme within resource-poor environments. I then asked how their experiences had shaped their notions of professional identity. In sum, this investigation aimed to enhance understanding of the various problems confronting PSTs during their practicum activities, such as the impact of social, institutional and personal obstacles on the construction of participants’ professional identity. 49 ◗


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The findings illustrate that the practicum enriched PST learning and aided identity formation. This occurred as they worked out how to navigate the different school contexts where they were placed, found opportunities to link theory and practice, and developed coping strategies. Key words: second language teacher education, pre-service teacher identity, teacher agency, teacher learning, disadvantaged schools. Introduction Second Language Teacher Education has evolved greatly in recent decades. This has had a considerable impact upon the formulation of theory regarding pre-service teacher learning. Currently, there is a lack of information regarding pre-service teacher education in Mexico, especially in resourcepoor contexts. To address this gap, the larger project this report draws from consisted of following a group of 10 English as a foreign language (EFL) pre-service teachers (PSTs) in a second language teacher education (SLTE) programme throughout the 480 hour, eighth semester practicum component of their B.Ed. degree. This is a required and recognized period of social service, during which PSTs are placed in schools in different parts of the state where they live (Chiapas, Mexico). Employing a variety of information gathering instruments, my goal was to examine the challenges which beginning teachers face and how the practicum experience in resource-poor schools shaped PST identity. The data was collected during the spring term of 2014. As the practicum teacher educator and coordinator, I had identified the need to examine teacher learning in practicum. Previous practicum cohorts had commented that they had felt discouraged and isolated. They had difficulties coping with the complexities they encountered in their eighth semester practicum. Such issues are probably influenced by an individual’s perception of what makes a good teacher. According to Korthagen (2004: 80), multiple factors such as the environment, an individual’s behaviour, their competencies, beliefs, identity and mission, all work together to shape an individual’s theory about what makes a good teacher and how an individual views herself as an educator. This is illustrated in Figure 1:

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Ana María Elisa Díaz de la Garza ◗ Chapter 3

environment

behaviour competencies beliefs identity mission

Figure 1: The onion (Korthagen, 2004:80)

A teacher’s conception of self can be understood as being influenced by social, cultural and political contexts. Findings by Borko (2004), Farrell (2012); de Ibarrola Nicolin (2012) and Wright (2010) regarding teacher development, note the influence of social, political, economic, institutional, and cultural factors in SLTE. It is to be expected that PSTs’ experiences, values, attitudes and beliefs will shape their professional development (Freeman and Johnson 1998; Johnson 2009). Disadvantaged or ‘resource-poor’ schools are those where students usually come from culturally diverse and low socio-economic backgrounds (Martinez 2014). Many learners in vulnerable schools lack basic skills, 51 ◗


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quality nutrition, health care, resources and housing. As a result, structural, environmental, communal, economic, educational and organisational challenges, as well as the lack of parental involvement, have an influence on learning outcomes. These contextual factors will impact the way those who experience them perceive themselves and those around them. The aim of this study was to explore the construction of identity in student teachers as they went through their practicum in resource-poor contexts in Chiapas. I noticed that PSTs were struggling once they were placed in institutions for their practicum. Many commented that they felt there was no connection between what they had learned in the SLTE programme and the knowledge, awareness and skills which they needed to successfully teach English as a foreign language in the schools where they were placed for their social service. In addition, many commented that they felt isolated and required greater support to succeed. It was apparent that due to these contextual factors, the PSTs were undergoing conflicting processes of construction, related to their identity as emerging teachers. It is important to understand that teacher identity is a ‘socially constructed, contextually situated and continually emerging (and changing) sense of self which is shaped by a variety of factors’ (Cheung, Said, and Park 2015: xii). It is associated with teacher learning and professional engagement. Given that teacher learning is complex, dynamic and continuous, it is crucial to comprehend that professional development is linked to PSTs’ personal histories and future aspirations (Freeman and Johnson 1998; Johnson 2009). According to Smith and Sparkes (2008), teacher identity formation may be examined from various perspectives. These include a focus on an individual’s inner world from a psychosocial perspective, a focus on individual and social aspects from an inter-subjective perspective, a focus on social and cultural contexts from a storied resource perspective, and a focus on social and relational processes from a performative perspective. Finally, there is a dialogical perspective. This last perspective focuses on how identity develops within a discourse and on-going dialogues, which are bound to socio-political and cultural contexts. This investigation employed a dialogical perspective.

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In addition, situated learning (Lave and Wenger 1991) and sociocultural perspectives (Freeman and Johnson 1998; Johnson 2009) were employed in this study, given that identity is constructed through participation in ‘communities of practice’ (CoP) (Wenger 1998) through interactions between people, discourses and contexts. Furthermore, It is a fluid process, given that an individual will never finish constructing their identity as they seek to develop their personal theory about teaching. This paper identifies a thriving identity research culture in SLTE but argues that more research is required to determine the extent to which identity formation guides SLTE practice (Wright 2010), especially in disadvantaged contexts, since context impacts educational practices (Kelchtermans 2014). Context of the study The context of the study was the Licenciatura en la Enseñanza del Inglés (B. Ed in Teaching English as a Foreign Language) programme at the Tuxtla Faculty of the Autonomous University of Chiapas, Mexico. This is a ninesemester study programme, including the 480-hour practicum component, which course participants have to complete in public schools in the state of Chiapas as part of their social service programme. The state of Chiapas is located in south-eastern Mexico and is considered one of the poorest states in the entire country.

Figure 1: Geographical location of Chiapas, Mexico

According to Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI), at least 25 per cent of the population in Chiapas is considered to live in extreme poverty. This area, like most of the rest of the country, has been 53 ◗


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severely affected by the general global economic crisis, record levels of unemployment, an educational crisis and drug-related violence. It is considered significantly underdeveloped in comparison to the rest of the country (INEGI 2011). Teaching underprivileged students presents student teachers with unique challenges that will ultimately affect their learning and identity development as teachers. Theoretical background Recent studies regarding professional development in initial teacher education highlight the significance of student teaching in teacher education programs (Cody 2010; Merc 2010). Practicum components provide learners with opportunities to obtain workplace experience, to develop their knowledge, awareness and skills (KAS), and to develop employability skills. However, follow-up studies conducted by the ‘Professional Development and Assessment in Language Teaching’ academic body at the Tuxtla Language School in Chiapas, Mexico from 2005–2012, have provided evidence that a great number of student teachers feel that they have not been adequately prepared to meet the requirements of teaching in a real classroom environment by the teacher education programme. Student teachers admitted that they sometimes feel discouraged and unable to cope with the challenges that they face during the eighth semester practicum segment of their nine-semester teacher education programme. This is the only time during the B.Ed. programme that students participate in a practicum, or what is called Service Learning (SL). Problems identified during the practicum by the Tuxtla Language School from 2005–2010 include difficulties with classroom management, dealing with individual learner differences, dealing with unmotivated learners, the lack of teaching resources, and adapting to school cultures (Diaz de la Garza and Serrano Vila 2010). All these issues will impact the kinds of experiences that student teachers have and the images of themselves as ‘teachers’ that will emerge, as identity is shaped and re-shaped during the practicum. Becoming a second language teacher involves the development of a professional identity as well as the construction of a specific self–image (Feiman-Nemser 2003). The embodiment of identity varies depending on ◗ 54


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individual capabilities as well as access to social and material resources. In recent decades, there has been an increasing interest in teacher identity research. While teacher identity has been interpreted in a variety of ways (Beijaard et al. 2004; Sutherland, Howard, and Markauskaite 2010), it is frequently referred to as a continuous complex process that is influenced by social, affective, and cognitive factors (Korthagen 2004; Schön 1983). Identity work allows researchers to examine how individuals affiliate with or distance themselves from specific communities as they co-construct representations of self and other through discourse (Zotzmann and O’Regan 2016). As Beijaard et al. (2004) point out, professional identity is influenced by the context in which a teacher is placed, their personal background, beliefs, and motivation as well as by prior learning experiences. Teacher identity thus includes an individual’s vision of who they are, what kind of a teacher they are, how they see their role as teachers, what kind of teacher others perceive them to be, what kind of a teacher they must be in order to survive in each unique context, as well as what kind of teacher they wish to be in the future. This complex construction of a professional sense of self is what this study looks at as it assesses the ways in which experiences within a resource-poor environment shape professional identity. In addition to Beijaard et al. (2004), it is helpful to look at Wenger’s (1998) conceptualisation of professional identity as evolving from membership in communities of practice (CoP). His concept of the process whereby novices become included in CoP is through ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ (Wenger 1998:100). This is challenging for PSTs, since they are newcomers in the institutions where they are placed for their practicum and often feel isolated from their peers. In-service teachers (INSETs) often ignore them and expect them to silently follow the set curriculum and deal effectively with classroom management. Lacking input from knowledgeable others has a negative effect on the construction of professional identity and may cause PSTs to experience a sense of isolation. Researchers, therefore, need to examine PSTs’ practicum experiences and how they make sense of them, as they disentangle agency and existing educational contexts (Kelchtermans, 2014). It is through reflective practices that PSTs will be able to understand and direct their behaviour more effectively. This notion of self-direction is centred in the construct of agency. Agency 55 ◗


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is the belief that an individual is able to make appropriate instructional decisions, knows how to obtain and utilize educational resources, and demonstrates confidence regarding constructing and maintaining an effective learning environment (Adams and Gupta 2015). Unless an individual believes that she has the power to obtain results from her efforts, she will not be motivated to take action. As a result, agency involves both personal and positional power. Social structures, power relations and access to resources influence the agency of individuals. What PSTs perceive and believe, and what they do, is a key issue in the discussion of agency and how individuals are enabled and constrained by their social and material environments. PSTs must learn to critically reflect on their learning experiences in order to understand what it means to be an agent, in an effort to actively engage in their professional development. Reflection is the springboard for making decisions about what one may and may not do in each context and will lead to a sense of belonging in the world of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) (Kiely and Askham 2012; Korthagen 2004). Essentially, being reflective informs teachers’ continuous professional development, and enables them to evaluate teaching and make better-informed teaching decisions (Burton 2009). As a beginning teacher, it is challenging to determine how to adhere to personal ideas of what makes a good teacher, whilst at the same time meeting the demands of the context and expectations of the host school where individuals are placed for the practicum (Flores and Day, 2006). As PSTs try to make sense of their roles and responsibilities as educators, their teacher identity is influenced by how they assert their individual agency. This is done as they align their professional vision with the demands of the workforce. They continuously construct and reconstruct their teacher identity, depending on their perception of who they are or should be, and on their idea of who they aspire to become in each context. This, in turn, informs teaching practices and affects how they interact with learners and colleagues, as well as how they utilize available resources. PSTs need to confront challenges by reflecting both in and on practice. They must employ available resources as effectively as possible by externalizing and articulating their values, attitudes and beliefs about teaching, depending on ◗ 56


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their practical and theoretical knowledge (Flores and Day 2006). Issues generally encountered by student teachers in the setting of their practicum in Chiapas include adjusting to specific school cultures and learning to handle relations with students, colleagues, principals, and school staff. Most Mexican schools work within complex, isolationist, competitive institutional cultures where there is a great ‘resistance to change’. There is also a culture of ‘simulation’ (Flores Pacheco 2009), whereby individuals simulate learning when in reality many individuals are just going through the motions. In addition, it is a common occurrence for beginning teachers to be placed in disadvantaged schools. This implies mixed ability groups, underprivileged, low achieving students and resource-poor economic environments. In these schools there is often a lack of resources and a lack of motivation from students to learn an L2. Furthermore, it may be necessary to develop classroom management and teaching strategies for teaching large groups (45–55 students per group) or special needs students. This is challenging for a beginning teacher who must often address feelings of isolation and incompetence (Santibañez 2007; Martinez 2014). These challenges which PSTs face in the practicum are similar to the problems that novice teachers face in schools all over the world (Martinez 2014). However, what makes the challenges significant are that PSTs must address the manner in which problems are shaped by each institution’s cultural, social, academic and economic context. For example, problems related to the lack of parental supervision are much more significant in the foster home where learners have limited support from adults. In the case of the PST placed at the high school located in a farming community, there is a lack of parental involvement when parents are illiterate. In these cases, it is important to contextualize PSTs’ identity formation within a teaching practice that is shaped by a context of disadvantaged schools (Martinez 2014). There is a lack of literature regarding research on identity formation in underdeveloped and developing countries (Izadinia 2014). As Borko (2004) notes, social interaction must be studied from a situative perspective, taking into account the social systems as well as the context in which the learning takes place. In this respect, a teacher’s identity is understood as being developed through social interaction and influenced by an individual’s past, present and future. In the context of this study, it is understood that PSTs’ 57 ◗


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own history as learners (apprenticeship of observation), second language teacher education programmes, classroom-based experiences and their expectations for the future, will all influence the construction of their professional identities. For this reason, it is necessary to further examine the sociocultural contexts in which learning to teach takes place. This is in order to improve our understanding of how PSTs develop professional knowledge and develop as teachers (Freeman and Johnson 1998). Participants Ten volunteer Mexican pre-service teachers (three males and seven females) took part in this study. One PST was teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) to young learners in a day care centre; two in a special pilot programme for 11–13 year old learners; four were placed in technical high schools and two were placed at a foster home (casa hogar). PST placement is illustrated in the following table. PST Alicia Andrea

Practicum

Significant Contextual Information

EFL at a public high school in the capital.

Students are in danger of failing EFL. Most do not like L2 at all. Average group size: 40 students.

EYL special programme at a university in the capital.

Pilot program; team teaching with Julieta. Group size: 21 students.

Elena

Students are unmotivated to learn EFL. Public secondary They see no relevance for their lives. school located in a Group size: 30 students each. small town 30 minutes from the capital. Worked with 7th graders.

Isabel

EFL a at public high school in the capital.

Students are in danger of failing EFL. Most do not like L2 at all. Group size: 40 students.

Julieta

EYL special programme at a university in the capital.

Pilot program; team teaching with Andrea. Group size: 21 students.

EFL at a public high school in the capital.


Karla

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Leonardo EFL at a public high

school in the capital.


Otto

EFL for teens at a foster home (casa hogar) located in the capital.

Students have dysfunctional families, troubled pasts. Group size: 12 students.

Patty

EYL for university day care centre.

Very young learners (3 years old). Parents are studying and many hold part-time jobs to support their families. Group size: 8 students.

Vicente

EFL for YL at a foster home (casa hogar) located in the capital.

Students have dysfunctional families, troubled pasts. Group size: 11 students.

All participants were assigned teaching responsibilities and were responsible for organizing instruction, creating didactic resources and managing discipline problems in the classroom. Research questions and methodology The larger qualitative investigation this paper draws from was guided by the following research questions: 1. How do PSTs’ personal experiences in schools during the practicum influence early professional identity construction? 2. How do school related factors influence early identity construction? 3. How does reflective practice in the practicum influence PSTs’ professional identity development? Given the scope of these research questions and the substantial amount of data that was collected for this study, in this paper I shall focus on the first two questions only. The transformation of teacher identity becomes apparent through narrative discourse (Kiely and Askham 2012), and for this reason I selected narratives as a way to look into the particular constructions that PSTs were developing through their practicum. I was interested in examining the sociocognitive processes through which PSTs reflected upon prior and current practicum learning experiences. Narrative is a useful lens for examining how peer dialogue fosters interpersonal and emotional support as well as teacher learning.

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The framework for the study is essentially ‘interpretive research’. An interpretivist approach aims to explore participants’ culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the social world. From this stance, through participants’ interpretations of the world, theory emerges from specific situations and is grounded in data generated by research. This enables understanding of individuals’ behaviour (Cohen et al. 2011). By using narratives and employing an interpretivist approach to research I was able to identify and examine the factors that have an impact on PSTs’ professional learning and identity. Data collection In order to explore the socio-cognitive processes of professional identity formation of PSTs through their reflection on current practicum learning experiences and how they coped with personal, class, school, and contextual issues, I used the following data collection techniques: • Teaching portfolios consisting of personal collections of written reflections and critical incidents • Significant data obtained from asynchronous discussion forum transcripts • Individual semi-structured face-to-face interviews • A focus group interview Data analysis was an on-going process, employing an interpretative case study focus (Bromley 1986 in Duff 2008). The study utilized narrative content and critical discourse analysis to draw conclusions relating to the personal and professional dimensions of PST development (agency, identity, readiness for entering the workforce) (Block 2008). Teaching practice portfolios were collected through the use of EDMODO, which is a virtual social network, often referred to as a Facebook for schools. To track the impact of the practicum, PSTs were asked to compile a virtual portfolio with guiding questions in which they recorded their perceptions of the practicum. They were also encouraged to share their experiences with each other in an asynchronous discussion forum and comment on the experiences shared there. This was encouraged, as identity work emphasizes performance and social interaction (Wenger 1998; Kiely and Askham 2012). Reflections were posted online after 4 weeks, 8 weeks and 16 weeks into ◗ 60


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the practicum for peers to read and comment on. In addition, critical learning incidents were also reported in online reflections, highlighting the significance of these events and how they influenced identity construction. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted to obtain insight into PSTs’ perceptions of self throughout their practicum experiences, as they conceptualized their personal theories, attitudes, and beliefs (Beijaard et al. 2004). This was done because capturing authentic teacher voices is central to this research. Semi-structured interviews ‘enable participants to discuss their interpretations of the world and to express how they regard situations from their own point of view’ (Cohen et al. 2011: 409), and they allow the researcher to adapt questions according to the flow of the conversation. This lends a greater deal of flexibility to the researcher, when interacting with participants, than a structured interview would. The interviews were conducted post-practicum, were audio recorded (with PSTs’ written consent) and transcribed. The data was visited and revisited to identify significant portions for data analysis. PSTs also took part in an 80-minute focus group session six weeks after having concluded the practicum. This was done to allow PSTs to distance themselves from the practicum experience and become more emotionally detached. The focus group was conducted in Spanish, PSTs’ native language, in an effort to allow them to express themselves freely. The interaction in a group discussion was also a source of data. It acknowledged the researcher’s active role as moderator in creating the group discussion for data collection purposes. Focus groups enable participants to listen to others and formulate their views when they are ready (Kruger and Casey 2009). The aim of the face-to-face interviews and the focus group session was to examine the impact of the practicum experience on PST learning and teacher identity construction. Ethical considerations The University of Southampton ethics committee approved the study. PSTs, who were provided with details of the study, participated in the investigation voluntarily. All PSTs provided written consent for their participation as well as granted permission for written reflections and recording of interviews and the focus group session. 61 ◗


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Identifiers have been eliminated from the data and pseudonyms have been employed to protect participants’ privacy. Discussion of results Before initiating the practicum, 80 per cent of PSTs had enthusiastic expectations regarding what teaching in disadvantaged schools would be about. Most had no previous experience. On completing their practicum, all PSTs commented that they gained valuable learning experiences from their teaching practice and felt that, despite occasional setbacks, the experience had been rewarding. The two PSTs placed in the casa hogar identified the challenge of working with learners who lack resources such as textbooks as challenging, and attributed these problems to the resource-poor environment. They obtained a better understanding of dealing with a lack of resources and developed their creativity. Otto, who was placed in the high school of the casa hogar commented: They didn’t have an English section in their library. But the INSET that was there, tried to bring material. They just had, like five books in English, but no material. No listening, no verb list, vocabulary.... I made a book with many activities and with material for them, so they could study verbs, vocabulary of the house, of their classroom and things like that.

Patty, who was placed in the day care centre, also dealt with the reality of adapting resources, which were designed for older students, to fit the needs of her learners: I have to adapt a lot of the materials, the resources, the procedures and the approaches, for [my students], because they are really, they are just like babies between two and three years old.

Thus, it is evident that becoming a teacher may be an uncertain process that is focused upon their learning as well as their students’ learning. Peer discussion within communities of practice (CoP) appeared to enhance teacher learning through joint discussion as PSTs developed their understanding of ‘self’ in context. When confronted with challenges, ◗ 62


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participants expressed anxiety and apprehension about classroom management, especially when working with younger learners. This was not surprising, given that the practicum is recognised as a potentially stressful stage of teacher education (Farrell 2007; Gebhard 2009; Trent 2013). In the case of disadvantaged schools, matters are complicated further by the lack of teaching resources. This is likely to have a negative impact on learning outcomes. Themes in this study are drawn from sociocultural theories of learning, specifically identity formation and situated learning theory within CoPs. A number of themes emerged from the data regarding how PSTs perceived their identity construction. They included: Conflict between expectations and reality: Most PSTs believed that the practicum would be easy: they were then confronted with a demanding environment. Most participants mentioned having issues addressing classroom management. Lack of teaching resources: The socio-economic situation prevalent in the state of Chiapas meant that most schools were poorly equipped (lack of equipment and didactic resources, especially in the case of the two PSTs placed at the casa hogar). For example, Otto, who was placed in the high school of the foster-home commented upon the situation in the following excerpt from the focus group session: Before [my social service] I think that I was a normal teacher, the ones that just use the book and check homework and exams and no more. Now I, I know that I can use different things, different methods, to teach English. Teaching was challenging. Now I’m more flexible.

Another example of this is provided by Patty who was placed at a day care centre at a public university. She identifies a gap between theory and practice in working with toddlers: I have found out the hardest part is putting into practice what I have learned during the seven semesters of the course of study [in the practicum] because I contrasted my own beliefs of children’s second language learning and the real conditions and attitudes of my young students. According to me, the

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theory only gives us a little hint of what teaching means. When I am in front of the group I have to use not only what I know about methods and approaches but also all my creativity, patience and the different opinions of other teachers.

Readiness for work as EFL teachers: The following section looks at each PST’s vision of what makes a good teacher and their personal perception of their roles as EFL teachers (i.e. having to finish the textbook and abide by institutional policies). Karla, who was placed in a technical high school (COBACH), acknowledged an awareness of how she was developing professionally: I noticed that I changed, because when I got there my colleague mentioned I was too nice. I would say yes to anything and when I had to control them it was difficult. I would tell them to be quiet and they wouldn’t listen and keep talking, or they wouldn’t pay attention to me or they didn’t care about the class. But in time I saw that I was being too flexible, so I stopped being nice and began to be more strict. The other teacher asked me if I had realized how I was changing and that I did it on my own because no one was going to tell me how the students were going to be and it was something I had to learn. That helped me a lot.

In response to Research Question 1 (RQ1): How does PSTs’ experience in schools in the practicum influence early professional identity construction?, PSTs acknowledged that they were in a vulnerable position and that their past, present and future selves were crucial in the process of identity construction. It was necessary for them to confront the theory/practice gap, which produced shifts in participants’ personal and professional concerns. As a result, they developed multiple, frequently conflicting identities that existed in unstable states of construction and reconstruction, reformation or erosion, and addition or expansion. An example of this is Otto who was placed at the elementary school of a private foster home (casa hogar) for abandoned and mistreated children. He envisions himself as a future change agent. When asked to reflect online about why he had decided to become a teacher he responded:

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I decided to become a teacher because, in my opinion, a student’s education is very important and this is a way I can try to change Mexican education.

Here the PST envisions his role as helping to improve educational perspectives for his learners. In addition, Otto felt overwhelmed by the students’ academic and socio-emotional needs. Originally believing that all learners were the same, he became aware of the differences between students who had a strong support system and more vulnerable students who lack a family. I know now that there are other types of students like them, who have no parents, family or resources to succeed in life, but I was able to see that they are really interested in doing something for themselves on their own.

This demonstrates how Otto had undergone a change in the way he understood his students’ situation. Kiley (2009) and Meyer and Land (2005) refer to this as crossing a threshold. As a result, PSTs shift their understanding and reposition the ‘self’ in their emerging identity. They must develop coping strategies as is illustrated here: ‘My practicum was a challenge because they were children, students between twelve, fourteen and even sixteen. I would think how grown up they were to be in elementary school, but... they had suffered a lot growing up without a father, or mother, so they are very difficult to control, they need a lot of discipline. At first I had trouble because I am too kind, so they took advantage of that. It was terrible for me when I had to be strict, but they began to improve.’ I [had] to be proactive. In the sense that you have to see the problems that some might have and resolve them before they happen, this was because there were a lot of problems where I was. If I did any activity that could cause any trouble I preferred not to do it, and so on. So I would have to decide which activities to do… to be able to learn something. Now I know that I have another identity, First, I was a very kind teacher but then I became very strict in that school. So I changed because I was teaching young learners. I had troublemakers. They belong to an orphanage so I had to be very firm with them.’ (Focus group August 2014)

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In response to Research Question 2 (RQ2): How do personal and school related factors influence early identity construction?, PSTs’ commented that their personal backgrounds and dispositions influenced how they socialized within a CoP. They felt that institutional and social constraints in the schools where they were placed imposed norms, values and common practices of the school upon their teaching practices. However, by discussing their experiences with each other, they recognized that different contexts require different approaches for effective handling of poor student behaviour. They perceived moments of success and failure around the development of coping strategies. PSTs are transitioning from being students of teaching to becoming teachers of students. This experience may be filled with apprehension and fosters the use of coping strategies as is illustrated in the following excerpt from Julieta, who taught young learners in a pilot programme at the university: In my opinion what I have to do is to talk with my partners about their experiences as teachers, especially those who are working with children. I have done that with some of them when I have had the chance. I realized that they have very similar insecurities and situations, thus I can infer that fear and doubts are normal in the process of becoming an English teacher.

Thus, cognitive, motivational and affective processes enabled participating PSTs to exercise a certain degree of agency over environmental conditions, depending on how motivated they were. PSTs shared that coping responses also included admitting that they were facing problems, discussing issues with others to initiate change and taking responsibility for addressing challenges such as feeling threatened, alienated and powerless. Alicia, who was placed in a public technical high school, with an average of 40 students per classroom, noted that at the beginning of the practicum she felt ill prepared for teaching teenagers. She admitted that the practicum was a reality check: [My practicum has] taught me that the real world is not in fact, what we saw in class. We have to deal with many different situations and I want to be honest,

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I am sure I am not totally prepared to face that. I need more experience. It is a huge challenge to teach teenagers, they are noisy, talkative and their behaviour is always out of control, but I am learning.

Recognizing her weaknesses she is open to learn how to better manage her classes. Elena, who worked in a technical junior high school located in a farming community thirty minutes from the capital, noted that poor study habits and low motivation take a toll on the quality of education. She attempts to be a role model for her female students and in her EDMODO reflection admits: ‘I try very hard to be a good example for these children, students of that age see me as a person who is still studying, because, I hope in some way they would feel motivated to continue studying. It is very common that girls leave the school to get married at a young age, this is why I tell them how important is to finish this level.’ (EDMODO March 2014) She comments: My perspective on teaching and learning to teach changed a lot. Firstly, I will never judge the teacher’s work again, now I admire their effort. It is very hard to work with youngsters and I never thought about it until I stood in front of the classroom.

This transformation in values, attitudes and beliefs demonstrates awareness that teaching is a challenging career. Following Kiely and Askham (2012), identity work is seen in this study as a process that involves making sense of new knowledge and practices, and enabling PSTs to feel comfortable with their emerging identity. Conclusions The main aim of this study was to take a critical look at some of the challenges that PSTs faced during the practicum component of SLTE in resource poor environments. Additionally, It was also an aim to look at how these challenges contributed to the shaping of the PSTs’ emerging teacher identity. This study joins the growing body of research regarding second language teacher identity as a means of understanding why teachers act 67 ◗


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as they do and how they learn and progress (Kiely and Askham 2012). It demonstrates the crucial role of the practicum in the identity construction of PSTs. Both prior experiences, as learners and practicum teachers, enabled PSTs to bridge the theory practice gap and develop practical theories about teaching. These theories shape teacher identity and allow PSTs to identify what makes a good teacher. However, dealing with the complexities present in disadvantaged schools in Mexico is challenging, especially for novice teachers (Sandoval Flores 2009; Martínez 2014). As Beijaard et al. (2004) note, teacher identity is not a single identity but a collection of sub-identities that reflects how a teacher sees herself, how others see her and how she would like to see herself in the future (ideal self). This study also recognized that complex sociocultural and institutional forces shape identity construction. The lack of resources forced PSTs to exert agency and develop reflective skills to cope with the challenges they faced. By sharing experiences and reflections with peers within the CoP, PSTs were offered emotional support and alternatives of practice for each other. These had the potential to enhance reflective skills and self-agency. The small scale of the sample employed in the current study means it is impossible, for now, to apply the data to other resource-poor environments. Nonetheless, it represents the first attempt in Mexico to draw on data about how EFL PSTs construct their identity in the practicum, and it is hoped that these findings will serve to enrich the theory and experience of SLTE practice. Currently teacher education programmes in Mexico operate on a onesize fits all approach which does not take into consideration the differences in different school contexts and geographic regions. The implications for the planning and implementation of the practicum in Mexico, and possibly similar contexts in Latin America and other resource-poor areas, are for PSTs to be placed in more schools with vulnerable learners in an effort for them to learn to adapt to the particularities of context. That way they would be better prepared for job opportunities available in disadvantaged schools. It is hoped that the insights reported in this paper contribute to the literature regarding PST identity in resource-poor environments.

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Körkkö, M., Kyrö-Ämmälä, O., and Turunen, T. (2016), ‘Professional Development through Reflection in Teacher Education’, Teaching and Teacher Education, 55, 198–206, published online . Korthagen, F. A. J. (2004), ‘In Search of the Essence of a Good Teacher: Towards a More Holistic Approach to Teacher Education’, Teaching and Teacher Education., 20/1: 77–97, published online . Kruger, R. A., and Casey, M. A. (2009), Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research (4th ed.) (London: Sage). Lave J. and E. Wenger (1991), Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Martínez, N. H. (2014), ‘Everybody’s Problem: Novice Teacher’s in Disadvantaged Mexican Schools’, International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 27/8: 959–73, published online . Merc, A. (2010), ‘Self-reported Problems of Pre-service EFL Teachers Throughout Teaching Practicum’, Anadolou Journal of Social Sciences, 10/2: 199–226. Moon, J. A. (2001), ‘Reflection in Higher Education Learning’, Exeter No. 4, published online . Sandoval Flores, E. (2009), ‘La Inserción a la Docencia: Aprender a Ser Maestro de Secundaria en México’, Profesorado: Revista de Currículum y Formación de Profesorado, 13/1: 183–94, published online . Santibañez. L. (2007), ‘Entre Dicho y Hecho’, Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa, 1/32: 305–35. Smith, B., and Sparkes, A. C. (2008), ‘Contrasting Perspectives on Narrating Selves and Identities: An Invitation to Dialogue’, Qualitative Research, 8/1: 5–35, published online . Schön, D. A. (1983), The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action (New York: Basic Books). Sutherland, L., Howard, S., and Markauskaite, L. (2010) ‘Professional Identity Creation: Examining the Development of Beginning Preservice Teachers’ Understanding of their Work as Teachers’, Teaching and Teacher Education, 26/3: 455–65, published online 71 ◗


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Trent, J. (2013), ‘From Learner to Teacher: Practice, Language, and Identity in a Teaching Practicum’, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 1–16, published online . Wenger, E. (1998), Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Wright, T. (2010), ‘Second Language Teacher Education: Review of Recent Research on Practice’, Language Teaching, 43/03: 259–96, published online . Zotzmann, K., and O’Regan, J. P. (2016), ‘Critical Discourse Analysis and Identity’, in Sian, Preece (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of Language and Identity, 1–35 (London: Routledge).

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Chapter 4

The challenge of EFL Writing Assessment in Mexican Higher Education

Elsa Fernanda González

Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas

Abstract The assessment of writing, whether in classroom or in large-scale contexts, is a difficult activity that requires time and knowledge of the nature of assessment and the use of available assessment tools. Different variables may have an important role in an assessment’s validity and reliability: human judgment, subjectivity, the writing task, scoring procedures, scorers’ linguistic background, gender, academic background and previous training experience (Weigle 1994, 1998; Bacha 2001; Barkaoui 2007, 2010; Knoch 2009, 2011). This study examines the difficulties that EFL teachers face when assessing writing in their classrooms and contrasts it with the perceived constraints of EFL programme managers when including writing assessment in a language program. It also sets out to explore the perceptions that participants have of EFL writing assessment and its inclusion in the university EFL curriculum. Following a qualitative approach to data collection and analysis, information obtained from a background questionnaire and semi-structured interviews carried out with teacher participants and EFL programme managers revealed that most teachers have difficulties coping with the scoring rubric used; the correspondence of their teaching purposes with the overall objectives of the English program; and the lack of time available to dedicate to the teaching and assessment of writing. Language managers considered that the large amounts of time required, lack of trained 73 ◗


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teachers and intimidation among teachers and managers were the main difficulties to overcome when considering the assessment of writing in the language program. Both groups of participants agreed that the inclusion of writing is necessary in an EFL programme and that its assessment promotes its teaching in the classroom. However, different perceptions were obtained from both groups concerning the best specific procedures to follow to assess this skill. Keywords: EFL writing, EFL writing assessment, writing assessment training Introduction The assessment of students’ language performance is a complex activity that teachers are required to do as part of their regular teaching practice. In the Mexican English as a foreign language (EFL) context, as in many other parts of the world, language instructors need to select an assessment method that corresponds to their assessment purposes; develop the assessment tool to use in the classroom or cope with one provided by the programme manager; administer the tool, score the tool, interpret the score and make appropriate decisions; communicate the results to the administrative offices; and finally be aware and cope with the consequences that assessment may bring (Crusan 2014; Fulcher 2012; Stoynoff and Coomb 2012; Weigle 2007). However, EFL teachers may not have the necessary theoretical and practical skills to assess their students accurately and effectively. The level of difficulty may be even greater in the case of the assessment of written performance. White (1990) emphasizes that writing instructors and writing assessors should be conscious of the differences between distinct writing programmes, as individual discourse communities that have specific assessing purposes. In other words, fair assessment of students’ writing needs to take into account the local practices and purposes of the people involved in the production of written text (Pearson 2004). This implies that classroom assessment of writing is highly complex and that context is a determining factor in the search for valid and reliable procedures to assess writing. Additionally, the assessment of written communication will always be subject to human judgment (Ghanbari, Barati, and Moinzadeh 2012); this subjective element means that providing fair and accurate scores for students’ written texts may be quite difficult to accomplish (Pearson 2004). ◗ 74


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Elsa Fernanda González ◗ Chapter 4

On the other hand, decision makers who design EFL programmes in Mexico face a number of constraints with regard to the inclusion of the assessment of writing in the EFL curriculum in their institutions. According to Ghanbari, Barati and Moinzadeh (2012: 84) one of the challenges that decision makers face, is the complexity and dangers of using writing assessment without a ‘rigorous assessment plan’. In other words, a plan that establishes clear learning, teaching, and assessment goals that could lead to valid and reliable assessment of students’ language abilities. Additionally, the ability to make decisions about learners’ writing abilities that may result in negative or positive wash-back and affect future learner achievement is not an easy task; both decision makers and teachers need to take such decisions seriously, on the basis of clear and shared criteria. In the state of Tamaulipas (north-eastern Mexico), undergraduate EFL students are provided with English lessons during at least six semesters of their studies in the case of private universities, or in three semesters for public universities. Learners are assessed monthly or bimonthly depending on the programme they follow. Then, upon graduation, students are expected to provide proof of their English language proficiency by obtaining specific test scores on examinations that are composed of items that assess the four language skills, giving reading and written expression a greater weight in the final score. (Some private universities require 500 points or more on the institutional TOEFL while public universities require 450 points or more). However, the English language programmes of these universities are usually autonomous from the English language testing board and as such do not tend to share specific criteria for learning, testing or standardized assessment processes. In these cases there tend to be weak connections between classroom assessment and the large-scale tests students are required to comply with. This often results in candidates obtaining low proficiency scores on tests and large numbers of students who do not meet the necessary English requirement to obtain their undergraduate degree. One of the various reasons for this disparity between teaching and testing objectives is the lack of teacher training. When teachers are not confident in their ability to teach a skill, such as writing, in ways that will lead to effective outcomes, this often results in this component of the 75 ◗


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course being avoided and teachers and learners feeling intimidated by the testing process. Even when teachers do address writing in their classrooms, a lack of appropriate teacher assessment training may lead to invalid and unreliable assessment of students’ writing skills, resulting in false expectations on the part of the learner as to their ability to pass the Englishlanguage exit exam. This scenario suggests that in this complex Mexican EFL university context the appropriate teaching and assessment of writing is crucial for the successful language development of Mexican EFL students. This is both in terms of enhancing language competency by providing opportunities to develop written communication skills and in enabling them to pass the university English exit exam and successfully graduate from their degree course. Considering the vital importance of assessment in higher education and the problematic nature of teaching and assessing writing, the present study set out to examine the perceptions that nine EFL teacher participants (TP) and four language programme coordinators (PM) have towards writing assessment and the issues that they face in their everyday practice with its inclusion in the EFL curriculum. The following section intends to provide a critical overview of some of the major ideas in the existing literature in this field. Theoretical background As noted above, the difficulties that the assessment of EFL writing presents to teachers can result in the omission of writing assessment from regular assessment activities. According to Pearson (2004) and Hamp-Lyons (2003), two of the main difficulties faced in the assessment of writing are, first, the fact that a single writer may produce inconsistent pieces of writing and, second, that different assessors or classroom teachers may assess a single piece of writing in different ways. Additionally, scoring procedures rely on human judgment, which can be subjective, therefore putting at risk the validity and reliability of scores awarded. This subjectivity of writing assessment may be subject to additional constraints when the assessment of written language is included as a requirement in EFL programmes. For instance, Butler (2009:418) considers ◗ 76


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that EFL teachers deal with internal stress in their regular assessment practice, as they try to achieve a balance among ‘pedagogical needs of students while at the same time meeting the accountability requirements that are often based on prescribed standards and criteria’ of the educational institution they work for. Another issue faced is the fact that current language teaching practices tend not to emphasize the importance of assessment sufficiently. Therefore, connection between classroom assessment and everyday teaching practice is lost (Stoynoff and Coomb 2012; Crusan 2014; Weigle 2007). In this sense Weigle comments that: One of the fundamental lessons about assessment is that decisions about assessment should not be left until the end of instruction, but rather should be taken into account from the very beginning, preferably, in the earliest planning stages of a course (Weigle 2007:196)

On the other hand, there also exist issues related to teacher training programmes. Weigle (ibid.) considers that there is a lack of assessment courses in language education in most undergraduate and graduate programmes. This leads to a serious lack of assessment literacy in teachers. ‘…For these teachers, their only exposure to the concepts and practices of educational assessment might have been a few sessions in their educational psychology classes or, perhaps, a unit in a methods class’ (Popham 2009: 5). In the Mexican context, specifically in Tamaulipas, the scenario is quite similar to that described above. Undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in language teaching tend not to include a specific module on language assessment; instead, lecturers who consider it important to include language assessment in the content of the course they are developing are at liberty to do so. One of the main issues and difficulties teachers face during their writing assessment practice is the lack of appropriate training, resulting in what we might call a teachers’ lack of assessment literacy. The notion of assessment literacy embodies the knowledge that teachers have of assessment theory, application and interpretation of assessment. As Stiggins (1995) and Mertler (2003) state, this notion of assessment literacy is not only important in the 77 ◗


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field of education, but also for other fields. Stiggins (1995: 40), referring to teachers in the USA, emphasized: ‘…assessment literates know the difference between sound and unsound assessment. They are not intimidated by the sometimes mysterious and always daunting technical world of assessment’. However, becoming assessment literate, and being capable of assessing writing or any language skills reliably and validly, may not be as easy to achieve as some believe. A greater emphasis needs to be placed on the benefits of investing in teacher training in the area of assessment. Assessment training is an area of study that has been approached from different angles. Studies such as those led by Elder, Knoch, Barkhuizen and von Randow (2005, 2007), Weigle (1994, 1998), Contreras, Gonzalez, and Urias (2009), Shohamy, Gordon and Kraemer (1992), Knoch (2011), Hasselgreen, Carlsen and Helness (2004), Nier, Donnovan and Malone (2013) and Fulcher (2012), examine how different modes of training impact teachers’ needs, assessment issues and their assessment of writing in largescale testing and classroom assessment contexts. Hasselgreen, Carlsen and Helness (2004) examined the training needs of language teachers, teacher trainers and assessment experts in thirty-seven European countries and fifty non-European countries. A background questionnaire and a survey that focused on three main areas; a) classroom-based activities, 2) purpose of assessment and 3) content of assessment, was used as instrumentation. Data collected revealed that teachers and teacher trainers had very similar needs, which included the creation of assessment tools, the use of portfolios, peer/self-assessment, the interpretation of results, the establishing of validity and reliability throughout statistics and the rating of student performance in productive skills, among others. The assessment experts, assessors who had experience assessing language skills, considered that they needed more training in creating and developing items, making assessment-based decisions, using and considering the CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) as both the basis and support for the creation of tests and testing processes at different levels of achievement. In an attempt to study the perspective of an online teacher training programme and participants’ assessment needs, Nier, Donnovan and Malone (2013) presented a study that focused on assessment literacy ◗ 78


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and the impact of online training for EFL teachers in this area. Fifty-eight participants (mainly teachers who taught English or Spanish) were recruited through digital media and answered an online questionnaire prior to and post receiving online assessment training. Fourteen of these participants specified how training had impacted their assessment practice and their assessment perceptions. Teachers stated they had the opportunity to reflect on the importance of assessment and its complexity while others considered radically changing their assessment practices by providing innovation proposals to their programme supervisors. The researchers stated that all fourteen participants who answered the post-training survey believed that issues with national assessment standards in the United States needed to be addressed in assessment teacher training Finally, thirteen participants believed that they encountered more problematic issues with oral proficiency assessment than written assessment. In another study that focused on the needs of language teachers (Fulcher 2012), 278 participants (the majority females, mostly from Europe and the Far East) answered a survey. The results indicate that it is necessary to understand the role that testing and assessment have in today’s society, in order to provide teachers with tools that can allow them to understand the principles and essence of classroom assessment. Fulcher states: …language teachers are very much aware of a variety of assessment needs that are not currently catered for in existing materials designed to improve assessment literacy. The answers to the constructed-response questions in particular are indicative of changes in our understanding of the role of testing in society and a desire to understand more of the ‘principles’ as well as the ‘how-to’… (2012: 125).

With this assertion, the researcher identifies the need to consider a procedural approach to language assessment. This approach combines theoretical principles and contextual factors to link practice in large-scale assessment to the actual regular classroom-assessment practice teachers carry out. A large number of studies that examine assessment training (AT) focus on the contents of AT or teachers’ perceived needs in an AT course. Research 79 ◗


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has yet to clarify the actual difficulty that EFL teachers and programme decision makers face when assessing students’ written skills (in their classrooms) as a means to structure AT content. This is what this paper intends to address. By acknowledging these difficulties and considering feasible solutions through AT, writing assessment may be given a more important role in English programmes while students may be awarded more reliable and valid scores when assessed and/or tested. Extensive amounts of research have focused on the difficulties or needs of language teachers in English as a second language or English as a first language contexts, therefore leaving the EFL context under-examined or unexplored. Therefore, the intention of this study is to contribute to the existing body of research by providing some insight into the Mexican EFL context by answering the following research questions. 1. What issues do participant teachers face when assessing writing in the EFL classroom? 2. What particular issues do language programme managers face when making decisions regarding the inclusion of writing assessment in the language programme they administer? This study set out to explore perceived difficulties with EFL writing assessment experienced by nine EFL teachers and four EFL programme managers from one specific setting in Mexican higher education (HE). Therefore, the interpretations of data provided in this paper should be understood as providing an insight into this specific phenomenon and its evolution within the context the study was carried out in. In this vein, this research does not seek to provide generalizations regarding the phenomena under investigation, but to identify, describe and, perhaps, account for its characteristics in a single context. This may inspire others to carry out similar studies in their own contexts. The following section describes the research approach and methodology followed to fulfil the purposes of this study. Methodology The project design was based on a qualitative approach, which from an interpretative, constructivist perspective, seeks to provide the researchers’ interpretations of the realities observed and obtain a deeper understanding ◗ 80


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of the phenomenon under analysis. ‘The intent is to explore the general, complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad, varied perspectives or meanings that participants hold’ (Creswell 2014: 140). Throughout the study, teacher participants (TPs) and programme managers (PMs) provided their views and perspectives (participants’ social constructs) in relation to the difficulties of assessing writing. As a researcher, I relied on these social constructs to build my interpretation of the context and educational surroundings of these teachers. This was in an attempt to understand the situation under analysis: the difficulties of assessing EFL writing in the HE context in the north-eastern part of Mexico. The purpose of the study is to examine the perceptions that the participant teachers have related to writing assessment, and the issues that they face in their everyday assessment practice. Additionally, it seeks to compare the perceptions that language programme coordinators have of the role of writing skills in English language curriculum and how it should be assessed with those of the classroom teachers. The following data-collection instruments were employed: a) a background questionnaire administered to both teacher participants (TPs) and programme managers (PMs) b) semi-structured interviews with TPs c) semi-structured interviews with PMs. Analysis of data followed an inductive approach (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2011; Creswell 2014) by working with emerging themes and categorizations in the transcriptions of interview data. Then, deductively, the themes identified were further analysed in order to identify common patterns and/or to add more categories. Finally, it is crucial to mention that my role as the main researcher and data collector/analyser may have implied a degree of researcher bias in the interpretation of data, especially because the TP and PM participants of the study had been, at some point in the course of my own professional development, my co-workers. However, during the period when the study took place, none of the participants were my work colleagues. During the orientation, before beginning my data collection activities, we talked about my developing role as a researcher, in which I was making an honest effort to collect and interpret data as rigorously as possible. Technically, three 81 ◗


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different strategies were used to assure data accuracy, in other words, result validity (Creswell 2014), a) the triangulation of results from the analysis and interpretation of three data sets; b) the development of a comprehensive description of the study, which allows the reader to project him/herself into the specific context under analysis and critically evaluate instruments and procedures; c) the review of the project and the results by an external, experienced researcher. Participants The teacher participants (TPs) were nine Mexican EFL teachers. Eight working in a public university and one working in a private university in the state of Tamaulipas, in the north-eastern part of Mexico; four were males and five were females. Their ages ranged from 24 to 52 years old. TP315 and TP312 had less than a year of teaching experience, while TP31 had the most experience, with a full 20 years of service. Regarding their academic background, at the time the data was collected three TPs had a bachelor’s degree in Applied Linguistics, one a BA in combination with a teaching certification (the In-Service Certificate of English Language Teaching, ICELT), and two TPs were still completing their undergraduate studies while working as EFL teachers. Two of the participants held a Master’s degree in combination with the Certificate for Overseas Teachers of English (COTE), while one had obtained a Master’s degree in Administration. Information regarding the professional background of TPs is outlined in Table 1. Table 1: TPs’ background TP

Age / Gender

Academic background

Years of experience

A16

41/M

BA

7

C20

24/F

BA

1

F313

23/M

BA

2

G315

24/F

BA student

less than 1

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H312

22/M

BA student

less than 1

E22

28/M

BA/teaching certification

7

B52

26/F

MA

8

D31

52/F

MA/teaching certification

20

I316

36/F

MA/teaching certification

15

The language programme managers (PMs) were all female Mexicans; three were older than 50 years old, while the remaining PM was in her 30s. Three of the PMs were experienced EFL teachers with twenty or more years of teaching experience, while one had less than five years of experience. The three most experienced PMs were heads of English programmes at public universities. The fourth and the least experienced, was the main decision maker regarding an EFL programme in a private university. The PMs were, at the time of the study, the chief decision makers in the programmes at which the TPs were working. Table 2 provides a summary of background information related to PMs. Table 2: PMs’ background LPM

Age / Gender

Academic background

Teaching experience

1

F/26

MA

5

2

F/58

MA/COTE

23

3

F/56

MA

28

4

F/52

BA/ COTE

20

The background questionnaire The purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain richer information about the participants, in terms of their teaching experience, academic background, age, views on writing and how to assess this skill. With the purpose of providing participants an opportunity to express their ideas freely, without overloading them, the background questionnaire included three openended questions. In addition to providing space for TPs to express their 83 ◗


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ideas, eight multiple-choice statements were included, to facilitate the data collection and analysis processes (Nunan 1992). In the interest of improving validity (Dörnyei 2007), before it was used with the research participants, the instrument was piloted with a group of teachers foreign to the study. The final version of the background questionnaire is included as Appendix A. Semi-structured interview with teacher participants TPs took part in a face-to-face semi-structured interview, the intention of which was to achieve a better understanding of the context in which the teacher was giving his/her EFL lessons at the time of the study. Above all, the purpose was to collect data that could lead to a better understanding of the teachers’ perspectives on writing as part of their courses and the difficulties they had experienced regarding the assessment of writing. The interview included 13 questions in Spanish, the TPs’ mother tongue. The use of the participants’ first language (L1) combined with the semi-structured format of the interview was intended to create a comfortable environment for interviewees. In this milieu, the researcher could interact and further explore any emerging information, while at the same time providing direction and guidance through the interview outline (Dörnyei 2007). Each interview with the TPs lasted for 20-25 minutes. Before its actual use, the interview was also piloted with a non-participant teacher, to assure the usefulness and validity of the instrument for collecting the type of data needed. The interview outline is included as Appendix B. Semi-structured interviews with language programme managers Language programme coordinators or managers (PMs) were the decision makers regarding the design and development of the English language programmes in which the TPs were working at the time of the study. The intention of the interview was to further explore the managers’ professional background and their opinions and perceptions of the language programmes with which they were working. Secondly, it sought to explore the issues that PMs had encountered when including writing, and the assessment of writing, as components in their EFL programmes. This interview followed a semistructured format, including 12 open questions that had been designed previously in an interview protocol (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2011) and ◗ 84


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which were carried out in the native language of the PMs. A piloting phase was also carried out with this interview protocol; changes to word order and minor edits were made to the first version of the protocol as a result. Data from the three data collection instruments was analysed following specific research procedures, which are described in the following sections. Data collection and analysis procedures First, and before conducting the corresponding interviews, I explained to the TPs and PMs my vision for their participation in the project; each participant signed an informed consent document in which they stated (in print) their desire to take part in the study. They then filled-in the background questionnaire in Spanish. Semi-structured interviews are thought to allow for more flexibility in terms of question structure and the follow-up responses of the interviewee (McDonough and McDonough 1997; Nunan 1992). During the interviews, as TPs and PMs provided their answers, I adapted the sequence of questions and follow-up questions appropriately, thus supporting the natural flow of the interaction. All participants were first contacted via email or Facebook message, to set a date and time for the interview at their convenience. The researcher personally conducted all the participant interviews. The recording of interviews was discussed with each participant prior to the first steps of data collection, during the signing of the informed consent document. Interview recordings were transcribed for further analysis. Data obtained from the three instruments: 1) background questionnaire, 2) TP interviews, and 3) PM interviews were analysed following a qualitative approach. In the interests of strengthening the potential validity of any findings, a triangulation technique (Creswell 2014) was used. In other words, rather than relying on a single source of data, two instruments were used to confirm information. Participants’ perceptions and difficulties were elicited in both the background questionnaire and the interviews that were carried out. Transcripts of each interview were examined following an interpretative approach to analysis. The information obtained from the interviews was considered as a holistic narrative of the participants’ views of the phenomenon under analysis. Information was visited and revisited, and certain ideas or themes were gradually identified in each interview. These 85 ◗


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ideas were then clustered into categories, with the purpose of noting relationships among variables and the context in which participants were immersed. Each category was then coded and frequencies for each code obtained (Creswell 2015). Finally, once unique themes for each participant had been identified, they were compared to those of the rest of the interviewees, to discover common themes. Considering that a code is a label provided for a piece of data, either decided in advance or in response to data collected, (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison 2011) possible answers to closed questions were pre-coded (i.e. given a code before participants answered the background questionnaire) and recorded in a statistical analysis software program, specifically SPSS V.21. Descriptive analysis calculations, such as frequencies, means and modes of the responses to the categories of gender, age, and years of experience, were run to find patterns among the answers and to compare them to each other. Discussion of results To answer Research Question 1 (RQ1), ‘What issues do participants face when assessing writing in the EFL classroom?’ teacher participants (TP) answered a background questionnaire and engaged in a 20- to 30-minute semi-structured interview. Data revealed that participants encountered different issues, mostly related to the goals and content of the EFL programme and the lack of time in the classroom to dedicate to writing. For instance, TP22 was a male, in-service EFL teacher working at a public university, and he believed that the English programme he was teaching in did not consider writing to be an essential skill to be taught or assessed. Therefore, very little time was available to dedicate to writing. In other words, this TP perceived that the programme he was working for treated other skills and language aspects as more important (vocabulary, grammar, speaking and listening) and consequently devoted more time to these areas. This diminished the teaching and assessment of writing in the classroom. This male teacher personally believed that teaching and assessing writing is important for the development of students’ language skills. Therefore, he tried to compensate for the lack of a writing focus in the EFL programme by providing feedback to students’ texts occasionally, and without scoring them. TP322, who was in a very similar situation to that encountered by TP316, ◗ 86


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said she used feedback as an important tool in her teaching and assessment practices. This teacher was also in service at a public university and stated that she considered writing an integral part of her lessons. She stated: Almost all my classes include writing, at least a little. For instance, with my 9 and 10 level students (high intermediate) now we are working with essays, different types of essays. But if we do not work with complete essays because we don’t have time, we work on at least the process of writing, if not planning… if we have enough time (we) prepare a complete paper and revise it and give each other feedback, and then I give them more specific feedback.

Four of the interviewed participants, TP31, TP312, TP313 and TP315, said that they included a minimal amount of writing in their lessons because their institutions did not require them to assess writing and the time they had to complete the contents and objectives of the programme was very tight. TP313 mentioned For evaluating, the thing is that the programme that we’re following there, it doesn’t require evaluating writing from them. It depends on the level that they are (in). If they’re in intermediate English, they do not need to do a writing test…But, when they’re in an advanced level or intermediate/advanced level, I think it is when they start taking a writing exam.

TP315 mentioned that she was aware that the language curriculum she was working with did not include writing at low levels of proficiency, but required students to complete a whole level or course in developing writing skills towards the end of the curriculum and before beginning the TOEFL preparation course. She stated: ‘I think they should do that for every level. Like add maybe an hour in each level and you need someone who knows how to write and how to teach writing and there’s not enough people with those skills.’ From this comment, it seems quite clear that the issue of the inclusion of writing in the EFL programme is mainly due to the lack of appropriately trained staff. TP22 and TP52 mentioned another issue in their EFL practice, that writing was not part of the ultimate learning and teaching goals of the 87 ◗


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program. Students were not required to take the TOEFL ITP until they were ready to graduate. Since no immediate need for writing was perceived, listening, grammar and reading were given more importance during their teaching practice. Finally, TP312 mentioned that he was teaching English without any official programme or textbook at all, therefore excluding the need to specifically cover the skill of writing, or any other. Table 3, below, outlines the information described in this section. Table 3: Teacher participants’ perspectives and issues TP31 TP312 TP313 TP315

Time is a determining factor. Teaching and assessing writing is time-consuming.

TP16 TP31 TP312 TP313 TP315

Too much content in the course as a whole, not enough time. Lack of time limits the amount of time devoted to writing in the classroom. Too little time given to the skill in the programme and the classroom.

Regarding Research Question 2 (RQ2), ‘What particular issues do language programme managers face when including the assessment of writing in the language programme they administer?’ information obtained from the questionnaire and the PMs interviews portrayed the perspectives of the decision makers from the programmes in which TPs were working at the time. When asked about the issues surrounding the inclusion of writing in the EFL program, the four interviewees stated that time needed to teach and assess writing was among the biggest issues, therefore agreeing with TP16 and TP313. The interviewees also mentioned other issues, which seemed to fall into the following categories: a) Assessment issues b) Teacher/student issues c) EFL programme issues PM1 believed the main issues encountered were assessment issues. More specifically, those faced when teachers assess writing and the subjectivity that these assessments may entail. She said, ‘when checking the writing, we teachers have different points of view,’ therefore acknowledging the role that individuality has in the assessment of writing. She added that the ◗ 88


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lack of teacher training represented a constraint on the inclusion of writing assessment in the EFL program. PM2 and PM3 considered teacher issues as most important. PM2, in agreement with PM1, mentioned that one important issue was the lack of teacher training in the teaching and assessment of EFL writing. PM3 believed that a lack of teachers who enjoy writing is a constraint, as well as the lack of teacher training. She mentioned that ‘for the teacher...the problem is they don’t write. If you as a teacher do not write and nobody ever taught you how to write, you will not teach how to write either’. In an additional comment, PM3 added that another difficulty faced in language programmes is students’ poor writing skills. PM3 mentioned that, most of the time, students did not know how to write in Spanish and this made it more difficult for them to write in English. Therefore, ‘the teacher wastes a lot of time explaining things that students do not know about writing’. PM4 agrees with this comment and states that ‘students have poor writing skills, they do not manage to connect their ideas’. These participants considered constraints on the inclusion of writing in the programme to be mainly teacher/student issues. In terms of language programme issues, the constraints most referred to were the lack of time for investing in writing and the overall objectives of the respective EFL programme as being incompatible with a focus on writing. PM4 stated ‘…one of the main issues would be grading the papers because we all have different points of view… writing skills are not one of our priorities because we focus on the TOEFL ITP.’ In other words, the teaching of EFL was focused on the academic skills tested in the TOEFL ITP: listening, structure, written expression and reading. Although section two of this test focuses on testing written skills indirectly by having candidates choose the correct word in the text, this PM did not see this section as one that allows students to develop written communication. This PM considered developing text level skills such as coherence and organization, among others, to not be a priority for students. Therefore, the programme only focused on teaching students test-taking strategies that could allow them to successfully answer the questions in the section on ‘written expression.’ This was done rather than developing communicative writing abilities. The PM explained that students needed to pass a language proficiency test as a graduation requirement and therefore their EFL lessons focused on teaching the skills to successfully 89 ◗


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acquire 500 points on the TOEFL ITP. Table 4, below, summarizes the PMs’ perspectives. Table 4: Language programme managers’ perspectives and issues LPM 1 LPM 2 LPM 3 LPM 4

Language programmes do not include writing as part of the curriculum. No language programme to follow was available, teacher left alone.

LPM1

Assessment issues: Problems with assessor subjectivity and reliability when assessing writing and including writing in the language curriculum.

LPM 2 LPM 3 LPM 4

Teacher Issues: Mainly a lack of training and lack of writing habits in teachers. If teachers do not write, how can they teach writing? Student issues: Student writers have very poor writing abilities and struggle when writing is taught in the classroom. Students’ writing abilities are underdeveloped in their L1 and FL.

In conclusion, and as an answer to RQ1 and RQ2, teacher participants and EFL programme managers agreed that writing is an important skill that needs to be assessed in the classroom. They also agreed that lack of time to include the teaching and assessment of writing in the EFL language curriculum and the EFL classroom is the biggest constraint they face regarding this issue. The TPs stated that they preferred to give priority to what was assessed and what corresponded to students’ graduation requirements, therefore leaving writing as second priority. In other words, teachers are teaching for exams. Only one PM’s answer was consistent with these teaching practices; PM1 stated that writing was a secondary aim in their program, since they required their students to obtain 500 points in the TOEFL ITP. However, the other PMs identified other difficulties that were not included in TPs answers. These include difficulties related to teacher training, teachers’ own background and competence in writing and students’ low proficiency in writing. Discussion of results This research project set out to examine the perspectives and issues faced by two important stakeholder groups in the assessment of writing: classroom teachers and language programme managers. It intended to do so by having ◗ 90


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participants answer a background questionnaire and participate in semistructured interviews with the researcher. Data obtained suggested that both groups of participants agreed that one of the main issues faced was the lack of time teachers have in their classroom to assess writing. On the other hand, those that were in service at a public university acknowledged that their programme focused on having students successfully obtain a specific score on a large-scale proficiency test rather than further developing their writing skills. PMs considered the lack of teacher training and professors’ lack of interest in writing to be additional issues. TPs stated that they had little time in their regular day-to-day practice to dedicate to assessing writing, due to the large number of students they have in their classes. The results obtained in this study echo those ideas expressed by Butler (2009: 418); EFL teachers deal with internal stress in their regular assessment practice while trying to find a balance between supportive feedback for students and the results they need to hand in to their institutions. The requirement is to comply with administrative procedures rather than to assess in ways which benefit students’ development. Likewise, in this study, TPs stated they preferred to give greater importance to the content that was included in large-scale testing because of the overall goals of the program. This leads to the second major finding of this study, which agrees with Stoynoff and Coomb (2012) and Weigle (2007); assessment is not given the importance it should be given in ESL/EFL programmes. Awareness needs to be raised among EFL programme decision makers and EFL teachers about the need to include writing and its assessment in the EFL curriculum. Teachers often underestimate the relationship between writing skills and students’ language development. In the context of this study, the development of EFL writing skills may bring benefits such as the availability of a wider repertoire of language tools that can lead learners to greater success in language proficiency tests. Specifically, in the context of higher education in Tamaulipas, having success in these language tests not only allows students to graduate but also provides access to opportunities for academic development, especially for those who wish to pursue postgraduate education. On the other hand, the results of this project match those found in the study by Nier, Donnovan and Malone (2013), in which it was concluded 91 ◗


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that teacher participants needed to be provided with more training that could help them comply with the national assessment standards in the USA. In other words, results suggest that the decision makers at educational institutions need to reconsider the importance of assessment training. In the study described in this paper, it was found that teachers felt that they did not have enough training in the design and implementation of assessment procedures. They also concluded that more training needed to be provided by decision makers and their institutions, so as to unify assessment criteria within each institution. However, one difference found in this research that was not mentioned by Nier et al is the factor of time. All the TPs and PMs stated that the large amount of time that writing assessment required was one of the biggest constraints to its inclusion in the program. If perspectives from classroom teachers and those of decision makers are combined, it may be possible to find a feasible solution. Considering that classroom teachers are those who have direct contact with students, the language program, and the assessment that is carried out in the classroom, their voices need to be heard. This is especially true when it comes to assessing productive skills because of the subjectivity that these skills entail. Group discussions among classroom EFL teachers and their decision makers can allow ‘…both groups of teachers… to make mutual efforts to negotiate criteria while paying close attention to their local contexts and allowing for various accommodations to such contexts’ (Butler 2009: 442). These negotiations can allow co-constructed solutions to the difficulties and issues that are faced when assessing writing. Finally, a strong connection should be made between teacher perceptions, classroom assessment practices and decisions made by the language programme management team. Even though teachers are conscious of the importance of the assessment of writing for the development of proficiency in a language and ‘are very much aware of a variety of assessment needs that are not currently catered for …’ (Fulcher 2012: 125) in their EFL programmes, more needs to be done. Providing assessment literacy to teachers and decision makers will foster a stronger connection between the aforementioned aspects, all the while addressing the context of assessment, assessment validity and reliability.

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Implications of the study The results of this study have led me to conclude, in relation to the teaching and assessment of writing in an EFL program, that the issues and perspectives of TPs and PMs need to be considered together. The data suggests that one of the major deficits that teachers and managers perceive is the lack of assessment training. There is an urgent need to empower EFL teachers with the necessary tools to provide valid and reliable teaching and assessment for their students. Findings from this study highlight the importance of establishing contextspecific assessment standards within and between institutions, around which assessment training could evolve. Clearly, it is important to consider the teaching and learning goals of each EFL programme so as to establish assessment standards that correspond to these goals. By being directly involved in establishing EFL programme goals and assessment objectives, teachers may have the opportunity to avoid teaching only for exams. They could then encourage teaching for language skills development and overall proficiency. These standards would allow teachers to assess more reliably and avoid, as much as possible, negative wash back (Weigle 2007) for students, teachers and language institutions. Acknowledgement This article draws upon a research project funded by the British Council, and carried out under the ARAGs 2015 programme. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the British Council, its related bodies or its partners. The author would like to specially thank the British Council, the Universidad Autonoma de Tamaulipas and the Programa para el Desarrollo Profesional Docente for their support of this project. References Bacha, N. (2001), ‘Writing Evaluation: What Can Analytic Versus Holistic Essay Scoring Tell Us?’ System, 29/3: 371–83. Barkaoui, K. (2007), ‘Rating Scale Impact on EFL Essay Marking: A Mixed-method Study’, Assessing Writing, 12/2: 86–107. 93 ◗


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Barkaoui, K. (2010), ‘Variability in ESL Essay Rating Processes: The Role of the Rating Scale and Rater Experience’, Language Assessment Quarterly, 7/1: 54–74. Butler, Y.G. (2009), ‘How do Teachers Observe and Evaluate Elementary School Students’ Foreign Language Performance? A Case Study from South Korea’, TESOL Quarterly, 43/3: 441–44. Creswell, J. W. (2014), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixedmethods Approaches (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications). ——— (2015), A Concise Introduction to Mxed-methods Research (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications). Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2011), Research Methods in Education (7th edition) (Oxford: Routledge). Contreras Niño, L. A., González Montesinos, M., and Urías Luzanilla, E. (2009), ‘Evaluación de la Escritura Mediante Rúbrica en la Educación Primaria en México’, Inter-American Journal of Psychology, 43/3: 518–31. Crusan, D. (2014), ‘Assessing Writing’, in Anthony John Kunnan (ed.) The Companion to Language Assessment (West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons), 206–17. Dörnyei, Z. (2007), Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methodologies (Oxford: Oxford University Press) Elder, C., et al. (2005), ‘Individual Feedback to Enhance Rater Training: Does it Work?’ Language Assessment Quarterly, 2/3:175–96. ——— ——— (2007), ‘Evaluating Rater Responses to an Online Training Programme for L2 Writing Assessment’, Language Testing, 24/1: 37–64. Fulcher, G. (2012), ‘Assessment Literacy for the Language Classroom’, Language Assessment Quarterly, 9/2:113–32. Ghanbari, B., Barati, H., and Moinzadeh, A. (2012), ‘Rating Scales Revisited: EFL Writing Assessment Context of Iran under Scrutiny’, Language Testing in Asia, 2/1: 83–100. Hamp-Lyons, L. (2003), ‘Writing Teachers as Assessors of Writing’, in Kroll, B. (ed.) Exploring the Dynamics of Second Language Writing (New York: Cambridge University Press), 162–189. Hasselgreen, A., Carlsen, C., and Helness, H. (2004), European Survey of Language Testing and Assessment Needs. Part 1: General findings (Gothenburg: European Association for Language Testing and Assessment), published online ◗ 94


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. Knoch, U. (2009), ‘Diagnostic Assessment of Writing: A Comparison of Two Rating Scales’, Language Testing, 26/2: 275–304. ——— (2011), ‘Investigating the Effectiveness of Individualized Feedback to Rating Behavior —a Longitudinal Study’, Language Testing, 28/2: 179–200. McDonough, J., and McDonough, S. (1997), Research Methods for English Language Teachers (London: Arnold). Metler, C. (2003), ‘Pre-service Versus In-service Teachers’ Assessment Literacy: Does Classroom Experience Make a Difference?’ (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Columbus, OH.) Nier, V.C.; Donovan, A.E. and Malone, M.E. (2013), ‘Promoting Assessment Literacy for Language Instructors through an Online Course’, (Poster presented at the East Coast Organization of Language Testers Conference, Washington, DC.) Nunan, D. (1992), Research Methods in Language Learning (New York: Cambridge University Press). Pavlenko, A. (2007), ‘Autobiographic Narratives as Data in Applied Linguistics’, Applied Linguistics, 28/2: 166–188. Pearson, P.C. (2004), Controversies in Second Language Writing: Dilemmas and Decisions in Research and Instruction (Michigan: The University of Michigan Press). Popham, W.J. (2009), ‘Assessment Literacy for Teachers: Faddish or Fundamental?’, Theory into Practice, 48/1: 4–11. Shohamy, E., Gordon, C. M., and Kraemer, R., (1992), ‘The Effect of Raters’ Background and Training on the Reliability of Direct Writing Tests’, The Modern Language Journal, 76/1: 27–33. Stiggins, R. J. (1995), Assessment Literacy for the 21st Century. Phi Delta Kappan, 77/3: 238–245. Stoynoff, S., and Coombe, C. (2012), ‘Professional Development in Language Assessment’, in Coombe, C., Davidson, P., O’Sullivan, B., and Stoynoff, S. (eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Assessment (New York: Cambridge University Press), 122–30.

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Weigle, S. C. (1994), ‘Effects of Training on Raters of ESL Compositions’, Language Testing, 11: 97–223. ——— (1998), ‘Using FACETS to Model Rater Training Effects’, Language Testing, 15: 263–287. ——— (2007), ‘Teaching Writing Teachers About Assessment’, Journal of Second Language Writing, 16/3: 194–209. White, E.M., (1990), ‘Language and Reality in Writing Assessment’, College Composition and Communication, 41/2: 187–200.

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Appendices Appendix A: Background questionnaire This questionnaire is part of a research project that seeks to analyse the assessment strategies of EFL writing in distinct public universities in Ciudad Victoria Tamaulipas, Mexico. This instrument has the purpose of finding out more about you and your experience evaluating writing in the EFL setting. Please be so kind as to honestly answer the following questions. Check the option that most suits your opinion or experience. There is no correct or incorrect answer, only experiences to share. The information you share on this questionnaire is anonymous and confidential. It will only be used for research purposes. If you need any assistance with this questionnaire or have any questions regarding your participation in this research project, feel free to contact the researcher via email: [email protected]. Participant ID: ______________ Age: ________ Sex: a) M ❒ b) F ❒ Faculty at which you work: ______________________________________ Amount of EFL teaching experience (time) __________________________ Academic preparation _________________________________________ 1. I evaluate my students’ writing, as part of their academic progress, throughout the course. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 2. I use evaluation tools such as scoring rubrics to evaluate my students’ writing. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 3. Using a scoring rubric makes it easier to differentiate among students’ levels of writing. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 4. Using a scoring rubric makes my evaluation of written texts more objective. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 5. Using a scoring rubric makes my evaluation of written texts more efficient. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never

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6. When evaluating my students’ texts, I read the text several times and score different aspects. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 7. When evaluating my students’ texts, I read the text once and give it a single general score. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 8. When I am not sure about the paper I scored, I ask a colleague or friend for their opinion about the text that is being evaluated. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 9. When I am not sure about the score I gave, I ask a colleague or friend for their opinion. ❒ Always ❒ Often ❒ Sometimes ❒ Rarely ❒ Hardly ever ❒ Never 10. Before today’s session, I have received specific training on the evaluation of writing. If yes, please describe this experience. If no, do you think it could improve your usual evaluation activities? Please comment on your answer. ❒ Yes ❒ No 11. Before today’s session, I have participated in teacher seminars or workshops that address the use of rubrics and other scoring tools. If yes, please describe this experience. If no, do you think it could improve your usual evaluation activities? Please comment on your answer. ❒ Yes ❒ No 12. Please make any additional comments you consider necessary to describe your current practice of evaluating writing or your marking process. Thank you very much for your valuable information.

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Appendix B: Teacher participant interview outline Questions about the teaching and assessment of writing 1. Do you consider writing an important skill to develop in a language student? Why? 2. Do you teach writing in your classroom? How regularly? Do you consider it as a part of students’ bimonthly or semestral assessment and evaluation? Why or why not? 3. Is writing considered an important part of the language programme at the school where you work? Why or why not? Questions about participants’ use of rubrics 4. Do you consider that using rubrics in the assessment of EFL writing is important? Why? 5. Do you use rubrics to give a score to your students? What type of rubric? Why? 6. Which rubric do you prefer to use, holistic or analytic? Why? 7. Do you consider that rubrics improved your scoring of writing samples? Questions about the training session 8. Do you think training is necessary to be able to score writing? Why? 9. Do you think that the training provided may improve your future assessments? Why? 10. Do you consider it necessary to take training courses to be able to assess students’ written work? Why? Why not? 11. What aspects of the training session can be improved? Questions about participants’ experience scoring the sample papers. 12. How did you feel while scoring the papers before taking part in the training session? What difficulties did you have? Did training help you solve these issues? 13. Do you think your scoring of the 10 written samples improved after taking part in the training? Why or why not? How did it help?

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Appendix C: Language programme manager interview outline 1. What are the teaching goals in this EFL program? What are the learning goals? 2. Is teaching writing to students a part of those teaching and learning goals? Why or why not? 3. What issues are faced when including the teaching of writing in this EFL program? 4. How do you believe these issues can be solved? 5. Is providing teachers with appropriate training to teach writing necessary? Why or why not? 6. Did the training provided by the researcher help the management of the language program? If it helped, please explain how. 7. Did the training provided by the researcher help the teachers from the language programme better assess their students? If it helped, please explain how. 8. What issues are faced when including writing assessment in this EFL program? 9. How do you believe these issues can be solved? To conclude, state your opinion about the following. Our EFL teachers know that writing is important, they know that teaching writing will have beneficial results for students and that by assessing writing in the classroom they give it the importance it should have. Even so, in some institutions, the teaching and assessment of writing is not happening in the EFL classroom.

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Chapter 5

Researching Attitudes Towards English in Higher Education

Gandy Griselda Quijano Zavala

Universidad Autonoma del Carmen Online PhD in ELT

Abstract Attitudes and motivation in language learning have remained a widely researched topic around the world. Results confirm the importance of looking at learners’ attitudes and the possible factors that lead to their success or failure in learning a second language. These factors can be either similar or different in a variety of learning contexts. Unfortunately, in Mexico, little research has been done that looks at the attitudes of students towards learning English in higher education (HE). This is despite decades of English being taught in Mexico. The present paper reports on an extensive mixedmethod research study (in progress), which explores the attitudes towards learning English of freshman Mexican university students. The emphasis here is on describing the preliminary stage of research, reporting only on some of the data collection and results of this research project. The perspectives expressed in this paper are of the English ltasanguage teacher/researcher. A quantitative approach was used with data collected from 882 participants. The main instrument, at this early stage in the wider research project, was a 6 point Likert-scale. This scale was based on the English Learning Survey (Clément, Dörnyei, and Noels 1994) and the English Learner Questionnaire (Taguchi, Magid, and Mostafa 2009). Analysis was performed using SPSS descriptive statistics. The results indicated that the attitude of most students towards learning English are positive and that they recognize its importance. 101 ◗


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This is despite the fact that learners have different reasons for learning the target language, diverse previous English learning experience, and limited contact with the target language. The article concludes by discussing the implications of the study for continuing research. Key words: attitudes, motivation, English language, Mexico, higher education. Introduction English language learning in Mexico has continued to expand in recent decades. This is due to a number of reasons, although one of the reasons most commonly mentioned is the fact that English has become a global language (Jenkins 2015). Learning English as a foreign language involves different emotions, as language learning involves not only linguistic but cultural aspects, from both the mother tongue and the target language. Thus, the language classroom becomes a place where emotions gather; many times they appear to be visible at first sight. In reality, ‘power differentials, cultural identity, and students’ perceptions of English can negatively manifest themselves, impacting the EFL classroom in both observable and imperceptible ways’ (Graham 2006: 36). Because of this, researching attitudes towards learning English becomes of paramount importance. This is in contrast to simply attributing ‘certain attitudes’ to students, according to their class behaviour and reactions towards certain class activities. The term ‘attitude’ has been widely researched (Baker 1992, and Bohner and Wänke 2002). Its definition is complex, much more than just, ’behaviour’. A brief review of recent literature on attitudes and language learning will be provided, before I go on to describe the methodology and results of this preliminary quantitative stage of my study. I will conclude the article by considering the implications of the study for teaching and possible future research. Theoretical background In the literature, the term ‘attitude’ usually includes three components: 1) an affective component, comprising positive or negative feelings, 2) a cognitive component describing perceptions of worth or value, and 3) a behavioural ◗ 102


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Gandy Griselda Quijano Zavala ◗ Chapter 5

component indicating a willingness or desire to engage in specific actions (Baker 1992). These three components compose the single construct of attitude at a ‘higher level of abstraction’ (Ajzen 1988). Certainly, the construct of attitude can be abstract, as it refers to the instant evaluation of ‘an object of thought’. Attitude can refer to something concrete or abstract and be directed towards inanimate things or persons and groups (Bohner and Wänke 2002). ‘Attitude’ is more than a cluster of elements that can simply be observed or perceived by the language teacher in the classroom. In fact, a ‘language attitude is more than an attitude towards the language only, the language attitude reflects a learner’s attitude towards a particular cultural group’ (Roos 1990: 26). Attitude has become an important area of study, as part of the exploration of the wider field of motivation in second language acquisition. In this regard, Gardner’s Theory (1985) explained the language learner’s reasons for learning the language using the term of instrumentality. This focused on assessing the practical reasons for foreign language learning. This study also used the term integrativeness to assess possible reasons for interaction with the target language community. For example, a learner who is instrumentally motivated probably has a language-learning goal related to earning a better salary or getting promoted at work, while an integratively motivated learner probably has the goal of learning the language in order to find out more about the culture(s) of native English speakers. Pursuing this line of research, empirical studies show that EFL undergraduate students usually have higher instrumental orientation, but in some cases both emerge. For instance, in a study with Yemeni undergraduates, Al-Tamimi and Shuib (2009) found that students were mostly instrumentally motivated. Tahaineh and Daana (2013) explored Jordanian undergraduates’ attitudes and found both types of orientations. On the other hand, Sandoval-Pineda (2011) found Mexican university students to show good levels of integrativeness, but high levels of instrumentality. However, Dörnyei (1998) argues that the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context differs from other L2 learning settings. In the case of instrumentality, he makes two main distinctions: 1) for promotion and 2) for prevention. Some students are motivated to learn English to obtain some type of promotion, for example at work, while others only do it to prevent 103 ◗


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a negative outcome, such as not failing the course. Dörnyei (2005) also suggests studying motivation through the study of the L2 motivational self system, where he posits that the ‘ideal’ L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience are the main components. The ‘ideal’ L2 self refers to the learner’s image of herself. That is, if the learner envisions herself using the target language in the future. Unlike the L2 ‘ideal’ self, the oughtto self refers to the qualities the learner believes she needs to display to satisfy others’ expectations, rather than her own. On the other hand, the L2 learning experience refers to the positive learning environment the language learner has experienced. Kormos and Csizér (2008) found that for Hungarian university students the ‘ideal’ L2-self obtained a high mean value, but did not find identify dimensions of the ought-to L2 self. With regard to classroom experience, Tsuda (2003) found that Japanese undergraduates considered their low proficiency in English to be due to bad experiences while learning English. A study performed in a wider context (Japan, China and Iran) by Taguchi, Magid and Papi (2009), showed that instrumentality can be divided between the perspectives of the ‘ideal’ L2 self and the ought-to L2 self. That is, instrumentality can be promotional for students who study English to go abroad and want to continue studying abroad, but it can be preventative for students who might be sent on a work commission. Whatever the differences between Gardner’s and Dörnyei’s models, the fact is that they both, directly or indirectly, construct attitude from the perspective of the three dimensions described in attitude research: cognition, affect and behaviour. However, to more fully understand what the construct of attitude comprises and how attitude affects language learning in different contexts, further studies are needed. Unfortunately, there has been little research on attitudes towards learning English in higher education in Mexico; to date, there have been only a few studies that highlight the importance of attitudes in language learning in the Mexican EFL setting. However, it is useful to look at what has been done in order to compare and contrast existing findings from the Mexican context with other studies, as well as to provide a point of comparison for the results from my own research into attitudes in HE in Mexico.

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For instance, in a paper by Despagne (2010), 300 students from a private university were surveyed, and it was found that 60.3 per cent reported that they did not like American culture. Despite this, 89.72 per cent accept that English is important, 58 per cent think that English will help them in ‘everything’ and 45 per cent consider English a difficult language. Additionally, in a study by Chasan and Ryan (1995) carried out with students from the biggest public university in Mexico, negative perceptions were found towards English in relation to political, cultural, and economic matters. This was despite the fact that respondents accepted the importance of English for economic growth. They concluded that the students interviewed for the study still resisted learning the language, even after acknowledging its importance. On the other hand, Mora Vázquez, Trejo Guzmán, and Roux Rodríguez (2010) conducted a qualitative study, in a university language centre in northeast Mexico, with three undergraduate males and three females. They found that the students they interviewed believed that their teacher’s attitude influenced their levels of motivation. All students agreed on the importance of English for economic and professional growth. However, they did not find learning English to be a pleasurable activity, though they saw ‘English as necessary to overcome the difficulties that the current socio-economic status of Mexico presents to them’ (ibidem: 12). In a different study, Sandoval Pineda (2011) explored the attitudes of 227 Mexican students in a university located in the north of Mexico. She found that most students generally uphold positive attitudes towards learning English, but that these attitudes can be negatively affected by the structure of the English programme. The results drawn from these studies suggest that it is important to explore these factors to better understand what causes students’ attitudes. However, before further exploration of such factors are considered in my own study, it is indispensable to identify and describe students’ existing attitudes. For this reason, as an English teacher and researcher, I pose the following study question as an opening query for my research project: What are freshman students’ attitudes towards learning English at a university in southeast Mexico?

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Methodology It was necessary to review the literature to learn what methodology has been used to date for carrying out research into attitudes towards learning English. It was interesting to note that studies on attitudes have mostly been based on a quantitative approach (Tahaineh and Daana 2013; Sung and Tsai 2014; Tatsuya, Magid, and Mostafa 2009), and have used the survey as the main data collection instrument. In my own study, since the sample population consisted of 882 undergraduate freshman students at a university in southeast Mexico, I decided to build on previous research and also use a quantitative approach for data collection and analysis. I designed a survey based on a combination of elements drawn from Clément, Noels, and Dörnyei, (1994) and Tatsuya, Magid and Mostafa (2009). From Clément, et al. (1994) the aspects that were borrowed were items related to: attitudes towards learning English, Americans and the British; perceived group cohesion in the students; self-evaluation of English competence; evaluation of the English teacher’s work and evaluation of the English course. From Taguchi, et al. (2009) the aspects that were borrowed were those pertaining to: the ‘ideal’ L2 self; the ‘ought-to’ L2 self; parental encouragement/family influence, instrumentality promotion and prevention, and ethnocentrism. Additionally, I designed some original items, which I included in the category of inter-ethnic contact. The survey comprised two main sections: 1) A 70-item Likert-scale survey from ‘1’ being ‘Totally disagree’, to ‘6’ being ‘Totally agree’ and 2) a background and general information section. The use of closed items is very practical for the researcher, and also for the respondents. Closed item surveys can reach a large sample of participants and respondents only need to select from provided answers, This greatly facilitates the research process as it is easy and fast (Nunan and Bailey 2009). The 70-item survey was placed first in the sequence of questions so that students could focus on answering the 70 items, without the distraction of having to first provide background information. The background information section asked participants for information such as their age, type of high school, city of origin. This had the purpose of further exploring their attitudes. Descriptive statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 21.

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Preliminary findings To create a more detailed picture of the background and setting of the participants, I will first present results from the background and general information section. This is followed by an account and discussion of the results from the 70-item Likert-scale survey. Since this is very much a preliminary study, I have narrowed down the item analysis to those items which specifically pertain to the categories borrowed from previous studies on attitude and motivation (see section 2 above). a. Background and general information section The average age of participating students was 18. Spanish was mentioned as the native language of 859 students out of 882. The Mexican participants who mentioned a different native language were: one speaker of Mayan and one speaker of Chol; there were 19 participants who omitted a response to the question. There were also 2 participants who were French nationals. Regarding the type of high school education they had received, the majority (73 per cent of the students), reported that they had studied in public high schools and 13.7 per cent in private high schools, while 4.2 per cent had received a mix of public and private high school education. Students were enrolled in different undergraduate programs and the majority came from the area (southeast Mexico). b. Descriptive statistics In order to investigate the university students’ attitudes towards learning English, descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were calculated and analysed. The survey scored a Cronbach’s Alpha of .89, indicating a good level of reliability and consistency. See Appendix 1 for the complete detailed representation of students’ attitudes toward learning English. The figures are arranged in a descending order, according to the mean scores given by the students. For this preliminary study, I present a summary of the most salient items from the survey. I have borrowed, from previous research into attitude and motivation, categories to structure the analysis (see Section 2 above): i. Attitudes towards English and its importance ii. Integrative and instrumental orientation (prevention and promotion) 107 ◗


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iii. L2 selves, ought-to L2 selves and classroom experience iv. Self-evaluation of English and exposure to English For the purposes of this paper, the Likert scale has been summarized into two categories, Agree and Disagree. i. Attitudes towards English, English speakers, and the importance of English The survey included items that surveyed students about their attitudes towards learning English, English speakers, and importance of the language. Table 1 highlights the items pertaining to this category. Table 1: Students’ attitudes towards English and English speakers Item

Statement

Number of respondents

Agree

Disagree Means

SD

Per cent

10

English is an important subject in the school program.

880

97.6

2.1

5.58

.72

11

Mexico can develop thanks to Mexicans who speak English.

874

91.9

7.1

5.05

1.00

25

I would like to have American friends.

870

85.1

13.6

4.47

1.27

49

It is an advantage for Mexico to have an English-speaking neighboring country such as the United States of America.

882

80.4

19.6

4.44

1.34

7

The British are friendly.

879

84.1

15.7

4.39

1.05

44

I believe the British are reliable.

878

58.7

40.8

3.64

1.20

51

I like the way the Americans behave.

875

50.7

48.4

3.45

1.24

34

I would like to learn English to be like Americans.

879

36.3

63.3

3.0

1.60

29

I consider Americans are friendly.

877

78.7

20.7

4.29

1.20

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As can be observed from Table 1 above, Item 10, ‘English is an important subject in the school program’, was answered by almost all respondents and achieved the highest mean score. The majority of students agreed with this item. Similarly, most participants agree that as well as it being important to learn English at school; English represents an opportunity for Mexico to develop. Although to a lesser extent, students also consider it an advantage to be a neighbour of the United States of America. On the other hand, regarding their opinions about certain cultural groups and specific features of these groups, the students show a slight difference in attitudes. For instance, their attitude towards Americans, as shown in Items 25, 29, 34, 51 indicate that they agree on wanting to have American friends, and on their perception of the friendliness of Americans. But they do not quite agree on their behaviour. In the case of attitudes towards the British, most students consider them to be friendly. Item 44 showed a low mean score, indicating the students are not so sure about British reliability. However, most students are open to getting to know more British people. It also seems, from looking at Item 36 (see Appendix 1), that we can say the vast majority of students are proud of their Mexican heritage (French nationals were omitted from this sample) and that the students are open to learning from other cultures. These items seem to suggest that learners view English as a vehicle for international communication but that they are heavily rooted in their home culture. ii. Instrumental and integrative orientation Participants expressed the degree to which they agreed with reasons for learning the language, under two categories; instrumental reasons (prevention and promotion) and integrative reasons (see Table 2). Items 61, 31, and 8 correspond to prevention. Most students believe that they must study English to graduate and be successful in their career, but only 62.7 per cent of students believe that they must study the language to avoid failing the English course. Regarding promotion, items 12, 28, and 5 show that most participants study English to obtain a good job or to continue their studies, as well as 109 ◗


2/27/17 11:19 PM


to live abroad to study or work. On the other hand, items 67, 34, 57 look at integrative reasons for learning English. Most students agree that learning about other English speaking cultures is a good thing, but most of them do not want to learn the language ‘to be like the Americans or British’. This correlates with results found for Item 36 above (proud of their national heritage). Overall, students show high instrumental orientation for prevention and promotion, but lower integrative orientation. Table 2: Students’ reasons for learning English Item

Statement


Agree

28

Studying English is important to me because I may need it later for a job/studies.

879

97.9

1.8

5.67

.70

12

I need to know English to get a good job.

881

95.3

4.6

5.34

.95

31

I have to study English because I don’t want to get bad marks in it at university.

878

62.7

35.7

5.31

1.03

61

I have to learn English because without passing the English course I cannot graduate/ get my degree.

870

90.6

8

5.25

1.12

I have to study English; otherwise, I think I cannot be successful in my future career.

879

89.1

10.6

5.03

1.20

Studying English is important because I am planning to live abroad (studying or working).

880

85.6

14.1

4.85

1.30

I want to learn English to learn about the life and behaviour of people who live in English-speaking countries.

879

83.4

16.3

4.73

1.32

8

5

67

Disagree

Means

SD

Per cent

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34

I would like to learn English to be like the Americans.

879

36.3

63.3

3.00

1.60

57

I would like to learn English to be like the British.

876

29.8

69.5

2.68

1.53

iii. L2 selves, ought-to L2 selves and classroom experience This last section presents the items that sought to explore L2 selves, ought-to L2 selves, and classroom experience. As can be seen in Table 3, most students see themselves using English, being abroad and communicating in English, which indicates their ‘ideal’ L2 selves. Their ‘ought-to’ L2 selves show low mean scores, indicating that they do not feel they have to study English purely in order to satisfy the expectations of others. Table 3: Students’ L2 selves, ought-to selves and classroom experience Item

Statement


Agree

27

It is good to learn English as a child

882

97.9

2

5.72

.71

2

I have a good attitude about learning English.

881

94.7

5.3

5.15

.97

19

I really enjoy learning English.

875

89.9

9.4

4.83

1.06

26

My high school English teachers showed interest in helping me learn the language and had a disposition that was helpful.

882

72.6

27.4

4.23

1.47

Learning English is necessary because people surrounding me expect me to do so.

875

66.4

32.9

4.00

1.44

I am afraid of sounding stupid in English because of the mistakes I make.

879

66

33.8

3.97

1.56

16

4

Disagree

Means

SD

Per cent

111 ◗


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23

It’s hard for me to learn English because it’s a difficult language.

879

50.8

48.9

3.38

1.53

39

Students look down on those who do not speak English well

880

22.4

77.3

2.34

1.49

The interpretation now turns to the students’ experience of learning English in the classroom. As can be observed in Item 27 above, ‘It is good to learn English as a child’, was answered by all respondents and achieved the highest mean score in terms of agreement with the statement. Most participants agree that they have a very good attitude towards English, and that they enjoy learning English. However, half the participants believe they have difficulties learning the target language. The results here indicate that although learning English is difficult to do, it brings positive outcomes and the earlier you start the better. The majority of students agreed that their English teachers in high school were professionally trained, showed fairness in the classroom, and that they were aware of the required forms of evaluation. Yet, only 72.6 per cent , as Table 3 shows, considered that their teachers showed an interest and a disposition that helped the students learn the target language. On the other hand, 66 per cent of the students felt afraid of making mistakes and sounding stupid when using English. On a positive note, most students reported that they did not look down on students who did not speak English well. iv. Self-evaluation of English and exposure to English Other salient aspects worth mentioning that came from Part 2 of the survey are those related to students’ self-evaluation of their current language skills in English and their exposure to the target language. Students agree, to a certain extent, on being able to communicate in English. For instance, most students claimed to understand written and spoken English. Also, most (62.7 per cent), mentioned that they can write in English. Yet, only 43 per cent consider themselves able to speak English. Not surprisingly, 62.9 per cent of students do not feel satisfied with their proficiency in English. On the other hand, ◗ 112


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when questioned about their exposure to English, many students reported having generally more exposure to visual media such as T.V. They did not report regularly engaging in the other activities listed, such as reading magazines or listening to music. Despite the fact that some participants reported some interaction in English, either with nationals or foreigners in different situations, these students generally reported that they received little exposure to the English language outside the classroom. Discussion of results The descriptive results described above provide a general idea of the freshman students’ attitudes towards learning English at a Mexican university. From these results I can pinpoint the students’ attitudes towards English and English speakers; the importance they place on the English language; the reasons these students learn English; their L2 selves and ought-to L2 selves, high school classroom experience; their self-evaluation of their English skills and their exposure to English. I address each of these categories or themes in the sections below. a. Attitudes towards the importance of English similar to the findings of earlier studies in Mexican contexts (Despagane 2010; Chasan and Ryan 1995; Mora Vázquez, Trejo Guzmán, and Roux Rodríguez 2010; Sandoval-Pineda 2011), students showed positive attitudes towards learning English. They recognize the importance of learning English at an early age, to achieve adequate advancement in their future careers. Similarly, they are aware that those who speak English have an advantage over those who do not and are likely to occupy better positions at work. They realize that these people will help improve the state of the economy of Mexico. In fact, most students also consider that it is an advantage to have the United States of America as a neighbouring country. In short, the students seem to be aware of the importance of English. b. Attitudes towards culture Participant learners’ attitudes towards Americans suggest that they may have their reservations regarding their friendliness and behaviour. In the case of attitudes towards the British, the students 113 ◗


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also have their reservations towards the friendliness of Britons, as only half the sample of students agreed with the statement that British people are friendly. Many believe that the British are reliable, yet many do not identify with British culture. However, most admit they are open to getting to know more British people. Students are aware that their own use of English is limited; therefore they need to engage in more interaction in English. In short, students seem to have a high sense of their own cultural identity, but they also recognize the importance of other cultures and are willing, to a certain extent, to embrace another culture through language learning. c. Types of orientation: instrumental and integrative Based on Gardner’s (1985) theory, students expressed both instrumental and integrative orientation towards learning English. Students showed themselves to be instrumentally motivated, for reasons relating to both promotion and prevention. They recognize the importance of English in gaining access to better opportunities for themselves and for the improvement of their economy. Following the same line of thought, students are instrumentally motivated for prevention too. They want to learn English to avoid failing the course, and, as a result, experiencing problems with their graduation process. On the other hand, with regard to integrative orientation, most students are not interested in learning English to be like Americans. A point which corroborates Despagne’s (2010) findings regarding students not being very fond of American culture. Similarly, the students do not want to learn English to be like the British either. However, students also show a degree of integrative motivation when they agree that they want to learn about cultural aspects of English speaking countries and travel around the world. The results in this Mexican EFL setting very much concur with Dörnyei’s (1998) findings concerning the co-existence of different types of orientations. They also concur with the findings from other EFL settings, where both types of orientations are perceived (Tahaineh and Daana 2013). This is even true in settings where students are mostly instrumentally motivated (Al-Tamimi and Shuib 2009). In the Mexican context, the results from this study are also in ◗ 114


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line with those of Sandoval-Pineda (2011) where students showed high levels of integrative oriented learning, but higher levels of instrumentality. d. L2 selves and ought to selves It was found that most students are able to imagine themselves living abroad (perhaps for postgraduate studies) and communicating in English, points which suggest something about the nature of their ‘ideal’ L2 selves. The results of our study mirror the findings of Kormos and Csizér (2008); they found that the students’ ideal L2self obtained a high mean value. On the contrary, their ‘ought to’ L2 self is reflected in the fact that students do not feel that much pressure to study English as a result of other people’s expectations. They considered the influence of their parents as positive, since they encouraged them to study the target language. e. Classroom experience Although students highlighted positive aspects of their experience in high school--students being supportive of each other, their teachers mostly being fair and professional in their teaching, and understanding the class evaluation system they expressed the opinion that their lessons were not very interesting. Despite the fact that most students actually enjoy learning the target language, their evaluation of their own language skills also reveals that students are not content with their level of proficiency. This is similar to the result of Tsuda (2003), who found that most of the undergraduates in the study felt they had a low level of proficiency in English. Conclusion In sum, within this study, affective, cognitive and behavioural (Baker 1992) aspects have been analysed. Categories or themes from the research into attitudes of EFL learners towards English have been used to structure the discussion. The findings from my study show that students’ attitudes towards learning English are in many ways positive. They show both instrumental (promotion and prevention) and integrative motivations for learning English. They have images of themselves using English (L2 selves), and most students do not feel they have to learn English (‘ought to’ selves) 115 ◗


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for reasons other than their own. Furthermore, the participant learners show interest in learning the language. This is despite the fact that their previous English learning experience in high school was not very interesting and despite their lack of confidence regarding their language skills. Lack of confidence probably results from students not engaging in situations where they can interact using English, either with locals or foreigners in their community. However, their interest in other cultures drives them to use and practice their English through different means. For example, entertainment media. It is important that decisions made in the classroom sustain this attitude. Fostering an optimal environment for engaging with cultural aspects related to English, in such a way that students come to engage in learning through language practice both inside and outside the language classroom, is of paramount importance. The Internet (e.g. social networking, Skype) provides a vast array of tools which can be used to enhance English learning. This is especially true for students who do not have the opportunity to travel abroad, but who none the less need to communicate in the target language, mostly for work related reasons. The importance of considering students’ attitudes when planning lessons or the overall programme structure is also in line with Salvador-Pineda’s (2011) findings, which suggest that programme structure can affect students’ attitudes. This highlights, once again, the need to embark on further research in this area. In conclusion, this initial study of English language learners’ attitudes in a particular community in Mexico reveals a number of areas ripe for further research. The data here, as in other studies into attitude, indicate that perceptions of English, its purposes, the learning process, cultural aspects and perceptions of self, can all have an impact on the EFL classroom. It is only through expanding on current research into these motivational aspects, in different teaching/learning contexts, that deeper understanding of the role of attitude in language learning can be reached. References Ajzen, I. (1988), Attitudes, personality, and behaviour (Chicago: Dorsey Press). Baker, C. (1992), Attitude and languages (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters). ◗ 116


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Bohner, G. and Wänke, M. (2002), Attitudes and Attitude Change. (New York: Psychology Press). Chasan, M. and Phyllis, R. (1995), ‘Actitudes de alumnos de inglés hacia la cultura de los nativohablantes del inglés’, Estudios de Lingüística Aplicada, 21/22: 11–26. Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., and Noels, K. (1994), ‘Motivation, self-confidence and group cohesion in the foreign language classroom’, Language Learning, 44: 417–48. Despagne, C. (2010), The Difficulties of Learning English: Perceptions and Attitudes in Mexico. Canadian and International Education/Education Canadienne et Internationale, 39/2: 55–74. Dörnyei, Z. (1998), ‘Motivation in Second and Foreign Language Learning’, Language Teaching, 31/3: 117–35. ——— (2005), ‘The Effects of Intercultural Contact and Tourism on Language Attitudes and Language Learning Motivation’, Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24/4: 327–57. Gardner, R. (1985), Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation (London: Edward Arnold). Graham, L. S. (2006), ‘English Language Learning in Mexico: A Case Study of Implementing Problem Based Learning into a Technology Enhanced Writing Curriculum’ (unpublished thesis). Jenkins, J. (2015), Global Englishes: A Resource Book for Students (3rd edition) (London: Routledge). Kormos, J. C. and Csizér, K. (2008), ‘Age-Related Differences in the Motivation of Learning English as a Foreign Language: Attitudes, Selves, and Motivated Learning Behavior’, Language Learning, 58/2: 327–55. Mora Vázquez, A., Trejo Guzmán, N. P., and Roux Rodriguez, R. (2010), ‘A Small Scale Investigation Into Mexican University Students’ Language Learning Motivation’, Actualidades Investigativas en Educación, 10/1: 1–15. Nunan, D. and Bailey, K. (2009), Exploring Second Language Classroom Research: A Comprehensive Guide (Boston: Heinle) Roos, R. (1990), ‘Language Attitudes in the Second Language Situation’, Per Linguam, 6/2: 25–30. Sandoval Pineda, A. (2011), ‘Attitude, Motivation, and English Language Learning in a Mexican College Context’ (unpublished thesis). 117 ◗


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Sung, K. Y. and Tsai, H. (2014), ‘Motivation and Learner Variables: Group Differences in College Foreign Laguage Learners’ Motivations’, International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 43–54. Tahaineh, Y. and Daana, H. (2013), ‘Jordanian Undergraduates’ Motivations and Attitudes towards Learning English in EFL Context’, International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4/2: 159–180. Tatsuya, T., Magid, M. and Mostafa, P. (2009), ‘The L2 Motivational Self System among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian Learners of English: A Comparative Study’, in Z. D. Ushioda, Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (Clevedon: Multinlingual Matters), 67–89. Tsuda, S. (2003), ‘Attitudes toward English Language Learning in Higher Education in Japan (2): Raising Awareness of the Notion of Global English’, Intercultural Communication Studies, 12/3: 61–75.

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Appendix 1: Students’ attitudes towards English (mean scores at item ievel) Item

Statement


Percent

Mean

SD

27

It is good to learn English as a child.

882

100

5.72

.71

28

Studying English is important to me because I may need it later on for a job/studies.

879

99.7

5.67

.70

36

I am proud to be Mexican.

881

99.9

5.64

.86

69

If I make more of an effort, I am sure I will be able to master English.

879

99.7

5.59

.80

10

English is an important subject in the school program.

880

99.8

5.58

.72

59

I can imagine myself as someone who is able to speak English.

872

98.9

5.43

.90

12

I need to know English to get a good job.

881

99.9

5.34

.95

63

If my teacher wanted me to do an extra English assignment, I would certainly volunteer.

878

99.5

5.33

.95

31

I have to study English because I don´t want to get bad marks in it at university.

878

99.5

5.31

1.03

35

I am interested in learning English because I want to travel around the world.

878

99.5

5.27

1.12

61

I have to learn English because without passing the English course I cannot graduate/ get my degree.

870

98.6

5.25

1.12

45

The things I want to do in the future require me to use English.

878

99.5

5.22

1.08

2

I have a good attitude when learning English.

881

99.9

5.15

.97

21

I am sure I have the ability to learn English.

871

98.8

5.14

.98

119 ◗


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56

I enjoy making my best effort when learning English.

878

99.5

5.08

1.07

11

Mexico can develop thanks to Mexicans who speak English.

874

99.1

5.05

1.00

47

When I watch T.V. programmes or movies in English, I try to understand the language.

873

99.0

5.04

1.10

8

I have to study English; otherwise, I think I cannot be successful in my future career.

879

99.7

5.03

1.20

1

I am very interested in the values and customs of other cultures.

874

99.1

4.96

.92

53

I have Mexican friends who speak English.

880

99.8

4.86

1.38

5

Studying English is important to me because I am planning to live abroad (e.g., studying and working).

880

99.8

4.85

1.30

19

I really enjoy learning English.

875

99.2

4.83

1.06

25

I would like to have American friends.

870

98.6

4.77

1.27

20

My parents encourage me to study English.

874

99.1

4.77

1.32

13

I can imagine myself living abroad and having a discussion in English.

870

98.6

4.75

1.36

32

I would like to know more British people.

871

98.8

4.74

1.25

67

I want to learn English to learn about the life and behaviour of people who live in Englishspeaking countries.

879

99.7

4.73

1.32

48

I do activities where I have to use English (e.g. reading magazines, listening to music, speaking or writing in English)

880

99.8

4.67

1.47

50

I get nervous when I need to speak in my English class.

882

100

4.54

1.41

◗ 120


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It is an advantage for Mexico to have an English-speaking neighbouring country, such as the United States of America.

882

100

4.44

1.34

The British are friendly.

879

99.7

4.39

1.05

52

My high school classmates and I supported each other in our English class.

881

99.9

4.37

1.39

58

I knew how my English performance would be evaluated in high school.

881

99.9

4.37

1.34

54

My high school English teachers were professionally prepared to teach their lessons.

879

99.7

4.29

1.39

29

I consider Americans to be friendly.

877

99.4

4.29

1.20

60

The activities my teachers evaluated were relevant/ significant for learning the language.

881

99.9

4.28

1.36

3

My high school English teachers were always fair.

879

99.7

4.28

1.27

26

My high school English teachers had a helpful disposition and showed an interest in helping us learn English.

882

100

4.23

1.47

I am satisfied with the work I have done in my English course.

878

99.5

4.15

1.32

64

Considering how I study English, I can honestly say that I do very little work.

871

98.8

4.14

1.35

22

I am able to read in English.

877

99.4

4.12

1.42

15

The content evaluation of my English class was clear.

876

99.3

4.09

1.28

16

Learning English is necessary because the people that surround me expect me to do so.

875

99.2

4.00

1.44

43

If I don’t learn English, I won’t be able to travel to other countries.

881

99.9

3.98

1.72

49

7

9

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I am afraid of sounding stupid in English because of the mistakes I make.

879

99.7

3.97

1.56

30

My high school English teachers made their classes interesting.

882

100.0

3.96

1.45

40

I have foreign friends or acquaintances who speak English.

880

99.8

3.95

1.88

38

In my family there are people who speak English.

869

98.5

3.88

1.82

33

I can write in English.

868

98.4

3.84

1.40

18

I think I would be happy if other cultures were more similar to Mexican culture.

875

99.2

3.77

1.48

24

I speak English with my Spanishspeaking friends.

876

99.3

3.71

1.52

68

I can understand what I hear in English.

877

99.4

3.70

1.38

17

In my English lessons, I seldom do more than is necessary.

875

99.2

3.68

1.34

44

I believe the British are reliable.

878

99.5

3.64

1.20

14

I have interacted in English with at least one foreigner on the internet or the phone.

877

99.4

3.56

1.86

62

I think the cultural and artistic values of English are promoted at the expense of Mexican values.

880

99.8

3.50

1.48

55

Studying English is important to me because other people will respect me more if I have knowledge of English.

878

99.5

3.49

1.50

51

I like the way the Americans behave.

875

99.2

3.45

1.24

23

It’s hard for me to learn English because it’s a difficult language.

879

99.7

3.38

1.53

42

I do not particularly like the process of learning English and I do it only because I may need the language.

874

99.1

3.34

1.78

4

◗ 122


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I have interacted in English, face to face with at least one foreigner in my community, city or country.

873

99.0

3.27

1.90

6

I can communicate orally in English.

876

99.3

3.19

1.43

70

Because of the influence of English speaking countries, I think the morals of Mexican people are becoming worse.

877

99.4

3.16

1.47

34

I would like to learn English to be like Americans.

879

99.7

3.00

1.60

37

I have to study English because, if I don´t do it, my parents will be disappointed with me.

874

99.1

2.97

1.53

66

I am satisfied with my English proficiency at this moment.

878

99.5

2.93

1.69

41

Because of the influence of the English language, I think the Spanish language is corrupt.

871

98.8

2.92

1.55

46

I have interacted in English with at least one foreigner in a foreign country.

879

99.7

2.84

1.87

57

I would like to learn English to be like the British.

876

99.3

2.68

1.53

39

My high school classmates looked down on those in class who did not speak English well.

880

99.8

2.34

1.49

65

123 ◗


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Chapter 6

Current Trends in English Language Teaching in Mexico

Caroline Moore

University of Guadalajara, Mexico

Abstract This chapter compiles perspectives on the current trends in English language teaching across Mexico over the last 25 years. It addresses both the public and the private sector, educational contexts ranging from the third grade of preschool to university, and includes commercial language institutions and self-directed learning. The discussion examines what goes on in English language teaching in terms of its coherency within both national and international policy trends. The study is centred around five cornerstone questions concerning: who we teach, what we teach, how we organize what we teach, how we teach, and how we evaluate learning. Looking at populations of learners, as well as the kinds of content, skills and standards we are aiming for in our English programmes, allows us to ascertain the extent to which Mexico is able to meet its current and projected English needs. This is essential for staying competitive in the global market and for evaluating the appropriateness of the current language planning to do so. We would expect to find coherency between how English is conceptualized in national language policy and how the goals and content for teaching are organized in the national language programme. Adopting a common framework of reference, to organize teaching and learning content, establishes a sense of continuity between programmes at the different levels of education in Mexico.

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From the discussion of these five cornerstone questions, nine conclusions are drawn as to Mexico’s ability to meet the market demands for English. Concrete measures, to strengthen the future of English language teaching in Mexico, are also suggested. Key words: Mexico, language policy, English as a lingua franca, global English language teaching Introduction The present chapter is a compilation of perspectives on the current trends in English language teaching (ELT) across Mexico. It was inspired by a panel discussion at the Foreign Language Education Seminar at the International Book Fair (Feria International del Libro 2015), in Guadalajara. It weaves together perspectives on English language teaching from both the public and the private sector, in educational contexts ranging from the 3rd grade of preschool to university, and includes commercial language institutions and self-directed learning. The aim of this chapter is to document the current state of affairs in ELT in Mexico as we have moved out of the twentieth century and into the early twenty first century. In doing so, we hope to point towards the different directions which ELT may be taking in the next fifteen years. The discussion is structured around five cornerstone questions: How do we assess/test what we teach?

How do we teach?

How do we organize what we teach?

What do we teach?

Who do we teach?

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Caroline Moore ◗ Chapter 6

An examination of the data, which documents the different populations of English language learners in Mexico, is a useful way to begin the chapter. This allows us to understand the ways in which English language learning and teaching is spread across the country. This, in turn, facilitates informed decision making at the level of national and local policy and programme administration. This will result in more effective educational planning and more appropriate allocation of resources. It also shows us where the ‘holes’ are and where action is needed in order to ensure that access to English instruction is extended and diversified to meet the different needs for English within Mexico. It also aims to help in reducing inequalities of opportunity among different social groups. Looking at who it is that is learning English is a first step in ascertaining where Mexico stands vis-à-vis its ability to meet its different English language needs. A second step in establishing a panorama of English language teaching across Mexico involves the question of what it is we teach, in terms of language knowledge and language skills. By looking at current national language policy, at how English is conceptualized within this policy, and then comparing this with the current end uses for English, we are able to assess the appropriateness of current language planning. In other words, an assessment of the kinds of content, skills and standards we are aiming for in our language programmes allows us to evaluate whether or not we are preparing English language learners to meet the needs of the current and emerging market. The question of what it is we teach leads to other questions: how do we characterise the goals we seek to achieve and how do we organize learning content into language programmes or syllabi? We would expect to find coherency between how English is conceptualized in the national language policy and how the goals and content for teaching are organized in the national language programme. Further, clearly stated goals and appropriately organized language content provides us with the means to talk about what we are teaching and what we are aiming for as ELT professionals, in both the national and local arena. Above all, we will see that adopting a common framework of reference to organize teaching and learning content facilitates discussion about the ways different programmes compare with each other, in terms of both goals and content. This is particularly useful 127 ◗


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if we are to establish a sense of continuity between programmes at the different levels of education in Mexico. The classroom approach we take to teaching and learning is closely linked to language policy, planning content, and identifying the skills the current market demands from its English language users. Looking at how we teach, in terms of the predominant methodologies implemented in the classroom and the learning materials we use, gives us an indication of where our focus lies in terms of knowledge base and skill-building. An understanding of how we go about our teaching informs the expectations we may reasonably have of the linguistic strengths and weaknesses of our learners. This, in turn, helps us to ascertain the extent to which current English language needs are being met through our current classroom practices. Finally, hand in hand with approaches to teaching, are the ways in which we evaluate learning. Testing and other assessment practices should reflect both the content and goals of the language syllabus and the methodological framework within which learning has taken place. The standards used to measure learning also need to be linked to a common reference system, so as to establish and maintain continuity across the educational system and among different sectors of the market. Looking at assessment practices provides us with a good indication of the degree to which we are working towards common goals and standards of practice. Additionally, it gives us insight into the extent to which these goals and practices are truly reflective of the market’s needs. In order to build up a coherent panorama of the tendencies in English language teaching across the public and private educational sectors, we shall go on to examine each of the cornerstone questions posed above. This will allow us to understand the development of English language teaching across Mexico in the last 25 years and to draw some conclusions as to where ELT currently stands vis-à-vis current market demands. Lastly, we make some predictions as to directions that may be taken in the early part of the twenty first century.

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a. Who do we teach? It was estimated in 2014 that in Mexico City, out of a population of 23.9 million people, approximately 21 per cent are actively learning English through various channels (The British Council 2015: 23). Whilst precise figures are difficult to come by, the general distribution of English language learners may be roughly depicted as follows:

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Figure 1: The Distribution of English Language Learning in Mexico City

Public education here includes basic education (ages 4–15), high school education (ages 15–18) and tertiary education provided by federal or state-funded institutions. Private education here includes basic education (ages 4–15), high school education (ages 15–18) and tertiary education provided by institutions funded by individuals but accountable to federal or state ministries of education (SEP). ‘Potential Internet users,’ refers to the use of online resources for self-directed learning. Language institutes refer to commercial English language classes, taken either alongside schooling or beyond schooling. Source: English in Mexico: An examination of policy, perceptions and influencing factors, British Council Educational Intelligence, 2015. 129 ◗


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The graph in the previous page shows that it is the public sector of education, (where English is a mandatory subject in the curriculum from the third grade of preschool until high school), that dominates the English language learning market. However, with regards to overall achievement in terms of proficiency, it is in fact the private sector that leads. Some further background may be helpful in understanding this inequity. Traditionally, the teaching of English in Mexico has taken place in the public sector of education from the age of 12 or 13, when children began their secondary education. In the private sector, exposure to English has commonly begun at a much earlier age, starting in preschool. In the private sector, pupils have been exposed to English for 50 per cent or more of their school day. English in both the private and public sector is offered in high school (Preparatoria) and often, but not always, at the tertiary level too. In addition, those enjoying sufficient income will often supplement current or previous English classes at school with study at a commercial (private) language institute in order to achieve higher levels of fluency and proficiency, normally for employment or study purposes. Clearly, with this state of affairs, those who can afford a private education or classes at a language institute –approximately 13.5 per cent of the secondary population and 23 per cent of the high school population (British Council 2015: 12–24) achieve higher levels of English language proficiency. This has resulted in greater employability, higher income levels and more opportunities in terms of further study for this already privileged sector of society, placing those who have only had access to English through public education at a considerable disadvantage. Indeed, this situation highlights the need to broaden the range of educational opportunities in order to reduce inequalities between privileged and less-privileged social groups. This was the driving force behind the educational reforms of 2006 and the National Development Plan of 2007– 2012 (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo). In this era of educational transformation, the Sub-Secretariat of Basic Education acknowledged the value of extending the scope of English, already an integral part of the national secondary school curriculum, to the preschool and primary school curricula.

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The plan aimed to increase hours of exposure to the language in childhood and consequently raise proficiency levels to approach or equal those already being achieved in the private sector. After an initial run of pilot programmes in some states, in 2009 the Secretariat of Public Education launched the National English Programme in Basic Education (PNIEB, its acronym in Spanish). According to the program, English classes would be delivered to all pupils from the third grade of preschool to the third grade of secondary (ages 4 to 15) as a mandatory subject in the curricula. Although it was always foreseen that this would be a gradual process, to date only about 27 per cent of public schools have actually fulfilled this requirement at the earlier ages of 4 to 11. The principle barrier to the implementation of English across these stipulated levels of basic education has been the insufficient provision of teachers. At the present time, approximately 80 000 trained English teachers are needed (Valladares Castro 2013). It is not always clear that starting foreign language learning at an early age results in more effective learning, but it is generally acknowledged that the number of hours of exposure to the language does count. What we are seeing, as we move into the twenty first century, is the persistence of the significant gap between the proficiency of persons with access to the private sectors and those who only have access to the public sector. For instance, during basic education in the public sector, a pupil will typically receive no more than 3 hours of English class per week; in contrast, in the private sector, a pupil may receive an average of 15 hours of English per week. At the high school level, again, three hours of English is the norm per week in the public sector, in the private sector there may be significantly more exposure. In the case of tertiary education, there is far more variation between models. Some universities offer several semesters of language classes, either as compulsory or optional courses. Other universities expect their alumni to have taken some content classes in English (mainly the private sector). Lastly, some universities require a specified level of English proficiency as a mandatory requirement for graduation, but leave it up to the students to find their own way of achieving this level of proficiency. In sum, we can say that the main shift in the number of consumers of English language teaching in the early twenty first century has been in the 131 ◗


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young learner market. This has been due to the introduction of compulsory English classes into public preschool and primary schools. Less obviously and less well-documented, there has also been an increase in English language learning through less formal channels of self-access learning, namely through the use of apps, platforms for online learning and the exposure to English that is accessible via the Internet. However, statistics released by AMIPCI (the Mexican Association for the Internet) indicate that: in 2013 only 30 per cent of Mexican households had access to Internet resources, with access being economically and geographically linked (http://www.amipci.org.mx/). In the present economic climate, it is not expected that there will be any significant shifts in English language learning behaviours in this particular area. The above discussion on the distribution of English language learning across the different types of learner populations can be more meaningfully understood if we give a brief overview of the ways in which English is likely to be used by these individuals. Traditionally, the dominant perception in Mexico of the purpose of learning English has been as a tool for enhancing experiences and seeking better opportunities outside the country. However, with Mexico’s increasing global competitiveness, this perception is shifting towards an understanding of the role of English as a medium for international communication. With tourism and the service industry high on the economic agenda, as well as the increasing global competitiveness of Mexico as a place to invest in, English is now beginning to be seen as a skill that facilitates international trade and allows the wider international community to establish businesses and industry within Mexico. The perception that English can contribute to Mexico’s ability to compete globally, and that it thus has a key role to play in both national and personal economic growth, is beginning to create an environment where English is valued as a skill for employment within the national territory. In the interest of offering equal opportunities, it becomes expedient that all sectors of society have access to quality English instruction. Since the principal needs that Mexico has for English are linked to its ability to be globally competitive, we might conclude that proficient language skills are becoming a key element in the country’s profile. This suggests that English language learning should continue to play an increasingly important ◗ 132


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role on the national agenda. This is true, not only within education, but also alongside and beyond education, if targets of proficiency that meet the market’s demands are to be met. In the following sections, we closely examine what exactly is implied by: ‘targets of proficiency that meet the market’s demands.’ b. What do we teach? The second rubric to be addressed in this overview of current trends in English language teaching in Mexico is the question of how English is conceptualized as a subject to be taught. Under this rubric we seek to answer questions such as ‘How does English, and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching, fit into the national language policy?’, and ‘How closely do language content, skills and standards we are aiming for, meet the needs of today’s market?’. We frame the discussion by looking at how tendencies in what we teach in ELT in Mexico compare with current conceptualizations of the role of English as a global language. These concepts come from the study of applied linguistics. Furthermore, in order to understand what targets for proficiency in English might reflect the current economic climate in Mexico, it will be useful to briefly examine international perspectives on the role of English within a framework of globalization. This discussion will provide a scaffold, against which we can compare current conceptualizations of the role of English in Mexico. i. International Perspectives on the Role of English Under the theme of globalization, the academic literature in applied linguistics points persistently towards what has been coined ‘Global English’ and global English language teaching. As its name suggests, at the centre of a global English approach to language teaching (GELT) is the conceptualisation of English as a means for communication between peoples of different mother tongues. What makes it different from traditional ELT is its conceptualisation of ‘normative.’ Essentially, a GELT approach places the native English speaker on an equal footing with the non-native English speaker, thereby emancipating the user of Global English from the norms of a minority group of mother tongue English users. It closely reflects a conceptualisation of English as essentially a tool for international, 133 ◗


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transcultural communication. Within a GELT framework, we might understand two major shifts as having taken place: 1. Firstly, that the purpose of learning English has changed; no longer is the primary purpose to affiliate in some way with a native speaking community. In other words, rather than aiming to acquire skills that will allow them to travel or study in an English-speaking country, current learners of English expect to participate in a wide range of communities of practice from all over the globe without having to leave their homes. 2. Secondly, the understanding of what ‘appropriate language forms’ consist of has also changed (Pennycook 2007); this idea includes the validation of multiple types of Englishes (Black English, Carribean English, etc.) Furthermore, it is understood that treating language as ‘a self-standing product’ (Canagarajah 2013: 7) distorts the way in which meaning is co-created dynamically in communication. Thus the notion that we can define and characterize a single ‘standard’ form of English is viewed as problematic. A view of language as an organic system, capable of changing and adapting to its surroundings is preferred (Galloway and Rose 2015). This idea of GELT fits in snugly with a conceptualization of English as an international Lingua Franca (ELF). We predict that we are likely to see a continuous morphing of English as described by Galloway and Rose (2015) above, as both commerce and technology brings speakers together in new domains, thus sustaining an ever-changing environment. However, at a grassroots level around the world, a number of barriers exist to the adoption of a GELT conceptualisation of what English language teaching should be about. These include, an attachment to ‘standard’ English and the prevalence of standardized language tests. Mexico is no exception in this respect. We go on to examine how it stands vis-à-vis this construction of English as a lingua franca and the purposes of ELT as a tool for international communication. From here, we will be able to look at the fit between national language policy and local content. ◗ 134


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ii) National Language Policy and the Role of the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language. Any government policy is a statement of ambition, ascertaining exactly what language policy is can be a notoriously difficult thing to do. The details of policy may not be clearly articulated or easily accessible, and the relationship between statements of policy and their interpretation by institutions or individuals is highly complex. Although the role that English has around the globe, as a language for international communication, is widely accepted in Mexico, it does not mean that what we teach in the English classroom necessarily revolves around this particular conceptualization of English. If we examine national language policy in Mexico, we can find that the 2007–2012 National Development Plan (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo) articulates six general objectives for regulating education. Two of these are particularly pertinent to the conceptualization that English is a tool for global competitiveness through transcultural and international communication: objective one and objective five. 1. Increase the quality of education so that students improve their level of educational achievement, have a means of acquiring better welfare and make a greater contribution to national development. 5. Offer quality educational services that produce individuals who are aware of their social responsibilities and who participate in the labour market in a productive and competitive way. In order to deliver on this, the Secretariat for Public Education (SEP) specifies that the aim of English language teaching should be to develop ‘the pluri-lingual and pluri-cultural competencies necessary to successfully handle the communication challenges of the globalised world, and at the same time respect their own culture as well as others’ (http://basica.sep.gob.mx/). Likewise, the language programme for English (Programas de Estudio 2006: Lengua Extranjera: Inglés) developed by the Sub-Secretariat for Basic Education, tells us that the goal for an English language class is: to develop the linguistic competencies which will allow pupils to participate effectively in the social practices of the language in different environments. Importantly, the programme acknowledges 135 ◗


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that ‘spoken practices used in dialogue vary and are established according to social and communicative conventions of the culture where the exchanges take place’ (http://basica.sep.gob.mx/). When placed alongside one another, these policy statements appear to indicate that the conceptualization of English, at the level of national policy, can be interpreted as being largely coherent within a global English framework (as discussed in section b. i above). However, if we step beyond the language programme, towards the classroom, and examine the kinds of goals and content we find in the materials typically used in the ELT market in Mexico, it becomes apparent that language policy has not necessarily been carried through to practice. Indeed, the goals and content we find in ELT materials are some way off from mirroring this construction of English as a tool for global, transcultural communication. In the largest sector of English language learning, that of public education, typical content at the level of basic education is organized around the goals set out in the English programme (within the national curriculum). The content focuses primarily on social practices of the language and the construction of everyday, academic and literary texts. Under each of these rubrics, the main focus is on normative language and contexts for communication that are characterized largely by the kinds of texts produced to achieve these social practices. While the program does specify the strategic competences to be developed under each social practice, what is not seen here is a GELT approach to the language. A GELT approach exposes pupils to varieties of language and permits non-normative forms, at the same time as it encourages negotiated meanings, all of which are key features of transcultural communication (Jenkins 2013). At the level of high school education (Preparatoria), the drawing up of policy documents lies with the state, rather than the federal Secretariat of Education, and varies from one state to another. However, as evidenced in the kinds of materials used at this level of education, English language learning at high school in the public sector tends to be a continuation of the same approach found at the ◗ 136


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basic level in public schools. The private sector, in basic education, can be characterized as consisting largely of ‘bilingual schools’. Here, pupils are exposed to English during approximately 50 per cent of the school day. (Often at preschool pupils will be fully immersed in English, and in secondary school English is reduced to about a third of the school day). Over the past 25 years, in the bilingual schools market, there has been a marked shift away from the language arts programmes that were popular during the 1990s. In these programs, English as a Second Language (ESL) materials (produced for the growing immigrant market in mainstream education in the United States) were adopted by bilingual schools. They were often adopted at one grade level below the students’ actual grade level. This was in order to compensate for the difference in exposure to English between an ESL and an EFL environment. The challenges that these ESL materials presented teachers and pupils in the Mexican private sector led many bilingual schools to move towards the use of different materials. On the one hand, materials for learning through English, where subjects such as ‘History’ were now taught in English (though in addition to, rather than in place of the history class taught in Spanish). On the other, EFL materials which had a syllabus that focused on preparation for international exams, such as the Cambridge English Assessment or Trinity College Oxford portfolios exams. However, whilst materials developed for English medium instruction (EMI) or content and language integrated learning (CLIL) can lead pupils towards high levels of proficiency in English, they do not, for the most part, contemplate either features of language, or processes and strategies of communication which reflect a view of English as a lingua franca for global transcultural communication. Much the same can be said of materials developed with a strong exam-preparation syllabus; as one might predict, the focus in terms of language content tends towards standard language forms and normative processes in communication. In this respect, a mismatch with national language policy can again be identified. Likewise, at the level of high school in the private sector, we find that 137 ◗


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these dominant tendencies towards standardisation remain much the same. English–medium instruction and/or EFL exam preparation materials prevail over materials that expose pupils to varieties of language which facilitate skills in transcultural communication. Similar to the case of high school, where there is no national policy statement for English language teaching, at the tertiary level a lack of uniformity in English language policy also exists. Each higher education (HE) institution forms its own policies. In some cases, English is offered as an integral part of the undergraduate curriculum; in others, general English courses may be offered as an optional subject. Some HE institutions include a specified level of English as part of their entrance requirement; others insist that their students pass an English language proficiency test in order to graduate. In the public sector, at the tertiary level, it is not uncommon to find spaces for self-directed learning of English (Self-access centres), for the student community at large. Occasionally, at this level we may also see courses offered in English for specific purposes. Here, the content may be specifically honed to lexis and discourse practices specific to a particular profession, the element of international communication is still largely absent. Despite the fact that there is no uniform policy as to the role of English in higher education, it is apparent that English is a highly valued commodity. Internationalisation programmes can be found across the board in HE, involving anything from student exchanges to the presence of international campuses. Visiting professorships are encouraged. In their absence, Mexican teaching staff, on Mexican university campuses, are encouraged to offer lectures to their students in English. In the area of postgraduate and research work, researchers are encouraged to publish and present their studies in English to enhance the impact of their work. Academia however, is the one field that has been particularly persistent in insisting on native speaker norms for academic discourse. Conventions in academic writing are highly standardized and safeguarded by publishers of scholarly work. This places non-native speaker academics at a disadvantage in publishing, which has a negative ◗ 138


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impact on their institution’s internationalization (Ingvarsdóttir and Arnbjörnsdóttir 2013). It would seem that, for the future of academic writing, it might be desirable to remove this level of gatekeeping. Tolerance in the academic community for textual characteristics that are more reflective of communication between speakers of other languages who use English as a lingua franca, could be fostered. Despite the fact that the wider national policy appears to be accommodating a GELT approach within its policy statement, where communication is seen as a series of primarily spoken practices which vary and are established according to social and communicative conventions of the culture where the exchanges take place, neither the public sector nor the private sector of education in Mexico has seen their way past the barriers of a dominant normative discourse. They have failed to expose pupils to communication contexts where English is used as a lingua franca for transcultural exchange. Teachers feel insecure about accepting a view of language as fluid and permissive, and EFL materials that promote standard language forms dominate the market. In this environment, it is unlikely that the mismatch between language policy and teaching content is going to change. Having said this, there are in fact two spaces in Mexico which hold some potential for facilitating a GELT approach; those of the commercial language institute and of selfdirected learning. The commercial language institute, while not well documented, is the sector of English language learning which holds most potential for facilitating a GELT approach and providing opportunities for learners to build up skills for effective transcultural communication. As an independent and commercial entity, these institutions are at liberty to modify and update the goals and content of learning based on the specific needs of its clients. Likewise, they are at liberty to adopt international EFL textbooks produced within a framework of global English, or English as a lingua franca. The smaller group sizes of the language institute also facilitate the building up of communication strategies and transcultural communication skills. 139 ◗


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In addition to the commercial sector of English language learning, the area of self-directed learning also holds significant potential for achieving the plurilingual and pluricultural competence that is necessary to successfully handle the communication challenges of the globalised world. This self-directed sector of learning is inherently propitious in terms of allowing for the market needs of individual learners to be met. Desired learning outcomes and the processes necessary to achieve these outcomes are set by the learner. In this respect, a learner using a self–access centre, the Internet or specific language learning apps to develop his language skills, can be guided by the immediate uses he has for the language. He can then adopt routes for learning which best meet his long and short term needs. Under this second cornerstone of trends in English language teaching over the past 25 years, we have seen how English is currently conceptualized across the international discourse community surrounding English language teaching. This is as a process closely linked to the demands of globalization. This discussion frames the way in which we interpret Mexico´s national language policy, and then assess the fit between national language policy and the way it is implemented in local contexts. In this area we noted a considerable disparity between national goals (as articulated by the government’s 2007–2012 National Development Plan, the Secretariat for Public Education, and the Sub-Secretariat for Basic Education) and the way English is presented in learning content in the public and private sectors of education. It would seem to be only in the commercial and self-directed markets of ELT that there is the potential for the development of the plurilingual and pluricultural competencies necessary to successfully handle the communication challenges of the globalised world. An examination of the related area of language syllabi (and how English language content is organized) will provide further insight into the directions we have been taking in ELT over the past two decades. We shall go on to examine current trends in this area in the following section. It addresses the question of how we organize what we teach.

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c. How do we organize what we teach? In examining the ways in which the goals and content of the language class are organized into a language syllabus, two general approaches can be identified in Mexico; a ‘goals-based syllabus’ and a ‘book-based syllabus’. The former is generally found in the public sector, whilst the latter approach is more common in the private sector. In addition to the different approaches towards syllabus design, in the latter part of the twentieth century, a common frame for the describing of goals and content in language programmes or syllabi was often lacking. Without a coherent framework, it was difficult to perceive continuity between programmes at the different levels of education. This has now been rectified to some extent. The public sector in mainstream education follows a national curriculum (Plan y Programas de Estudio, SEP), where English is one of a number of required subjects to be taught. The aims and content areas are laid out in a 3-year syllabus. The materials that are used to teach this syllabus are written specifically for it by competing publishers. The private sector, as a basis for their English syllabi, generally uses an English course book series that they select from the open market. (Although the private sector in mainstream education is obliged to follow the national curriculum, in the case of pupils who had started classes during preschool or primary, they had usually surpassed the proficiency level the national curriculum set out to achieve. It was therefore appropriate, in these cases, to adopt a more advanced course book series). Using a course book series as the basis for an English language programme is an inverse, but fairly common approach to organizing what we teach. It is an approach to programme design currently found in many different parts of the world (Fester 2014). In the case of high school (Preparatoria), state entities are responsible for specifying the syllabus for English, hence considerable variation exists in terms of programme design between one state and another. Here too, the division holds between the state sector and the private sector, with private high schools also tending to base their English courses on the textbook series they use. At the tertiary level, no common curriculum has existed to date. Each institution has been responsible for specifying the desired proficiency levels and the content of syllabuses for the different programmes offered 141 ◗


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in its various faculties. In some cases, syllabuses have been drawn up independently from the course books used; in other cases it has been the course book that constitutes the language syllabus. These two approaches to syllabus design are both still very much apparent in the educational market in Mexico today. In terms of specifying goals and content, in the 15 years or so prior to 2006, regardless of whether the syllabus was drawn up independently from a course book series or not, the organization of the English language content consisted largely of the co-existence of a situational-based syllabus with a grammatical syllabus. In other words, a unit of work would typically involve a situational context, which would generate certain functional expressions to be initially presented as ‘chunks’, and then, later in the unit, they would be analysed for their grammatical make-up. There was considerable uniformity between different course book syllabi and between programme syllabi. This should not surprise us, at this time, ELT in Mexico was influenced by an internationally dominant discourse in applied linguistics. This discourse advocated a communicative approach to language teaching; what could be observed during the 1990s was a transitioning from a dominant pedagogical framework based on grammar towards the trending communicative approach. It was this vision of English language teaching, as essentially ‘communication-based’, using functional language that is situated within a context that moulded and drew together language programmers from different sectors in Mexico. This resulted in a certain uniformity in teaching goals and content. Parallel to the trending discourse of communicative language teaching in Mexico, in the 1990s we find another trend that was fast gaining ground, originating in the area of industry. This was a discourse of quality control and standardization. It was the ELT exams market which was the first to take this discourse fully on board. This was prompted by the increasing demand for certification, to accredit internationally recognized standards of English language proficiency. In order to frame the understanding of what different levels of proficiency were comprised of, it was seen as convenient to adopt the Common European Framework for Languages (CEFR), drawn up by the Council of Europe in 1996. With evidence of an expanding exam market, publishers of ELT materials across the board were quick to adopt the CEFR ◗ 142


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as a tool to conceptualise the content and goals of their textbook series. This was done in order to link their products more closely to the growing market of international standardized exams. It was this move on the part of the publishers that contributed to the formalization of the common language that we now share in Mexico, and across the world, to talk about the goals of English language teaching and the levels of learning. Essentially, the CEFR framework conceptualizes language ability in terms of competences, or what is commonly referred to as ‘can do’ statements. Its discourse coincides with the shift in education in Mexico at the beginning of the twenty first century towards competency-based learning. Coincidentally, this strengthens its applicability to national language programmes. In Mexico, regardless of whether a ‘goals-based’ or a book-based’ approach to syllabus design is taken, this rush towards a competency-based model of learning has propelled the use of the CEFR as a tool with which to frame the setting of intermediary and end-goals in language proficiency, namely in the use of ‘can-do’ statements. Current trends in Mexico are clearly uniform in the move towards conceptualising end goals and the abilities that constitute these end goals. It has become widely accepted that the goals and content areas of the language class are stated in syllabi using the CEFR (as in the 2006 language programme) and its Mexican derivative for benchmarking language achievement, the ‘CENNI’ (as in the 2009 language programme for basic education). One of the principal advantages that this common discourse has given us is that it is now much more straightforward to perceive how different programmes compare with each other, in terms of goals and content. This, in turn, helps to establish a sense of continuity in English language learning between the different levels of education within Mexico. It enables us to ensure that as learners progress from primary to secondary school, or from high school to university, they are moving forward in their learning, rather than sideways or even backwards. More than this, the common framework provides us with the means to talk about what we are teaching and what we are aiming for as ELT professionals, in both the national and the international arena. Moving on from language policy and the way language teaching is conceptualized across different sectors in terms of goals and content, we go 143 ◗


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on to examine methodological trends. Looking at how we teach helps us to ascertain the extent to which current English language policy and planning is actually being implemented in our classrooms. This, in turn, can inform our expectations of Mexico’s ability to meet current market needs for English language learning. d. How do we teach? Looking at how we teach (in terms of the predominant methodologies of the classroom and the learning materials used) gives us an indication of where our focus lies in terms of a knowledge base and skill building. The question of methodology is usually foremost in teachers’ minds and often provides the window through which they come to understand the theoretical framework on which an educational approach is based. The ELT discourse in Mexico entered this century under the umbrella term ‘communicative approach’, which aimed above all to prepare learners to interact with some fluency using all the linguistic resources at their disposal. In reality, the teaching circumstances (i.e. large classes, a shared mother tongue, lack of access to authentic input) as well as the teachers’ experience and their training, meant that for the most part, the approach adopted was ‘quasi-communicative’. In other words, typically teachers entering this century tended to combine a structural approach to teaching (explicit grammar teaching, often in the pupils’ mother tongue) with some communicative activities (pairwork/groupwork, information-gap or role play), (Ramírez-Romero and Pamplón 2012). In a quasi-communicative class in the public sector, a proportionally larger amount of lesson time would be assigned to explicit presentation of new language items. This would be followed by controlled or semi-controlled practice of these items, and possibly, but not always, with some time at the end of the class for freer production (a communicative activity). How exactly this quasi-communicative approach was linked to the general approach to education expressed in the national curriculum at that time (constructivist/ learner-centred), is not altogether clear, though learner-centeredness is recognised as one of the requirements for an activity to be labelled as ‘communicative’ (Wesche and Skehan 2002).

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In the private sector at this time, in the bilingual schools market, language arts textbook series, produced originally as ESL material to support immigrant sectors of the education market in the USA, were common. Language arts series can be characterized as a blend of English medium instruction (EMI) and a content and language integrated approach to learning (CLIL) – the difference being that EMI materials do not integrate strategies for second language support as an integral part of the content. Teachers following these language arts programmes in the EFL context of Mexico usually found themselves having to produce support materials for language development and adding extra stages to their lessons in order to introduce new lexis and language forms. This resulted in an eclectic methodology. Alongside the quasi-communicative approach found in the classroom at this time, we can also find the beginnings of the massive movement to use communication technology for learning purposes (coined as TICs – Tecnologias para la Información y Comunicación). The rapid rise of the computer and the Internet during the 1990s influenced educational policy and all subject areas. Basic and high school educators were encouraged to incorporate technological tools for learning. However, due to practical considerations linked to weak infrastructure and lack of teacher training, the public sector made little significant progress in the use of TICs for learning. Similarly, but for methodological reasons, the situation was not much different in the private sector in basic education. However, the panorama was markedly different in higher education. The introduction of the National Self-access Project in 1993, described in detail by Grounds in the preface to this volume, hoped to support learners achieve greater autonomy. Essentially, autonomous learning involves a shift in focus from teaching to a focus on learning, with the responsibilities for learning being transferred from the teacher to the learner (Benson and Voller 1997). Technology--in the mid 1990s this was primarily videos and computer software--was initially conceived as being one of many options through which English could be learnt in the SAC. Other options, including tutorsupported skills workshops, conversation circles and individual counselling on how to self-direct one’s learning, were also considered. However, since there were often insufficient resources to pay teachers as support staff 145 ◗


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for the SACs, these centres often turned into spaces where students used the reference books or the computer to do their homework, as if in a conventional library. In terms of its success, the SAC project has had mixed results; more often than not the problem has been one of methodology (Grounds and Moore 2016). The number of SACs on public university campuses has grown exponentially – from an initial 36 to a number running into the low hundreds. However, placing language counsellors in these learning centres often remains a problem. Methodologically, learners are often unconvinced about the value of autonomous learning in itself or unsure of how to go about directing their own learning. Consequently, in many cases, the SAC has been included as a compulsory element of the language programme, where students attend for extended practice of skills learned in the language classroom. In this respect, we can conclude that self-access learning, as it was initially conceived, is largely not taking place with some important exceptions. One such example is at the University of the Caribe (Universidad del Caribe), in the State of Quintana Roo and in some centres belonging to the University of Veracruz (Universidad Veracruzana). That said, the characteristics of undergraduate students have changed markedly since the 1990s; today’s young undergraduate tends to have high levels of digital competency and this has resulted in computer-based learning now dominating much of what goes on in a SAC. In addition, this familiarity with digital technology has facilitated the gradual adoption of ‘blended learning’ an approach where the use of technology (usually online learning platforms and social media) is combined with face-to-face classroom contact. It is not only in language programmes where blended learning is catching on; rather, it is an approach that is being steadily incorporated across the wider curriculum in tertiary education. Stepping beyond the confines of education, to society at large, one last trend in technology affects the way we learn. This has been the growing popularity of apps for mobile technology. With a large proportion of these apps being available at no cost, opportunities for self-directed language learning are being extended beyond formal education and are accessible to anyone who has a digital device.

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The British Council reports that, between April 2013 and March 2014 alone, more than 68 000 free apps for language learning were downloaded from their LearnEnglish website (The British Council 2015: 27) Moving back chronologically to the topic of classroom methodology, we have seen how Mexico entered this century under a quasi-communicative approach to language teaching, combining a structural and situational approach to language. However, in 2006, Mexico entered a period of educational reform that had been in movement since 2001. At the centre of this reform was a competency-based model of education that places the learner at the centre of the educational process, focuses on mastering skills, and is based on learning outcomes. This model supports a way forward in developing learners’ abilities to engage more effectively in the diverse social practices of the language. Teachers across all sectors and all subject areas, from pre-school all the way up to tertiary programmes, were faced with a shift in pedagogical approach, not only to teaching but also to assessment and testing. In the area of ELT, this re-conceptualisation of language content from a structural/ situational perspective to a competency-based perspective was largely facilitated by the increasing fluency of the ELT community in Mexico in the discourse surrounding the CEFR. The national language syllabus, as well as the ELT textbook series being produced at that time, tended mainly to be written in terms of ‘can-do’ statements. This framing of goals and of content for teaching and learning greatly facilitated teachers’ conceptualizations of how to go about achieving these competencies. The area where most difficulties have been encountered is that of assessment; drawing up valid testing instruments which test what a learner can do through the language, rather than what a learner knows about the language, involves a considerable shift from one conceptual framework to another. It also involves the inclusion of more open test items where learners produce language themselves. Subjectivity in testing design can be problematic in terms of marking, large class sizes, and the reliability and validity of scores and grades. Indeed, we go on in the following section to look more closely at trends in testing.

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We said at the outset of this section that looking at how we teach (in terms of the predominant methodologies of the classroom and the learning materials used) gives us an indication of where our focus lies in terms of a knowledge base and skill-building. It informs the expectations we may reasonably have of the linguistic strengths of our learners, and this, in turn, helps us to ascertain the extent to which current English language needs are being met through our classroom practices. A competency-based approach to language teaching, in which learners build knowledge and skills through engaging in social practices in the language, would seem to be a productive path to take if what Mexico needs is people who know how to use English to achieve particular communicative outcomes. Whether or not this is being achieved is best ascertained through the assessment of learning and testing of learners’ achievement and proficiency, in terms of the particular language competencies they are able to demonstrate. However, as we shall see in the next section, there is still much disparity between the ways in which content is conceptualised and taught. This is true at all levels, in schools across the country, and applicable to describe the ways in which this learning is assessed. e. How do we assess/test what we teach? Hand in hand with approaches to teaching, are the ways in which we assess learning and evaluate performance. Assessment practices should be expected to reflect both the content and goals of the language syllabus and the methodological framework within which learning has taken place. Furthermore, testing instruments should be linked to the market needs of the end users, in order to assess their ability to participate effectively in communities of practice. In addition, it is convenient if the standards used to measure learning are linked to a reference system that is common to the different sectors of ELT, so as to provide continuity across the educational system and between different sectors of the market. Looking at assessment practices will then provide a good indication of the degree to which we are working towards common goals and standards of practice and the extent to which these goals and practices are truly reflective of the market needs. During the quasi-communicative era of the 1990s to around 2006, it was common in Mexico to find teachers placing most emphasis on assessing ◗ 148


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learners grammatical competence, with perhaps some assessment of receptive skills work (listening and reading); it was relatively rare to come across a writing component and even rarer to encounter a speaking component (Ramírez-Romero and Pamplón 2012). This incongruence is easily explained in terms of the practicalities of carrying out frequent assessments with numerous learners; with large classes and limited class time, it was often not considered feasible to assess learners’ communicative skills. Furthermore, teachers often felt unsure about how to assess the productive skills (speaking and writing) reliably or validly. Consequently, a written test assessing language knowledge (preferably consisting of multiple choice items) was viewed as much easier to handle administratively and less time consuming to mark for the often over-worked, and sometimes under-trained, teacher. In the private bilingual school market, as well as the commercial language institute, the situation was somewhat different. These teaching/ learning contexts, characterized by smaller class sizes and more contact hours, allowed for more continuous assessment to take place. Skills in oral and written production could be progressively evaluated, in addition to the periodic progress tests focusing on lexical and grammatical knowledge and the receptive skills of listening and reading. In these sectors of ELT, the means of evaluation were more congruent with the teaching/ learning process. Since 2006, with a competency-based model of education at the forefront of language teaching across sectors and levels in Mexico, and the presence of a common framework (CEFR) which facilitated more precise and focused discussion of language goals and content, it might be assumed that the assessment of learners would become more coherent. Indeed, in the private market there is some evidence of this, with the international exams market strongly driving the change. Since much of the commercial ELT market uses EFL textbooks written within the CEFR framework and benchmarks the levels they offer with the CEFR, it eventually becomes natural for teachers to think about evaluation in these ‘can do’ terms. Often, textbook series now include testing packages which have been modelled on question types found in international standardized examinations of English language proficiency, (such as the Cambridge English Assessment 149 ◗


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or Trinity College Oxford Portfolios). In these cases, it can be expected that the assessment of learning will take place within a competency-based framework. This washback effect of international standardized exams, where the means of evaluation are constructive to the teaching/learning process, can also be seen in the bilingual schools market which has taken on the discourse of ‘quality control’ and standardization mentioned in section c) above. To compete in the educational market, private schools are increasingly benchmarking their achievements using these internationally recognized certifications. In order to facilitate the preparation of students for these exams, it is common for schools to introduce question types which mirror those found in the international proficiency exams into their own periodic in-house progress tests. In all probability, while the market demand for international certification is strong, this washback effect that standardized language proficiency exams is having on in-house evaluation will grow. It is the public sector that is still struggling to adapt its testing practices to its teaching practices. Despite following a competency-based syllabus for teaching, a structural linguistic syllabus still seems to dominate the in-house bimonthly evaluation instruments designed by the teachers in public school education (basic to high school). This is unsurprising, since the contextual factors since the 1990s have not changed; teachers are still facing large class sizes, a tight time frame in which to complete the syllabus, as well as limited class hours (3 hours a week at best). Training of teachers in valid testwriting and reliable scoring and grading is notoriously difficult to do. This is because of practical constraints on finding time and space for teams of teachers to work together on what should be a high priority. For now, there prevails a sense of uncertainty about how to go about the evaluation of what learners can do by using the language. It is easier and more practical to assess what they know about English. If an examination of assessment practices can tell us how close we are to meeting the market needs of Mexico, producing competent users of English in international communication, we might conclude that competency-based testing that looks at what learners can do through the language would be an appropriate direction to take.

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At least in the private market, where classroom conditions are more favourable and allow for testing practices that reflect teaching practices, we are able to gather evidence of the extent to which English language learners will have the skills to perform competently in the language in ways that meet the market’s needs. It is difficult to ascertain to what extent this is also true of the public sector; although the contextual conditions of the classroom do not favour the testing of learners’ competencies in the public sector of education. This does not necessarily mean that the public sector of education is failing to produce competent users for the current market. It is simply the case that current testing practices do not provide evidence of this. It is evident that in both the private and public sectors of education, there is not a focus on teaching or testing the plurilingual and pluricultural competencies necessary to successfully handle the communication challenges of the globalised world. We saw in section b) above that this encompasses a language user’s ability to engage in the negotiation of meanings, use, and varieties of language which permit non-normative forms. This is a fundamental skill in transcultural communication (Pennycook 2007). This understanding of the role of English as a lingua franca between speakers of different mother tongues, as a tool for international, transcultural communication, does not seem to have achieved prominence in either teaching or testing practices in the public or private sectors of education. We have already mentioned that if the standards used to measure learning are linked to a common reference system across the whole of the ELT community in Mexico, this will provide coherence to the national picture of English language teaching and learning. Having a clear frame of reference helps policy makers, teachers and learners understand what we are working towards. If we are all working along the same model for benchmarking learning achievements, it may be possible to improve continuity between basic education, high school and tertiary levels. While the 2009 reconstruction of the national curriculum (SEP 2009) rearticulated the link between the goals for primary and secondary English syllabi, it is still too early to assess how far we have come in providing continuity across the educational system and between different sectors of the market. Achieving the minimum benchmark set by the SEP, of a level 8 on the CENNI, equivalent 151 ◗


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to B1 on the CEFR, from English language learners in both the private and the public sectors was the goal that was set across these diverse settings. Concluding remarks This chapter set out to describe the tendencies in English language teaching apparent in Mexico as we have moved out of the twentieth and into the early twenty first century. As part of the discussion we have also pointed towards the direction that ELT seems to be taking as we move towards the end of the first quarter of the twenty first century. Several conclusions can be drawn from this overview of trends in ELT in Mexico over the past 25 years: 1. The current market needs for ELT in Mexico are linked to Mexico´s ability to be globally competitive. This situation is unlikely to change in the near future. If targets of proficiency that meet the market demands are to be met then English language learning should continue to play an increasingly important role on the national agenda. This is true not only within education agenda, but also alongside education and beyond education. 2. The national curriculum, with its competency-based model of education and its formulation of English language learning goals in terms of ‘can do’ statements, is congruent with a conceptual model of English as a tool for global, transcultural communication (i.e. GELT). A competency-based model facilitates a shift away from the earlier quasi-communicative approach, which largely managed to provide learners with knowledge about the language. The approach adopted since 2006 has the potential to produce learners who can do things through the language. 3. For market needs to be squarely met, a focus on English as a lingua franca (ELF) needs to be brought in, encompassing a language user’s ability to engage in the negotiation of meanings, perhaps using varieties of language that permit non-normative forms, a fundamental skill in transcultural communication. At present, language content and skills development tends towards standard language forms and normative processes in communication. Neither the public sector nor the private sector of education has seen their way past the barriers of a dominant normative discourse to expose ◗ 152


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pupils to communication contexts where English is used as a lingua franca for transcultural exchange. In this respect, a mismatch between national language policy and market needs can be identified. While teachers feel insecure about accepting a fluid and permissive view of the nature of language, and EFL materials that promote a view of standard language forms dominate the market, it is unlikely that this mismatch between language policy and teaching content will change. 4. The two sectors of the ELT market in Mexico which show greater potential for developing a focus on the characteristics of English used as a lingua franca, (ELF) within a GELT approach, are the commercial language institute and the sector of the population which engages in self-directed learning. As independent and commercial entities, English language institutions are at liberty to continuously modify and update the goals and content of learning, based on the specific needs of their clients. Likewise, they are at liberty to adopt international EFL textbooks produced within a framework of global English, or English as a lingua franca. The smaller group sizes of the language institute also facilitate the building up of communication strategies and transcultural communication skills. The sector of self-directed learning also shows significant potential to achieve the plurilingual and pluricultural competencies necessary to successfully handle the communication challenges of the globalised world. This is because desired learning outcomes and the processes to achieve these outcomes are set by the learner. 5. Benchmarking standards have been internationally accepted and this is being taken on board in education. In order to benchmark language proficiency, the Mexican ministry of education (SEP) has adopted the Common European Farmework of Reference for languages (CEFR) from which was generated the National English Certificate Bands (CENNI). This common framework provides us with the means to talk about what we are teaching and what we are aiming for as ELT professionals, in both the national and the international arena. The market for international exams amongst 153 ◗


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school pupils (for private schools) and teachers (in public schools) has risen considerably in the last 15 years, with British Council exam centres established in no fewer than 13 states throughout Mexico. 6. This trend towards international certification in Mexico is driving a swing away from an EMI or CLIL approach teaching, back towards an EFL approach in the private bilingual schools sector. This seems to be because textbooks produced for the EFL market are better suited to exam preparation for international certification than materials produced for teaching content in English (EMI) or through English (CLIL). 7. The strengthening presence of the CEFR, and its Mexican derivative the CENNI, as a framework in common to talk about our goals for teaching provides the means to establish continuity across different levels and between sectors in the ELT market in Mexico. When a common discourse exists, it is much more straightforward to perceive how different programmes compare with each other, in terms of goals and content, and to establish coherent links between programmes to ensure that learners are moving forward in their learning, rather than sideways or even backwards. The rearticulation of the 2006 national language curriculum in 2009 (PNIEB) was an exercise in this, a coherent transition between primary and secondary English programme was established. 8. Assessment practices are the weak link in the chain. Testing practices which are coherent with a competency-based model of ELT and a GELT / ELF approach to language need to be developed and validated. While the presence of the CEFR as a scaffold for syllabus and material design has had a positive washback effect on teaching practices, the contextual factors, in the public sector especially, continue to be an obstacle to the development of coherent testing procedures and practices. Teachers, who are overloaded with teaching hours, face large class sizes and are under a tight time frame in which to complete the syllabus, are uncertain about how to go about the assessment of what learners can do through the language. These teachers are resorting to designing tests that measure what learners know about (standard) ◗ 154


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English. More teacher training and expert support is required in the development of appropriate assessment and testing instruments within a competency-based model, especially under difficult teaching circumstances. 9. Self-directed leaning seems to be on the increase. However, it is beyond current means to evaluate the quality of this learning or the appropriateness of the content and skills studied (in terms of the market’s needs). It is worth noting that statistics released by AMIPCI (the Mexican Association for Internet) indicate that in 2013 only 30 per cent of Mexican households had access to Internet resources, with access being economically and geographically linked. In view of the current downward direction of the economy in Mexico, it is not expected that there will be any significant increase in the number of users of self-directed English language learning in the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, we might expect to see current consumers of self-directed language learning increase their activity in this particular area as more apps and opportunities for selfdirected learning are made freely available. In conclusion, it would seem from this assessment of current trends in ELT that essential frameworks are now in place in order to allow Mexico to meet the linguistic demands of the market and to function as a globally competitive player. The details, however, still urgently need refining. This is especially true at the grassroots level of the classroom, where a much sharper focus on real teaching conditions and the provision of on-going teacher development is needed to create a more robust future for ELT in Mexico. There are clear ways forward, clear ways to prepare a population that can contribute equitably and effectively to national and personal growth. References AMIPCI Asociacion Mexicana de Internet, , accessed 10 Feb. 2017. Benson, P. and Voller, P. (eds.) (1997), Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning (London: Longman).

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British Council (2017), ‘English in Mexico: An examination of policy, perceptions and influencing factors’, British Council Education Intelligence, published online , accessed 10 Feb. 2017. Canagarajah, S. (2013), Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan Relations (New York: Routledge). Council of Europe (2017), ‘Common European Framework for Languages, Language Policy Unit, Strasbourg’, published online , accessed 10 Feb. 2017. Fester, A. (2017), ‘Changing perspectives on syllabus design in ELT: Textbook trends and tertiary teacher decision-making’, University of Waikato, 2014 , accessed 10 Feb. 2017. Galloway, N. and Rose, H. (2015), Introducing Global Englishes (Routledge). Jenkins, J. (2011), English as a Lingua Franca in the International University: The Politics of Academic English Language Policy (Abingdon: Routledge). ——— ‘Accommodating (to) ELF in the International University’, The Journal of Pragmatics, 43/4: 926–36. Ingvarsdóttir, H. and Arnbjörnsdóttir, B. (2013), ‘ELF and academic writing: a perspective from the expanding circle’, Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 2/1: 123–45. Moore, C. and Grounds P. E. (2015), ‘The Evolution of the Self-Access Centre in Mexican Higher Education Institutions: Listening to the Students’ Voices’, in R. Espinoza Sánchez and M. Vargas Aceves (eds.), Encuentros y desencuentros disciplinares en investigacion: Estudios sociales y económicos (Mexico: Universidad de Guadalajara), 211–40. Pennycook, A. (2015), Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows (New York: Routledge). Ramírez-Romero, J.L. and Pamplón, N. (2012), ‘Research on FLT in Mexico: Main Findings’, in R. Roux, A-Mora, and Paulina Trejo (eds.), Research in English Language Teaching: Mexican Perspectives (Bloomington: Palibrio). Secretaría de Educación Pública (2006), Programas de Estudio 2006: Lengua Extranjera: Inglés, published online , accessed 10 Feb. 2017.

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——— (2009), Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación Básica: Programa de Estudio 2009. Etapa piloto, published online . Vazquez, A., Guzmán, N., and Roux, R. (2013), ‘Can ELT in Higher Education be Successful? The Current Status of ELT in Mexico’, The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 17/1. Poder Ejecutivo Federal (2007), Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2007–2012, published online , accessed 10 Feb. 2017. Valladares and Castro (2013), ‘The Challenge of Teaching English in Public Schools: Beyond Academic Factors’, MEXTESOL Journal, 37/3. Wesche, M. and Skehan, P. (2002), ‘Communicative Teaching, Content-based Instruction, and Task-based Learning’, in R. Kaplan (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics, (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

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