Powerpoint! presentations! but! mainly! involves! discussion! around! .... the!groups!fed!back!on!their!cartoons!all!had!masculinised!figures!at!the!centre!of!their!
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THE!GENDERING!OF!ENTREPRENEURSHIP!IN!! HIGHER!EDUCATION:!A!BOURDIEUIAN!APPROACH!! ! ! ! !
! SALLY!JONES!
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! ! ! ! !
! A!thesis!submitted!in!partial!fulfilment!of!the! requirements!of!Leeds!Metropolitan!University! for!the!degree!of!Doctor!of!Philosophy! ! !
May!2011!
Abstract! ! This! thesis! explores! the! gendering! of! entrepreneurship! education! in! Higher! Education! in! light! of! increasing! government! ! emphasis! on! the! embedding! of! entrepreneurship! education!across!the!higher!education!curriculum!in!the!UK.!!It!argues!that!issues!around! the!historical!masculinisation!of!entrepreneurship!are!not!acknowledged!in!current!policy! and! education! approaches! and! that! this! is! problematic! given! an! increasingly! female! HE! cohort! and! that! female! graduates! are! still! less! likely! than! their! male! counterparts! to! consider! entrepreneurship! as! an! option! on! graduation.! ! I! take! a! threeNphase,! qualitative,! multipleNmethod!caseNstudy!approach!–!informed!by!Pierre!Bourdieu's!theory!of!practice!N! to!explore!gendered!!discourses!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!the!UK! and! how! these! play! out! in! one! postN1992! UK! HE! institution.! The! study! highlights! the! choices,! positions! and! struggles! of! the! social! space! of! HE! and! how! staff! and! students! respond!to!institutionallyNframed!policy!and!historically!masculinised!discourses!and!their! teaching! and! learning! practices! in! light! of! this.! ! It! suggests! that,! contrary! to! current! education! ! and! entrepreneurship! policy! discourses,! HE! institutions! and! staff! are! not! disinterested! purveyors! of! neutral! and! uncontested! 'facts'! but! are! highly! invested! in! their! arbitration!of!the!entrepreneurship!education!curriculum!within!disciplines,!such!as!Health,! Sport! and! Hospitality,! that! have! not! traditionally! had! an! enterprise! or! entrepreneurship! focus.! ! It! also! suggests! that! female! undergraduate! students! N! ! although! positioned! in! policy! and! practice! as! 'notNknowing'! N! bring! a! range! of! entrepreneurial! experiences! and! expectations!to!HE!which!they!can!struggle!to!draw!on!and!make!sense!of!within!an!HE! sector! that! positions! them! as! deficient! and! unable! or! unwilling! to! take! advantage! of! entrepreneurial!opportunities.!! ! ! ! !
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Acknowledgements! ! I!would!gratefully!like!to!acknowledge!a!number!of!people!whose!help,!support,!patience!and! understanding!have!made!this!thesis!possible.!First,!my!thanks!to!my!supervisors!Professors! Sue! Clegg! and! Anne! Campbell! whose! intellectual! guidance! and! emotional! support! have! inspired! me,! keeping! me! on! track! and! focused.! !Their! openness,! accessibility,! acceptance! and!encouragement!!have!made!this!process!a!lot!less!lonely!and!a!lot!more!enjoyable!than! it! could! have! been.! I! would! also! like! to! thank! Leeds! Metropolitan! University! for! the! studentship!which!enabled!me!to!concentrate!on!this!thesis!fullNtime!and!for!those!academic! and! support! staff! who! have! helped! me! to! navigate! the! sometimes! confusing! layers! of! the! university!to!gain!access!to!training,!networks!and!funding!to!attend!conferences.! ! I!would!also!like!to!thank!my!family!and!friends!for!!always!being!interested!and!enthusiastic! about! my! research! ! –! even! if! I! did! not! always! find! the! words! to! explain! it! to! you.! Special! thanks! must! go! to! my! husband! Stephen! Pickering! for! giving! me! the! time! and! space! to! disappear!into!the!study!for!hours!on!end!and!for!meals!cooked,!carpets!hoovered!and!letting! me!be!frustrated!and!grumpy!when!I!needed!to!be.!!My!motherNinNlaw,!Mrs!Edna!Pickering! has!also!been!a!great!support,!taking!my!daughter!Ella!off!for!exciting!trips!and!play!dates! while!I!worked!and!attended!conferences.!!Finally,!I!would!like!to!say!a!big!thank!you!to!my! nine!year!old!daughter!Ella!for!her!patience!and!understanding!–!this!thesis!seems!to!have! taken!a!lifetimeW!mainly!hers.! ! ! ! I! confirm! that! the! thesis! is! my! own! work2! and! that! all! published! or! other! sources!of!material!consulted!have!been!acknowledged!in!notes!to!the!text! or!the!bibliography.! ! I!confirm!that!the!thesis!has!not!been!submitted!for!a!comparable!academic! award.! ! ! ! ! ! !
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Table!of!Contents Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... 4 PART ONE Chapter One Introducing and Outlining the Thesis ........................................................................... 9 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 9 2. Research Rationale ............................................................................................................................... 10 3. Research Questions and Aims ........................................................................... 14 3.1 Research Aims............................................................................................. 15 4. Originalities and Importance of the Research .................................................. 15 5. Drawing on Bourdieu ....................................................................................... 17 6. Terms of Reference ............................................................................................ 19 6.1 Gender ......................................................................................................... 19 6.2 HE Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Education ........................................ 19 6.3 Habitus ........................................................................................................ 21 6.4 Capital ......................................................................................................... 22 6.5 Field ............................................................................................................ 22 7. A Woman’s Place is in the Text: Putting the ‘I’ in Research .............................. 23 8. Historical and Political Context of the Research ............................................... 24 9. The Structure of the Thesis ............................................................................................................................... 24 9.1 Chapter Breakdown..................................................................................... 25 10. Summary ............................................................................................................................... 26 Chapter Two ......................................................................................................................... 27 Contextualising Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Education in HE ............................... 27 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 27 2. The Historical Gendering of Entrepreneurship and Enterprise: The self-made man or the man-made self? ................................................................................................ 28 3. Women and Enterprise: Research Developments and Trends ............................... 31 4. The Development of Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Education in HE and Paying Attention to Teacher .................................................................................................................................... 35 5. The Gendering of Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Education in HE ................... 42 6. Summary................................................................................................................ 47 Chapter Three....................................................................................................................... 49 A Bourdieuian Approach to Exploring the Gendering of Entrepreneurship in HE ........ 49 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 49 2. An Overview of Bourdieuian Concepts used in this Thesis ................................... 49 3. Habitus and Capital: The Gendering of Social Categories .................................. 51 4. The Field of HE: Habitus, Capital and Symbolic Violence .................................... 55 5. Methodological Implications of a Bourdieuian Approach to Research.................. 62 6. Summary................................................................................................................. 63 Chapter Four ........................................................................................................................ 66 4
Research Methodology and Methods: Moving from Research Theory to Research Practice ............................................................................................................................ 66 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 66 2. Ontological and Epistemological Foundations: Connecting Ideas, Experience and Social Reality.............................................................................................................. 66 3. Working with Words: Qualitative Case Studies, Discourse Analysis, Language and Symbolic Power ........................................................................................................ 71 4. Research Design and Methods .............................................................................. 77 4.1 Phase One: Identifying entrepreneurship discourses and the ‘rules of the game’ ..................................................................................................................... 78 4.2 Phase Two: Deciphering, translating and disseminating the ‘rules of the game’ ............................................................................................................................... 81 4.2.1 Classroom Observations ........................................................................................................................... 83 4.2.2 Staff Interviews ....................................................................................... 84 4.3 Phase Three: Assumptions, aspirations, structure and agency ............................................................................................................................... 86 5. Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................................................... 88 6. Interpretation and Analysis ..................................................................................... 91 7. Summary................................................................................................................. 94 PART TWO .......................................................................................................................... 96 Chapter Five .................................................................................................................... 96 A View from Above: Analysing the wider field of influence and identifying entrepreneurship discourses........................................................................................ 96 1. Introduction........................................................................................................ 96 2. Exploring the Wider Field of Influence: Critical engagement with policy and research ............................................................................................................................... 97 2.1 International Documents Analysed ............................................................. 98 2.2 UK Policy Documents Analysed: ............................................................. 103 2.3 UK Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Education Focused Documents Analysed.......................................................................................................... 106 2.4 Research and Policy Documents published through the National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship ........................................................................ 110 3. The Social Reality of Entrepreneurship and Enterprise within HE: Dominant Discourses and Constructed Subjects .................................................................. 115 3.1 Enterprise and Entrepreneurship as an Urgent and Non-negotiable Imperative for All: The 'No Choice' Discourse ......................................................................................................................... 116 3.2 Staff as Neutral 'Delivery' Agents ......................................................................................................................... 118 3.3 The Entrepreneurial Mindset ......................................................................................................................... 119 3.4 Deficiency Discourses: Students and Women as 'Not-Knowing' ......................................................................................................................... 120 3.5 Students and Graduates as Gender Neutral and Homogeneous ......................................................................................................................... 122 3.6 Persuasion, Coercion and Culture Clash ......................................................................................................................... 122 5
4. Summary .......................................................................................................... 125 Chapter Six......................................................................................................................... 126 A View from the Middle: Institutional and Staff Positions, Choices and Struggles .... 126 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 126 2. Institutional Context ............................................................................................. 127 3. Interviews with Staff at Northfield University: Paying Attention to Teacher .................................................................................................................................. 131 4. Classroom Observations: Paying Attention to Teaching ...................................... 150 4.1 Sport-Related Classroom .............................................................................. 151 Insightful Instance: 'The three guys that we’ve got up there' ............................................................................................................................. 154 4.2 Hospitality classroom .................................................................................. 155 Insightful Instance: 'Who are the entrepreneurs?' ................................................ 157 4.3 Health Classroom........................................................................................... 158 Insightful Instance: 'What do you mean?' .......................................................... 161 4.4 Business Support Classroom ........................................................................ 162 Insightful Instance: 'Shall I draw a man in a suit?' ............................................................................................................................. 162 5. Summary............................................................................................................... 164 Chapter Seven .................................................................................................................... 166 A View from Below: Female Undergraduate Responses to Framings of Entrepreneurship and Enterprise ................................................................................... 166 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 166 2. Health Students ..................................................................................................... 167 2.1 The Positioning of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs ............................... 169 2.2 Representations of Enterprise/Entrepreneurship on the course ..................... 177 2.3 Do People Like You Become Entrepreneurs?................................................ 178 3. Hospitality Students.............................................................................................. 180 3.1 The Positioning of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs .............................. 181 3.2 Responses to the Positioning of ‘Female Entrepreneurs’ ............................. 186 3.3 Do People Like You Become Entrepreneurs?............................................. 189 4. Students from business-related courses/disciplines.............................................. 191 4.1 The Positioning of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs .............................. 192 4.2 Do People Like You Become Entrepreneurs?............................................... 196 5. Some Common Themes ...................................................................................... 197 5.1 Students as Knowers ...................................................................................... 197 5.2 Male 'Entrepreneurs' and Female 'Dabblers': The Subjective Expectation of Objective Probability' and the ‘Double Deficit’ Discourse ................................. 198 5.3 An Othering of Entrepreneurship................................................................... 200 6. Summary .............................................................................................................. 201 PART THREE .................................................................................................................... 203 Chapter Eight ................................................................................................................ 203 Positions, Choices and Struggles within HE Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Education203 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 203 2. Positions, Choices, and Struggles in HE Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Education .................................................................................................................. 204 2.1 Positions ........................................................................................................ 204 2.2 Choices .......................................................................................................... 216 2.3 Struggles ........................................................................................................ 226 3. Summary............................................................................................................... 234 6
Chapter Nine ...................................................................................................................... 236 Returning to the Research Questions and Drawing Conclusions.................................. 236 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 236 2. Returning to the Research Questions ................................................................... 236 2.1 Is HE entrepreneurship and enterprise education masculinist? ..................... 237 2.2 How are entrepreneurship and enterprise presented in HE and is this discipline dependent? ........................................................................................................... 237 2.3 What role do HE staff and students have in the gendered construction and negotiation of entrepreneurship, enterprise and the entrepreneur? ...................... 238 2.4 How do female students from a range of social backgrounds respond to and experience enterprise and entrepreneurship education in HE? ............................ 239 2.5 What influence (if any) do institutional and teacher approaches to entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship have on female students and their perceptions of their chances of success as entrepreneurs? .................................. 239 3. Research Implications ......................................................................................... 240 4. Limitations of this Research ................................................................................. 242 5. Theoretical Contribution ...................................................................................... 244 6. Areas for Further Research .................................................................................. 246 7. Closing thoughts ................................................................................................... 248 References .......................................................................................................................... 250 Appendices......................................................................................................................... 280 Appendix 1. Research Questions and Methods Outline Table ...................................... 281 Appendix 2. Overview of Phase One Document Analysis ........................................... 283 Appendix 3. Brine’s Three-Stage Approach to Policy Analysis (2008) ....................... 293 Appendix 4. Staff Interview Schedule .......................................................................... 295 Appendix 5. Student Interview Schedule: ..................................................................... 298 Appendix 6. Entrepreneurship Self-Assessment Exercise ............................................ 301 Appendix 7. Staff and Student Consent Forms ............................................................. 302 Appendix 8. Staff and Student Information Forms ....................................................... 306 Appendix 9. Initial Coding Frame ................................................................................ 309 Appendix 10. Second Coding Frame ........................................................................... 311 Appendix 11. Final Coded Themes .............................................................................. 313 Appendix 12. Student Drawing Examples (x3) ........................................................... 314
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List!of!Figures!and!Tables!in!the!Text! ! Figures!
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Figure!8.1.!The!Stratification!of!Position!!
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Figure!8.2:!The!Stratification!of!Choice!!
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Figure!8.3!The!Stratification!of!Struggle!!
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PART!ONE!
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Chapter!One!
! Introducing!and!Outlining!the!Thesis! 1.!
Introduction!
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A!key!research!task!must!now!be!to!consider!how,!rather!than!if,!the! impact! of! gender! is! articulated! within! entrepreneurship! with! appropriate! sensitivity! to! heterogeneity! amongst! women...! it! is! the! manner! in! which! women! use! individual! agency! to! negotiate! through! and! around! disadvantage! that! now! requires! consideration.! (Carter! and!Marlow,!2007!p.!26)! !
This!thesis!explores!the!gendering!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!Higher! Education! (hereafter! HE),! drawing! on! Pierre! Bourdieu’s! educational! and! social! theory! to! analyse! and! critically! engage! with! the! historical! and! political! development! of! entrepreneurship!theory!and!the!approaches!taken!to!teaching!HE!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise! education! across! a! range! of! disciplines! within! a! postN1992! university.! It! explores! the! interplay! of! history,! policy,! agency! and! structure! and! how! this! is! enacted! in! the!classroom!and!in!the!attitudes!and!experiences!of!both!staff!and!students,!employing! a!multiNdisciplinary!approach,!drawing!on!bodies!of!knowledge!from!sociology,!education,! gender!and!business!and!management.!!The!ultimate!aim!of!this!thesis!is!to!build!theory! in!an!underNtheorised!area!of!HE!with!a!view!to!exploring!what!is!‘going!on’!in!a!particular! educational! context! and! the! implications! of! this! for! staff,! students! and! HE! institutions! (hereafter! HEIs).! It! explores! the! macro,! meso! and! micro! levels! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! with! a! threeNphase! research! design! that! analyses! the! wider! field!of!influence!and!related!discourses!of!entrepreneurship!(a!view!from!above)W!the!role! of!!HEIs!!and!staff!in!arbitrating!and!framing!this!in!the!curriculum!and!classroom!(a!view! from! the! middle)! and! female! student! responses! to! this! (a! view! from! below).! ! This! is! especially! important! given! the! increasing! focus! on! graduate! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! (Hermann,! 2008W! EC,! 2008),! the! onNgoing! rise! in! female! undergraduates! (GlazerNRaymo,!2008W!Leathwood!and!Read,!2009)!and!the!continuing!gap!between!male! and! female! graduate! entrepreneurship! within! EU! countries! (Martinez! et! al,! 2007).! ! This! introductory! chapter! provides! an! overview! of! the! research! project,! including! its! rationale,! aims!and!objectives,!research!questions!and!significance.!Terms!of!reference!are!outlined,! together! with! an! overview! of! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! and! the! theoretical! concepts! that!have!informed!the!development!of!this!thesis.!
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! ! 2.!Research!Rationale! ! ...the! prevailing! literature! has! almost! completely! failed! to! cite! the! analysis! of! women! in! selfNemployment! in! the! larger! feminist! debate! regarding! female! subordination,! androcentric! norms! and! masculinized! hegemony.! Hence,! the! dominant! analysis! in! this! area! represents! women! as! blemished! men! who! must! be! assisted! to! become! honorary! men,! and! in! so! doing! will! then! achieve! within! the! existing!paradigm!of!entrepreneurship.!(Marlow,!2002!p.!83)! ! Although!there!is!a!growing!body!of!knowledge!based!around!the!formal!development!and! delivery!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE!generally!(Field!and!Schuller! 1998W!Galloway!and!Brown,!2002W!Wilson!et!al!2003,!Hytti!and!O’Gorman,!2004W!!Hannon,! 2006W!McKeown!et!al,!2006W!Botham!and!Mason,!2007),!little!of!the!research!has!explicitly! focused!on!the!impact!of!gender!on!teaching!and!learning!and!how!staff!frame!this!within! the! curriculum! and! its! associated! effects! on! female! students’! desire! for! or! confidence! in! their! ability! to! start! a! business! or! become! selfNemployedW! career! outcomes! that! are! suggested!as!the!main!reason!for!such!activities!(NCGE,!2006).!!This!is!a!neglected!but! increasingly! important! aspect! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education,! given! that! women! now! account! for! more! than! 50%! of! those! attending! university! (Leathwood! and! Read,! 2009)! but! only! 14%! of! UK! businesses! are! owned! or! majorityNowned! by! women! (Williams! and! Cowling,! 2009).! When! selfNemployment! is! taken! into! account! women! currently! represent! 28%! of! those! who! employ! themselves! and/or! others! (Causer! and! Park,! 2009)! and,! with! a! growing! focus! on! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! by! governments! worldNwide,! attention! has! turned! to! how! women! can! be! supported! and! encouraged! into! entrepreneurship.! Indeed,! successive! governments! have! sought! to! encourage!women!to!set!up!their!own!businesses,!seeing!them!as!an!untapped!resource! in!furthering!the!econocentric!aims!of!full!employment!and!high!economic!growth!in!an!era! of!globalisation!and!change!(Armstrong,!2005aW!SBS,!2006).!Research!suggests!that!the! experiences!and!perceptions!developed!at!HE!level!are!an!important!precursor!for!women! to! establish! businesses,! with! women! business! owners! being! more! likely! to! have! a! HE! qualification! than! their! male! counterparts! (NCGE,! 2005W! Muir! and! Edwards,! 2006),! entrepreneurship!education!at!university!having!a!greater!effect!on!female!entrepreneurial! intentions! than! males! (Chowdhury! and! Endres,! 2005W! Volkmann! et! al! 2009)! and! with! an! increasingly!female!HE!profile!offering!opportunities!to!develop!women’s!enterprise!(SBS,!
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2006).!!!
Where! gendered! entrepreneurial! intentions! of! graduates! are! studied! it! is! primarily! concerned! with! the! analysis! and! presentation! of! quantitative! data! (Chowdhury! and! Endres,! 2005,! NCGE,! 2005! and! 2006W! Martinez! et! al,! 2007)! which,! whilst! providing! a! useful! starting! point,! does! not! explore! why! women! are! apparently! less! interested! in! entrepreneurship! as! a! career! option! postNgraduation! or! how! the! wider! field! of! influence! and! institutional! structures! may! inform! this.! This! research! aims! to! move! beyond! the! numbers!to!explore!the!lived!experience!of!those!teaching!and!learning!in!this!area!within! one!university!in!the!United!Kingdom.!Whilst!much!of!the!research!undertaken!suggests! that!female!undergraduates!are!less!likely!to!have!the!desire!to!set!up!their!own!business,! there! is! little! analysis! of! how! the! HE! education! process! and! staff! arbitration! and! negotiation!of!the!curriculum!itself!might!contribute!to!this.!Studies!such!as!Connolly!et!al's! (2003)! do! attempt! to! explore! the! lived! experience! of! male! and! female! recent! graduate! entrepreneurs! using! a! phenomenological! approach! with! a! small! group! however,! as! with! most! of! the! research! in! this! area,! it! concentrates! on! the! postNgraduation! experience! of! business!startNup!rather!than!the!experience!of!learning!about!entrepreneurship!in!HE!and! the! influence! this! may! have! on! entrepreneurial! aspirations.! Likewise,! there! is! little! research! on! staff! attitudes! towards! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! and! how! this! might! influence!their!framing!of!the!subject!and!the!positioning!of!female!students.!Indeed,!one! of! the! few! papers! to! focus! on! this! suggests! that! there! are! 'substantial! connections'! between! a! lecturer's! prior! experiences! and! their! 'interpretation! of! the! nature! of! entrepreneurship!and!how!best!to!teach!the!subject'!(Bennett,!2006,!p.9),!something!that! has! yet! to! be! fully! explored! within! the! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! literature.! ! Carter! et! al! (2003)! suggest! that,! given! the! changes! in! working! patterns! and! the! uncertainty!of!contemporary!working!environments,!entrepreneurship!should!no!longer!be! considered! as! 'special'! or! different! from! any! other! career! choice.! Given! that! research! suggests!that!the!18N24!age!group!are!most!likely!to!think!that!entrepreneurship!is!a!good! career! choice! (Patel,! 2005),! female! undergraduates! are! ideally! placed! to! consider! entrepreneurship! as! a! career! option.! However,! this! is! not! supported! by! the! large! gender! disparity! in! graduate! entrepreneurship.! Some! argue! that! low! rates! of! female! business! ownership!generally!are!linked!to!the!fact!that!most!of!the!research!into!entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!–!and!the!foundations!of!what!we!now!teach!students!about!these!subjects!
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N! is! based! on! the! exclusive! study! of! male! entrepreneurs! by! male! commentators! and! researchers! (Greer! and! Greene! 2003W! Carter! and! Marlow! 2003W! Ahl,! 2004).! There! is,! therefore,!a!danger!that!the!knowledge!base,!skills!and!aptitudes!presented!to!students!in! HE! have! a! male! normative! bias! which! potentially! alienates! and/or! excludes! female! students.!Indeed,!!Greer!and!Greene!(2003,!p.16)!suggest!that!we!should!'question!how! business! schools! train! nascent! entrepreneurs! for! a! male,! profitNorientated,! growth! orientated! economic! entity’! and! that,! rather! than! accepting! the! ‘takenNforNgranted’! and! apparently!genderNneutral!concepts!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise,!we!should!critique! and!problematise!their!historically!maleNfocused!development.!Ahl!(2004)!and!Elam!(2008)! have!attempted!to!address!some!of!these!issues!in!their!research!and!I!draw!upon!their! work! throughout! this! thesis! in! combination! with! Bourdieu’s! sociological! and! educational! concepts! and! apply! this! to! an! area! that! has! been! underNtheorised! and! that,! within! the! mainstream,!has!seemingly!'forgotten'!this!masculinised!history.! ! Pittaway!and!Cope!(2006,!p.!20)!suggest!that!'studies!have!not!generally!been!considered! in!relation!to!the!Higher!Education!system!within!which!they!operate'!and!that!researchers! should! recognise! 'how! this! influences! what! is! meant! by! ‘entrepreneurship’,! or! indeed,! ‘enterprise’! education! within! the! context! studied'.! This! thesis! seeks! to! add! this! level! of! contextualisation,! positioning! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! within! its! wider! cultural,! educational! and! institutional! context.! ! I! conceptualise! gender,! entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!as!social!constructions,!developed,!coNopted!and!reNimagined!in!response! to!particular!circumstances!at!particular!times!and!within!particular!institutions!and!guided! by!the!interplay!of!Bourdieuian!notions!of!habitus,!capital!and!field.!I!recognise!that!there! are! gaps! and! silences! in! the! literature! that! include! 'the! analysis! of! general! policies! promoting! entrepreneurship! education’! and! a! lack! of! research! on! the! ‘the! perceptions! of! graduates! towards! entrepreneurship’! (Pittaway! and! Cope,! 2006,! p.7)! and! argue! for! the! acknowledgement! and! exploration! of! how! students,! staff,! institutions,! governments! and! nations! position! entrepreneurship! and! the! potential! influences! this! may! have! on! female! undergraduate! student! attitudes! towards! the! career! choices! that! ‘people! like! me’! make! and!their!perceived!‘chances!of!success’!as!entrepreneurs.!!Aspirations!are!also!likely!to! be!influenced!by!wider!socioNeconomic!factors,!the!gendered!segregation!of!disciplines!in! HE! and! gendered! employment,! which! are! suggested! as! historically! maintaining! male! privilege! (Hartman,! 1976W! Bradley,! 1999! and! 2007).! This! can! result! in! highly! paid! jobs! being!identified!as!'white!male',!with!gendered!and!racial!integration!rare!in!higher!status! roles! and! professions! (TomaskovicNDevey,! 1993! p.! 141! –! 142)! and! is! a! form! of!
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occupational! segregation! that! influences! career! choices! generally! (Miller! et! al,! 2004).! Whilst! increases! in! educational! attainment! and! growing! numbers! of! female! graduates! potentially!challenge!such!segregation!(Blackburn!and!Jarman,!2005)!it!is!a!situation!that! currently! shows! little! sign! of! improving! (Leathwood! and! Read,! 2009).! If! one! agrees! that! 'how!things!are!talked!about!helps!shape!the!way!in!which!they!are!experienced'!(Ashwin,! 2009,! p.2)! then! the! exploration! of! teacher! and! student! attitudes! and! talk! around! entrepreneurship!as!a!career!choice!as!well!as!the!wider!dominant!discourses!in!this!field,! are! important! research! foci! that! have! much! to! tell! us! about! how! entrepreneurship,! enterprise,! business! ownership! and! gender! are! framed! in! HE! and! their! intended! and! unintended!consequences.!HE!educators!have!an!important!part!to!play!in!reproducing!or! challenging! the! 'the! subjective! expectation! of! objective! probability'! (Jenkins,! 1992)! that! students! may! develop! around! entrepreneurship! and! their! perceived! chances! of! success! and!yet!this!role!has!been!ignored!in!mainstream!policy!and!research.!
Entrepreneurship!education!can!be!seen!as!part!of!the!broader!policy!agenda!across!HE!,! which!focuses!on!employability!and!the!acquisition!of!generic!and!transferable!skills.! Clegg!(2004!p.287)!suggests!that!'Shifts!in!higher!education!systems,!both!nationally!and! internationally,!have!been!focused!on!the!production!of!students!as!autonomous!learners! orientated!towards!future!employment'!and!the!push!to!embed!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!education!across!HEIs!and!within!all!disciplines!can!be!viewed!as!one!aspect! of!this!push!towards!future!graduate!employability.!Authors!such!as!Giddens!(1990)!and! Beck!(1992)!have!suggested!that!the!reconstruction!and!repositioning!of!the!agential!self! is!part!of!broader,!individualist!notions!inherent!in!modernity,!with!its!focus!on!meritocracy,! the!increasing!individualisation!of!responsibility!for!success!and/or!failure!(McRobbie,! 2009W!Bourdieu!!and!Wacquant,!2001)!and!the!wider!individualisation!of!society!(Beck!&! BeckNGernsheim,!2001W!Beck!et!al.,!1994).!!A!concentration!on!individual!agency!further! suggests!that!the!capabilities!and!skills!needed!for!success!are!personal!and!'within'!the! individual,!rather!than!a!result!of!structural!positioning,!which!could!make!their!realisation! more!or!less!possible!for!different!groups!of!students!with!different!class!dispositions!(or! habitus).!This!may!further!enable!or!constrain!the!access!to!and!accrual!of!forms!of!capital! privileged!within!HE!entrepreneurship!education!policy!and!practice.!! ! ! Bourdieu!and!Wacquant!(2001,!p.2)!criticise!the!'celebratory!reassertion!of!(individual)! “responsibility”'!inherent!in!the!neoliberal!project',!while!Lash!and!Wynne!(1992!pp.!3!–!4)!
13
argue!that!the!contemporary!individual!is!characterized!by!choice!and!'forced!to!live!in!an! atmosphere!of!risk',!where!the!'dominant!discourses...remain!firmly!instrumentalist!and! reductionist'.!!Clegg!(2004!p.!288)!suggests!that!'the!self!we!are!being!asked!to!produce! (in!higher!education)!involves!considerable!difficulty.!These!difficulties!are!not!merely! technical!matters!of!pedagogical!technique,!but!reflect!the!profoundly!ideological!nature!of! the!task!itself.'!The!political!vision!of!the!forms!of!entrepreneurial!capital!fit!for!the!flexible,! global!labour!market!is!already!inscribed!as!a!fact,!rather!than!as!the!outcome!of!what!the! policy!itself!is!attempting!to!achieve!(Blunkett,!2000).!As!Bauman!(2001,!p.!xvi)!reminds! us:!'Risks!and!contradictions!go!on!being!socially!produced:!it!is!just!the!duty!and!the! necessity!to!cope!with!them!that!is!being!individualized'.!I!suggest!that!a!Bourdieuian! approach!to!research!allows!us!to!explore!and!capture!the!complexity,!and!highlight!the! implications,!of!these!socially!produced!risks!and!contradictions!and!how!HE!policy! makers,!staff!and!students!engage!with!discourses!linked!to!this!individualisation!of! entrepreneurial!success!or!failure.!
! 3.!
Research!Questions!and!Aims!
! The! following! research! questions! guide! this! research! and! are! based! on! a! synthesis! of! questions! raised! in! a! review! of! the! literature,! an! engagement! with! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! and! the! design! of! a! cogent! methodological! approach! informed! by! relevant! theoretical!and!practical!issues:! ! 1.!
Is!HE!mainstream!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!masculinist?!
2.!
How! are! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! presented! in! HE! and! is! this! discipline! dependent?!
3.!
What! role! do! HE! staff! and! students! have! in! the! gendered! construction! and! negotiation!of!entrepreneurship,!enterprise!and!the!entrepreneur?!
4.!
How! do! female! students! from! a! range! of! social! backgrounds! respond! to! and! experience!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!education!in!HE?!
5.!
What!influence!(if!any)!do!institutional!and!teacher!approaches!to!entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!have!on!female!students!and!their!perceptions!of!their!chances!of! success!as!entrepreneurs?! !
!
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3.1!Research!Aims! 1.!
To! examine! and! analyse! the! historical! and! political! development! of! ! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE!!
2.!
To! use! Bourdieu’s! concepts! of! habitus,! field! and! capital! to! aid! the! exploration! of! ! the! institutional! HE! context! and! staff! and! student! perceptions! and! experiences! of! ! it!
3.!
To!highlight!and!acknowledge!the!experiences!and!attitudes!of!HE!staff!and!their! ! negotiation!of!the!positioning!of!entrepreneurship,!enterprise!and!gender!within!the! ! curriculum!
4.!
To! acknowledge! issues! related! to! the! teaching! and! learning! of! entrepreneurship! ! and! enterprise! by! exploring! the! field! and! the! habitus! and! capital! that! staff! and! ! students!bring!to!HE!
5.!
To!highlight!and!acknowledge!the!experiences!of!finalNyear!female!students!from!a! ! range! of! social! backgrounds! and! academic! disciplines! as! they! learn! about! ! enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!and!consider!their!career!options!in!light!of!this.!
6.!
To!identify!areas!for!curriculum!development!and!any!other!recommendations!that! ! may!arise!
! 4.!
Originalities!and!Importance!of!the!Research!!
! ...the!ways!in!which...social!and!cultural!structures!shape!our!behaviour! seem! largely! lost! in! the! vast! amounts! of! entrepreneurship! research.! (Elam,!2008,!p.20)! ! This! research! seeks! to! redress! the! gender! balance! of! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! education!research,!as!the!majority!of!business!owners!and!entrepreneurs!researched!in! the! past! (and! the! foundations! of! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education)! have! been!maleNframed!(Carter!et!al,!2001).!Therefore,!it!is!unsurprising!that!the!association!of!! 'normativity!with!white,!middleNclass,!masculinity'!(Reay,!2001)!might!in!turn!be!evident!in! the!teaching!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise.!Just!as!women!have!had!to!navigate!an! education! system! historically! designed! by! men! for! men! (Rich,! 1980W! Spender,! 1982W! Bourdieu,! 2006W! GlazerNRaymo,! 2008),! in! order! to! become! business! owners! and!! entrepreneurs,!women!have!to!navigate!and!understand!the!world!of!‘business’!–!another! system! arguably! designed! by! men! for! men! (Moore! and! Buttner,! 1997W! Halford! and! Leonard,!2001W!Ahl,!2002W!Carter!and!Marlow,!2003W!Brush!et!al!2004).!This!research!also! seeks!to!explore!the!gendered!consequences!of!the!increasing!‘push’!for!entrepreneurship!
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and!enterprise!to!be!embedded!across!the!HE!curriculum!(EC,!2008),!moving!away!from! a! focus! on! business! school! provision! to! one! that! is! positioned! as! important! for! all! HE! students! in! all! disciplinesW! ! enhancing! graduate! career! options! and! supporting! economic! development!and!growth!(Huggins!and!Williams,!2007W!Armstrong,!2005aW!Volkmann!et!al,! 2009).!! ! Research!into!women!and!business!ownership!generally!is!a!relatively!new!phenomenon,! starting! in! the! 1970s! in! the! US! and! the! 1980s! in! the! UK! and! it! is! still! recognised! as! an! underdeveloped! researched! area! (Carter! and! Marlow,! 2007).! ! Much! of! the! research! that! has! been! done! focuses! on! women! who! already! own! businesses! and! the! barriers! that! women!may!face!to!business!startNup!(Moore!and!Buttner!1997W!Carter!2000W!Carter!et!al! 2001W! Brush! et! al! 2004W! SBS! 2006).! ! Likewise,! the! concept! of! supporting! students! to! become!more!enterprising!and!entrepreneurial!graduates!(and!therefore!more!able!to!take! advantage!of!opportunities!for!business!creation)!is!a!relatively!new!phenomenon.!!Since! the! DfEE! Enterprise! in! Higher! Education! initiative! of! the! 1980s,! HEIs! are! increasingly! charged! with! preparing! graduates! for! the! world! of! work! and! employment.! ! However,! whereas! in! the! 1980s! and! 1990s! there! was! a! focus! on! being! responsive! to! the! labour! market!by!meeting!!employers’!needs!(Mackney,!1995),!this!has!developed!to!include!an! emphasis! on! equipping! graduates! to! become! more! ‘entrepreneurial’! (Brown,! 2004W! Armstrong,! 2005a)! with! a! view! to! creating! innovative! and! ! highNgrowth! businesses! (Universities!UK,!2002).!!Graduates!are!therefore,!increasingly!expected!not!only!to!have! the!skills!that!they!need!to!work!in!a!business!but!also!to!have!the!skills!and!knowledge!to! create! their! own! business! after! graduation.! Whilst! some! have! argued! that! it! is! naive! to! expect!graduates!to!to!create!their!own!businesses!on!graduation!(Wilson!et!al,!2003)!and! others! believe! that! women! do! not! necessarily! become! more! careerNorientated! because! they!are!better!qualified!(Hakim,!2000),!research!across!European!HEIs!by!Martinez!et!al! (2007)! suggests! that! male! graduates! are! twice! as! likely! as! their! female! counterparts! to! have! set! up! a! business! within! four! years! of! graduation.! This! research! seeks! to! explore! and!problematise!approaches!to!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!light!of! this!given!that!the!wider!field!of!influence!is!rooted!in!research!based!wholly!on!the!study! of! men.! The! ! potential! to! privilege! masculinity! is! evident! in! the! historical! and! political! development! of! this! knowledge! base! and! has! not! been! adequately! problematised! given! that!those!entering!university!are!now!more!likely!to!be!female!than!male!(GlazerNRaymo,! 2008W!Leathwood!and!Read,!2009).! !
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My!research!also!explores!the!impact!of!this!rise!in!female!undergraduates!and!!suggests! that!a!major!implication!is!the!increasing!importance!of!developing!curricula!and!courses! that!support!nascent!female!ambitions!of!business!ownership!and!acknowledge!that!there! are! different! approaches! and! options! and! which! do! not! simply! focus! on! developing! a! certain! set! of! entrepreneurial! ‘characteristics’! or! ! ‘entrepreneurial! mindset’! (EU,! 2005W! Gibbs,! 2006W! Hermann,! 2008W! Volkmann! et! al! 2009)W! a! mindset! that! is! based! on! the! historical! study! of! male! entrepreneurs! (Ahl,! 2002).! Pierre! Bourdieu! (1998a,! p.62)! highlights!the!symbolic!power!of!this!‘primacy!of!masculinity’,!saying:! ! The! particularity! of! the! dominant! is! that! they! are! in! a! position! to! ensure!that!their!particular!way!of!being!is!recognized!as!universal.!! The!definition!of!excellence!is!in!any!case!charged!with!masculine! implications!that!have!the!particularity!of!not!appearing!as!such.! ! Carter! (1993,! p.151)! illustrates! the! impact! of! this! on! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! theory,!arguing:!'historically!women!have!been!left!off!the!small!business!research!agenda! or! made! invisible! by! research! practices! …! (by! a)! research! agenda! that! excludes! and! makes! invisible! women’s! experiences'.! The! experiences! of! women! from! diverse! cultural! backgrounds! have! also! traditionally! been! excluded,! although! a! developing! body! of! knowledge! shows! that! women! from! black! and! minority! ethnic! backgrounds! are! more! entrepreneurial!than!their!white!counterparts!(Wilson!et!al,!2004W!Athayde,!2009).!With!this! in!mind,!I!seek!not!only!to!explore!commonalities!but!also!the!diversity!of!experience!and! motivation!and!how!this!may!be!informed!by!the!habitus!and!capital!that!female!students! bring!to!HE.! ! 5.!!Drawing!on!Bourdieu! ! In!this!thesis!Bourdieu’s!concepts!of!habitus!and!capital!are!explored!in!relation!to!the!field! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! how! these! play! out! in! HE.! The! ideas! of!! 'entrepreneurial!habitus'!and!'entrepreneurial!capital'!and!how!these!interact!with!received! notions! of! gendered! habitus! and! capital! are! explored! through! discourse! analysis! of! research! and! policy! documents,! classroom! observations! and! interviews! with! staff! and! female! finalNyear! students! learning! about! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! in! formal! settings! (on! enterprise! focused! modules/courses)! and! informal! settings! (attending! extraN curricular! seminars! run! by! a! business! support! unit! supporting! graduates! into! business! ownership).! ! Many! feminist! and! gender! focused! researchers! have! engaged! with!
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Bourdieu’s! work! (Moi! 1999W! Mottier,! 2002W! ! Gidengil! et! al,! 2006W! Lawler,! 2004W! Reay,! 2004a,! 2004bW! Reay! et! al! 2005W! Arneil,! 2006)! including! those! exploring! gender! and! employment!(Hakim!2000),!the!HE!sector!(Naidoo,!2004W!Reay!et!al,!2001!and!2005)!and! women!and!entrepreneurship!(Carter!and!Marlow,!2003W!Connolly!et!al,!2003W!Carter!and! Shaw,! 2006W! Elam,! 2008).! ! Bourdieu’s! concepts! have! been! described! as! ‘enormously! good! for! thinking! with’! (Jenkins,! 1992,! p.11)! providing! ! ‘thinking! tools’! (Grenfell,! 2004)! to! frame! the! exploration! and! analysis! of! the! interplay! of! social,! cultural! and! political! phenomena.! One! important! element! of! Bourdieu’s! approach! is! its! nonNdualistic! and! antiN essentialist! nature! and! his! suggestion! that! individual! and! collective! notions! should! be! viewed! as! interrelated! and! not! mutually! exclusive,! allowing! symbiotic! relationships! to! be! acknowledged!and!explored.!!Bourdieu!suggests!that!the!personal!and!the!collective!are! intertwined! and! in! constant! negotiation! rather! than! separate,! and! in! constant! opposition! (Bourdieu,! 1998)W! offering! ! the! possibility! of! the! coNexistence! of! two! social! worlds! –! the! individual!and!the!collective!–!and!insights!into!how!their!interaction!can!lead!to!changes! in! society! and! individuals.! In! Distinction! (1984,! p.101)! Bourdieu! illustrates! how! habitus,! field!and!capital!interact!to!inform!dayNtoNday!practices!thus:!! ! [(habitus)!(capital)]!+!field!=!practice! ! Swartz! (1997,! p.141)! sums! up! the! social! reality! of! this! equation! saying! 'action! is! the! product! of! class! dispositions! intersecting! with! the! dynamics! and! structure! of! particular! fields.! ! Practices! occur! when! habitus! encounters! those! competitive! arenas! called! fields,! and!actions!reflect!the!structure!of!that!encounter.'!!
This!research!seeks!to!highlight!dominant!discourses!upon!which!the!field!of!HE!draws!in! its! conceptualisations! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! how! these! may! inform! educator! practices! and! the! position! of! entrepreneurship! within! particular! disciplines.!The! gendered! implications! of! this! are! explored,! particularly! the! choices! that! female! undergraduates! make! around! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise,! where! they! place! themselves! within! the! discourses! that! they! encounter! in! HE! and! how! this! may! influence! their! career! choices.! The! use! of! multiple! methods! of! data! production! such! as! discourse! analysis!of!texts,!interviews,!participant!and!nonNparticipant!observations!and!the!keeping! of! a! reflective! research! journal! is! an! attempt,! not! only! to! triangulate! the! data! production! and! analysis! process,! but! also! to! explore! the! assumptions,! experiences! and! ideas! regarding! enterprise! that! those! ‘delivering’! and! ‘receiving’! the! curriculum! might! have.!!
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Ideas! which! might! impact! on! staff! teaching! and! appreciation! for! female! students’! conceptualisation! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! their! positioning,! as! both! students!and!women.!As!such!it!attempts!to!address!the!need!for!‘further!conceptual!and! theoretical! development’! (Hannon,! 2006,! p.3)! identified! within! the! entrepreneurship! education! literature! and! positions! HE! as! a! site! of! social! struggle! for! legitimation! (Shi,! 2001)! with! regards! the! negotiation! of! the! dominant! discourses! around! which! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!crystallise.!! 6.!
Terms!of!Reference!
! It! is! useful! here! to! provide! some! terms! of! reference! for! concepts! and! ideas! that! will! be! discussed! throughout! this! thesis,! particularly! around! gender,! Bourdieu’s! concepts! of! habitus,!capital!and!field!and!definitions!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education.! 6.1!Gender! Throughout! this! thesis! I! refer! to! gender! and! the! gendering! of! concepts! and!! explore!the!privileging!and!legitimation!of!masculinity!within!HE!entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education.! Acker! (1994)! suggests! that! gender! refers! to! socially! produced!distinctions!between!female!and!male!and!masculine!and!feminine!and!! Bradley! (2007,! p.! 1)! suggests! that! its! use! is! 'inextricably! bound! up! with! the! centuriesNlong! struggles! over! power! between! men! and! women'! and,! like!Acker! and!Bradley,!!I!take!an!approach!to!gender!that!distinguishes!it!from!mainstream! usage! of! the! word! as! another! term! for! biological! sex.! ! This! research! explores! socially! constructed! notions! within! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! and!therefore,!views!gender!as!‘something!to!be!done’!in!the!Bourdieuian!sense! and! as! interacting! with! institutional! contexts! that! are! capable! of! generating! a! range! of! enabling! and! constraining! conditions,! which! are! in! turn! dependent! on! highly! situated! and! contextual! variables! with! the! result! that! ‘Gender! (and)! femininity,!can!be!a!range!of!thingsW!it!can!be!a!resource,!a!form!of!regulation,!an! embodied! disposition! and/or! a! symbolically! legitimate! form! of! cultural! capital’! (Skeggs! 2004,! p.24)! rather! than! a! set! of! immutable! characteristics! linked! to! biological!sex.!
!
6.2!HE!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise!Education!! Since!my!interest!in!this!area!began,!in!the!early!2000s,!!I!have!noticed!a!shift,! from! use! of! the! term! enterprise! education! to! describe! teaching! and! learning!
19
which!covers!both!teaching!about!and!teaching!for!the!support!of!the!creation!of! graduate! businesses,! to! the! use! of! the! term! entrepreneurship! education.! This! shift! was! noted! by! Gibb! as! early! as! 1993.! ! However,! these! terms! are! often! conflated! and,! as! Volkmann! et! al! (2009)! suggest,! used! interchangeably! in! the! literature,!in!HE!and!in!wider!society.!!!It!!has!been!suggested!that!this!is!due!to! different!terminology!being!used!in!the!United!States!and!the!United!Kingdom!!–! with! the! US! emphasising! entrepreneurship! education! and! the! UK! emphasising! enterprise!education!and!!its!linkages!!to!notions!of!an!'enterprise!culture'!(Alberti! et! al,! 2004).! I! take! the! view! that! by! focusing! on! the! ‘obvious’! we! close! down! opportunities! to! explore! practices! that! challenge! or! subvert! 'takenNforNgranted'! accounts! and! approaches! and! therefore! take! a! broad! and! inclusive! view! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! within! one! HEI! –! 'Northfield! University'.! For! this! reason! the! term! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! used! in! this! thesis! encompasses! all! of! these! aspects! of! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! provision,! recognised! by! Pittaway! and! Cope! (2007)! as! forming! interrelated! parts! of! the! 'university! enterprise! context'.!Indeed,!to!approach!this!research!in!any!other!way!would!be!to!suggest! a! settlement! around! what! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! ‘is’! and! what! ‘it’! is! ‘for’! that! does! not! currently! exist.! In! this! respect! it! draws! on! Katz's! 'prairie!populist'!model!of!entrepreneurship!referring!to!!'a!collection!of!academic! disciplines! and! specialties...that! is! very! similar! to! the! way! the! general! public! views! entrepreneurship! and! its! myriad! subspecialties—i.e.,! as! one! field.'! (Katz,! 2003! p.! 2).! ! ! If! I! were! only! to! concentrate! on! explicit! and! highly! visible! approaches!this!would!!potentially!perpetuate!and!reproduce!commonly!received! notions!whilst!ignoring!sites!of!struggle!and!approaches!that!are!actively!‘at!odds’! and!where!we!can!gain!important!insight!into!staff!and!student!responses!to!this! challenge.!! ! Although! some! do! not! agree! that! entrepreneurship! is! necessarily! the! same! as! business! ownership! (Burch,! 1986W! Gray,! 1998)! I! also! take! a! broad! approach! to! the!terms!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!themselvesW!referring!to!all!aspects!of! business! ownership,! which! may! be! covered! in! teaching! about! and! for! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!(including!selfNemployment)!or!where! it!is!suggested!that!students!are!engaging!in!learning!about!‘being’!enterprising.! Indeed,!within!HE!and!in!government!policy,!enterprise!is!an!overarching!agenda!
20
that! includes! entrepreneurship! and! within! which! sit! different! constructions! of! entrepreneurship! such! as! social! entrepreneurship,! ecoNpreneurship! and! intrapreneurship.! ! My! approach! recognises! these! terms! as! subsets! of! entrepreneurship!but!ones!that!are!positioned!as!relative!to!(and!sometimes!as! inferior!to)!more!'takenNforNgranted'!conceptualisations!of!entrepreneurship!which! are!used!as!a!yardstick!for!these!‘other’!forms.!!! ! The!need!to!clearly!delineate!these!terms!has!been!voiced!by!researchers!(Gibb,! 1993)!but!the!enduring!approach!is!to!use!these!terms!interchangeably!to!mean! activities! and! teaching! whose! aim! is! to! support,! develop! and! promote! student! capacities! for,! and! understandings! of,! the! businessNstartNup! and! development! process.! ! Therefore,! for! the! purposes! of! this! thesis,! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!refers!to!any!form!of!teaching!that!aims!to!promote!and/or! develop! enterprise! and/entrepreneurial! related! skills! and! knowledge! in! the! HE! environment:! whether! formally! included! on! a! course! of! study! such! as! a! business/enterprise! focused! module! on! a! nonNbusiness! course! or! in! informal! seminars! offered! to! undergraduates! across! HEIs,! independent! of! their! course.! This! includes! teaching! ‘about’! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! (and! related! theoretical! and! historical! discourses)! and! teaching! ‘for’! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! (and! related! discourses! of! entrepreneurial! behaviours,! attitudes! and! skills).!! 6.3!Habitus! Bourdieu’s!concept!of!habitus!is!based!upon!the!classical!Aristotelian!idea!of!hexis! –! translated! as! a! state! or! disposition! but! rather! than! being! innate! it! describes! a! ‘self!which!is!socially!produced’!(Lawler!2004,!p.111)!being!!'socialized!subjectivity'! (Bourdieu,! 2005! p.211).! Swartz! (1997,! p.103)! gives! this! definition,! which! informs! the!conceptual!notion!of!habitus!in!this!paper:! ! Habitus! tends! to! shape! individual! action! so! that! existing! opportunity! structures! are! perpetuated.! Chances! of! success! or! failure! are! internalized! and! then! transformed! into! individual! aspirations! or! expectationsW! these! are! in! turn! externalized! in! action! that! tends! to! reproduce!the!objective!structure!of!life!chances.! ! !
Habitus! is! informed! by! collectively! and! individually! produced! notions! and! so!
!
can! be! used! to! describe! ideas! related! to! socially! constructed! notions! of! social!
21
!
position! and! class! and! ! Bourdieu! emphasises! ! the! collective! basis! of! habitus,!!
!
suggesting! ! that! individuals! who! internalise! similar! life! chances! share! the! same!
!
habitus! (Swartz,! 1997).! ! Maton! (2008)! further! suggests! ! that! the! concept! of!!
!
habitus!provides!a!means!of!!actively! analysing! the! workings! of! the! social! world!
!
through!empirical!investigation.!
6.4!Capital! The!forms!of!capital!identified!by!Bourdieu!are!economic,!social,!cultural!(including! education)!and!symbolic!N!including!resources!associated!with!socially!constructed! notions! of! masculinity! and! femininity! (Bourdieu,! 1998).! These! forms! of! capital! provide!a!set!of!resources!that!individuals!can!draw!upon!in!order!to!enhance!and! maintain! their! position! in! society! or! 'the! different! goods,! resources! and! values! around!which!power!relations!in!a!particular!field!crystallize'!(McNay,!1999,!p.106).! Swartz! (1997,! pp.! 73N74)! emphasises! the! importance! of! forms! of! capital! to! Bourdieuian!based!research!saying!that!Bourdieu!'conceptualizes!these!resources! as! capital! when! they! function! as! a! ‘social! relation! of! power,’! that! is,! when! they! become! objects! of! struggle! as! valued! resources.’! Capital! therefore,! 'conceptualises! resources! which! confer! power,! authority! or! status! upon! their! holders'!(Maton,!2004a!p.37).!
!
6.5!Field! For! Bourdieu! the! field! is! the! structure! of! the! social! setting! in! which! habitus! and! capital! operate! –! a! ‘space! of! social! struggle’! or! arena! of! struggle! for! legitimation! (Shi,! 2001,! p.55).! ! In! this! thesis! I! explore! the! field! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! it! is! reproduced! in! HE! and! in! research! and! policy.! ! All! fields! are! 'marked! by! a! tension! or! conflict! between! the! interests! of! different! groups! who! struggle! to! gain! control! over! a! field’s! capital'! (McNay,! 1999,! p.106)! and! I! explore! how! ! female! undergraduates! and! teaching! staff! employ! and! accumulate! different! forms!of!capital!in!these!environments,!being!mindful!of!Reay!et!al!'s!(2005,!p.163)! observation!that,!'higher!education!is!not!the!same!experience!for!all,!neither!is!it! likely! to! offer! the! same! rewards! for! all'.! Entry! into! a! field! requires! a! tacit! acceptance! of! the! rules! of! the! game,! meaning! that! specific! forms! of! struggle! are! legitimised! whilst! others! are! excluded! (Swartz! 1997,! p.125)! and! it! is! this! experience,!these!struggles!and!these!perceived!rules!and!rewards!that!this!thesis! seeks!to!explore.! !
22
7.!
A!Woman’s!Place!is!in!the!Text:!Putting!the!‘I’!in!Research!
! In!Chapter!Two!I!contextualise!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!and!allied!to! this!is!the!context!of!how!this!particular!research!focus!has!been!arrived!at!and!this!has! come!from!my!experiencesW!my!own!education!and!employmentW!books!that!I!have!readW! and! people! that! I! have! met! (and,! in! some! cases,! taught! or! supported! in! their! entrepreneurial! endeavours)! and! these! have! led! me! to! take! a! feminist! approach! throughout! my! working! life! generally! and! towards! this! research! in! particular.!As! with! all! research,! the! background! and! experiences! of! the! researcher! will! affect! the! production,! interpretation!and!presentation!of!data!and!indeed!the!very!focus!of!study.!For!this!reason! it! could! be! argued! that! my! feminism! is! an! ideology! rather! than! a! theoretical! standpoint,! based!on!political!beliefs.!It!could!also!be!argued!that!feminist!educational!researchers!do! not! aim! to! 'discover'! anything! about! their! subjectW! they! simply! create! theories! based! on! participants! and! data! that! support! their! particular! ideas.! ! Hammersley! (1995,! p.51)! fears! that! this! may! be! so! and! reminds! us! that! 'while! we! need! to! subject! social! research! to! assessment! for! male! bias,! feminist! bias! is! also! a! danger.'! However,! I! believe! that! the! recognition! and! declaration! by! researchers! that! they! are! feminists! is! an! advantage! of! feminist! research! as! researchers! are! open! and! honest! about! these! motivations! and! political!perspectives.!As!Oakley!(2000,!p.21)!argues:!! ! SelfNlabelling! as! a! feminist! means! only! that! one! declares! ones! values,! whereas! the! dominant! tradition! is! not! to! do! so.! ! If! all! whose! work! demonstrates! (albeit! unconsciously)! a! masculine! perspective! had! to! declare! themselves! 'masculinists'! the! world! would! be! a! very! different! place.!!! ! I!also!do!not!agree!that!author!evacuated!texts!are!somehow!more!authentic!or!objective! than!ones!that!explicitly!refer!to!the!experiences!and!motivations!of!the!author.!!In!some! ways!acknowledging!the!influence!of!the!author!on!the!resulting!text!can!aid!objectivity!(if! that!is!what!the!reader!requires).!!I!do!not!attempt!to!hide!my!passion,!my!interest!or!my! experience!and!believe!that!it!further!contextualises!and!positions!this!piece!of!work.!!This! also!sits!with!my!thoughts!on!feminism!and!being!transparent!about!where!I!am!‘coming! from’.! ! These! are! issues! that! ! frame! other! work! –! 'hard',! ! ‘scientific’! work! N! but! are! somehow!ignored,!as!if!the!text!were!written!by!a!machine!rather!than!a!human!being!with! their!own!thoughts,!experiences!and!biases.!Far!from!leading!to!the!research!being!fatally! flawed! by! subjectivity! I! believe! that! it! is! the! only! honest! approach.! ! Even! the! ‘hard’! positivist! research! done! by! seemingly! objective! researchers! has! been! influenced! and!
23
shaped!by!their!own!lives,!experiences!and!interests.! ! 8.!
Historical!and!Political!Context!of!the!Research!
! The!data!production!phases!of!this!research!took!place!between!2008!and!2009!!!–!at!a!! time!when!many!of!the!'takenNforNgranted'!notions!about!how!businesses!and!economies! work! and! the! role! of! risk! and! growth! were! being! challenged! and! questioned! due! to! the! upheaval!in!world!economic!conditions!and!the!'Credit!Crunch'!!!One!could!also!suppose! that!this!would!make!!it!even!more!important,!given!the!rising!rates!of!unemployment,!for! universities! to! meet! their! graduate! employment! targets! through! student! selfNemployment! and! business! creation.! ! Staff! were! interviewed! and! classes! observed! before! the! major! effects! of! the! events! became! clear! but! students! were! interviewed! later! and! during! the! most! intense! part! of! the! crisis! with! bank! bailNouts,! business! closures! and! rising! unemployment!figures!covered!daily!in!the!media.!!Several!students!reflect!on!this!in!their! interviews! and! some! suggest! that! this! affected! their! decisions! and! thoughts! about! their! plans!after!graduation.!It!also,!perhaps,!made!them!more!reflective!about!career!options! and!the!relative!opportunities!in!publicly!funded!sectors!such!as!the!NHS.!!With!a!newly! installed!ConservativeNLiberal!Democrat!government!and!with!funding!cuts!of!up!to!80%!in! teaching! budgets! proposed! in! 2010! (during! my! writing! up! period)! it! remains! to! be! seen! whether! the! focus! on! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! becomes! more! important!due!to!lack!of!graduate!employment!opportunities!or!if,!particularly!in!the!case!of! extraNcurricular!activities!such!as!governmentNfunded!business!support!for!graduates,!it!is! cut!or!withdrawn!completely!in!response!to!the!current!economic!conditions!in!the!UK.! ! 9.!
The!Structure!of!the!Thesis! !
This! thesis! is! in! three! main! sections,! comprising! nine! chapters! in! total.! ! Part! One! contextualises!the!research,!the!bodies!of!knowledge!upon!which!it!draws,!its!theoretical! foundations! and! the! ontological! and! epistemological! issues! that! inform! the! methodology! and! methods! used.! Part! Two! outlines! the! findingsW! presenting,! describing! and! engaging! with! the! data! produced! through! discourse! analysis,! classroom! observations,! field! notes! and! semiNstructured! interviews.! Part! Three! discusses! the! data! and! its! implications! and! draws! some! conclusions,! highlighting! the! scholarly! contribution! of! this! research! and! outlining!recommendations!for!further!research!in!light!of!this.!
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! 9.1!
Chapter!Breakdown!
Following! this! introductory! chapter! I! turn,! in! Chapter! Two,! to! outline! the! wider! historical,! political!and!theoretical!context!of!this!research,!drawing!on!relevant!bodies!of!knowledge! and! identifying! the! debates! and! ideas! that! have! informed! my! approach.! Chapter! Three! moves! on! to! a! more! detailed! account! of! Pierre! Bourdieu’s! theories,! my! interpretation! of! them! and! engagement! with! his! work,! why! this! is! appropriate! and! how! it! helps! me! to! address! my! research! questions.! ! This! leads! to! a! discussion! of! methodology! in! Chapter! Four!that!sets!out!the!theoretical!foundations!of!the!thesis,!engaging!with!ideas!and!issues! linked! to! the! use! of! a! social! realist! ontology! and! social! constructivist! epistemologyW! outlining! how! these! theoretical! foundations! inform! and! support! this! thesis! and! their! congruence!with!the!use!of!Bourdieu’s!theory!of!practice.!Chapter!Four!also!outlines!the! research! design! and! the! operationalising! of! Bourdieu's! concepts! in! a! threeNphase,! multipleNmethod! approach,! discussing! and! delineating! the! particular! methods! employed! and!reflecting!on!their!strengths!and!weaknesses!in!relation!to!this!research.! ! Having! set! the! scene! in! the! first! four! chapters! of! Part! One,! Part! Two! comprises! three! chapters! that! outline! and! engage! with! the! data! produced! in! each! research! phase,! introducing! the! research! respondents! and! with! each! chapter! representing! one! phase! of! my!production!and!analysis.!Chapter!Five!examines!the!field!of!Higher!Education!and!HE! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!and!its!wider!context!(a!‘view!from!above’)!with! discourse!analysis!of!policy!documents!to!identify,!analyse!and!critique!the!discourses!of! entrepreneurship!reproduced!in!policy!and!research,!the!gendered!implications!of!this!and! how! this! informed! subsequent! data! production.! ! Chapter! Six! explores! a! ‘view! from! the! middle’,! outlining! ! interviews! with! HE! educators! and! classroom! observations! which! explore!and!analyse!institutional!and!staff!roles!and!their!gendered!implications.!Chapter! Seven! then! focuses! on! a! ‘view! from! below’! in! the! form! of! female! finalNyear! student! responses!to!representations!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!in!HE!and!wider!society,! how!they!position!themselves!within!these!discourses!and!representations,!their!thoughts! on!the!suggested!forms!of!entrepreneurial!habitus!and!capital!they!encounter!in!HE!and! their!entrepreneurial!aspirations!in!light!of!this.! ! Part!Three! explores! the! importance! and! implications! of! this! research! with! Chapter! Eight! being! a! discussion! chapter! linking! the! data! presented! in! Part!Two! to! the! wider! literature! and! discussing! its! implications.! Chapter! Nine! provides! some! conclusions! including! how!
25
the!data!produced!has!helped!me!to!address!my!research!questions,!the!limitations!of!this! research,!my!theoretical!contribution!and!suggestions!for!further!research.! ! 10.!!Summary! ! This! chapter! outlined! my! thesis,! its! research! focus,! rationale! and! questions! and! its! context.! ! It! also! outlined! my! approach! to! the! theoretical! and! practical! issues! at! play! including!its!feminist!standpoint!and!the!use!of!Bourdieu’s!concepts!of!habitus,!capital!and! field.! In! doing! so! it! described! how! these! concepts! have! shaped! and! informed! the! theoretical! underpinning! of! this! thesis! which! has,! in! turn,! guided! each! stage! of! research! development! and! design.! ! It! has! suggested! arguments! for! a! gendered! habitus! and! explored!issues!of!gendered!capital!which!will!be!explored!in!the!research.!I!argue!that!a! Bourdieuian! approach! allows! us! to! simultaneously! take! account! of! the! individual! and! collective! social! contexts! and! how! they! influence! each! other,! facilitating! a! constant! dialogue!and!negotiation!for!change.!This!provides!the!opportunity!to!explore!the!interplay! of! the! individual! and! the! collective! and! the! social! reality! that! ‘exists! both! outside! and! inside!individuals’!(Swartz,!1997,!p.!96).!The!next!chapter!further!explores!these!themes! and! approaches! and! outlines! how! the! contextualising! and! situating! of! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! within! its! historical,! socioNpolitical,! theoretical! and!pedagogical!development!supports!this!research!by!engaging!with!the!wider!body!of! knowledge!and!!identifying!some!gaps!and!silences!which!this!thesis!aims!to!address.!!
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Chapter!Two! Contextualising!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise!Education!in!HE! 1.!
Introduction!
...any!particular!society!will!necessarily!select,!develop,!and!reward!(and! conversely! discourage)! certain! personality! types! and! traits! for! certain! roles! –! a! selective! operation! that! inevitably! affects! entrepreneurship.!! (Sawyer,!1952!p.9)! ! ! This!chapter!has!four!main!strands!of!enquiry:!the!historical!gendering!of!entrepreneurship! and!
enterpriseW!
developments!
and!
suggested!
gaps!
in!
the!
gender!
and!
entrepreneurship/enterprise! researchW! gender! and! HEW! and! the! political,! social! and! educational! drivers! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! the! UK.! In! situating! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! within! this! wider! historical,! socioNpolitical,! theoretical!and!educational!context!I!take!a!multiNdisciplinary!approach,!drawing!on!bodies! of!knowledge!situated!in!education,!sociology!and!gender!theory!as!well!as!business!and! entrepreneurship,! all! of! which! inform! current! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education.!! This! thesis! requires! a! multiNdisciplinary! approach! because! until! recently! gender! and! entrepreneurship! were! constructed! as! mutually! exclusive! bodies! of! knowledge,! with! genderNfocused! research! being! more! prevalent! in! sociology! and! ! entrepreneurship! in! business!(Ahl,!2006).!!I!explore!how!these!strands!of!enquiry!combine!to!inform!the!wider! stratified!field!of!influence!on!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE.!This!is!to! highlight!and!contextualise!‘the!forgetting!of!history!which!history!itself!forgets’!(Bourdieu,! 1990b,! p.! 56)! particularly! the! forgotten! historical! and! continuing! masculinisation! of! entrepreneurship! and! the! potential! for! its! uncritical! reproduction! in! entrepreneurship! research! and! in! HE! education! policy! and! institutional! approachesW! engaging! in! what! Foucault!(1972)!describes!as!the!‘archaeology!of!knowledge’!and!how!concepts!and!ideas! change!and!develop!over!time,!being!coNopted,!reNimagined!and!repositioned!to!adapt!to! particular!times,!places!and!cultural!contexts.!!The!historical!context!!is!important!as!the! conceptual! and! theoretical! foundations! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! have! emerged! from! an! exclusively! male! perspective! (Goffee! and! Scase,1985W! Bird! and!Brush,!2002W!Carter!and!Marlow,!2003W!Muir!and!Edwards!2006)!and!this!androcentric! approach!was!prevalent!as!recently!as!the!1980s!(Ahl,!2002).!! ! 2.!!
The!Historical!Gendering!of!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise:!The!selfYmade!
27
man!or!the!manYmade!self?! ! A! historical! lens! on! gender! is! essential.! ! Whereas! common! sense! sees! biological! determinism,! a! historical! perspective! reveals! the! social! construction!of!gender.!(Buechler,!2008!p.!146)! ! It! is! difficult! to! explore! the! gendering! of! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! in! HE! without! acknowledging! the! wider! historical,! political! and! academic! debates! around! gender! and! entrepreneurship! generally.! Bourdieu! (2000)! reminds! us! that! all! individuals,! institutions! and! societies! are! products! of! their! pasts! and! that! notions! about! gender,! class,! ethnicity! and! other! means! of! social! stratification! are! a! result! of! the! 'forgetting! of! history'! which! masks! the! enduring! influence! of! the! past! on! the! presentW! making! socially! constructed! norms! appear! 'natural'! and! therefore! unquestionable.! ! This! is! apparent! in! the! historical! development! of! theories! around! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise,! an! area! of! debate! and! development! dominated! by! male! thinkers! and! based! on! the! exclusive! study! of! male! entrepreneurs! (Carter,! 1993W! Ahl,! 2002W! Bird! and! Brush,! 2002).! ! Although! a! seemingly! ‘modern’! concept! the! entrepreneur! and! theorising! around! entrepreneurial! activities! is! rooted!in!ideas!developed!in!the!1700s!by!Richard!Cantillon!and!further!developed!by!the! French! economist! ! J.NB.! Say! (Palmer,! 1997W! Burnett! 2000W! Swedberg,! 2000)! with! the! privileging!of!masculinity!suggested!by!a!long!line!of!male!thinkers!who!have!contributed! to! the! development! of! entrepreneurship! theory! including,! Adam! Smith,! Alfred! Marshall,! John! Stuart! Mill,! and! Joseph! Schumpeter.! In! the! early! nineteenth! century! J.NB.! Say! suggested! the! idea! of! entrepreneurship! as! psychological! or! personalityNdriven,! asserting! that!an!entrepreneur!had!to!be!a!‘leader’!but!also!arguing!that,!given!that!the!entrepreneur! has!to!have!certain!‘connections’,!‘abilities’!and!access!to!capital!‘these!conditions!exclude! many! people! from! the! competition’! (Palmer,1997! p.71).! This! suggests! a! sense! of! exclusivity! based! not! only! on! psychological! traits! but! also! on! access! to! resources,! both! economic!and!social.!In!the!1890s!Alfred!Marshall!linked!entrepreneurship!and!economic! development!suggesting!that!entrepreneurs!'must!be!natural!leaders'!(Marshall,!1890!my! emphasis).! This! talk! of! the! natural! is! where! the! dominance! of! masculinities,! both! in! the! mythNmaking! about! entrepreneurship! and! in! the! ‘doing’! of! entrepreneurship! becomes! an! overtly!gendered!discourse.!To!say!that!something!is!natural!is!to!assume!that!it!is!innate,! something!within!a!person!that!has!not!been!learnt!and!I!would!further!argue!that!natural! is! a! value! laden! term,! leading! to! suggestions! that! only! certain! ‘types’! of! people! can! be! successful! in! certain! roles.! Such! notions! impact! on! contemporary! gendered! job! segregation! which,! in! the! UK,! sees! ! '60%! of! working! women! clustered! in! only! 10%! of! occupations'!(DfES,!2007)!and!entrepreneurialism!being!viewed!as!a!form!of!masculinity!
28
in!some!sectors!(Halford!and!Leonard,!2001).!Like!Say,!Marshall!also!suggests!a!sense!of! ’exclusivity’!and!that!entrepreneurs,!far!from!being!common,!are!!‘special’!people!because! the! skills! and! abilities! of! the! entrepreneur! are! ‘so! great! and! so! numerous! that! very! few! people!can!exhibit!them!all!in!a!very!high!degree’!(Marshall,!1892).!This!suggests!that!only! outstanding!individuals!can!be!entrepreneurs,!and!a!sense!of!high!status!has!increasingly! been! accorded! to! these! ‘special’! people.! Bourdieu! (1998a)! suggests! that! higher! status! roles!or!‘more!sought!after!positions’!are!often!in!traditionally!maleNdominated!professions! and!this!is!seemingly!true!of!entrepreneurship!as!traditionally!constructed.! ! In! the! twentieth! century! the! development! of! entrepreneurship! theory! was! greatly! influenced! by! Joseph! Schumpeter's! conceptualisation! of! economic! development! (Schumpeter,! 1934).! His! ideas! on! entrepreneurship! and! ‘creative! destruction’! have! been!! described!as!‘the!fulcrum!for!an!attempt!to!draw!a!large!canvas!setting!out!the!forces!that! shaped! Western! culture’! (Zassenhaus,1981,! p.179).! Sawyer! (1952,! p.9)! writes! of! how! Schumpeter! ‘invoked! the! influences! of! the! drive! to! do,! to! win,! to! create,! to! found! a! dynasty,!a!private!kingdomW!‘!and!‘the!will!to!conquerW!the!impulse!to!fight,!to!prove!oneself! superior! to! others,! to! succeed! for! the! sake,! not! of! the! fruits! of! success! but! of! success! itself”.!This!has!led!to!suggestions!that,!for!Schumpeter,!'the!entrepreneur!takes!the!place! in!modern!society!held!in!ancient!society!by!the!warrior'!(Gomez!and!Korine,!!2008!p.!37).! This!combative,!!status!driven!and!allNconquering!entrepreneur!is!still!prevalent!in!today’s! business!culture,!with!programmes!such!as!Dragons'!Den!and!The!Apprentice!presenting! entrepreneurial! success! as! a! ‘battle’! for! resources! and! recognition,! with! humiliation! and! rejection! being! the! ‘price’! of! failure.! Sawyer! was! writing! in! the! 1950s! when! ‘aggressive! entrepreneurship’!was!considered!the!‘best’!form!of!entrepreneurship!for!generating!profits! and!economic!growth!and!‘building!an!everNexpanding!future’!(Sawyer,!1952).!!However,! both! Sawyer! and! Lamb,! writing! in! the! same! book,! suggest! that! entrepreneurs! are! products! of! their! time! and! of! the! values! of! the! society! in! which! they! live,! arguing! that! 'Entrepreneurs,! like! other! decisionNmakers,! depend! for! their! success! on! the! measure! of! acceptance! their! values! and! goals! of! activity! command! from! that! society'! (Lamb,! 1952! p.117)! and! that! these! change! over! time! in! response! to! economic! and! political! developments.! ! In! the! 1970s! and! 1980s! Schultz! suggested! the! importance! of! human! capital! ! to! entrepreneurial! success! (ASHE,! 2009)! but! in! a! way! that! perpetuated! assumptions!of!genderNneutrality,!based!around!the!idea!of!the!male!as!'human'.!The!idea! of! the! entrepreneur! as! ‘riskNtaker’! is! developed! by! writers! such! as! Knight! (1967)! and! Drucker! (1985)! with! entrepreneurs! described! as! those! people! who! are! willing! to! forgo!
29
financial!and!employment!security!and!take!risks!to!pursue!a!business!idea!or!opportunity.! Contemporary!thinkers!continue!to!engage!with!these!historically!masculineNframed!ideas! of! entrepreneurship,! refining! and! developing! present! day! understandings! of! the! entrepreneur! and! entrepreneurship! and! leading! to! arguments! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!are!!social!constructions,!coNopted!and!reNimagined!to!suit!the!perceived!needs! of!a!particular!place!and!time!(Ahl,!2004W!Chell,!2008).!!
Although! no! universally! agreed! definition! of! the! entrepreneur! or! entrepreneurship! has! emerged! from! this! long! history! of! development! and! debate! there! has! been! a! focus! on! traits! and! personalityNbased! theory! to! identify! potential! entrepreneurs! and! to! develop! particular! skills,! abilities! and! behaviours! in! people! so! that! they! can! ‘become’! more! entrepreneurial.!This!has!also!influenced!and!been!influenced!by!HE!education!policy!and! research! stressing! the! ‘entrepreneurial! mindset’! (EC,! 2004,! 2006W! Gibb,! 2005W! Hermann,! 2008W! Volkmann,! 2009).! ! However,! as! I! have! argued! elsewhere! (Jones,! 2008W! Jones,! 2009W!Jones,!2010a),!the!concentration!of!male!commentators!within!an!exclusively!male! discursive!space!emphasises!certain!forms!of!!‘masculinity’,!suggesting!discourses!of!the! ‘heroic!male’!–!fighting!against!the!oddsW!'the!maverick’!–!who!does!things!differently!and! breaks!the!rulesW!and!the!‘selfNmade!man’,!pulling!himself!up!the!social!ladder!against!the! odds!of!his!poor!educational!and/or!fiscal!background.!Such!masculinised!constructions!of! the! entrepreneur! arguably! inform! ! the! suggested! 'entrepreneurial! mindset'! that! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!seeks!to!develop.!In!my!opening!quote!Sawyer! alludes!to!the!rewarding!and!recognition!of!certain!‘types’!as!entrepreneurs!but!does!not! expand! on! the! idea! that! entrepreneurship! is! linked! to! personality! types! that,! in! gender! polarized! societies,! are! linked! to! ‘masculinity’! and! therefore! dualistically! positioned! as! ‘unfeminine’! (Bem,! 1993W! Skeggs,! 2004)! being! unsuitable! or! unacceptable! for! women! given! socially! constructed! concepts! of! gender! roles! and! the! historically! maleNnormative! approach!to!research!in!this!field,!where!women!are!'characterized!in!the!devalued!sphere! of!the!feminine'!(Marlow!and!Patton,!2005!p.721).!! ! So,! ideas! suggested! in! the! 1700s! have! been! developed,! coNopted! and! synthesised! to! form! what! we! have! todayW! an! urgency! around! the! need! for! people! generally,! and! HE! students! more! particularly,! to! be! exposed! to! education! that! equips! them! with! skills! ! to! support!both!their!career!development!and!the!economic!growth!of!the!nation!through!new! business! creation! and! selfNemployment! (Lambert,! 2003W! EC,! 2006W! Moreland,! 2006W! EC,! 2008).!I!argue,!in!this!thesis!and!elsewhere,!that!this!has!grown!out!of!an!exclusively!male!
30
discursive! space! that! has! an! enduring! effect! on! the! identification! and! delineation! of! teaching! around! entrepreneurship! and! the! identification! and! development! of! future! entrepreneurs!(Jones!2009aW!Jones,!2010a,!Jones,!2010b).!It!is!tempting!to!dismiss!these! historically! androcentric! approaches! as! how! things! were! rather! than! how! things! are! however,! this! argument! stalls! somewhat! when! we! consider! that! the! basis! of! entrepreneurship! theory! and! the! foundations! of! teaching! this! in! HE! are! based! on! mainstream! acceptance! and! engagement! with! these! historically! maleNdefined! concepts.! This! gendering! of! discursive! space! has! endured! from! the! age! of! Enlightenment! when! 'ideas!about!'humanity'!meant!'males'!to!the!exclusion!of!women,!and!pronouncements!on! the! 'human! race'! meant! white! Europeans! to! the! exclusion! of! darker! people'! (Buechler,! 2008! p.4).! This! masculinised! ! 'normative! context'! is! also! a! worldNwide! phenomenon! (Bosma! and! Levie,! 2009)! crystallising! around! institutional! and! governmental! approaches! to! the! support! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! generally! (Baughn!et! al,! 2006).!These! ideas! have! combined! with! the! visibility! of! today’s! highly! successful! (and! seemingly! exclusively! male)! entrepreneurs! to! delineate! the! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!in!such!a!way!as!to!be!unquestionable.!As!they!have!concentrated!on!the!male! experience! as! human! experience! (Lewis,! 2006),! they! appear! to! be! genderNneutral! given! that!the!male!experience!is!traditionally!positioned!as!the!‘human!experience’!(Mackinnon,! 2008),! with! Bird! and! Brush! (2002)! suggesting! that! current! genderNneutral! references! render!'blatant!bias'!invisible.!!These!apparently!genderNneutral!ideas!also!inform!cultural! conceptualisations! of! the! ‘traits’,! ‘abilities’! and! ‘behaviours’! deemed! necessary! to! be! a! successful!entrepreneur!which!are!based!on!traditional!notions!of!masculinityW!suggesting! that,! in! order! to! be! successful! entrepreneurs,! women! have! to! become! 'honorary! men'! (Marlow,!2002).!!For!this!reason!researchers!such!as!Marlow!and!Strange!(1994),!Halford! and! Leonard! (2003),! Greer! and! Greene! ! (2003),! ! Ahl! (2002,! 2004,! 2006),! Carter! and! Marlow!(2007)!and!Elam!(2008)!suggest!that!there!is!a!need!to!critically!engage!with!the! very! concepts! upon! which! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! are! basedW! concepts! that! effectively!normalise!westernised,!masculine!typified!behaviours!as!entrepreneurial!which,! in!an!increasingly!ethnically!diverse!and!female!HE!environment,!is!problematic.! ! 3.!!Women!and!Enterprise:!Research!Developments!and!Trends! ! It!is!only!recently!that!women's!experiences!have!entered!this!exclusively!male!discursive! space! and! the! growth! of! research! into! women! business! owners! and! women! considering! business! ownership! is! new! and! developing.! Female! selfNemployment! emerged! as! a!
31
research!focus!in!the!1970s!in!the!US!as!a!response!to!the!changing!role!of!women!and! increasing! numbers! of! women! entering! the! workforce,! with! an! increasing! proportion! pursuing! selfNemployment! and! ! businesses! ownership! and! prompting! questions! about! male!dominance!in!this!area!(Schwartz,!1976).!Research!in!the!UK!developed!out!of!this! in!the!1980s,!arguing!that!entrepreneurial!theories!are!based!around!an!acceptance!and! assumption!that!entrepreneurship!is!a!particularly!male!activity!(Goffee!and!Scase,!1985).!! Marlow! and! Strange! (1994! p.173)! suggest! ! this! leads! to! a! genderNblindness! which! uses! men!as!a!benchmark!and!!‘presumes!that!women!act!from!similar!motivations!and!look!for! similar!rewards!from!entrepreneurial!activity!as!their!male!counterparts’.!!!
In! 1992,! Brush! conducted! the! first! review! of! the! major! works! on! women’s! business! ownership!worldwide!since!1970.!!She!identified!four!major!areas!of!research!on!women! business! owners! centred! on! individual! characteristics,! organisational! characteristics,! process! of! business! creation! and! acquisition! and! environmental! factors,! suggesting! that! there!are!!'more!differences!than!similarities!between!maleN!and!femaleNowned!business'! but! that! 'there! are! few! genderNbased! differences! in! certain! psychologically! based! entrepreneurial! traits'! (! p.! 28)! apart! from! those! linked! with! riskNtaking! propensity! and! energy! levels! (p.12).! Brush! also! noted! that! the! scales! used! to! measure! entrepreneurial! traits! came! from! research! on! male! entrepreneurs! –! suggesting! a! masculinisation! of! entrepreneurship!that!is!not!only!socially!constructed!(with!models!of!measurement!based! on!only!half!of!the!research!population)!but!also!one!that!has!had!a!very!real!impact!upon! the!apparently!valueNfree!and!'scientific'!approach!to!research!and!education!in!this!area.! This! is! an! example! of! the! 'forgetting'! of! the! historical! development! of! entrepreneurship! theory! and! research! that! is! reproduced! in! mainstream! research! and,! as! I! have! argued! elsewhere,! in! teaching! to! this! day! (Jones,! 2008W! Jones,! 2009a).! Brush! also! emphasises! the! assumed! homogeneity! of! women,! with! little! research! across! groups! of! women,! effectively! masking! the! wider,! gendered! complexities! of! business! ownership! and! the! differing!reasons!for!and!attitudes!towards!business!ownership!and!business!startNup!(p.! 28).! She! concludes! that! women! have! an! 'integrated! perspective'! on! business! ownership! based!on!'cooperative!networks!of!relationships'!that!are!'integrated!rather!than!separated! from!family,!societal!and!personal!relationships'!(p.28).!!!
However,!others!argue!that!this!conceptualisation!of!the!integration!of!personal,!social!and! business! aspects! has! developed! into! a! view! that! women! are! likely! to! have! 'different'! attitudes! regarding! profit! and! growth! that! position! them! ! as! less! successful! (Sexton! and!
32
BowmanNUpton,!1990W!!Baker!et!al,!1997W!Walker!and!Brown,!2004W!Gongor!et!al,!2007)!N!! viewed!as!deficient!and!inferior!to!the!!'true'!entrepreneurship!involved!in!the!economically! driven! motives! of! high! growth,! high! profit! and! jobs! created! (Marlow! and! Strange,! 1994W! Ahl,! 2002,! 2006).! ! Brush's! research! does,! however,! ! emphasise! an! interplay! of! agency! and! structure! rather! than! the! agential! individualism! of! ! the! historically! masculineNframed! literature,! that! privileges! selfNdetermination.! This! primacy! of! agency! is! also! critiqued! in! research! highlighting! structural! barriers! that! potentially! disadvantage! women! business! owners! including! finance,! trackNrecord,! access! to! networks! and! support! (Hisrich! and! Brush,!1987W!!Aldrich,!1989W!Marlow!and!Patton,!2005W!!Marlow,!1997W!!Moore!and!Buttner! 1997W! Carter! and!Anderson,! 2001W! Carter! et! al! 2001W! ! Weiler! and! Bernasek,! 2001)! with! Carter! et! al! (2003)! suggesting! ! there! are! gendered! differences! linked! to! women’s! individual! and! collectively! perceived! abilities! and! the! negotiation! of! socially! prescribed! gender!roles.!!!One!important!!caveat!highlighted!by!Brush!in!1992,!and!!in!later!research! (Chell,! 2008W! Armstrong,! 2005a)! is! that! most! research! into! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! is! based! on! studies! of! people! who! are! already! established! business! ownersW! with! debates! hinging! on! whether! the! entrepreneurial! and! demographic! characteristics! identified! in! research! are! a! result! of! the! experience! of! setting! up! and! owning! a! small! business! rather! than! being! a! set! of! immutable! characteristics! that! the! participants! 'had'! prior! to! startNup,! casting! doubt! on! many! of! the! assumptions! upon! which! the! ! suggested! entrepreneurial!or!enterprising!'skillsets'!are!based.!!
Following!on!from!Brush!(1992),!Carter!et!al’s!2001!review!of!the!academic,!popular!and! internet!literature!on!women's!business!ownership!reflects!the!wider!influences!on!'takenN forNgranted'! notions! of! women! ! business! owners,! including! academic! literature! and! the! 'grey'! literature! of! ! government! policy! and! media! channels.! They! identify! an! increasing! emphasis! on! gender! differences! and! their! impact! on! women! business! owners,! a! lack! of! cumulative! knowledge! and! the! ‘failure! to! adequately! conceptualise! studies! and! build! explanatory! theories'! (Carter! et! al,! p.4).!They! suggest! that! gender! differences! crystallise! around! resources! and! capital,! including! human! and! social! capital! and! that! this! is! an! increasing! focus! in! research! together! with! a! move! 'towards! an! increasing! awareness! of! gender!differences!within!entrepreneurship!which!are!socially!constructed!and!negotiated.'! (Carter! et! al,! p.39)! My! research! is! situated! within! this! growing! body! of! knowledge,! as! suggested!by!recent!papers!focused!on!forms!of!capital!and!women's!business!ownership! (Neergaard! et! al! ,! 2005W! O'Neill! and! Gidengil,! 2006W! Lam! et! al,! 2007W!Aaltio! et! al,! 2008W! Sappleton,! 2009W! Shaw! et! al,! 2009).! ! Gidengil! et! al! (2006,! p.246)! suggest! that! women!
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tend! to! be! embedded! in! female! orientated! networks! and! men! in! male! orientated! ones,! with! women's! networks! being! 'less! varied! in! terms! of! other! social! and! demographic! characteristics! such! as! age,! education! and! income.'! This! echoes! Carter! and! Marlow’s! (2003)! concerns! regarding! the! gendered! accrual! of! capital! which! subsequently! affects! women’s! success! or! failure! as! entrepreneurs,! suggesting! that! the! most! valuable! capital! accrued! is! through! work! experience.! However,! this! would! position! male! and! female! undergraduates! similarly,! having! chosen! to! study! rather! than! enter! fullNtime! employment! and,! while! it! might! explain! the! relatively! low! numbers! of! graduate! entrepreneurs,! it! does! not! explain! the! gender! disparity! in! graduate! entrepreneurship! (Martinez! et! al,! 2007).! ! I! suggest!that!an!exploration!of!the!affects!of!gender!on!the!accrual!of!the!forms!of!capital! that! students! bring! to! the! HE! environment,! together! with! a! focus! on! how! this! capital! is! employed!within!the!field!of!HE,!may!offer!some!insights!into!why!this!should!be!so.! ! In!2006!Carter!and!Shaw!revisited!the!literature,!identifying!a!major!shift!from!a!focus!on! 'if'! gender! shapes! the! experiences! of! business! ownership! to! 'how'! gender! impacts! on! all! aspects! of! business! ownershipW! focusing! on! the! gendered! social! construction! of! entrepreneurship! and! the! resulting! gendering! of! capital! (in! economic,! human! and! social! terms)! as! an! explanatory! mechanism! for! the! onNgoing! lack! of! growth! in! female! entrepreneurship!and!for!developing!understandings!of!women's!enterprise.!They!discuss! Firkin's!(2003)!ideas!around!'entrepreneurial!capital'!and!the!way!in!which!forms!of!capital! are! converted! into! others! depending! upon! their! value! within! particular! fields,! this! 'convertibility!to!legitimacy'!is!also!touched!upon!by!Elam!(2008)!in!her!analysis!of!gender! and! entrepreneurship.! Although! forms! of! human! capital! have! been! on! the! research! agenda! since! the! 1970s! (Becker,! 1975)! ! there! is! a! developing! engagement! with! the! gendering!of!capital!(Bourdieu,1986W!Burt,!1998W!O'Neill!and!Gidengil,!2006)!and!its!wider! structural!effects!and!this!is!reflected!in!developments!within!gender!and!entrepreneurship! research.!Carter!and!Shaw!also!suggest!that!feminist!approaches!have!helped!to!develop! 'theoretically!robust'!analyses!of!business!ownership,!reflecting!an!increasing!engagement! with! the! interplay! of! agency! and! structure! as! it! impacts! on! women's! lives! generally! and! how! this! ! 'plays! out'! in! business! ownership.! ! Carter! and! Marlow! (2007! p.11)! continue! to! problematise!the!theoretical!development!of!research!into!women!and!entrepreneurship!in! their!overview!of!the!theoretical!and!empirical!evidence,!suggesting!that!little!attention!has! been! paid! to! the! 'theoretical! dimensions! that! underpin! the! analysis! of! gender! and! entrepreneurship'! and! that! there! has! been! little! attempt! to! separate! gender! from! essentialist! ideas! related! to! biological! sex! rather! than! socially! constructed! notions! of!
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masculinity! and! femininity.! They! go! on! to! suggest! that! ! 'gender! is! not! understood! as! femininity!or!masculinity...and!the!world!of!the!entrepreneur!is!somehow!immune!to!!many! of!the!broader!social!and!economic!influences!that!shape!life!chances!in!general'!(p.!24).! This!feminist!recognition!that!the!gender!system!is!a!fundamental!organising!principle!of! society! and! that! gender! rarely! works! to! the! disadvantage! of! men! explains! an! increasing! focus!on!gender!and!entrepreneurship,!rather!than!women!and!entrepreneurship,!and!the! impact! of! how! collective! notions! of! entrepreneurship! and! masculinity,! perpetuate! and! reinforce!woman!as!the!'other'!(Ahl,!2002).!!Ahl!(2004,!p.61)!further!argues!that:!
there!is!a!discourse!on!womanhood!that!is!in!conflict!with!the!discourse! of! entrepreneurship.! Being! a! woman! and! an! entrepreneur! at! the! same! time!means!that!one!has!to!position!oneself!simultaneously!in!regard!to! two!conflicting!discourses.!!! This!challenge!to!the!historical!masculinisation!upon!which!entrepreneurship!is!predicated! has! resulted! in! calls! for! more! entrepreneurship! research! that! centres! on! women's! experiences,!and!which!does!not!use!the!male!experience!as!a!benchmark!against!which! to! find! women! wantingW! bringing! diverse! voices! and! experiences! into! this! traditionally! white,!male,!middle!class!discursive!space!(Mallon!and!Cohen,!2001W!Ahl,!2006).! ! 4.!!
The!Development!of!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise!Education!in!HE!and! Paying!Attention!to!Teacher! ! the! explicit...goal! of! (entrepreneurship! and! enterprise)! education! is! to! make! changes! in! society! via! changes! in! individual! behaviour.! (Pittaway! and!Cope,!2007!p.!20)!
! Since! the! first! HE! entrepreneurship! course! was! established! in! Japan! in! 1938,! provision! has! expanded! rapidly,! with! over! 1600! institutions! offering! such! courses! in! the! US! alone! (de! Bruin! et! al,! 2006).!A! recent! European! Commission! report! suggests! that! 95%! of! UK! HEIs! are! currently! engaged! in! 'the! provision! of! different! forms! of! entrepreneurship! education! to! their! students’! both! inNcurricula! and! extraNcurricular! and! that! 80%! of! this! provision! is! at! undergraduate! level! (EC! 2008,! p.20).! ! Business! school! provision! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! began! in! the! 1970s! (Kuratko,! 2005)! and! increasing! provision! prompted! the! emergence! of! research! into! HE! entrepreneurship! education! in! the! 1980s.! It! has! been! suggested! that! the! rapid! growth! in! both! entrepreneurship! courses! and! related! research! is! also! linked! to! an! increasing! political! focus! on! entrepreneurship! in! the! wider! economy! driven! by! government! interventions! N!
35
encouraging! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! to! stimulate! economic! growth! and! international! competitiveness! in! light! of! major! economic! downturns! (Collins! et! al,! 2004W! Armstrong,! 2005aW!AHSE,! 2009).! Since! the! UK! Conservative! government’s! Enterprise! in! Higher! Education! initiative! of! the! 1980s,! HEIs! have! increasingly! been! tasked! with! preparing! graduates! for! employment! (Mackney,! 1995).! ! However,! a! focus! on! meeting! employers'! needs! has! developed! to! include! an! emphasis! on! equipping! graduates! to! become! ‘entrepreneurial’! (Brown,! 2004W! Armstrong,! 2005a)! with! a! view! to! creating! innovative! and! ! highNgrowth! graduate! businesses! (Galloway! and! Brown,! 2002W! Universities!UK,!2002).!!In!this!respect!policy!can!be!seen!as!a!driver!for!the!introduction! of!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!throughout!the!HE!curriculum!in!an!attempt!to!support! graduate!employment.!As!it!is!suggested!that!graduates!cannot!necessarily!expect!to!gain! employment!in!a!highly!competitive!graduate!job!market!(Moreland,!2006)!it!is!incumbent! upon!HEIs!to!‘give’!students!the!skills!to!employ!themselves!and/or!help!them!to!compete! with!other!graduates!in!similar!situations.!!
Whilst!some!have!argued!that!it!is!naive!to!expect!graduates!to!be!in!the!position!to!create! their!own!businesses!on!graduation!(Wilson!et!al,!2003)!and!others!believe!that!women!do! not!necessarily!become!more!careerNorientated!because!they!are!better!qualified!(Hakim,! 2000)! across! European! HEIs,! male! graduates! are! twice! as! likely! as! their! female! counterparts!to!have!set!up!a!business!within!4!years!of!graduation!(Martinez!et!al,!2007).! Harding! (2007)! also! found! that! female! graduates! were! less! likely! than! their! male! counterparts! to! be! in! the! early! stages! of! entrepreneurial! activity,! reflecting! differences! between!men!and!women!in!the!UK!population!generally,!suggesting!that!'women!are!less! confident!than!men,!even!though!their!qualifications...are!similar’!(p.14).!Given!arguments! that! exposure! to! entrepreneurship! education! and! support! has! a! positive! impact! on! the! entrepreneurial!intentions!of!female!students!(Chowdhury!and!Endres,!2005),!that!there!is! a! push! to! embed! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! a! wider! range! of! subject! areas!(EC,!2008)!and!that!women!now!account!for!more!than!50%!of!those!entering!HE! (Leathwood! and! Read! 2009,! GlazerN! Raymo,! 2008)! we! would! expect,! all! things! being! equal,! to! see! the! gender! disparity! of! graduate! entrepreneurship! lessen! over! time.! However,!although!there!has!been!a!sixNfold!increase!in!graduate!selfNemployment!since! 1996!(Broad,!2007),!male!graduates!are!still!more!likely!than!their!female!counterparts!to! pursue!entrepreneurship!(Connolly!et!al,!2003W!Martinez,!et!al!2007W!Harding,!2007).!One! could! argue,! in! line! with! explorations! of! gendered! structure! and! agency,! that! institutional! and!staff!approaches!to!the!development,!teaching!and!learning!around!entrepreneurship!
36
and! enterprise! might! play! some! part! in! this! disparity,! but! a! traditionally! genderNneutral! approach!makes!this!difficult!to!investigate!based!on!current!research.!!!
The!interest!of!UK!government!agencies!in!the!promotion!and!support!of!entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! for! HE! students! suggests! political! drivers! for! entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!generally!which!impact!on!HE!(Mackney,!1995W!Armstrong,!2005a,!2005b).! This!is!reflected!in!the!various!government!reviews!and!reports!on!how!HE!and!education! generally! can! support! the! wider! economic! goals! of! government! (Huggins! and! Williams,! 2007).!Policy!interventions!have!been!driven!by!the!Treasury,!the!Small!Business!Service,! the! Department! for! Culture,! Media! and! Sport,! the! Department! for! Education! and! Skills! (Broad,!2007)!and,!since!the!Dearing!Report!(1997),!!the!role!of!HE!within!the!economy,! and! in! supporting! graduate! employability,! has! been! emphasised.! The! Davies! Review! (2002),! although! not! specifically! focused! on! HE,! set! out! the! foundations! of! the! government's!response!to!enterprise!education!in!schools!and!colleges!and!its!importance! to!the!UK!economy!suggesting!that!‘young!people!seeking!work!in!the!future!are!likely!to! need! to! be! more! flexible! and! entrepreneurial! in! their! attitudes.’! (2002,! p.7).! ! In! this! case! enterprise! is! clearly! linked! with! ‘business’! partnerships,! to! meet! the! needs! of! ‘business’! and! also! the! future! ‘employability’! of! students.! It! also! emphasises! a! reliance! on! quantitatively! monitoring! preNdefined! measures! of! success! and! manifestations! of! enterprise! and! that! ‘it! is! possible! to! define! the! attributes! which! contribute! to! an! enterprising!workforce!and!to!measure!their!achievement!over!time’.!!The!Lambert!Review! (2003)!saw!an!increasing!emphasis!on!HEIs!as!skills!providers,!encouraging!closer!links! with! industry! and! businesses! to! increase! student! employability! and! ! to! meet! economic! goals.! ! The! Lambert! Review! also! supported! the! creation! of! a! council! for! graduate! entrepreneurship! ‘to! encourage! more! students! and! graduates! to! set! up! their! own! businesses,! and! provide! support! to! them’.! However,! it! recommends! a! focus! on! scienceN based! disciplines,! suggesting! that! it! is! particularly! important! for! ‘science! students! –! to! develop! entrepreneurial! skills! to! allow! them! to! exploit...! the! commercial! potential! of! their! work.!(Lambert,!2003!p.!111).!As!a!result!of!recommendations!in!the!Davies!Review,!and! in! light! of! the! emphasis! on! student! employability! in! the! Lambert! Review,! the! National! Council! for! Graduate! Entrepreneurship! (NCGE)! was! established! in! 2004! to! support,! develop!and!encourage!graduates!into!selfNemployment!and!business!ownership!with!its! stated! aims! of:! creating! cultural! change! in! HEW! shaping! the! institutional! environment! for! enterprise! and! entrepreneurshipW! increasing! the! numbers! of! enterprising! graduate! businessesW! and! informing! national! and! regional! policies! that! affect! enterprise! and!
37
entrepreneurship!in!HE!(NCGE,!2010).!!
An! ! increasing! emphasis! ! on! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! education! has! led! to! suggestions!of!a!culture!clash!between!educational!and!entrepreneurial!values!(Rinne!and! Koivula,! 2005)! resulting! in! a! cultural! hostility! that! views! entrepreneurship! as! meaning! 'everyone! has! to! become! a! businessman! (sic)'! (EC,! 2007).! Cultural! resistance! also! questions!the!role!of!business!schools!in!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!and! whether!the!!'business!paradigm'!is!best!suited!to!engaging!students!(Gibb,!1998W!Kirby,! 2006bW!Binks!et!al,!2006W!Lobler,!2006),!given!the!increasing!employability!imperative!for! all! students! to! become! enterprising! (Pittaway! and! Cope,! 2007W! EC,! 2008)! whilst! others! have! questioned! the! masculinised! foundations! of! the! traditional! business! school! curriculum! and! its! tendency! to! '! train! nascent! entrepreneurs! for! a! male,! profitNorientated,! growth! orientated! economic! entity'! (Greer! and! Greene,! 2003! p.! 16).! ! This! drive! to! reposition! entrepreneurship! education! has! led! to! increasing! attempts! to! embed! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! across! the! HE! curriculum,! in! disciplines! that! have!not!traditionally!had!a!formal!enterprise,!entrepreneurship!or!business!focus!(Hynes,! 1996W!Streeter!et!al,!2004W!Shinnar!et!al,!2009)>!These!include!disciplines!such!as!music! and! the! performing! arts! (Brown,! 2004W! Beckman,! 2007),! science! and! technology!! (Galloway! and! Brown,! 2002W! Seigel! and! Phan,! 2004),! engineering! (Hynes,! 1996W! Creed,! et! al! 2002),! computing! (Vij! and! Ball,! 2010)! and! nursing! (Roberts,! 2009).! ! Other! debates! concern! the! relative! merits! of! ! teaching! 'for'! or! ! 'about'! ! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! (Gorman!et!al,!1997W!Gibb,!2002W!Henry!et!al,!2003W!Kirby,!2004W!Muir!and!Edwards,!2006W! Pittaway! and! Cope,! 2007)! and! whether! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! can! indeed! be! taught! (Kantor,! 1988W! Hynes,! 1996W! Gorman! et! al,! 1997W! Henry! et! al,! 2005W! ! Hannon,! 2006).! However,! ! most! authors! agree! that! entrepreneurship! can! be! taught! 'or! at! least! encouraged! by! entrepreneurship! education'! (Gorman! et! al,! 1997! p.! 63)! with! Kuratko! (2005)!arguing!that!this!debate!is!now!obsolete,!and!Greene!and!Rice!(2007)!suggesting! we! move! to! questions! around! 'what',! ! 'how'! and! 'why'! in! engaging! students! in! entrepreneurship! education.! ! ! Another! increasingly! apparent! focus! is! on! developing! entrepreneurial! mindsets! (Gibb,! 2005W! EC,! 2006W! EC,! 2008)! and! a! drive! for! ! students! to! 'feel!the!concept!rather!than!just!learn!it'!(Gibb,!1998).!However,!with!such!instability!and! contestation! around! who! or! what! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! is! 'about'! and! with! its! tendency! to! privilege! traditionally! masculinised! behaviours! and! attitudes! some! (including! myself)!argue!there!is!a!danger!that,!in!seeking!to!encourage!an!entrepreneurial!!mindset! we!are!encouraging!students!to!internalise!and!develop!a!masculinised!set!of!behaviours!
38
and! attributes! (Jones,! 2010a,! Jones! 2011).! The! ! mainstream! literature,! in! its! acknowledgement!of!the!importance!of!!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!for!all! HE! students! is! silent! on! the! potential! gendering! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! there! is! little! engagement! with! the! contestation! and! instabilities! around! 'what'! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! 'is'! (Pittaway! and! Cope,! 2007)! and! how! this! might! inform! the! process! of! embedding! 'it'! within! different! disciplines,! particularly! within! disciplines!traditionally!positioned!as!'masculine'!!or!'feminine'.!!
A! notable! silence! exists! around! the! role! of! staff! as! arbitrators! and! negotiators! of! the!! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! curriculum! (Jones,! 2009b).! In! reviewing! the! literature! I! found! only! four! pieces! focused! on! the! attitudes! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! educators!towards!their!subject!and!their!role!in!shaping!the!curriculum:!a!book!chapter!by! Ehrensal! (2001)! and! three! papers:! one! by! Fiet! (2001),! one! by! Bennett! (2006)! –! suggesting! his! as! the! first! study! of! this! nature! N! ! and! one! by! Mckeown! et! al! (2006)! measuring! staff! attitudes! and! approaches! to! teaching! entrepreneurship,! enterprise! and! businessNrelated!courses!across!123!UK!HEIs.!!Bennett!and!Mckeown!et!al's!research!is! surveyNbased! and! lacking! in! situated,! qualitative! data! and! so! the! exploration! of! staff! attitudes!and!beliefs!around!the!subject!and!its!influence!on!their!approach!to!teaching!is! somewhat!lacking.!Ehrensal!(2001)!utilises!Pierre!Bourdieu's!idea!of!symbolic!violence!to! explore!the!hidden!curriculum!in!undergraduate!Business!education!and!is!the!only!piece! that!voices!personal!struggles!within!a!business!school!environment!and!concerns!about! how! the! institutional! and! personal! authority! of! educators! combine! to! reproduce! and! impose! 'cultural! arbitraries'.! Bennett! (2006,! p.! 9)! highlights! the! personal! investment! of! educators,!identifying!‘substantial!connections’!between!a!lecturer's!prior!experiences!and! their!‘interpretation!of!the!nature!of!entrepreneurship!and!how!best!to!teach!the!subject’,! suggesting!an!emphasis!on!personal!experience!rather!than!engagement!with!theoretical! debates! or! historical! accounts! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! in! HE.! McKeown! et! al! (2006)! found! that,! despite! an! apparent! emphasis! on! the! need! for! innovative! and! experiential! approaches! to! teaching! in! this! area,! the! teaching! methods! favoured! were! 'surprisingly! traditional'! with! three! quarters! ! 'teaching! enterprise! largely! by! lectures! with! traditional! examNbased! assessment'! suggesting! a! curriculum! that! is! teacherNfocused! and! teacherNled.!However,!they!did!not!consider!'how'!these!teacherNled!approaches!play!out! in!particular!settings!or!how!educators!decide!on!what!to!include!in!the!curriculum.!None! of! these! studies! focuses! on! gender! in! a! meaningful! way,! further! highlighting! a! genderN neutral! approach! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! research! and! practice.!
39
Mckeown!et!al!(p.!60)!do!suggest!that!'female!entrepreneurship,!ethnic!entrepreneurship! and! social! enterprise'! are! emerging! as! 'key! components'! in! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!but!that!this!has!not!prompted!HEIs!to!focus!on!the!needs!of!these! particular!groups!of!students.!They!conclude!that!future!research!would!benefit!from!more! ‘qualitative!reviews!of!the!“spirit”!of!education!being!offered’!and!issues!around!'whether!or! not...topics! (such! as! female! entrepreneurship)! need! to! be! more! strongly! addressed! in! graduate!enterprise!programmes'!(p.!61).! ! Other! studies! note! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! has! a! lack! of! status! within! the! Academy! (Pittaway! and! Cope,! 2007W! Botham! and! Mason,! 2007W! EC,! 2008),! being!!'delivered!by!nonNtraditional!academics!with!little!interest!in!research!or!a!traditional! academic!career'!and!that!academic!career!paths!within!enterprise!education!are!limited! for! those! seeking! advancement! (Botham! and! Mason,! 2007,! p.! 98).! Botham! and! Mason! further!suggest!(p.23)!that!most!of!the!staff!working!in!this!area!in!the!UK:! ! have! a! nonNtraditional! academic! background! and! are! not! driven! by! a! desire!for!a!traditional!academic!career.!They!often!have!some!business! or! entrepreneurial! experience! and! are! more! interested! in! teaching! and! the!students!than!research.!! ! This! has! the! potential! to! inform! both! the! teaching! approaches! and! the! attitudes! of! staff! and! ! highlights! another! onNgoing! debate! within! the! literature,! that! of! the! seeming! dichotomy! between! an! academic! approach! ('about'! entrepreneurship)! and! a! practical! or! vocational! approach! ('for'! entrepreneurship).! Where! educator! role! is! alluded! to! it! is! often! within! the! context! of! encouraging! staff! to! make! entrepreneurship! education! more! engaging!and!exciting!for!students!(Fiet,!2001)!or!suggestions!that!educators!themselves! are! in! need! of! training! (EC,! 2008)! so! that! they! can! perform! their! primary! function! to! 'transmit!knowledge'!that!builds!'students'!entrepreneurial!mindsets'!(Petridou!et!al,!2009).!! The! role! of! staff! involved! in! extraNcurricular! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! activities! is! also! neglected! in! research,! although! funding! programmes! at! regional,! national! and! European!levels!have!meant!that!graduate!support!in!the!form!of!business!startNup!advice,! training! and! incubation! are! increasingly! offered! by! UK! HEIs! (NCGE,! 2007).! HE! staff! involved!in!formal!and!informal!support!are!positioned!as!custodians!of!knowledge!and!it! is!therefore!surprising!that!so!little!research!has!been!done!on!their!role!as!arbiters!of!this! apparently!crucial!element!of!the!HE!student!experience.!This!suggests!a!lack!of!concern! with!the!situated!and!institutionalised!processes!that!inform!staff!decisions!about!what!is! useful,!relevant!or!representative!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!positions!staff!as!
40
Deleted:'a
neutral! delivery! agents! of! uncontentious,! genderNneutral! knowledge! based! on! a! 'settled'! subject!area.!! ! The!funding!and!policy!driven!nature!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE! and! the! suggested! emphasis! on! 'nonNtraditional'! academic! staff! delivering! practical! experience!has!also!led!to!debates!about!whether!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!can!be! considered!a!'discipline'!at!all!as!it!lacks!academic!legitimacy!and!status!(Kuratko,!2005W! Pittaway!and!Cope,!2007).!!!HE!educators!who!negotiate!practitioner!and!academic!roles! have!been!described!by!Posner!(2009)!as!‘pracademics’!and,!as!educators!who!also!take! on! consultancy! work,! own! their! own! businesses! or! have! close! professional! links! with! external!organisations,!entrepreneurship!educators!are!often!positioned!as!straddling!the! fields! of! HE! and! employment/selfNemploymentW! with! access! to! knowledge! of! the! 'real! world'! that! 'career'! academics! may! not! have,! but! this! has! also! led! to! suggestions! that! teaching!in!this!area!is!not!based!upon!theoretically!firm!foundations!(Fiet,!2001).!This!is! illustrated!by!Ashwin!(2009,!pp.!87N104)!who,!engaging!with!the!work!of!Basil!Bernstein,! delineates! the! positioning! of! disciplines! within! HE! and! identifies! three! approaches:! discipline! as! knowledge/researchW! discipline! as! curriculumW! and! discipline! as! practice.! Ashwin! suggests! that,! within! HEIs,! discipline! as! knowledge/research! is! traditionally! privilegedW! being! controlled,! developed! and! informed! by! the! academic! community,! whereas! discipline! as! practice! is! more! outward! looking,! responding! to! external! factors! such! as! the! employment! market,! industry! needs! and,! indeed,! pracademic! knowledge! (Young,!2008).!The!onNgoing!debates!around!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!mean!that! discipline!as!practice!currently!prevails!as!there!is!no!agreement!within!the!UK!HE!sector! on!curriculum!or!knowledge/research!base,!resulting!in!variances!between!HEIs!(Pittaway! and!Cope,!2007W!Hannon,!2006,!McKeown!et!al,!2006).!!Entrepreneurship!and!enterprise! is! also! a! form! of! discipline! as! practice! in! that! it! is! commonly! linked! to! a! broad! range! of! skills!and!competencies!(Katz,!2003)!that!can!be!embedded!within!a!variety!of!formal!and! informal! educational! contexts! (Gibb,! 2005W! Hermann,! 2008W! Chell,! 2008).! This! can! also! lead! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! being! perceived! as! a! ‘generic’! subject,! open! to! the! individual! interpretation! and! application! of! individual! educators.! Ashwin!(2009,!p.94)!suggests!that:! ! where! the! voice! of! a! discipline! is! very! weak,! there! are! generic! modes! that! are! focused! on! developing! 'trainability'! in! students...(that)! simply! respond! to! themselves! and! are! focused! on! the! changing! demands! of! technology,!organisations!and!the!market.! !
41
However,!in!focusing!on!'trainability'!and!in!responding!to!external!political!and!economic! pressures! there! is! a! danger! of! applying! commonNsense! thinking! and! reproducing! 'takenN forNgranted'! and! culturally! arbitrary! notions! of! entrepreneurship! that! are! external! to! the! academy,! for! example! those! found! in! media! representations! of! entrepreneurship!! (Ljunggren! and!Alsos,! 2007)! or! the! dominant! public! discourses! around! entrepreneurship! (Ahl,!2002)!which!inform!student!perceptions!of!who!is!legitimised!to!'be'!an!entrepreneur! through! a! curriculum! that! potentially! reproduces! these! dominant! and! often! masculinised! discourses.!!Kenway!and!Modra!(1992!p.142)!suggest!that!there!is!a!feminist!imperative! in!revising!the!curricula!to!include!and!value:!
the! range! of! experiences! of! girls! and! women,! while! at! the! same! time! recognizing! that! the! definitions! of! femininity! and! masculinity! which! are! formed! and! promoted! in! (the! curriculum)! should! encompass! a! wide! range! of! possibilities! which! make! (men! and! women)! not! only! “equally! human”...but!equally!free!in!the!public!and!private!sphere.! Although! Kenway! and! Modra! are! discussing! preNuniversity! education,! the! implication! is! that! education! systems! contribute! to! the! closing! down! of! possibilities! for! both! men! and! women! and! that! this! is! linked! to! 'curricula! steeped! in! AngloNSaxon,! middle! class,! male! values! which! deny! multiple! aspects! of! (students')! home! and! community! culture'! (p.144).! Therefore,! a! consideration! of! the! array! of! staff! experiences! and! attitudes,! in! addition! to!! female! student! experiences! and! attitudes,! is! a! missing! element! in! a! body! of! knowledge! which! continues! to! position! staff! as! disinterested! experts! and! students! as! either! genderN neutral,!or!homogeneously!and!dualistically!male!or!female!and!where!females!are!judged! deficient! using! masculinised! benchmarks.! ! Current! policy! and! research! also! positions! university! undergraduates! as! having! little! experience! or! knowledge! about! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! on! their! entry! to! university,! something! that! Collins! et! al! (2004)!dispute!in!their!research!on!first!year!undergraduate!knowledge!and!experiences!of! entrepreneurship.! ! This! has! the! potential! to! position! women! undergraduates! as! doubly! deficient,! particularly! given! the! wider! gendered! implications! of! HE! study! and! these! are! explored!in!the!next!section.! ! 5.!The!Gendering!of!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise!Education!in!HE! ! higher! education! systems! are! shaped! by! the! society! in! which! they! operate.!(Ashwin,!2009!p.7)! !
42
Evidence! suggests! that! the! experiences! and! perceptions! of! entrepreneurship! developed! at! HE! level! are! an! important! precursor! for! entrepreneurship,! with! selfNemployed! women! being! more! likely! to! have! a! HE! qualification! than! female! employees! (Brooksbank,! 2006)! and! selfNemployed! males! (NCGE,! 2006).! This! is! a! neglected! but! important! aspect! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE,! given! that! in! the! UK! women! now! account! for! over! 50%! of! those! attending! university! but! only! 14%! of! UK! businesses! are! owned! by! women! (Williams! and! Cowling,! 2009).! ! An! increasingly! female! cohort! raises! questions! about! how! universities! N! institutions! built! upon! a! masculineNframed! idea! of! education!!N!respond!to!these!changes!and!the!initial!signs!are!not!good.!Indeed,!recent! research! suggests! that! the! rise! in! female! undergraduates! is! perceived! as! problematic! rather!than!offering!opportunities!for!change!(GlazerNRaymo,!2008W!Leathwood!and!Read,! 2009)!emphasising!the!lack!of!capital!accruing!to!female!students!which!can!be!hidden!in! genderNneutral!
approaches!
in!
HE.! The!
prevalence!
of!
genderNneutrality!
in!
entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!is!evident!in!Gorman!et!al's!1997!review!of!the! previous! decade's! literature! on! entrepreneurship! education,! enterprise! education! and! education! for! small! business! management.! ! Gender! or! explicit! mentions! of! male! and! female!students!are!not!apparent!and!there!is!an!emphasis!on!genderNneutral!descriptions! of!potential!'target!audiences'!for!this!form!of!education!e.g.!'students!in!formal!education,! potential!entrepreneurs,!existing!business!owners!and!others'!(Gorman!et!al,!1997,!p.1).!!
Surprisingly,!the!latest!report!into!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!in!UK!HE!by!the!NCGE! (2010)! suggests! that! there! is! almost! gender! parity! in! entrepreneurship! education! engagement! by! UK! undergraduates! (47%! female,! 53%! male).! ! This! figure! is! startling! given! that! so! few! women! compared! to! men! go! on! to! pursue! business! ownership! on! graduation!(Martinez,!et!al,!2007W!Harding,!2007)!and!suggests!that!female!graduates!are! interested! in! business! ownership! but! that! ‘something’! is! potentially! undermining! this! interest!in!women!and!inspiring!and!developing!it!in!men!and!this!is!arguably!linked!to!the! wider!field!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as!outlined!above!and!its!intersection!with! the! gender! polarising! effects! of! education! and! its! impact! on! gendered! job! segregation! (Gaskell,! 1992).! It! is! unsurprising! that! the! wider! socioNpolitical! context! regarding! the! low! rates!of!female!entrepreneurship!and!gendered!job!segregation!should!also!be!reflected!in! the! reported! low! rates! of! female! graduate! entrepreneurship! and! it! would! also! seem! that! the! issues! around! the! historical! gendering! and! social! construction! of! entrepreneurship! extend! their! masculinised! discursive! reach! into! teaching! and! learning! in! HE.! ! Ashwin! suggests!that!institutions!within!a!certain!cultural!context!tend!to!reflect!the!value!systems!
43
and! beliefs! of! that! cultural! context! and! it! would! therefore! be! surprising! if! the! socially! constructed!'masculine!norm!of!entrepreneurship'!(Bruni!et!al,!2005W!Lewis,!2006)!did!not! impact!on!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!within!HE.!!Indeed,!HE!itself!is!built! upon! the! premise! of! men! educating! men! and! has! developed! from! highly! masculinised! historical! foundations! (Rich,! 1980W! Spender! 1980,! 1982W! Thompson,! 1983W! Paechter,! 1998,! Leatherby,! 2003W! Leathwood! and! Read,! 2009)! and! it! is! only! recently! that! women! have!made!significant!inroads!into!the!academy!as!staff!or!students.!!! ! There!is!a!growing!body!of!knowledge!which!analyses!the!gendering!of!HE!and!its!impact! on! both! female! staff! (Hollingsworth,! 1997W! Mariniello! and! Bove,! 1998W! Morley,! 1995W!! RopersNHuilman,!2008)!and!female!students!(Weiner,!1994W!Archer!and!Leathwood,!2003W! Morley,! 2005W! Leathwood! and! Read,! 2009)! engaging! with! wider! issues! of! women's! position!within!a!patriarchal!society!and!!'notions!of!leadership,!superiority,!and!academic! excellence! (that)! continue! to! be! characterized! as! masculine'! (Morley,! 2005! p.229). However,! there! appears! to! be! a! ‘disconnect’! between! research! into! gender! and! entrepreneurship! and! this! wider! body! of! knowledge! around! gender! and! education! in! bringing!together!these!gendered!aspects!of!HE!and!entrepreneurship.!Likewise!there!is!a! lack! of! engagement! with! issues! around! the! masculinisation! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! how! this! might! play! out! within! educational! framings! of! entrepreneurship! and!enterprise.! An!increasingly!female!undergraduate!cohort!raises!questions!about!how! universities!respond!to!these!changes!and!the!relative!value!of!female!student!capital.!!An! undervaluing! of! female! student! capital! is! ! apparent! in! the! tendency! of! mainstream! literature!to!ignore!female!students!as!a!discrete!focus!for!research!or!to!adopt!a!genderN neutral! approach! to! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! that! involves! the! homogeneous! 'undergraduate'.!However,!this!is!not!just!related!to!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as!a! subject!and!is!also!linked!to!the!gendered!development!of!HE!as!a!sector.!
Education's! impact! on! the! gendered! segregation! of! aspirations! is! well! documented! (Gaskell,! 1992W!Arnot! et! al,! 1999W! Hayes,! 2002aW! Reay!et! alW! 2005)! and! how! it! acts! as! a! barrier!for!women!to!move!into!historically!maleNdominated!disciplines!with!higher!earning! potential! (Charles! and! Bradley,! 2002W! Ayalon,! 2003)! and! this! has! proved! resistant! to! change! since! the! 1960s! (Bradley,! 2000).! In! 1986! Hisrich! found! that! women! business! owners!were!more!likely!to!have!a!'liberal!arts!degree',!with!their!male!counterparts!likely! to!have!a!degree!in!business!or!engineering!and!this!reflects!gendered!segregation!within! HE,! resulting! in! a! hierarchy! of! fields! of! study! where! ‘...mathematics,! technology! and!
44
science! are! better! choices! than! humanities! and! social! sciences’! (Ayalon,! 2003! p.277),!! potentially!resulting!in!male!and!female!students!accruing!different!forms!of!capital!linked! to!their!subject!choices.!In!this!way!subject!areas!are!gendered,!with!!'technical'!or!'hard'! science!fields!!positioned!as!masculine!and!areas!such!as!health!and!the!arts!!positioned! as! feminine! (Charles! and! Bradley,! 2002).! It! is! also! suggested! that! genderNtyping! of! HE! disciplines!is!stronger!in!industrialised!countries!than!in!developing!countries!and!that!the! field!of!study!chosen!at!HE!'has!a!greater!selecting!effect!on!the!occupational!positions!of! graduates! in! the! UK'! (Kim! and! Kim,! 2003).! This! genderNtyping! is! evident! in! the! latest! figures!from!the!UK's!Higher!Education!Statistics!Agency!(HESA,!2010)!which!show!that! in! 08/09! male! students! dominated! computer! science,! engineering! and! technology,! physical! sciences! and! architecture,! building! and! planning! while! female! students! dominated! education,! social! studies,! nursing! and! languages.! Interestingly,! the! HESA! gender! balance! for! businessNrelated! courses! is! almost! equal,! making! the! lack! of! female! graduate! entrepreneurship! even! more! puzzling! as! it! has! been! suggested! that! students! studying! engineering! or! business! focused! subjects! are! most! likely! to! consider! selfN employment!or!business!ownership!on!graduation!(NCGE,!2007).!!
There! are,! therefore,! gendered! implications! linked! to! both! the! choices! that! female! students!make!regarding!their!HE!course!and!the!choices!they!go!on!to!make!about!their! career! options! after! graduation.! ! However,! given! the! acknowledgement! of! the! impact! of! gender!within!HE!its!consideration!has!only!recently!been!brought!into!debates!around!the! teaching! and! learning! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education,! arguably! reflecting! the!masculinised,!genderNneutral!approach!to!debates!previously!identified.!Studies!have! mainly! focused! on! whether! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! can! influence! student! perceptions! and! make! entrepreneurship! a! more! attractive! option! to! female! undergraduates!(Peterman!and!Kennedy,!2003W!Wilson!et!al,!2007W!Petridou!et!al,!2009).! However,! few! studies! have! taken! a! feminist! perspective! or! specifically! aimed! to! explore! gendered! dimensions! of! teaching! and! learning! and! how! this! is! arbitrated! by! staff! negotiation! of! the! curriculum! and! female! students'! positioning! within! this.! Muir! and! Edwards! (2006)! is! one! of! the! few! pieces! of! research! in! HE! which! takes! an! explicitly! gender!focused!approach!however,!they!focus!on!masters!students!undertaking!a!course! specifically! designed! for! women! as! 'potential! or! practicing! entrepreneurs'! (p.2).! ! What! is!! notable! about! their! approach! is! that,! not! only! is! their! course! female! only,! they! challenge! the!masculinisation!!of!the!term!'entrepreneur'!by!suggesting!that!female!entrepreneurs!be! called!'entrepreneuses'.!!
45
There! is! an! increasing! focus! on! the! ‘measuring’! of! student! selfNefficacy! (or! selfN confidence)! to! gauge! student! perceptions! of! their! skills! and! abilities! (Chowdhury! and! Endres,!2005W!Petridou!et!al,!2009!Wilson!et!al,!2007),!using!selfNassessment!surveys!to! explore!student!attitudes!towards!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship.!A!reliance!on!student! selfNassessment!in!gauging!abilities!has!been!shown!to!be!flawed!(Sundström,!2005)!and! has! gendered! implications,! with! women! consistently! underestimating! their! capabilities,! and! men! overestimating,! when! given! tests! to! gauge! competencies! suggested! as! masculine! (Phillips! and! Zimmerman,! 1990! cited,! Sundström,! 2005! p.14).! ! Research! suggests! that! there! is! a! male! ‘confidence! bias’! in! these! situations! and! this! is! evident! in! testing! of! medical! professionals! (Minter! et! al,! 2005)! general! knowledge! (Pallier,! 2003)! driving! skills! (Mynttinen,! 2007)! and! competence! in! use! of! IT! (McSporran! and! Young,! 2001).!This!tendency!is!observable!from!a!young!age!and!remains!constant!across!the!life! course! (Pallier,! 2003).! However,! although! these! selfNperceptions! may! not! necessarily! reflect!a!person's!'actual'!ability,!it!is!argued!that!women!are!more!likely!than!men!to!limit! their! ultimate! career! choices! because! they! lack! confidence! in! their! skills! and! abilities! (Bandura,!1992).!The!emphasis!on!measuring!abilities,!skills!or!selfNefficacy!also!suggests! a! primacy! of! individual! agency! that! masks! the! situated,! social! embeddedness! of! people! within! particular! contexts! and! environments! and! ignores! suggestions! that! our! 'control! over...structure!is!not!absolute'!(Chell,!2008!p.54)!and!that!no!matter!how!much!faith!(or! lack! of! it)! we! have! in! our! abilities! we! can! not! simply! ‘think’! our! way! to! freedom! from! the! social!structures!we!are!embroiled!in.!!
Although! government! policy! initiatives! have! been! instrumental! in! the! push! to! embed! enterprise! and! enterprise! education! within! HE,! Pittaway! and! Cope! (2007,! p.48)! suggest! that!the!'evidence!upon!which!policy!is!being!made!is!unsubstantial'.!This!emphasises!the! need!for!more!understanding!around!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!but!also!N! given!that!the!mainstream!literature!is!genderNneutral!N!the!need!for!more!understanding! of! the! needs! and! diversity! of! female! students! in! an! increasingly! femaleNdominated! HE! environment! that! seeks! to! embed! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! nonNbusiness! courses.! This! need! for! a! more! nuanced! approach! is! highlighted! by! Wilson! et! al! (2004)! whose!survey!of!nearly!2000!American!teenagers!found!that:!
AfricanNAmerican!and!Hispanic!girls!were!more!likely!to!be!interested!in! entrepreneurship!than!White/Caucasian!girls.!In!addition,!girls!interested! in! entrepreneurship! were! more! likely! to! be! motivated! in! their! career!
46
choices! by! .social! and! relational! factors,! whereas! boys! interested! in! entrepreneurship!were!more!motivated!by!autonomy.!Financial!gain!was! a!strong!motivator!for!boys!in!general,!and!for!girls!of!color.! ! However,! this! nuanced! approach! to! gender,! taking! into! account! differences! between! women! such! as! ethnicity,! class! or! age! is! missing! within! an! entrepreneurship! and! education! knowledge! base! that! has! only! recently! developed! to! include! a! focus! on! the! experiences! of! women.! Weber! et! al! (2009! p.! 6)! suggest! that! the! effects! of! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!and!its!resultant!impact!on!individual!students! will! differ! from! student! to! student! ‘because! students! have! received! signals! of! their! entrepreneurial! ability! prior! to! the! entrepreneurship! courses! taken! at! a! university'.!These! signals!come,!not!only!from!family!and!peer!groups!or!from!educational!experiences,!but! from! wider! collective! and! gendered! notions! about! the! skills! and! abilities! necessary! to! succeed..! 6.!!
Summary!
!
!
It!is!clear!that!there!is!much!to!be!known!and!understood!about!students’! entrepreneurial!intentions,!what!influences!these!and!the!impact!and!role!of!! HE!in!supporting!their!enactment.!(Collins!et!al,!2004!p.!461)! ! !
This!chapter!explored!developments!in!research!!linked!to!gender!and!entrepreneurship,! gender! and! HE! and! the! policy! drivers! for! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education.! It! highlights! the! lack! of! engagement! with! the! developing! gender! and! entrepreneurship! literature! ! in! mainstream! literature! and! the! policies! which! shape! and! drive! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! UK! HE.! The! chapter! also! identified! some! gaps! which! this! thesis! will! address,! including! the! development! of! theory! in! this! underN theorised!area,!and!the!gendered!accrual!of!capital,!which!Bourdieu’s!ideas!can!help!us!to! explore.! ! The! thesis! responds! to! calls! in! the! literature! for! research! that! harnesses! the!! positive! potential! of! qualitative! research! for! developing! emergent! theory! (de! Bruin! et! al,! 2007W! Cherry! et! al,! 2008W! Gartner,! 2009).! In! addition! it! answers! calls! for! research! which! draws! attention! to! the! unproblematic! masculinisation! of! entrepreneurship! in! current! theoretical! and! political! framings! of! entrepreneurship! education! as! highlighted! by! Ahl! (2004)!and!Marlow!(2002).!In!foregrounding!!the!apparently!genderNneutral!and!takenNforN granted!approaches!suggested,!I!challenge!the!current!emphasis!on!the!individualisation! of! the! 'autonomous! learner'! and! the! responsibility! placed! upon! students! to! 'become'! entrepreneurial! through! the! inculcation! of! a! particular! set! of! dispositions! and! behaviours! based! on! masculinist! theoretical! foundations.! ! I! draw! together! strands! of! enquiry! which!
47
are! ! rarely! combined! ! in! entrepreneurship! education! research! –! namely! educational! sociology,!entrepreneurship!theory!and!gender!theory!and!use!them!to!highlight!and!make! visible!the!roles!and!responses!of!staff!and!students!to!entrepreneurship!education!'on!the! ground'! where! apparently! 'settled'! theoretical! notions! –! such! as! those! around! how! and! what! to! teach! and! that! entrepreneurship! can! indeed! be! taught! (Gorman! et! al,! 1997W! Kuratko!2005)!N!are!!institutionally!negotiated.!!In!seeking!to!make!staff!practices!visible!I! further! address! gaps! in! the! current! literature! around! this! institutional! arbitration! of! entrepreneurship! and! how! this! potentially! shapes! female! student! experiences! and! aspirations.!! ! The! following! chapter! turns! to! focus! upon! Bourdieu's! ideas! of! habitus,! capital! and! field! used!in!this!thesis!to!explore!the!gendering!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education! in! HE.! I! outline! and! engage! with! the! Bourdieuian! concepts! that! frame! this! thesis! and! outline! how! his! ‘thinking! tools’! offer! opportunities! to! analyse! and! unpick! the! complex,! stratified! phenomenon! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HEW! allowing! for! the!interplay!of!agency!and!structure,!the!collective!and!the!individual!and!bringing!gender! firmly!into!focus!in!a!field!that!has!traditionally!taken!a!genderNneutral!stance.! !
!
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! Chapter!Three! A!Bourdieuian!Approach!to!Exploring!the!Gendering!of!Entrepreneurship!in!HE!! 1.!
Introduction!
! Bourdieu! invites! researchers! to! reveal! the! misrecognitions! that! are! apparent! in...! commonly! accepted! terms,! and! to! uncover! both! their! historical!construction!and!present!applications!as!a!way!of!‘breaking’!with! the!dominant!doxa.!(Grenfell,!2009!p.18)! ! ! The!previous!chapter!explored!the!literature!informing!this!thesis!and!highlighted!silences! around! educator! role! and! the! mainstream! tendency! to! frame! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! a! masculinised! form! of! activity! and! this! chapter! outlines! how! Bourdieu's! concepts! can! aid! exploration! of! these! silences,! delineating! how! collective! and! individual! notions! of! gender! may! impact! on! teaching! and! learning! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! in! HE.! I! also! outline! my! understanding! of! Bourdieu’s! concepts! in! theorising! gendered!responses!to!the!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!curriculum!and!engage!with! other! Bourdieu! informed! educational! and! feminist! research! to! ‘think! through! gender’! (Skeggs,!2004,!p.!25)!and!how!the!interplay!of!habitus,!capital!and!field!inform!collective! and! individual! practices! in! HE.! In! doing! so! I! acknowledge! the! potential! that! Bourdieu's! concepts! offer! for! new! ways! of! understanding! institutional! approaches,! teaching! and! learning! and! staff! and! female! students'! positioning! as! interNrelated! dimensions! of! this! particular! field! whilst! circumventing! the! potential! for! staff! and! student! experience! to! become! 'trapped'! in! individual! subjectivities! or! for! entrepreneurship! educators! or! female! students!to!be!constructed!as!a!homogeneous!'species'!(James,!1998).! ! 2.!
An!Overview!of!Bourdieuian!Concepts!used!in!this!Thesis!
! Bourdieu's!perspective...offers!the!ideal!framework!for!theorizing!about!the! way! in! which! social,! cultural! and! material! forces! intersect! to! produce! particular!types!of!social!action.!(Elam,!2008!p.!18)! ! ! The!main!Bourdieuian!concepts!informing!this!thesis!are!habitus,!capital!and!field!as!they!
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relate!to!teaching!and!learning!in!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE.!How! the! interaction! of! these! inform! and! shape! institutional! and! individual! practicesW! the! congruence! of! individual! aspirations! and! societal! expectations! as! they! relate! to! how! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!is!presented!in!HEW!and!how!these!factors!may!influence! educator! approaches! to! the! subject! within! nonNbusiness! courses! and! female! undergraduates’!perceptions!of!themselves!as!entrepreneurial.!Many!feminist!and!gender! focused!researchers!have!engaged!with!Bourdieu’s!work!(Moi!1991,!1999W!Lawler,!2004W! Reay!2004aW!Reay,!2004bW!!Arneil,!2006)!including!some!exploring!gender!and!education!(! Reay,! 1995W! Horvat,! 2003)! gender! and! employment! (Hakim! 2000W! Brynin,! 2002W! Armstrong,! 2006)! and! gender! and! entrepreneurship! (Connolly! et! al,! 2003W! Carter! and! Shaw,! 2006W! ! Lam! et! al,! 2007W! Elam,! 2008).! McCall! (1992! p.! 837)! suggests! that,! in! common!with!feminist!analyses!of!the!social!order,!Bourdieu!!recognises!'that!theoretical! narratives! and! political! programmes! are! themselves! embedded! in! social! relations'! and! that!engagement!with!his!work!can!'enhance!feminist!positions'.!The!!main!appeal!of!his! approach! for! me! is! its! nonNdualistic! and! antiNessentialist! nature,! emphasised! by! his! arguments!that!individual!and!collective!notions!should!be!viewed!as!interrelated!and!not! mutually! exclusive,! allowing! these! symbiotic! relationships! to! be! acknowledged! and! explored!(Bourdieu,!1991)!within!a!social!order!where!the!personal!and!the!collective!are! intertwined! and! in! constant! negotiation! rather! than! separate! and! in! constant! opposition! (Bourdieu,!1998).!!!
For!example,!collective!notions!of!women!and!work!have!changed!as!more!women!have! entered! the! workforce,! with! flexible! working! and! family! friendly! initiatives! such! as! the! provision! of! local! and! affordable! child! care! placed! firmly! on! the! agenda! by! a! workforce! that!employs!more!and!more!women!(Hakim,!2000W!Carter!and!Marlow,!2003W!Armstrong,! 2006).!Indeed,!'takenNforNgranted'!notions!of!who!can!work!N!!i.e.!only!men!(regardless!of! their!marital!or!parental!status)!or!single,!childless!women!N!have!changed!over!time!and! one!could!argue!this!has!been!in!response!to!the!visibility!of!women!in!public!life!and!to! the! widening! ‘role! array’! available! to! both! men! and! women.! ! As! more! women! become! involved! in! ‘nonNtraditional’! careers! such! as! business! ownership,! science,! IT! etc.! ! this! acceptance!of!the!‘commonNsense’!can!become!strained,!leading!us!to!question!just!how! ‘natural’! the! sexually! ordered! social! order! really! is,! as! the! lack! of! fit! between! habitus,! capital!and!field!is!highlighted.!!!It!could!therefore!be!argued!that!the!individual!aspirations! and! dispositions! of! working! women! have! changed! collective! ideas! about! women's! employment! because! of! the! lack! of! fit! between! the! field! (the! world! of! work)! and! the!
50
individual’s! habitus! and! experience! of! that! lack! of! fit! N! the! ‘struggle! of! the! social! space’.!! Maton! (2004a,! p.39)! suggests! the! practical,! dayNtoNday! outcome! of! this! is! that! it! encourages!stances!of!'positionNtaking'!linked!to!the!habitus!which!are!strategies!used!by! agents!to!maximise!their!capital.!!Maton!goes!on!to!suggest!that!‘the!field!exerts!a!power! of!its!own!over!agents!by!helping!to!shape!practice!occurring!within!it'!and!this!research! seeks!to!explore!the!structures!and!discourses!that!shape!practices!in!the!field!of!HE.!The! gendered! implications! of! this! are! explored,! particularly! the! choices,! or! 'positionNtakings'! that! female! undergraduates! make! around! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! where! they!place!themselves!within!the!discourses!that!they!encounter.!! 3.!
Habitus!and!Capital:!The!Gendering!of!Social!Categories!!!!
! ...two! crucial! components! of! Bourdieu's! conceptual! apparatus,! capital! and! habitus,! speak! to! a! recurrent! and! puzzling! feature! of! gender! relationsW! the! persistence! of! nearly! universal! and! binary! gender! stratification! accompanied! by! varieties! and! multiplicities! of! gendered! identity!in!practice.!(McCall,!1992!p.!839)! ! ! It! may! seem! odd,! having! previously! acknowledged! that! a! Bourdieuian! approach!! circumvents! essentialism,! to! now! discuss! the! concept! of! a! gendered! habitus! but,! as! Bourdieu!and!others!have!theorised,!this!is!entirely!possible!given!his!!nonNdualistic!and! relational!approach!(McCall,!1992W!Moi,!1999W!Sayer,!2005).!If!we!view!gender!as!a!social! construct! N! ! underpinned! by! a! particular! society’s! expectations! and! ideals! concerning! masculine! and! feminine! behaviours! N! then! it! follows! that! this! gendered! social! order! informs!the!development!of!individual!and!collective!forms!of!gendered!habitus!(Bourdieu,! 1986).!!It!is!not!necessarily!that!all!women!have!the!same!experiences!but!that!all!women! are!aware!of!collective!expectations!associated!with!femininity!and!that!this!may!constrain! or! enable! their! aspirations! and! choices.! Experience! of! societal! norms! in! our! everyday! lives!leads!to!the!development!of!individual!habitus!but!always!in!relation!to!expectations! of! the! dominant! collective! habitus! and! accepted! social! ‘norms’.! Employing! Bourdieuian! concepts! allows! us! to! explore! gender! as! a! social! construction! and! therefore! men! and! women!or!masculinities!and!femininities!as!being!subsets!of!the!class!system.!Moi!(1999,! p.267)! agrees,! asserting! that! employing! a! Bourdieuian! approach! 'enables! us! to! reconceptualize! gender! as! a! social! category! in! a! way! which! undercuts! the! traditional! essentialist/nonNessentialist! divide'! whilst! Maton! (2008,! p.53N! 54)! suggests! that! habitus! links! the! social! and! the! individual! because! ‘experiences! of! one’s! life! course! may! be! unique!in!their!particular!contents!but!are!shared!in!terms!of!their!structure!with!others!of!
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the! same! social! class,! gender,! ethnicity,! sexuality,! occupation,! nationality,! region! and! so! forth’.!Therefore,!the!concept!of!habitus!allows!us!to!position!gender!within!the!arena!of!! social!mores,!constructions!and!expectations!rather!than!an!explicit!set!of!behaviours!or! immutable!characteristics!related!to!biological!sex.!We!can!then!explore!habitus,!field!and! capital!based!on!this!and!how!education!systems!might!structure,!constrain!or!enable!the! ‘choices! of! the! habitus’! in! particular! fields! or,! as! Bourdieu! (1998a,! p.83)! puts! it,! environments! that! '…lead! women! to! contribute! to! their! own! exclusion! from! the! places! which!they!are!in!any!case!excluded.'!!Elam!(2008,!p.35)!further!suggests!that!this!has!a! direct!relation!to!the!choices!women!make!regarding!traditionally!masculinised!roles:! ! In!terms!of!a!discriminatory!outcome,!women!may!face!strict!penalties!of! legitimacy! in! the! competition! for! maleNlinked! occupational! positions,! particularly! in! the! case! of! worldviews,! and! ultimately! practices,! that! contradict!dominant!views.!!In!terms!of!social!action,!the!conditions!of!fit! between! gendered! habitus! and! prevailing! field! definitions! may! well! influence! perceptions! of! opportunities! and! selfNassessments! relative! to! those!perceptions.! ! ! I!argue!in!this!thesis!that!women!and!men!are,!by!virtue!of!socially!constructed!notions!of! gender,! placed! in! different! conditions! of! existence! and! can! therefore! be! said! to! hold! different! class! positions.! The! Small! Business! Service! (2006,! p.9)! acknowledges! the! socially!constructed!effects!of!gendered!habitus!and!capital!on!business!ownership!when! they! state! that! gender! should! ! be! seen! ! 'as! a! process! integral! to! understanding! female! experiences!of!business!ownership.!As!a!consequence,!the!debate!has!shifted!from!early! studies! that! questioned! whether! gender! mattered! within! the! enterprise! context,! to! the! current!focus!on!how!gender!processes!impact!on!the!experience!of!business!ownership.’!! ! My! research! questions! focus! on! the! development! and! reproduction! of! gendered! discourses!of!entrepreneurship,!as!identified!in!the!literature,!!and!where!!policyNmakers,! institutions,! staff! and! students! position! themselves! and! each! other! within! these.! Fairclough!(2003,!p.124)!describes!different!discourses!as!being!‘different!perspectives!on! the!world,!(that)!are!associated!with!the!different!relations!people!have!to!the!world,!which! in!turn!depends!on!their!positions!in!the!world,!their!social!and!personal!identities,!and!the! social! relationships! in! which! they! stand! to! other! people’.! !This! is! the! ‘symbolic! power’! of! the! interplay! of! structure,! social! order! and! language! that! Bourdieu! highlights! (Bourdieu,! 1991)! and! when! this! combines! with! specialised! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! discourses! these! can! mask! the! 'takenNforNgranted'! aspects! of! the! concepts! upon! which!
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entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!is!based.!Of!course,!staff!and!students!are!not! only! exposed! to! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! in! the! curriculum! and! classroom,! they! also!encounter!them!in!their!dayNtoNday!lives,!through!the!media,!through!family!and!peer! attitudes! and! this! also! shapes! the! habitus! or! the! ‘socially! produced! self’! (Lawler,! 2004,! p.111).!! ! In!seeking!to!delineate!aspects!of!habitus,!capital!and!field!at!play!within!the!teaching!and! learning!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!I!also!aim!to!explore!the!interplay!of!habitus! and!capital,!both!the!capital!that!students!and!staff!bring!to!the!classroom!and!the!forms! of! capital! that! can! usefully! be! accrued! and! converted! by! students! within! the! HE! environment.! Bourdieu’s! notion! of! capitals! encompasses! economic,! social,! cultural! (including! education)! and! symbolic! (which! includes! capital! associated! with! received,! or! socially!constructed,!notions!of!masculine!and!feminine!traits).!These!forms!of!capital!are! relational!concepts,!interacting!with!each!other!and!the!fields!in!which!they!are!employed.!! However,! Reay! (2004a)! and! Gidengil! and! O'Neil! (2006)! note! that! forms! of! capital! are! traditionally! theorized! in! ungendered! ways,! ! potentially! masking! the! experiences! of! women.!Although! Bourdieu! does! not! explicitly! gender! forms! of! capital,! McCall! (1992! p.! 842)! suggests! he! acknowledges! an! 'intimate! fit'! between! gender! and! class! such! that! 'gender! roles! analytically! distinguish! class! locations! and! vice! versa'! and! that! there! is! an! argument!for!using!constructed!masculinity!and!femininity!as!indices!of!the!class!structure! or! as! capital.! Skeggs! (2004,! p.23)! agrees,! arguing! that! ‘Gender! operates! as! a! hidden! form!of!cultural!capital,!but!also!as!a!disposition,!an!asymmetric!form!of!capital’!and!she! goes! on! to! argue! 'why! then…! are! not! forms! of! gender! forms! of! capital! if! they! exist! as! indices!of!the!class!structure,!as!capital?”!(p.!23).!For!this!reason!the!gender!capital!linked! to!femininity!is!highly!valued!in!traditionally!femaleNdominated,!and!generally!lower!status! and!poorly!paid,!occupations!such!as!nursing!and!child!care!(Leathwood!and!Read,!2009)! with! the! symbolic! capital! of! femininity! less! valued! in! traditionally! maleNdominated! environments! (Bourdieu,! 1998).! Here! there! is! a! lack! of! fit! between! the! value! of! the! gender(ed)!capital!women!bring!to!certain!social!spaces!or!fields!and!this!can!either!be!a! force!for!change!or!it!can!be!a!force!for!women!opting!out!–!or!excluding!themselves,!as! Bourdieu! suggests! N! when! they! feel! that! what! they! have! to! bring! is! not! appropriate,! appreciated,!relevant!or!worth!the!struggle!(Bourdieu,!1998).!!! ! Gender(ed)!capital!has!also!been!suggested!as!influencing!women’s!business!ownership! and! the! networks! and! support! upon! which! they! can! draw! in! their! early! entrepreneurial!
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endeavours!(Carter!and!Marlow,!2003W!Neergaard!et!al,!2005)!with!authors!such!as!Hakim! (2000)! suggesting! that! the! very! activities! and! occupations! that! people! pursue! influences! their!accrual!of!social!capital!throughout!their!lives.!Indeed,!Carter!and!Marlow!assert!that! the!most!valuable!capital!accrued!is!through!work!experience,!suggesting!that!traditional! male! and! female! undergraduates! (i.e.! those! entering! HE! straight! from! school)! are! in! a! similar! position,! having! chosen! to! study! rather! than! enter! employment.! However,! this! is! not! supported! by! the! gender! disparities! in! graduate! entrepreneurship.! I! suggest! that! an! exploration! of! gendered! accrual! of! the! forms! of! capital! that! students! bring! to! the! HE! environment,!together!with!a!focus!on!how!this!capital!is!positioned!by!policyNmakers!and! educators! within! the! field! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! may! offer! some!insights!into!why!this!should!be!so.!Given!onNgoing!gendered!job!segregation!and! the! relative! lack! of! status! accorded! to! traditionally! ‘feminine’! roles! it! seems! that! the! decisions! graduates! make! about! their! chosen! course! of! HE! study! and! their! resulting! career! options! can! seriously! affect! their! professional! progress! after! graduation! and! this! can!have!a!gendered!effect!that!undermines!female!graduate!success!with!lack!of!status! and! poorly! paid,! partNtime! jobs! seen! as! somehow! ‘natural’! for! women! (Leathwood! and! Read,! 2009).! For! example! the! caring! professions! are! framed! as! an! area! that! women! naturally!excel!in!and!as!they!require!a!nurturing!role!that!comes!‘naturally’!women!do!not! need!to!‘work!hard’!as!these!approaches!come!easily!to!them!and!are!indeed!part!of!their! traditional!role!outside!of!the!field!of!employment!and!this!is!linked!to!issues!of!poor!pay! for!those!in!roles!traditionally!viewed!as!‘women’s!work’!whether!they!are!male!or!female.! This! is! ultimately! a! manifestation! of! symbolic! misrecognition! and! where! it! becomes! damaging! and! symbolically! violent! is! in! the! convertibility! of! forms! of! gendered! capital! to! legitimacy!and!viceNversa!(Elam,!2008).!As!Skeggs!(2004,!p.24)!suggests:! ! men!are!able!to!turn!the!use!of!feminine!dispositions!to!their!advantage! in!a!way!that!women!cannot!because!they!are!perceived!to!have!those! dispositions!‘naturally’.!Even!though!femininity!is!symbolically!ubiquitous,! it!is!not!symbolically!dominant!in!the!same!way!as!particular!versions!of! masculinity…!rarely!operating!as!symbolic!capital!(except!when!used!by! men! and! when! it! amalgamates! with! other! dispositions! of! privilege! and! power).! ! Likewise,!in!encouraging!women!to!become!'honorary!men'!(Marlow,!2002)!in!order!to!be! successful! in! masculinised! roles! such! as! entrepreneurship,! women! have! to! adopt! and! accrue! symbolically! dominant! masculinised! forms! of! habitus! and! capital! in! order! to! gain! 'legitimacy'!and!acceptance!as!successful!entrepreneurs!(Marlow!and!Patton,!2005W!Elam,! 2008).! This! suggests! that,! for! women,! feminine! gendered! capital! is! not! profitable!
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regardless!of!whether!it!is!brought!it!into!'play'!within!entrepreneurship!or!not,!as!women! are! consistently! judged! in! relation! to! a! masculinised! norm! (Lewis,! 2006).! In! this! respect! gender! capital! can! be! seen! as! asymmetric! when! applied! to! the! more! valourised,! sought! after!and!high!status!roles!in!society!which!are!often!positioned!as!requiring!masculinised! skills! and! attributes,! as! suggested! by! Bourdieu! (1998).! He! describes! the! impact! of! symbolically!dominant!forms!of!masculinity!thus:! ! The!dominated!apply!categories!from!the!point!of!view!of!the!dominant!to! the! relations! of! domination,! thus! making! them! appear! as! natural.! This! can!lead!to!a!kind!of!systematic!selfNdeprecation,!even!selfNdenigration...! (Bourdieu,!2004!p.!339)! ! This! could! also! be! argued! as! leading! to! a! discourse! of! female! deficit! suggested! in! the! wider!gender!and!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!literature!(Marlow!and!Strange,!1994W! Ahl,! 2002W! Carter! and! Shaw,! 2006W).! ! Bourdieu! suggests! that,! in! order! to! explore! and! understand! this,! we! should! move! beyond! the! dualistic! structure/agency! binary! which! cannot!be!understood!'until!one!takes!account!of!the!durable!affects!that!the!social!order! exerts!on!women!(and!men)”!(2004,!p.!340).!The!asymmetry!of!capital!and!its!gendered! effects!on!graduates!is!further!highlighted!by!Sayer!(2005!p.!78)!who!argues!that!forms!of! capital!tend!to!be!closely!related!for!men!but!are!less!so!for!women:!
for! whom! patriarchal! constraints! can! easily! prevent! them! converting! their! cultural! and! educational! capital! into! economic! capital.! Thus! the! new! generation! of! women! graduates! have! not! had! the! same! success! in! developing!careers!as!male!graduates.!! Mickelson!(2003!p.!374)!suggests!that!Bourdieu's!theory!of!practice!can!help!us!to!explore! 'the! ways! in! which! social! structural! forces! of! gender,! social! class! and! race! influence! women's! (and! men's)! school! behaviours'! and! that! this! is! linked! to! both! internal! and! external! engagement! with! social! reality! and! the! 'objective! relations! between! positions'! such!as!teacher!and!student,!institution!and!teacher!or!between!institutions!within!a!field! such! as! HE.! Hearn! (2001! p.71)! argues! that! these! positions! are! gendered! because! the! ‘cultural! peculiarities! of! academia'! stem! from! gendered! organisational! practices! of! and! within!universities.! ! 4.!
The!Field!of!HE:!Habitus,!Capital!and!Symbolic!Violence!
!
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the!field!of!higher!education!is...not!a!product!of!total!consensus,!but!the! product!of!permanent!conflict...Agents!and!institutions!individually!or! collectively!implement!strategies!in!order!to!improve!or!defend!their! positions!in!relation!to!other!occupants.!(Naidoo,!2004!p.458!–!459)!
For! Bourdieu! the! field! is! ‘a! network,! or! configuration! of! objective! relations! between! positions’!(Bourdieu!and!Wacquant!1992,!p.97)!that!informs!and!influences!the!structure! of!the!social!setting!in!which!habitus!and!capital!operate.!Swartz!(1997,!p.119)!suggests! that! the! concept! of! field! has! several! important! functions! within! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice!and!that!field!analysis:! ! encourag(es)! the! researcher! to! seek! out! the! underlying! and! invisible! relationships! that! shape! action…the! effects! of! class! background,! milieu! or! context! on! individual! behaviour! are! never! direct! for! BourdieuW! rather! they! are! always! mediated! through! the! structure! of! fields...! Even! the! seemingly!most!neutral!or!ivoryNtower!cultural!practices!are,!according!to! Bourdieu,! embedded! in! systems! of! social! as! well! as! intellectual! distinctions.! ! As!the!implications!for!practice!of!the!interaction!of!capital!and!habitus!are!field!dependent! it! is! important! to! delineate! the! specific! field! of! interaction! (Horvat,! 2003)! and! the! power! dynamics,! hierarchies! and! 'rules! of! the! game'! suggested! within! a! particular! fieldW! an! approach! to! HE! research! that! illuminates! rather! than! obscures! HE! as! a! social! structure! (Maton,! 2004a).! ! In! this! thesis! the! field! of! interaction! is! HE! and! Maton! (2005! p.688)! suggests! that! Bourdieu's! theory! of! practice! offers! opportunities! for! enabling! the! ’! irreducible! ! social! structure! of! ! Higher! Education! to! be! seen! as! an! object! of! study! in! its! own! right',! that! the! notion! of! the! concept! of! a! field! is! that! it! is! ! 'relatively! autonomous'! (Maton,! 1999)! and! that! 'autonomy! is! a! key! focus! of! struggles! among! agents! both! within! and! beyond! the! field'! (Maton,! 2005! p.696)! and! this! has! implications! for! investigating! collective! and! individual! responses! to! the! external! and! internal! structures! that! shape! practice! in! any! given! setting.! Educators! and! students! are! not! only! positioned! within! the! wider!field!of!HE,!but!must!also!work!to!the!internal!frameworks,!agendas!and!practices!of! their! individual! HEIs.! Different! institutional! approaches! are! argued! by! authors! such! as! Naidoo!(2004)!and!Reay!et!al,!(2001,!2005)!as!reflecting!a!form!of!institutional!habitus!i.e.! a! ‘set! of! dispositions! (that)! are! capable! of! generating! behaviours’! (Bourdieu,! 2005,! p.8).!! Ashwin!(2009,!p.112)!suggests!that!institutional!habitus:! ! is!developed!in!relation!to!each!institution’s!position!in!the!field!of!higher! education.! ! Thus! the! sorts! of! capital! that! different! institutions! are!
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attempting!to!maintain!or!develop!will!inform!institutional!notions!of!what! is!‘reasonable'.! ! Bourdieu! identifies! the! capital! accruing! through! the! formalisation! of! embodied! and! 'objective'! cultural! capital! gained! through! education! as! institutional! capital! (Edwards,! 2008)! and! this! thesis! explores! institutional! habitus! and! capital! in! light! of! the! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!curriculum!and!the!institutionalised!capital!it!is!suggested! students! will! gain! from! both! their! course! of! study! and! from! their! engagement! with! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise.! Institutional! habitus,! like! individual! habitus! is! historical! and!established!over!time!(Reay!et!al,!2001)!reflecting!'the!impact!of!a!cultural!group!or! social!class!on!an!individual's!behaviour!as!it!is!mediated!through!an!organisation'!(Reay! et! al,! 2005! p.36),! once! again! emphasising! the! interplay! of! external! and! internal! social! reality!within!the!field!of!HE.!Reay!et!al!(2005,!p.35)!argue!that!institutional!habitus,!is!‘an! intervening! variable,! providing! a! semiNautonomous! means! by! which! class,! raced! and! gendered! processes! are! played! out! in! the! lives! of! students! and! their! HE! choices.'!
Institutional!habitus!and!capital!also!impact!on!the!sense!of!authority!and!forms!of!capital! accruing!to!educators!working!within!institutions!and!to!students!attending!them,!given!the! symbolic! capital! associated! with! membership! of! HEI! institutional! and! hierarchical! subgroupings!(Ashwin,!2009).!This!means!that!government!driven!HE!policy!(such!as!that! related! to! graduate! entrepreneurship)! will! be! responded! to! differently! in! different! institutional!groupings!as!it!is!‘refracted!and!retranslated!into!the!terms!that!are!at!stake!in! that!field’!(Ashwin,!2009,!p.107).!!
The!misrecognition!of!the!arbitrary!as!'natural'!was!problematised!by!Bourdieu!throughout! his!life!and!this!is!also!evident!in!his!work!on!education!(Bourdieu,!1988W!Bourdieu!!and! Passeron,!1990)!and,!although!!much!of!his!educational!research!!focused!on!the!French! education!system,!it!can!still!help!us!to!analyse!the!social!embeddedness!of!the!UK!HE! education! system! within! wider! social! structures! (Grenfell,! 2004W! Maton,! 2004a).! Two! particularly!useful!tools!are!the!concepts!of!Pedagogic!Authority!and!Pedagogic!Actions,! which! are! an! extension! of! his! theory! of! practice! (Bourdieu! and! Passeron,! 1990).! In! exploring!the!issues!outlined!above!I!focus!on!how!the!HE!educator!and!their!pedagogic! authority! and! choice! of! pedagogic! actions! may! inform! ideas! around! entrepreneurship,! what!'it'!is!and!who!is!socially!sanctioned!to!'be'!entrepreneurial.!I!examine!how!educators! may! use! pedagogic! authority! and! pedagogic! actions! to! delineate! an! 'entrepreneurial! habitus'! that! students! need! to! internalise! in! order! to! be! considered! as! potential! entrepreneurs!and!how!female!students!respond!to!this.!Ehrensal!(2001,!p.101)!suggests:!
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! Pedagogic!action!is!delegated!by!those!in!power!to!agents!who!exercise! pedagogic! authority,! the! right! (through! claim! to! expertise)! to! transmit! pedagogic! communicationW! that! is,! deliver! the! message! of! the! cultural! arbitraries.! ! One!could!argue!that!the!‘rules!of!the!game’!or!the!suggested!cultural!arbitraries!linked!to! entrepreneurship!are!delineated!in!the!HE!classroom,!through!course!materials,!theories,! tasks! and! assessment! criteria! presented! to! students! in! modules! and! extraNcurricular! support.!As! previously! outlined,! research! into! selfNemployment! and! business! ownership! has! traditionally! been! delineated! through! male! normative! models! and! based! upon! received! notions! of! what! makes! a! successful! entrepreneur! based! on! the! study! of! male! entrepreneurs! and! their! suggested! behaviours,! abilities! and! character! traits.! This! has! resulted! in! the! 'misrecognition'! of! masculinised! abilities,! behaviours! and! measures! of! success! as! entrepreneurial! (Ahl! 2002,! 2004).! ! Here! the! cultural! arbitrary! has! historically! positioned! entrepreneurship! as! a! form! of! masculinityW! legitimising! the! interests! of! white,! middleNclass! males! as! a! dominant! group! and! this! is! difficult! for! female! students! to! challenge!(Reay,!2001).!Bourdieu!outlines!this!‘primacy!of!masculinity’!(1998,!p.62):! ! The!particularity!of!the!dominant!is!that!they!are!in!a!position!to!ensure! that! their! particular! way! of! being! is! recognized! as! universal.! ! The! definition! of! excellence! is! in! any! case! charged! with! masculine! implications!that!have!the!particularity!of!not!appearing!as!such.! He!calls!this!‘symbolic!violence’!and!suggests!that!arbitrary!and!'takenNforNgranted'!notions! of!gendered!traits!and!behaviours!are!so!culturally!entrenched!as!to!seem!‘natural’.!! Although! I! accept! Bourdieu’s! description! of! symbolic! violence! as! a! real! and! generative! structural! constraint! I! do! not! accept! that! this! is! deterministic,! a! criticism! often! levelled! at! Bourdieu!(Jenkins,!1992W!Reay,!2004a).!Archer!(2000,!p.60)!is!critical!of!suggestions!that! people!internalise!symbolically!violent!notions!and!‘accept’!them,!asking:!‘why!is!it!rational! to!become!reconciled!to!discrimination?’.!!However,!Bourdieu!is!not!suggesting!that!this!is! rational,! only! that! it! is! understandable! given! the! possibility! of! a! range! of! practices! emerging!from!interactions!of!collective!and!individual!forms!of!habitus!and!capital!within! specific!fields!(Bourdieu,!1990a).!Bourdieu!also!highlights!the!effects!of!symbolic!violence! and! how! choices! can! appear! rational! and! preNdetermined! given! the! strategies! employed! through! learning! rules! of! the! game! and! argues! that! as! 'feel! for! the! ! game'! is! based! on! experience!it!can!change!and!adapt!!over!time:!
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Action! is! not! the! mere! carrying! out! of! a! rule,! or! obedience! to! a! rule…I! am!talking!about!dispositions!acquired!through!experience,!thus!variable! from!place!to!place!and!time!to!time.!This!‘feel!for!the!game’…!is!what! enables!an!infinite!number!of!‘moves’!to!be!made,!adapted!to!the!infinite! number! of! possible! situations! which! no! rule,! however,! complex,! can! foresee.!(Bourdieu,!1990b!p.!9)! Indeed! his! theory! suggests! that,! where! the! lack! of! fit! between! habitus,! capital! and! field! becomes!an!obvious!constraint!to!one’s!sense!of!self!and!the!need!for!selfNdetermination,! there! is! a! very! real! opportunity! for! passionate! commitment! to! change.! However,! there! is! debate!around!the!strength!and!fixedness!of!socially!constructed!ideas!and!identities!and! the! perceived! role! of! social! conditioning! in! a! person’s! sense! of! self.! Archer! (2003)! maintains! that! objective! conditioning! is! subjectively! mediated! by! agents! through! their! ‘internal! conversations’! and! I! would! agree! with! this! and! would! aim! at! exploring! and! unpacking! some! of! the! internal! conversations! that! HE! staff! and! female! undergraduates! have!around!entrepreneurship!and!their!position!and!perspectives!on!it.!Bourdieu!himself! has!acknowledged!concerns!about!his!apparent!‘determinism,!totalitarianism,!pessimism,! etc.'!(Bourdieu,!1990b,!p.viii)!but!considers!this!a!result!of!his!concentration!on!‘the!points! of!maximum!resistance’!and!!‘(society’s)!most!trusted!investments’!and!that!this!is!liable!to! provoke!criticism!and!antagonism.!! ! As! a! 'theory! of! structured! action'! (Elam,! 2008)! Bourdieu’s! concepts! allow! for! different! interactions!of!habitus!and!capital!in!different!fields!and!for!different!aspects!of!a!person’s! habitus!or!capital!to!be!rewarded,!denigrated!or!denied,!for!a!lack!of!fit!between!the!agent! and!their!resources!and!the!fieldW!a!lack!of!fit!that!can!result!in!resistance!and!challenge!or! acceptance.! This! suggests! to! me! the! existence! of! continuous! opportunities! for! change! and! resistance! as! well! as! the! potential! for! stasis! and! constraint.! That! is! not! to! conflate! agency!and!structure!but!to!acknowledge!the!possibility!for!negotiation!and!change!in!the! interplay! of! agency! and! structureW! that! they! are! not! in! a! dualistic! sense! completely! separate,!and!eitherNor!but!‘bothNand’,!dependent!upon!the!dispositions!of!actors!that!are! enacted! and! embodied! differently! in! different! fields! due! to! the! capital! valued! and! competed! for! within! that! field.! This! is! congruent! with! Archer’s! idea! of! the! ‘multiple! self’! (2000,! p.66)! and! how! the! interaction! between! habitus! and! capital! can! change! between! different! social! settings! or! fields,! with! certain! dispositions! and/or! forms! of! capital! being! valued!in!one!field!but!denigrated!in!another!(such!as!gender(ed)!capital!accrued!or!drawn! upon!in!traditionally!‘masculine’!or!‘feminine’!jobs!like!engineering,!construction,!nursing!or! office! administration).! Bourdieu’s! concepts! help! us! to! militate! against! methodological! individualism! and! to! circumvent! dualistic! notions! of! the! individual! versus! the! collective,!
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recognising! the! interaction! or! negotiation! between! the! individual! and! their! environment! and!that!in!certain!situations!(or!fields)!the!individual!can!be!the!prime!mover!and!in!others! the!group!or!institution!will!constrain!this!–!what!Bourdieu!calls!'regulated!liberties'!(1991! p.102).!This!is!how!I!use!Bourdieu’s!thinking!tools!to!guide!me!and!I!see,!in!his!theory!of! practice,! a! real! potential! for! societal! and! individual! change! through! interactions! between! individuals,!groups!and!institutions.!!Elam!(2008,!p.23)!sums!up!this!propensity!for!change! when!she!says:! neither! the! habitus! nor! the! associated! capital! structures! are! static! characteristics!of!a!social!system!or!of!an!individual.!Rather!the!habitus! is!a!reflection!of!one's!social!position!and,!as!an!individual!social!position! changes,!so!will!the!corresponding!habitus,!and!perhaps!vice!versa.!! I! would! also! argue! that! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! is! congruent! with! Archer’s! social! realism.!Archer’s!model!of!the!three!orders!of!reality!and!their!forms!of!knowledge!(2000,! p.163)!–!the!natural!order,!the!practical!order!and!the!social!order!–!suggests!a!dynamic! potential! for! agency! linked! to! embodied! and! discursive! knowledge! and! the! potential! for! change!that!can!emerge!from!this!!To!me,!this!bears!a!strong!conceptual!resemblance!to! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! in! its! recognition! of! separate! spheres! of! social! interaction! and! how! agents! may! respond! in! different! ways! according! to! the! habitus! and! capital! that! they!bring!to!bear!on!these.!Archer!(2000,!p.254N255)!suggests!that:!! !! The! latter! two! (practical! and! social)! are! linked! to! our! ‘social! selves’! which! emerge! respectively! through! our! involuntary! embroilment! in! society’s! distribution! of! resources! and! our! voluntary! involvement! in! society’s!role!array.!!However,!they!are!themselves!dependent!upon!the! prior! emergence! of! a! continuous! sense! of! self! and! are! coNdependent! with! the! emergence! of! personal! identity,! which! reflectively! balances! its! social!concerns!with!those!embedded!in!the!natural!and!practical!orders! of!reality.!! ! In!response!to!this!concept!of!the!stratified!subject!I!would!suggest!that!this!is!consistent! with! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! and! the! interplay! of! habitus,! capital! and! field,! with! ‘society’s! distribution! of! resources’! being! capital! and! ‘society’s! roleNarray’! different! fields! with! their! related! ‘rules’! and! notions! of! what! ‘people! like! me’! are! expected! to! do! and! achieve!in!a!given!field.!!The!sense!of!self!could!be!viewed!as!the!habitus!but!also!as!a! site!for!reflexivity!and!potential!for!change!when!there!is!a!lack!of!fit!between!habitus!and! field.! Indeed,! ElderNVass! (2007! p.325)! has! suggested! that! Archer’s! and! Bourdieu’s! approaches!can!be!reconciled!in!research,!arguing!that:!
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the! weaknesses! in! Bourdieu's! theory! of! action! can! be! resolved! by! a! reasonable!reinterpretation!of!the!habitus!that!makes!it!consistent!with!the! emergentist!theory!and!creates!space!for!human!choices!as!well!as!social! influences!on!our!behavior.!! ! Although! I! suggest! that! Bourdieu’s! thinking! tools! offer! opportunities! to! gain! insights! into! the!unproblematised!gendering!of!social!reality,!some!feminist!researchers!have!criticised! his!apparent!genderNneutrality!and!his!androcentric!approach!(McCall!1992W!McNay,!1999W! Bennet! and! Silva! 2006).! McCall! (1992,! p.! 845)! ! further! suggests! that,! in! his! conceptualisation!of!the!embodiment!of!capital!and!habitus,!Bourdieu!does!not!‘take!the! body! seriously! enough'! in! his! lack! of! recognition! of! 'the! real! violence! of! the! crossNclass,! racial! ethnic! and! sexual! hegemony! of! a! dominant! heterosexuality! and! sexual! division! of! labor! that! reduces! all! women! to! sexual! essence! and! careNtaking'.! However,! in! my! initial! reading!of!his!work!I!recognised!the!potential!to!apply!his!theory!of!practice!within!gender! focused! educational! research,! primarily! due! to! its! challenge! to! dualistic! and! essentialist! conceptualisations! of! gender,! education! and! entrepreneurship.! ! Masculine! Domination! (1998),!although!based!on!his!ethnographic!research!in!Algeria!in!the!1960s,!does!serve! as! recognition! of! a! gendered! social! order! and! further! emphasises! how! Bourdieu! conceptualises!symbolic!violence!as!it!relates!to!gender!as!a!form!of!social!stratification,! both!collectively!and!individually.!Others!such!as!Judith!Butler!argue!that,!far!from!being! against! binaries! Bourdieu! has! established! one! with! his! conceptualisation! of! field! and! habitusW! where! field! is! essentially! structure! and! habitus! is! agency,! with! field! ! ‘invariably! procur(ing)! the! submission! of! the! habitus’! (McRobbie,! 2004,! p.104).! However,! in! his! theory!of!practice!Bourdieu’s!intervening!variable!is!capital!and!this!is!where!his!concept! becomes!nonNbinaryW!focusing!on!the!interplay!between!structure!and!agency!rather!than! one! having! automatic! authority! or! influence! over! the! other.! HE! provides! a! site! for! exploring!the!interplay!of!agency!and!structure!and!acknowledgement!that!in!some!areas! of! life! (fields)! structure! may! serve! to! inhibit! or! constrain! agency! but! in! others! the! structures!may!so!conflict!with!people’s!ideas!of!themselves!or!their!aspirations!that!it!acts! as! a! force! for! change.! !Also,! interaction! in! fields! can! help! individuals! to! develop! capital! and! gain! resources! which! in! turn! can! influence! and! affect! habitus! or! ideas! about! what! ‘people! like! me’! can! achieve.! My! reading! of! Bourdieu! therefore! emphasises! the! possibilities! for! change! that! occur! in! the! interplay! between! habitus,! capital! and! field,! where!a!person’s!habitus!or!way!of!being!and!the!capital!that!they!bring!or!seek!to!gain! from! a! particular! field! are! in! conflict! i.e.! there! is! a! lack! of! fit.! Ultimately! criticisms! of! Bourdieu!are!based!upon!the!relative!merits!of!isolated!elements!of!his!theory!of!practice! rather! than! the! interplay! suggested! in! Distinction.! Conceptualising! gender! as! a! form! of!
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habitus! with! related! forms! of! capital! in! a! particular! ‘social! space! of! struggle’! (Shi,! 2001)! affords! flexibility! of! theoretical! approachW! ultimately! allowing! us! to! acknowledge! and! explore! the! external! and! internal! social! realities! of! the! body! in! the! social! world! and! the! social!world!in!the!body!(Bourdieu,!1977).! ! 5.!Methodological!Implications!of!a!Bourdieuian!Approach!to!Research! !
!
As!this!research!takes!Bourdieu’s!theory!of!practice!as!a!conceptual!and!analytical!guide! it! also! follows! that! it! should! also! engage! with! his! ideas! around! methodology.! Swartz! (1997,!p.142)!sums!these!up:! ! 1.!Research!must!relate!the!particular!fields!of!practice!to!the!broader!field! of!power! 2.!Research!should!identify!the!structure!of!objective!relations!between!the!! opposing! positions! occupied! by! individuals! or! groups! as! they! compete! for! …legitimation! 3.! Research! must! analyse! the! class! habitus! brought! by! agents! to! their! respective!positions!and!the!social!trajectory!they!pursue!within!the!field!of! struggle! ! This!research!is!an!attempt!to!firmly!embed!the!students,!staff!and!HEI!studied!within!the! wider! socioNpolitical! and! historical! context! to! 'identify! the! real! with! relationships'! (Bourdieu,1986! p.22).! HEIs,! staff! and! students! bring! with! them! forms! of! capital! and! habitus! and! (explicit! and! implicit)! sets! of! assumptions! or! ‘rules! of! the! game’! regarding! rewarded! behaviours! and! dispositions,! forms! of! capital! accrued,! hierarchies! and! power! relationships.! Using! a! Bourdieuian! approach! can! also! help! frame! ! data! production! if! we! keep!at!the!forefront!Bourdieu’s!equation!outlining!how!habitus!and!capital!combine!with! the! particular! field! to! inform! practice.! This! research! uses! classroom! observations,! document! analysis,! staff! and! student! interviews,! student! drawings! and! responses! to! relevant! course! materials! to! explore! how! the! gendered! habitus! may! intersect! with! class! and!ethnicity!and!how!this!informs!student!ideas!of!entrepreneurship!and!reactions!to!the! enterprise!teaching!environment!that!they!encounter!in!HE.!!This!is!allied!to!investigation! of! the! capital! accrued! prior! to! university! and! attitudes! to! the! skills,! knowledge! and! resources!needed!to!become!a!successful!entrepreneur.!It!also!involves!an!early!phase!of! field!analysis!–!observing!formal!and!informal!enterprise!teaching!situations!to!explore!the! gendered! dynamic! of! this! environment! and! the! ‘rules! of! the! game’! suggested! by! classroom! interactions.! ! Reay! et! al! (2005,! p.27)! suggest! that! using! a! Bourdieuian!
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approach!provides!a!very!different!way!of!working!with!educational!choices,!arguing!that:! ! the!concept!of!habitus!emphasises!the!enduring!influence!of!a!range!of! contexts,! familial,! peer! group,! institutional! and! class! culture,! and! their! subtle,!often!indirect,!but!pervasive!influences!on!choices.!It!foregrounds! the! power! of! implicit! and! tacit! expectations,! affective! responses! and! aspects! of! cultural! capitalW! such! as! confidence! and! entitlement,! often! marginalised!in!academic!research.!! ! As! Bourdieu’s! concept! of! action! is! preNreflexive! and! unconscious,! and! as! Reay! et! al! (2005)! suggest! a! multitude! of! influences,! in! order! to! explore! ! the! lived! experiences! of! students!and!staff!we!need!to!listen!to!them,!let!them!tell!their!stories!and!then!interpret! these!with!reference!to!Bourdieu’s!theoretical!framework.!However,!there!is!a!tension!here! in! the! fit! between! theory! and! practice! and! in! how! research! can! usefully! operationalise! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice.! ! Bourdieu! has! suggested! that! the! habitus! cannot! be! observed!(Reay!et!al,!2005)!and!yet!he!has!also!suggested!that!it!is!difficult!to!‘get!to’!the! habitus! through! interview! based! research! as! respondents! are! likely! to! offer! ‘official! accounts’! (Jenkins,! 1992).! ! This! underlines! the! necessity! for! using! a! variety! of! data! production! methods! and,! as! suggested! in! my! threeNphase! approach,! was! the! reasoning! behind!the!use!of!immediate!and!‘preNreflexive’!methods!such!as!asking!students!to!draw! their!immediate!or!‘takenNforNgranted’!responses!to!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship.!The! ultimate!aim,!therefore,!of!this!research!is!to!explore!the!stratification!of!social!reality!and! how!it!is!arbitrated!by!policy,!research,!institutions!and!agents!within!those!institutions!(i.e.! staff! and! students).! In! order! to! do! this! I! explore! a! social! reality! that! is! both! external! and! internal!to!individuals.! ! 6.!Summary! ! The!analysis!Bourdieu!presents!is!that!the!very!way!we!think!is!a! construction! of! social! background! and! the! academic! system.!! Although!this!'view!of!the!world'!may!! be!arbitrary,!it!has!very!real! social!consequences.!(Grenfell,!2004!p.!71)! ! This!chapter!outlined!my!theoretical!engagement!with!Bourdieu’s!'thinking!tools'!and!how! they! have! guided! my! approach! to! ! 'thinking! through'! gender! and! the! related! 'regulated! liberties'!of!the!field!of!HE,!including!an!engagement!with!criticism!of!Bourdieu’s!concepts.! Bourdieu’s! ideas! support! a! critical! analysis! of! how! institutional! factors! and! the! wider!
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political!and!historical!context!have!shaped!and!constructed!the!field!of!HE!and!ideas!of! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!their!gendered!implications.!Employing!Bourdieuian! concepts!facilitates!the!questioning!of!'takenNforNgranted'!ideas!and!the!exploration!of!the! social!construction!of!entrepreneurship!and!genderW!offering!the!possibility!of!agency!and! change!and!allowing!for!the!fact!that!women!will!interact!differently!in!different!situations! depending! on! the! fit! between! habitus! and! field.! A! Bourdieuian! approach! allows! us! to! simultaneously!take!account!of!the!individual!and!collective!social!contexts!and!how!they! influence! each! other.! Use! of! his! theoretical! concepts! can! help! us! to! circumvent! methodological! individualism! in! research,! particularly! around! the! individualisation! of! entrepreneurship! success! and! the! concentration! on! individual! agency! that! is! currently! prevalent! privileged! in! entrepreneurship! and! education! policies.! This! provides! the! opportunity! to! explore! the! interplay! of! the! individual! and! the! collective! and! the! social! reality!that!‘exists!both!outside!and!inside!individuals’!(Swartz,!1997,!p.96)!and!to!'get!hold! of'! what! Bourdieu! describes! as! the! ‘difficulty! deep! down'! (Maton,! 1999)! in! negotiating! entrepreneurial!discourses.!!! ! In!the!next!chapter!I!outline!my!methodological!approach,!drawing!on!issues!and!themes! raised!in!my!literature!review!in!Chapter!Two!and!building!upon!theoretical!positions!and! concepts! discussed! in! this! chapter.! I! outline! my! threeNphase,! multipleNmethod! approach! which! draws! on! social! realism! and! social! constructionism! to! explore! the! arbitration! and! negotiation! of! legitimacy! and! power! within! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE,!situating!this!within!one!UK!institution!–!the!fictitiously!named!Northfield!University.!
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Chapter!Four! Research!Methodology!and!Methods:!Moving!from!Research!Theory!to!Research! Practice! 1.!
Introduction!
! Following!on!from!previous!chapters,!which!situated!this!thesis!within!its!wider!academic,! historic! and! political! context! ! and! outlined! the! Bourdieuian! concepts! that! guide! it,! this! chapter!presents!an!overview!of!my!methodological!approach!in!light!of!this.!It!discusses! the!ontological!and!epistemological!underpinning!of!this!thesis,!engaging!with!arguments! around! the! appropriateness! of! this! given! the! stated! research! questions! and! aims.! This! chapter! also! locates! my! research! questions! and! aims! within! the! research! design! and! methods! employed.! ! I! also! recognise! the! ethical! issues! and! dilemmas! involved! in! my! research,!both!for!myself!and!for!research!participants,!and!these!are!discussed!in!light!of! my!chosen!design!and!methods.!! ! 2.!
Ontological!and!Epistemological!Foundations:!Connecting!Ideas,!Experience! and!Social!Reality! !
...feminists!can!be!realists!and!realists!can!be!feminists,!indeed!without! realism! feminism! is! vulnerable! to! being! dismissed! as! a! form! of! relativism.!(Sayer,!2004:!online)!!! ! ! When! designing! research! it! is! important! to! clarify! the! ontological! and! epistemological! foundations! upon! which! the! research! is! based! as! this! informs! the! research! design,! the! methods!employed!and!the!knowledge!claims!made!by!researchers.!!Briefly,!this!means! outlining! the! researcher’s! position! on! the! nature! of! reality! (ontology)! and! knowledge! (epistemology).!The!aim!of!this!thesis!is!to!explore!the!social!reality!of!the!field!of!HE,!the! teaching! of! learning! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! and! how! this! social! reality! is! mediated! through! policy! and! research! discourses,! institutional! structures! and! individual!experience.!!In!this!respect!I!draw!upon!a!realist!ontology!in!accepting!that!there! is!a!reality!that!exits!outside!of!the!experiences!or!knowledge!of!the!participants!and!that! this!reality!consists!of!structures!and!mechanisms!(including!discourses)!which,!although! we!may!not!be!aware!of!them!or!could!be!said!to!have!'knowledge'!of!them,!can!and!do! inform! individual! practicesW! in! other! words,! realism! is! about! ‘what! happens! to! people,!
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regardless!of!their!understandings’!(Sayer,!2000,!p.!6).!Bourdieu!has!been!described!as!a! 'perspectival! realist'! (Sayer,! 2000,! p.52! )! suggesting! a! concern! with! the! interplay! ! and! interrelationship! of! context! and! situated! perspectives.! Bourdieu! himself! (1989! p.! 14)! suggests!a!realist!position,!saying:! ! there! exist,! within! the! social! world! itself! and! not! only! within! symbolic! systems…! objective! structures! independent! of! the! consciousness! and! will! of! agents,! which! are! capable! of! guiding! and! constraining! their! practices!or!their!representations.! !! Therefore! I! adopt! the! ontological! position! that,! although! staff! and! students! may! not! be! aware! of! the! structures! or! mechanisms! of! the! social! reality! of! HE,! as! it! relates! to! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!their!enactments!within!their!particular!HEI,!they!can! nevertheless!be!affected!by!themW!that!‘being!is!not!reduced!to!knowing’!(Clegg,!2006).!!I! also!accept!that!social!reality!is!mediated!through!individual!practice!in!particular!settings! and! that! this! mediation! is! partial,! situated,! contradictory! and! complex.! As! Sayer! (2000,! p.5)!puts!it:! ! Realists!expect!concrete!open!systems!and!discourses!to!be!much!more! messy! and! ambiguous! than! our! theories! of! them! and! do! not! consider! that!differentiation!poses!a!threat!to!social!science.! ! This! research! also! draws! on! a! feminist! epistemology! in! its! acceptance! of! the! social! construction! of! notions! and! ideas! in! society,! linked! to! takeNforNgranted,! dualistic! and! essentialist!ideas!around!femininity,!masculinity!and!gender!and!assumes!‘that!those!we! deem!to!be!knowers!actually!do!possess!knowledge’!(Duran,!1991,!p.4).!Feminism!sees! dualism!and!essentialism!as!based!on!socially!constructed!differences!between!men!and! women!that!have!developed!to!the!disadvantage!of!women!(Stanley,!1990).!!!Feminism!is! also! concerned! to! give! voice! to! those! who! have! traditionally! been! absent! from! research! and!enquiry!and,!as!such,!much!feminist!research!is!based!on!qualitative!methods!such! as! interviews,! and! observations.! Feminist! informed! research,! due! to! its! basis! in! feminist! epistemology,! proposes! alternative! theories! of! knowledge! that! legitimise! women! as! 'knowers'!and!question!‘who!has!the!power!to!know!what,!and!how!power!is!implicated!in! the! process! of! producing! knowledge’! (Ramazanoglu! and! Holland,! 2002! p.! 11).! Feminist! research! is! traditionally! viewed! as! the! concern! of! women! and! this! is! problematised! by! some! writers! who! suggest! that! the! gender! of! the! researcher! can! influence! the! research! design! and! conclusions! drawn! (Denzin,! 1989W! Delamont! 1990W! Hammersley,! 1995).! However,! Fontana! and! Frey! (2003)! remind! us! that! this! is! not! only! a! concern! for! women!
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researching! women! and! that! the! implications! of! men! researching! men! and! men! researching! women! have! been! consistently! overlooked,! with! Denzin! (1989,! p.116)! suggesting!that!‘gender!filters!knowledge’.!The!!research!design!is!also!dependent!upon! the!ultimate!aim!of!the!research!N!!is!it!to!actively!identify!‘injustice’,!to!suggest!possibilities! for! change! or! is! it! to! explore! and! acknowledge! the! experiences! of! a! particular! group! of! women!and,!in!doing!so,!to!add!to!the!body!of!feminist!knowledge?!Harding!(1987,!p.188)! argues! that! 'there! can! never! be! a! feminist! science,! sociology,! anthropology,! or! epistemology,! but! only! many! stories! that! different! women! tell! about! the! different! knowledge! they! have'.! ! However,! I! suggest! that! feminist! research! does! have! a! common! epistemological! basis! in! its! acknowledgement! that! women! can! be! 'knowers'! and! that! women's!experiences!in!the!educational!system!are!valid!and!relevant!to!both!mainstream! educational! policy,! and! personal! practice! and! that! systems! designed! 'by! men! for! men'! should!seek!to!take!into!account!how!socially!constructed!approaches!to!education!may! impact!on!women.! ! Feminist! research! traditionally! highlights! marginalised! groups! and,! indeed,! nonNfeminist! researchers! use! similar! approaches! when! working! with! marginalised! people! such! as! those! from! black! and! minority! ethnic! backgrounds,! disabled! people! or! gay! people! (Hammersley,! 1995W! Ramazanoglu! and! Holland,! 2002).! However,! although! a! feminist! approach! apparently! acknowledges! diversity! and! tolerates! debate,! some! writers! believe! that! this! is! not! enough!N! ! with! some! suggesting! ! 'that! (feminism)! does! not! represent! the! interests! of! all! women'! (Desouza! 2002,! p.7),! whilst! others! draw! attention! to! the! white,! privileged,! Western! backgrounds! of! many! proponents! of! feminism! and! question! its! understanding!of!the!reality!of!the!lives!of!women!who!do!not!fit!this!mould!(hooks,!2000,! Oakley!2000W!Weiner!2003).!I!would!argue!that!it!is!impossible!for!each!piece!of!feminist! research!to!represent!the!interests!of!all!women!(just!as!research!on!male!subjects!can! not! represent! the! interests! of! all! men),! and! to! strive! for! this! would! be! to! strive! for! a! uniformity!in!feminism!(or!indeed!reality)!which!does!not!exist.!!However,!the!very!fact!that! feminism! acknowledges! these! debates! and! that! its! methods! and! approaches! allow! researchers! to! focus! on! areas! such! as! gender,! race! or! class! in! combination! with! a! feminist! perspective! is,! arguably,! a! strength.! It! offers! opportunities! for! bricolage! –! ! ‘! a! piecedNtogether!set!of!representations’!which!result!in!emergent!constructions!and!theory! (Denzin!and!Lincoln,!2003!p.!5).!! ! Critics!also!argue!that!feminist!research!is!contextual!and!not!necessarily!replicable!and!
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this!could!be!considered!strength!and!a!weakness.!It!can!be!positioned!as!a!strength!in! focusing!on!distinct!individuals!or!groups!of!women!whose!situation!is!different!from!the! majority! of! women,! encouraging! 'minority'! voices! to! be! heard.! However,! this! does! not! mean! that! diverse! but! situated! perspectives! do! not! have! an! important! contribution! to! make!to!the!body!of!feminist!(or!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise)!knowledge.!!Leading!on! from! these! arguments! is! the! idea! that! feminist! research! does! not! engage! with! the! 'malestream'!and!so!remains!marginalised!and!ignoredW!suffering!the!very!gynopia!that!it! criticises!(Delamont!1990).!One!aspect!of!feminist!research!that!fuels!the!marginalisation! argument!is!the!concept!that!only!women!can!research!women!(Hammersley!1995)!and! some!believe!that!this!is!the!basis!for!its!inability!to!engage!with!the!mainstream!(Oakley! 2000).!! ! Feminist! educational! theory! and! knowledge! is! historically! grounded! in! practice! (Coats! 1996W!Von!Prummer!2000W!Desouza!2002).!!This!is!because,!as!Weiner!(2003,!p.10)!tells! us:! interest!in!a!feminist!pedagogy,!arose!initially!not!from!theoretical!debate! in! education! or! teaching,! but! rather! from! practical! concerns! of! feminist! school!teachers!and!university!lecturers,!wishing!to!address!gender!and! other!equality!issues!in!the!classN!and!lectureNrooms.!! ! This!concentration!on!linking!theory!to!personal!practice!highlights!the!reflexive!approach! to!research!often!advocated!by!feminist!researchers!(Stanley!and!Wise,!1983).!!Allied!to! this! are! questions! of! the! knowledge! making! process! and! ‘who! knows’,! whose! ideas,! insights! and! experiences! are! legitimised! both! within! the! field! and! within! the! research! process!(Ramazanoglu!and!Holland,!2002).!!This!research!seeks!to!give!a!more!rounded! view!of!the!‘world’!or!the!field!that!these!students!and!staff!inhabit!through!giving!them!a! voice! in! interviews! but! also! through! exploring! connections! and! contrasts! between! staff! and! students,! between! students! and! between! the! institutional! context,! the! wider! field! of! HE!and!the!discourses!that!drive!approaches!to!teaching!and!learning.!In!its!exploration! of! the! gendering! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education,! and! socially! constructed! ideas! around! masculinity! and! femininity! which! shape! the! discourse! and! research! in! this! area,!this!thesis!therefore!draws!on!a!social!realist!ontology!and!a!feminist!epistemology! which!acknowledges!the!social!construction!of!gender.!Although!there!is!debate!about!the! compatibility! of! realism! and! social! constructionism! (Nightingale! and! Cromby,! 2002)! authors! such! as! Ahl! (2004,! p.21)! argue! that! drawing! on! both! in! research! is! entirely! reasonable,!because:! !
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Social! constructionism…! is! an! epistemology,! not! ontology.! ! It! says! that! there! is! no! way! to! get! objective! knowledge! about! the! world,! which! is! independent! from! the! observer.! ! It! does! not! claim! that! a! world! independent! from! our! observation! is! nonNexistent.! ! As! such,! constructionism!is!thus!often!compatible!with...!realism.!! ! Indeed! Ahl’s! work! takes! a! similar! approach! to! the! one! that! I! outline! in! this! chapter,! suggesting!an!acceptance!of!the!proposed!methodology!within!this!field!of!research!and! also! that! methods! such! as! discourse! analysis! are! valid! and! recognised! as! robust! and! relevant.! ! Ahl! (2007,! p.! 677),! further! illustrates! the! possible! coNexistence! of! a! realist! ontology!and!social!constructionist!epistemology!when!she!writes:!! ! That! reality! is! socially! constructed! should! not! be! interpreted! as! that! it! does!not!exist,!only!that!the!meaning!given!to!reality!is!negotiable…!It!is! not!eitherNor,!it!is!bothNand.!!Reality!is!socially!constructed!in!a!reciprocal! mode.!!Subjects!are!constituted!socially,!but!they!in!turn!construct!social! reality.! ! Or,! to! put! it! another! wayW! social! reality! requires! a! great! deal! of! maintenance!work.! ! This! also! reflects! my! understanding! and! utilisation! of! Bourdieu’s! concepts,! in! that! they! help! us! to! circumvent! dualism! and! essentialism,! allowing! exploration! of! the! interplay! of! concepts!such!as!structure!and!agency!and,!indeed,!masculinity!and!femininity!that!have! traditionally! been! positioned! dualistically.! But! it! is! not! just! Ahl! who! recognises! that! this! apparent!tension!between!realism!and!social!constructionism!need!not!be!so.!Burr!(1998,! p.15)!suggests!that:! ! since! both! relativists! and...realists! recognize! the! historical! and! cultural! constitution!of!knowledge,!our!arguments!should!not!be!about!whether!or! not!knowledge!can!be!objective!and!unmediated!,!but!how!we!are!going! to!deal!with!and!respond!to!that!epistemological!relativity.!! ! In! keeping! with! my! acceptance! of! realist! ontology! and! a! social! constructionist! epistemology,! I! would! further! argue! that! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! is! congruent! with! Margaret!Archer’s! social! realism.!Archer’s! model! of! the! three! orders! of! reality! and! their! forms! of! knowledge! (2000,! p.162)! –! the! natural! order,! the! practical! order! and! the! social! order! –! suggests! a! dynamic! potential! for! agency! linked! to! embodied! and! discursive! knowledge! and! the! potential! for! change! that! can! emerge! from! this! ! To! me,! this! bears! a! strong! conceptual! resemblance! to! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! in! its! recognition! of! separate!spheres!of!reality!and!interaction!and!how!agents!may!respond!in!different!ways! according!to!the!habitus!and!capital!that!they!bring!to!bear!on!these.!Also,!Archer’s!(2000,!
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p.254! N! 255)! concept! of! social! realism,! a! ‘stratified! view! of! ‘the! subject’! and! the! self! as! combining!‘!the!self,!the!person,!the!agent,!and!the!actor’!suggests!to!me!issues!around! identity,!dispositions!and!human!capitalW!how!we!think!of!ourselves!and!how!collective!and! individual!‘others’!position!us!and!our!place!in!the!world.!! ! 3.!!Working!with!Words:!Qualitative!Case!Studies,!Discourse!Analysis,!Language! and!Symbolic!!Power!! ! The!classroom!is!a!site!in!which!diverse!lived!experiences!and!disparate!! ways!of!being!and!knowing!come!together!to!negotiate!the!sometimes! collectivizing!cultural!practices!of!traditional!education.!! (Alexander,!2003!p.!423)! ! ! This! thesis! situates! the! experiences! of! staff! and! students! within! the! wider! context! of!! institutional!perspectives!and!agendas!which!in!turn!sit!within!the!wider!context!of!UK!and! EU!agendas!for!the!development!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE.!!It! attempts! to! identify! the! themes! and! discourses! in! the! field! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!in!HE,!how!these!work!through!and!become!enacted!and!mediated! by! staff! and! institutions,! and! how! students! respond! to! these! negotiated! and! socially! constructed! ideas.! ! It! uses! a! multipleNmethod,! qualitative! caseNstudy! approach! (after! Creswell,! 1998),! concentrating! on! a! depth! of! focus! in! a! particular! HEI! and! on! the! experiences! of! staff! and! students! in! that! institution! as! they! make! sense! of! entrepreneurship! policy! and! theory! in! order! to! teach! and! learn.! The! caseNstudy! is! a! popular! approach! to! educational! research! which,! according! to! Scott! &! Morrison! (2007,! p.17)! has! overlaps! with! other! terms! such! as! 'participant! observation,! ethnography,! fieldwork! and! life! history'! and! is! ubiquitous! in! the! sense! that! all! research! involves! cases! (Gomm! et! al,! 2000).!As! my! research! is! a! study! of! teaching! and! learning! practices! in! a! particular!context!I!identified!a!qualitative!caseNstudy!approach!as!appropriate!because,!in! line! with! my! ontological! and! epistemological! position! and! my! interest! in! exploring! the! interplay! between! the! internal! and! the! external,! I! was! interested! in! the! possibilities! for! a! caseNstudy!to!act!as!!'mediator!between!the!subjectivist!and!objectivist!approach'!(!Volery,! 2004,!p.791).!Stake!(1995,!p.1)!suggests!that:! ! !..the!cases!of!interest!in!education...are!people!and!programs.!Each!one!! is!similar!to!other!people!and!programs!in!many!ways!and!unique!in!! many!ways.!!We!are!interested!in!them!for!both!their!commonality!and!!
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uniqueness.! ! Yinn! (2009,! p.4)! further! suggests! that! a! caseNstudy! method! is! relevant! where! 'your! questions! seek! to! explain! some! present! circumstance! (and)! your! questions! require! an! extensive! and! 'inNdepth'! description! of! some! social! phenomena'! –! which! is! indeed! what! this!study!seeks!to!achieve.!Case!studies!are!appropriate!where!the!researcher!believes! that! 'contextual! conditions! might! be! highly! pertinent! to! the! phenomenon! ...it! is! also! suitable! for! research! where! they! theory! in! the! area! is! not! well! developed'! (Zhang! et! al! 2008,!p.323).!!The!aspect!that!I!wish!to!explore!is!the!gendering!of!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!education!within!HE!and!I!suggest!that!such!an!approach!aids!exploration!and! analysis!of!the!field,!delineating!the!rules!of!the!game!by!investigating!the!forms!of!capital! and! habitus! suggested! as! necessary! to! ‘play! the! game’! and! succeed! both! in! the! classroom!and!as!an!entrepreneur.!These!are!areas!that!are!currently!underNresearched! and! ! I! use! the! caseNstudy! approach! ! to! illuminate! institutional,! staff! and! student! approaches! and! responses! to! the! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! curriculum! which! are! currently!invisible!in!the!literature.!I!would!further!argue,!after!Bassey!(1999!p.58)!that!this! is! a! theoryNseeking! and! theoryNtesting! case! study! in! that! it! aims! to! produce! 'more'! and! 'less! tentative! generalizations'! –! in! this! case! inked! to! ideas! around! Bourdieu's! theory! of! practice.!It!is!also!a!case!study!that!seeks!'theory!elaboration'!(Lee!et!al,!1999),!a!process! in! which! one! contrasts! preNexisting! understandings! with! observed! events! in! an! effort! to! extend!existing!theory.!! ! Kumar!(2002,!p.31)!suggests!that!caseNstudies!involve!'the!very!careful...observation!of!a! person,!a!situation!or!an!institution'!and,!as!an!exploration!of!staff!and!student!responses! within! a! single! institution! it! is! therefore! a! valid! and! appropriate! approach.! ! Because! it! requires! intensive! and! inNdepth! observation! and! analysis! the! caseNstudy! approach! supports!the!use!of!a!range!of!different!primary!and!secondary!research!methods,!with!an! emphasis! on! ’giving! the! people! of! the! case! a! 'voice'...’! (Scott! and! Morrison,! 2007,! p.17N 18).! ! Methods! commonly! employed! in! caseNstudy! approaches! include! observation,! interviews,! analysis! of! official! documents! and! written! texts! and! the! use! of! field! notes! (Silverman,! 2001).! My! caseNstudy! is! based! upon! identifying,! producing! and! analysing! qualitative! data:! the! spoken! wordW! student! and! staff! descriptions! of! their! experiencesW! analysis! of! policy! documents,! course! materials! and! other! ‘official’! textsW! and! transcripts.! My!field!notes!and!field!diaries!also!acted!both!as!a!way!of!capturing!and!creating!‘thick! description’!of!the!research!setting!(Lincoln!and!Guba,!1985)!and!helped!me!to!reflect!on! and!‘puzzle!out’!what!was!!happening!in!the!setting,!with!field!journals!being!identified!as!
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‘spaces! for! struggle’! (Clandinin! and! Connelly,! 2000)! in! exploring! the! ‘complexities! of! the! singular’!(Pole!and!Morrison,!2003).!!Likewise,!I!used!field!notes!and!journals!throughout! the! research! process,! not! only! to! capture! descriptions! of! the! field! but! also! to! help! me! reflect!upon!my!responses!to!'what!was!going!on'!and!to!‘think!through’!ethical,!theoretical,! technical! and! other! issues! that! emerged! as! my! field! work! progressed! and! I! moved! into! transcribing!and!analysing!the!data!produced.!! ! de!Bruin!et!al!(2007,!p.!329)!argue!that!entrepreneurship!research!generally!should!'draw! on! some! of! the! less! “accepted”! methods! of! doing! research...such! as! content! and! discourse! analysis.....! or! narrative! approaches...’W! all! methods! used! in! this! research.! Multiple!qualitative!methods!are!compatible!with!a!social!realist!ontology!as!realists!seek! to! identify! the! mediation! of! meaning! in! particular! contexts! in! light! of! the! structurally! mediated!relationships!between!institutions!and!individuals.!In!exploring!the!‘connections! between! individuals’! (Hendwerker,! 2001)! we! can! also! identify! how! individuals! are! positioned! within! institutional! contexts! and! the! wider! field.! In! employing! ! qualitative! and! interpretative! approaches! I! am,! however,! mindful! of! Delamont’s! (1992)! warning! of! the! consequences! of! being! too! familiar! with! research! subjects! and! settingsW! I! have! been! 'through'! HE! ! (albeit! many! years! ago! and! in! a! polytechnic)! and! I! have! also! completed! postNgraduate!studies!and!been!employed!within!the!post!N1992!HE!sector.!!However,!by! actively!choosing!to!explore!unfamiliar!discipline!areas!I!hope!to!overcome!some!of!these! concerns.! ! The! disciplines! I! explore! are! unfamiliar! to! me! and! I! envisaged! that! staff! and! student!respondents!would!not!assume!that!I!‘know’!what!they!are!talking!about!and!that! this!would!offer!scope!to!encourage!elaboration!on!potentially!'takenNforNgranted'!aspects! of!their!subject!areas!and!related!teaching!and!learning.!In!this!way!I!sought!to!make!the! field! ‘strange’! and! unfamiliar.! In! order! to! further! overcome! issues! of! familiarity! I! also! needed! to! acknowledge! that! I! am! a! female! student! working! with! other! female! students,! which! also! offers! the! potential! for! overNfamiliarity! and! assumed! ‘shared’! experiences! or! other! issues! related! to! the! gender! of! the! researcher! and! respondents! (Finch,! 1993W! Hammersley,!1995W!Silverman,!2001).!For!some!respondents!the!age!gap!provides!a!point! of!difference,!or!‘strangeness’,!for!others!it!is!their!employment!experiences!in!unfamiliar! sectors!or!their!cultural!or!ethnic!background.!This!was!also!acknowledged!in!my!planning! for!staff!interviews!as,!like!me,!most!have!a!background!in!business!support!activities!and! teaching! around! enterprise.! I! was! able! to! write! about! these! dilemmas,! identifying! and! acknowledging! my! assumptions! and! engagement! with! these! positional! and! power! dynamics!N!and!my!perceived!identity!as!a!white!female!PhD!student!researching!within!a!
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HEI!environment!N!!before!classroom!observations!and!interviews!in!an!attempt!to!reflect! on! how! these! may! impact! on! my! data! production! and! understandings! of! what! was! happening! in! the! social! spaces! observed.! The! choice! of! a! qualitative! multiple! method! approach!!also!seeks!to!address!some!of!the!issues!outlined!above,!to!explore!meaningN making! within! the! field,! how! this! is! ‘filtered’! through! institutional! approaches! and! participant!experience.!My!concern!with!the!analysis!of!documents!such!as!policy!reports,! course! handNouts! and! presentations,! module! handbooks,! etc.! is! aimed! at! identifying! the! discourses!and!mechanisms!that!delineate!the!!field!of!HE!and!structure!the!wider!social! reality!within!which!staff!and!students!experience!the!curriculum.!! ! As! well! as! reviewing! the! wider! historical,! policy! and! research! literature,! the! initial! phase! draws! on! critical! discourse! analysis! (CDA)! after! Fairclough! (1989,! 1993,! 2003),! policy! discourse! analysis! approaches! suggested! by! Brine! (2008)! and! Sunderland’s! (2004)! exploration!of!gendered!discoursesW!influenced!by!the!Faircloughian!sense!of!discourse!as! ‘different! ways! of! structuring! areas! of! knowledge! and! social! practice”! (p.! 43! ).! Critical! discourse! analysis! (CDA)! 'focuses! on! the! way! discourse! structures! enact,! confirm,! legitimate,!reproduce,!or!challenge!relations!of!power!and!dominance!in!society'!(Van!Dijk,! n.d.,!p.353).!In!combining!discourse!analysis!with!Bourdieu’s!theoretical!framework!I!seek! to! identify! dominant! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE,! to! support! exploration! of! staff! and! student! perceptions! of! entrepreneurship,! and! how! responses! to! the! discourses! used! in! the! classroom! might! be! in! tension! with! the! habitus! and!capital!that!staff!and!students!bring!to!this!field.!!I!base!this!on!the!approach!to!CDA! theory! suggested! by! Fairclough! (1993)! which! explores! ‘relational! and! identity! functions’! and! ‘the! construction! of! the! self’! in! discourse.! Sunderland! suggests! discourse! analyses! have!shown!that!discourse!is!gendered!and!that!discourse!analysis!offers!an!ability!‘…to! challenge!traditional!essentialist!and!reductionist!understandings!of!gender’!(Sunderland,! 2004,!p.20).!Sunderland!also!suggests!that!‘when!women!and!men...!are!represented!in! particular! gendered! ways…! CDA! sees! gendered! discourses! as! positioning! women! and! men! in! different! ways’! (2004,! p.21,! author’s! emphasis).! Given! this! challenge! to! essentialism! and! the! positioning! of! women! within! the! field! of! enterprise! education,! it! follows! that! employing! ideas! developed! from! CDA! show! a! clear! fit! with! Bourdieu’s! ideas! on!individual!habitus,!capital!and!field!and!the!broader!concepts!of!gendered!habitus!and! gendered!capital!as!outlined!in!the!previous!chapter.!! ! A! CDA! ‘informed’! approach! is! used! to! analyse! classroom! interactions,! module! outlines,!
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classroom!resources,!policy!documents!etc.!to!identify!discourses!of!entrepreneurship!that! are!negotiated!by!staff!and!students.!This!is!analysed!with!reference!to!individual!staff!and! students! and! how! these! discourses! fit! with! their! notions! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterpriseW! to! explore! where! individual! staff! and! students! place! themselves! within! the! discourses! that! they! encounter! in! HE.! Many! feminist! researchers! have! explored! the! importance! of! language! in! shaping! both! the! individual! and! their! position! in! the! social! sphere! generally! (Spender! 1980W! Houston! and! Kramarae,! 1991W! Tannen,! 1994)! and! in! education!(Spender!1989W!Sunderland,!2004)!and!Bourdieu!(1991)!also!explores!how!the! language!that!we!use!supports!and!reproduces!societal!norms.!!However,!CDA!does!not! analyse!language!and!discourse!in!isolation!but!takes!into!account!the!situatedness!of!the! language! used! and! how! the! ideas! expressed! fit! with! wider! ideas! about! society.! Gunther! Kress!(1990)!points!out!that!CDA!has!an!‘overtly!political!agenda’!and!Sunderland!(2004,! p.!6)!suggests!that!‘Discourses!can!be!seen!as!carrying!ideology’!and!that!an!interpretive! approach!views!discourses!as!‘ways!of!seeing!the!world!often!with!reference!to!relations! of! power! and! domination’.! However,! Dellinger! (1995)! suggests! that! while! most! forms! of! discourse! analysis! ‘aim! to! provide! a! better! understanding! of! socioNcultural! aspects! of! texts,’!CDA!‘aims!to!provide!a!critical!dimension!in!its!theoretical!and!descriptive!accounts! of!texts’.!Fairclough!(2003,!p.202)!agrees!with!this!suggesting!that:! !
! critical!discourse!analysis…!(is)!a!form!of!critical!social!research.!!Critical! social! research! begins! from! questions! such! as! these:! how! do! existing! societies!provide!people!with!the!possibilities!and!resources!for!rich!and! fulfilling! lives,! how! on! the! other! hand! do! they! deny! people! these! possibilities!and!resources?!
! Fairclough’s! 'possibilities! and! resources'! echo! Bourdieu’s! habitus! and! capital! and! the! perceptions! of! ! what! ‘people! like! me’! do.! With! this! in! mind! I! not! only! identify! dominant! discourses!of!entrepreneurship!but!also!how!these!may!be!reproduced!in!the!classroom! through! staff! and! student! representations! of! reality! and! how! this! fits! with! their! personal! sense! of! identity,! their! life! chances! and! their! ability! to! ’reNimagine’! themselves! and! their! positions! and! how! that! can! have! a! meaningful! impact! on! the! fields! in! which! they! are! situated! and! the! capital! which! they! can! accrue! in! those! fields.! This! may! suggest! possibilities! for! curriculum! and! pedagogical! change! to! encourage! not! only! a! critical! engagement! with! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! theories! but! also! a! more! inclusive! approach! which! allows! for! alternative! imaginings! of! who! is! socially! sanctioned! to! be! entrepreneurial.! If! we! take! a! Faircloughian! approach! to! the! use! of! discourse! analysis! in! research! we! can! very! much! link! discourse! development! to! the! realities! of! material! and!
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structural/structuring!elements!of!the!social!sphere!as!well!as!people’s!lived!experience!of! engaging! with! entrepreneurship! and! gendered! discourses.! Fairclough! (2003,! p.124)! defines! discourses! as! ‘ways! of! representing! aspects! of! the! world! –! the! processes,! relations! and! structures! of! the! material! world,! the! ‘mental! world’! of! thoughts! feelings,! beliefs…!and!the!social!world'.!!In!this!respect!discourse!analysis!supports!exploration!of! the! field! of! HE,! allowing! the! analysis! of! language! in! and! about! the! field,! ! to! identify! the! ‘rules!of!the!game’!or!discourses!that!surround!teaching!and!learning.!!There!is,!however,!! no! singular! discourse! at! play! in! any! given! situation,! as! each! text! or! conversation! can! contain!many!ideas,!voices!and!assumptions!about!society,!but!dominant!discourses!can! be! identified! through! analysis! and! comparison! of! texts! derived! from! different! settings.!! Baxter!(2002,!p.831)!suggests!that!these!dominant!discourses:!! ! displace,! suppress,! overwhelm! and! overturn! the! interplay! of! minority! or! oppositional! voices.! ! A! dominant! discourse! serves! to! inhibit! the! possibilities!for!kinetic!interplay!of!diverse!voices,!perspectives,!accounts! and!narratives!representing!multiple!social!groups.!! ! This! is! not! necessarily! a! conscious! act! and! ! Bourdieu! (1977,! p.169)! suggests! dominant! discourses!‘go!without!saying!because!they!come!without!saying’.!CDA!is!also!well!suited! to! a! Bourdieuian! conceptual! framework! because! it! aids! the! exploration! of! how! students! draw!on!individual!and!collective!notion!of!habitus!and!capital,!to!place!themselves!within! institutional!and!societal!discourses!of!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship.!Again,!Fairclough! (2003,!p.124)!talks!about!!different!discourses!as!being:!
different! perspectives! on! the! world,! (that)! are! associated! with! the! different! relations! people! have! to! the! world,! which! in! turn! depends! on! their! positions! in! the! world,! their! social! and! personal! identities,! and! the! social!relationships!in!which!they!stand!to!other!people.!!! This! is! the! ‘symbolic! power’! of! language! that! Bourdieu! describes! (1991)! and! when! this! combines!with!specialised,!official!discourses!from!the!field!of!business!these!can!‘mask’! 'takenNforNgranted'! gendered! constructs.! ! Bourdieu! suggests! that,! throughout! their! lives,! women! and! men! internalise! expectations! related! to! their! gender! and! this! informs! their! aspirations!and!expectations!(1998).!This!internalisation!of!gendered!discourses!informs!! individual! choices! and! shapes! societal! ‘norms’! resulting! in! the! symbolic! violence! of! the! arbitrary! structures! of! society! being! accepted! as! somehow! ‘natural’.! Sunderland! (2004)! suggests! that! power! is! an! effect! of! discourse! and! Bourdieu! (1991)! outlines! elements! of! both!coercion!and!compliance!here,!with!power!being!exercised!through!the!consent!and!
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acceptance! that! this! symbolic! violence! encourages.! Fairclough! (1989,! p.34)! argues! that! the! concepts! of! ideology,! consent! and! power! are! closely! linked,! saying:! 'Ideology! is! the! key! mechanism! of! rule! by! consent,! and! because! it! is! the! favoured! vehicle! of! ideology,! discourse!is!of!considerable!social!significance'.!! 4.!Research!Design!and!Methods!! ! The!issue!is!not!that!'truth'!is!relative,!but!that!what!'rings!true'!emerges! from! the! whole! context,! including! the! language,! the! setting! and! the! implicit!'rules!of!the!game'.!!(Chell,!2008!p.!178)! ! The! aim! of! exploring! both! the! internal! and! external! social! reality! of! gender! and! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! requires! exploration! of! the! wider! historical! and! political! context! as! well! as! a! more! situated! account! of! institutional! and! individual! staff! and! student! experience.! This! resulted! in! a! threeNphase! data! production! design,! with! emerging! ideas! and! themes! being! developed! and! further! explored! in! later! stagesW! moving! from! an! overview! and! analysis! of! the! field! of! HE! and! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! as! presented! in! international! and! national! policy! and! research! documents!in!phase!one!to!a!more!situated!account!in!phases!two!and!three!(see!Figure! 4.1)!with!the!data!providing!‘both!the!evidence!and!the!clues’!(Bogdan!and!Taylor,!1975,! p.! 73).! In! this! way,! I! move! from! a! view! from! above,! via! institutional! mediations! (a! view! from! the! middle)! to! explore! female! undergraduate! responses! (a! view! from! below).! ! I! stress! that! this! is! ‘a’! view! rather! than! ‘the’! view! and! understand! that! the! knowledge! and! findings! produced! are! partial! and! situated! and! emerge! from! the! particular! stratifications! and! combinations! of! the! societal,! historical,! political,! collective! and! individual! notions! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! at! play! in! this! particular! discursive! space,!place!and!time.!For!a!detailed!rationale!of!the!methods!used!please!see!Appendix! 1.!
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Initial Explorati on of Wider Field of Influence Lit
Data Analysis (drawing on grounded theory & Bourdieu’s theory of practice) Computer aided (MS Word, Acrobat Reader & Nvivo) Manual – post-its, matrices
Review
Defining Research Aims, Objective s and Questions
Gaining Entry to the Field
Informal meetings with staff
Phase One (view from above)
Phase Two (view from middle)
Review of history, policy and research context of HE entrepreneur ship & enterprise education
Nonparticipant and participant classroom observation
Discourse analysis of 15 documents from ‘grey’ literature Identifyin g Location for Primary Field Work
Analysis of course materials and curricula
Phase Three (View from Below) Semistructured depth interviews with 14 female final-year students
Semistructured depth interviews with 7 staff
Field Diary and Field Journals
! Figure!4.1!Research!Design!Model!
! 4.1!!Phase!One:!Identifying!entrepreneurship!discourses!and!the!‘rules!of!the!game’!! ! This! phase! of! data! collection! and! analysis! addressed! the! following! research! questions:!! ! 1.!
Is!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!masculinist?!
2.!
How!is!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE!presented!and!is!
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! !
this!discipline!dependent?!
3.!
What!role!do!HE!staff!have!in!the!construction!and!negotiation!of!!!
! !
entrepreneurship,!enterprise!and!the!entrepreneur?!
! In!exploring!these!questions!I!was!!mindful,!not!only!of!the!documents!and!texts!produced! in! the! immediate! environment! of! HE,! but! also! of! their! place! within! the! historical! and! political! development! of! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! in! the! wider! social/cultural! context!and!in!government!and!EC!driven!policy!initiatives.!This!was!to!contextualise!and! identify! discourses! that! may! have! developed! outside! ! the! HE! educational! context! but! which!are!drawn!upon!in!the!HE!enterprise!education!environment.!!Having!established,! through! my! literature! review,! suggestions! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! is! masculinised! I! explored! the! gendering! of! both! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! related!teaching!and!learning!within!the!‘grey’!literature!linked!to!policy!as!well!as!recent! mainstream! research.! My! engagement! with! the! grey! literature! was! to! acknowledge! and! explore! the! many! nested! and! vested! interests! and! agendas! at! play! in! the! wider! field! of! influence! on! HE! and! a! recognition! that! practices! in! this! field! are,! as!Armstrong! (2005a)! suggests,! strongly! influenced! by! wider! political! and! economic! imperatives.! However,! a! complete!investigation!and!analysis!of!related!documents!is!not!possible!(and!some!might! say!is!never!possible)!given!the!vastness!of!relevant!texts!and!also!that!this!formed!only! part! of! my! research! design.! To! this! end! I! analysed! a! small! sample! of! documents! which! were! identified! as! relevant! to! my! investigation.! This! was! therefore! a! purposive! or! judgement!sample!(Marshall,!1996),!the!main!objectives!being:! ! 1.! To! offer! an! exploratory! snapshot,! through! a! gendered! lens,! of!!!!!!!!!!!! !
entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!discourses!in!these!documents!!
2.! To! identify! dominant! and/or! recurrent! discourses! and! subject! positioning! within!these!documents! 3.! To!inform!further!field!work!in!phases!two!and!three!! ! A!range!of!EC!and!UK!policy!and!research!documents!were!identified!and!15!documents! were! chosen! for! analysis! (see! Appendix! 2.! for! outline! of! documents! and! discourse! analysis).!The!aim!was!to!investigate!the!wider!context!and!aims!of!the!entrepreneurship! agenda! with! a! particular! emphasis! on! HE! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! policy! and! suggestions! of! how! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! should! be! developed!and!the!reasoning!behind!thisW!to!get!a!'feel!for!the!game'!and!identify!some!of!
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the!discourses!suggested!in!recent!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!policy!and!research.!I! also! took! a! critical! approach,! exploring! ideas! of! power! and! legitimation! within! HE! entrepreneurship!education!agendas!and!acknowledging!that!‘education!is!one!of!the!key! sites! for! the! “disciplining”! of! subjects! and! the! ‘inequitable! distribution! of! material! assets’! (Maclure,!2003,!p.187).!As!this!is!a!fast!moving!area,!with!many!onNgoing!!developments,! no! document! older! than! 2002! was! analysed! (with! 2002! marking! the! publication! of! The! Davies! Review! which! acted! as! the! driver! for! the! setting! up! of! the! NGCE).! Keywords! applied! in! the! search! activity! included:! student! enterpriseW! enterpriseW! entrepreneurshipW! graduate!enterpriseW!graduate!entrepreneurshipW!higher!educationW!business!startNup!and! small! business.! Documents! were! identified! and! downloaded! from! the! following! publicly! accessible!web!sites:! ! •! European!Commission!! •! Department!for!Business,!Enterprise!and!Regulatory!Reform!(BERR)!N! formerly!the!Department!for!Trade!and!Industry!(DTI)!! •! Department!for!Innovation,!Universities!and!Skills!(DIUS)!–!formerly!BERR! •! DBIS!Department!for!Business!Innovation!and!Skills!(DBIS)!N!formerly! Department!for!Innovation,!Universities!and!Skills! •! National!Council!for!Graduate!Entrepreneurship!! •! Higher!Education!Academy!Enterprise!subject!area! ! The!discourse!analysis!itself,!whilst!theoretically!informed!by!Fairclough!(1989,!2003)!and! Sunderland! (2004),! draws! on! the! work! of! Brine! (2008),! using! her! suggested! 10Nstep! approach!to!analysing!policy!documents!(see!Appendix!3).!I!also!took!the!decision!(after! Brine)!to!include!content!analysis!of!word!repetition,!as!this!highlights!the!relative!visibility! (and!also!invisibility)!of!certain!subjects!and!concepts,!offering!a!useful!starting!point!for! critical!engagement!with!the!seemingly!‘objective’!but!potentially!valueNladen!or!'takenNforN granted'! concepts! which! guide! HE! entrepreneurship! education! in! the! UK.! Brine's! approach! is! interpretative! and! supports! the! linking! of! themes! and! ideas! throughout! the! three! phase! process.! It! could! be! argued! that! all! qualitative! research! is! ultimately! interpretative!and!offers!only!one!of!several!possible!framings!of!the!data!(Denzin,!1994)! with!analysis!representing!a!'syntheses!of!understandings'!(Rubin!and!Rubin,!2005,!p.29)! –! combining! and! drawing! upon! the! understandings! of! the! researcher,! the! research! participants!and!the!wider!body!of!knowledge.!!Some!discourse!analysts!question!the!use! of!content!analysis!(Ahl,!2004)!but!in!this!case,!as!part!of!a!systematic!approach!such!as!
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Brine's,!and!within!a!wider!empirical!context,!I!feel!that!this!helps!orientation!within!large,! impersonal! documents.! ! ! In! functionalising! Brine’s! approach! I! analysed! each! document! individually! and! then! drew! the! results! into! one! large! matrix! to! allow! for! more! effective! analysis! of! and! comparison! between! documents! (Appendix! 2.).! Given! the! above! parameters!this!analysis!offers!a!‘snapshot’!of!the!policy!and!research!context!at!the!time! that!this!analysis!was!carried!out!(late!2008/early!2009).!!I!am!aware!that!several!of!the! articles!and!documents!on!the!NGCE!site!have!now!been!published!in!journals!but!have! chosen! not! to! repeat! the! analysis! on! these! journal! articles! as! this! analysis! represents! a! moment! in! time! within! the! context! of! my! research! and! I! wish! to! present! an! accurate! account!of!the!research!process!and!the!analysis!which!informed!phases!two!and!three!of! this! research.! The! fact! that! these! papers! have! been! published! in! refereed! academic! journals! does,! however,! further! highlight! their! importance! in! shaping! the! dominant! discourses!in!this!field.! ! 4.2!Phase!Two:!Deciphering,!translating!and!disseminating!the!‘rules!of!the!game’!! ! ...higher! education! is! one! of! the! most! discussed! but! least! analysed! objects!of!study!in!higher!education!(Maton,!2005!p.688)! ! This!phase!addressed!the!following!research!questions!–!refining,!focusing!and!situating! the!analysis!carried!out!in!phase!one:!! !
! 1.!Is!HE!mainstream!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!masculinist?! 2.!How!is!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE!presented!and!is! this!discipline!dependent?! 3.!What!role!do!HE!staff!have!in!the!construction!and!negotiation!of! entrepreneurship,!enterprise!and!the!entrepreneur?!
! The!research!site!was!a!postN1992!HEI!N!the!fictionally!named!Northfield!University.!!In! common! with! many! HEIs! in! the! UK,! Northfield! offers! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! focused! modules! as! well! as! extraNcurricular! activities! for! students.! ! Northfield! was! identified!as!a!suitable!research!location!because!it:! ! 1.!Is!recognised!as!an!institution!with!particular!expertise!in!supporting! graduate!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!has!attracted!regional,! national!and!international!funding!to!support!its!enterpriseNrelated!activities!!
80
2.!!Offers!a!broad!range!of!subject!areas!and!has!a!large,!diverse!student!body! 3.!!Actively!seeks!to!embed!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!across!the! curriculum! 4.!!Has!a!central!enterprise!unit!that!organises!extraNcurricular!support!for! students!from!across!the!university! 5.!!!Is!located!in!a!region!that!was!accessible!allowing!me!to!spend!extended! periods!observing!teaching!and!support!activities!and!interviewing!staff!and! students.! ! In!the!early!stages!of!fieldwork!I!talked!informally!to!staff!involved!in!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise! teaching! across! the! institution! from! various! disciplines! including!Arts,! Health,! Sport,! Hospitality! and! BusinessNrelated! courses! and! those! involved! with! extraNcurricular! enterprise! support! activities,! with! staff! initially! ! identified! through! institutional! web! searches.! Although! these! initial! discussions! were! not! recorded! or! transcribed! I! made! extensive!field!notes!which!informed!the!research!focus!and!identified!potential!courses!to! observe.!I!also!used!this!informal!process!as!a!way!of!introducing!myself!to!the!institution,! building!trust!and!credibility!and!inviting!staff!(and!ultimately!students)!to!become!involved! in!my!research.!!!The!staff!who!were!formally!interviewed!emerged!from!this!early!entry! into! the! field! and! were! suggested! as! driving! the! development,! support! and! teaching! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! within! Northfield.! ! In! line! with! much! of! the! literature! I! too! initially! rendered! staff! invisible! and! saw! this! stage! as! a! means! to! gaining! access! to! the! ‘real’! research! subjects! i.e.! the! students.! ! However,! as! I! did! my! parallel! analysis! and! literature! review,! I! realised! that! I! had! overlooked! the! institutionallyN sanctioned!role!of!staff!and!their!personal!and!professional!attitudes!and!perceptions!and! decided!to!include!formal!staff!interviews!in!phase!two!which!comprised:!! ! 1.! Participation!in!six!extraNcurricular!business!support!workshops!at! Northfield!University! 2.! NonNparticipant!observation!of:! a.! A!threeNhour!introductory!session!to!a!level!one!module!in!Sport! b.! A!twoNhour!introductory!lecture!to!a!level!three!module!in! Hospitality! c.! A!twoNhour!introductory!lecture!to!a!level!three!module!in!Health! 3.! Analysis!of!recordings/transcripts!of!nonNparticipant!observation!! 4.! Analysis!of!course!documentation!including!PowerPoint!presentations,! lecture!notes!and!course!handbooks!
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5.! SemiNstructured!interviews!with!seven!staff!members!from!Health,! Sport,!Hospitality!and!the!central!Enterprise!Support!Unit! 6.! A!personal!research!journal!and!field!notes!kept!throughout!this!process! !! 4.2.1!Classroom!Observations! ! Classroom!observations!and!the!analysis!of!classroom!talk!have!much!to!tell!us!about!the! dynamics!of!the!studentNteacher!relationship!as!well!as!the!relationship!that!both!students! and! teachers! may! have! to! the! knowledge! base! that! is! drawn! upon! in! the! classroom! (Edwards! and! Westgate,! 1987).! Drudy! and! Chathain! (2002,p.37)! suggest! that! teachers'! concerns!about!gender!are!often!located!in!the!structural!and!curriculum!levels!rather!than! in!classroom!practice!and!that!there!is!evidence!that!teachers,!‘even!those!wellNdisposed! to! the! question! of! equal! opportunities! –! interact! differently! with! their! male! and! female! pupils!and!this!may!operate!to!the!disadvantage!of!their!female!pupils’!and!I!was!therefore! attuned! to! conceptualisations! linked! to! gender! during! my! observations.! ! Sunderland! (2004)! identifies! several! broad! gendered! discourses! in! her! classroomNbased! research!! including!!‘gender!differences!’!and!‘equal!opportunities’!discourses,!suggesting!that!these! can!be!!‘damaging!discourses’!–!or!what!Bourdieu!describes!as!the!‘symbolically!violent’! and!‘real!world!consequences’!of!language!and!discourse.!These!can!be!internalised!and! ‘play! out’! in! the! form! of! material! disadvantage! ! influencing! how! individuals! ‘do! gender’! (Sunderland,! 2004! p.197).! Classroom! observations! are! also! a! way! of! crossNreferencing! course! documentation! by! analysing! the! ‘reality’! of! the! living! curriculum! in! the! classroom! and!how!meaning!may!be!negotiated!through!the!discourses!of!enterprise!presented.!It!is! also!a!way!of!crossNreferencing!what!teachers!say!they!do!and!what!they!actually!do.! ! Although! I! was! aware! that! there! are! several! quantitative! approaches! to! classroom! observation,! the! most! commonly! used! being! Flanders'! Interaction! Analysis! Categories! (FIAC),! I! had! reservations! about! preNcoding! categories! beforehand! and,! whilst! I! recognised!that!I!could!not!observe!‘everything’,!I!wished!to!leave!space!for!discovery!and! surprise.! The! purpose! of! the! observations! was! to! explore! how! teachers! interact! with! students! (and! vice! versa),! the! teaching! methods! and! materials! used,! staff! and! student! conceptualisations! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! how! these! might! be! informed! by! gendered! meaningNmaking.! In! order! to! reflect! this! complexity,! I! observed! without! a! formal!schedule,!viewing!the!social!interactions!in!the!classroom!as!‘a!series!of!complex! encounters!in!which!personal!meaning,!individual!perspectives!and!dynamic!interactions’!
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were!the!key!focus!(Simpson!and!Tuson,!2003!p.!12)!with!data!production!based!on!both! descriptive! field! notes! and! recordings.! In! order! to! have! some! part! of! the! session! to! analyse!outside!the!classroom!I!recorded!the!first,!middle!and!last!15!minutes!(according! to! the! length! of! lesson)! as! agreed! with! both! staff! and! the! students! before! the! session.! I! based!my!analysis!on!these!transcripts!and!field!notes,!identifying!‘insightful!instances’!for! further!reflection.!An!insightful!incident!was!one!that!illuminated!what!was!‘going!on’!in!the! classroom,! particularly! with! regards! the! power! dynamics! between! teacher! and! students,! the!discourses!presented!and!the!teaching!materials!used.!! ! 4.2.2!!Staff!Interviews! ! Realists…! do! not! assume! that! research! questions! and! conclusions! about!feelings,!beliefs,!intentions,!prior!behaviour!(and)!effects...!need!to! be! reduced! to...! questions! and! conclusions! about! the! actual! data! that! one!uses.!!Instead!they!treat!their!data!as!fallible!evidence!about!these! phenomena,! to! be! used! critically! to! develop! and! test! ideas! about! the! existence!and!nature!of!the!phenomena…!(Maxwell,!1996!p.!56)! ! The! sampling! criteria! of! staff! and! courses! to! include! in! this! phase! of! research! was! purposive!in!that:! ! !
1.! I!actively!avoided!interviewing!staff!from!businessNrelated!courses!as!I! !
wanted!to!explore!how!students!and!staff!on!nonNbusiness!courses!
!
responded!to!the!notion!of!entrepreneurship!education!within!their!
!
particular!context.!!This!was!in!response!to!the!current!drive,!identified!in!
!
phase!one,!to!embed!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!
!
throughout!the!HE!curriculum.!
2.!!I!interviewed!staff!(and!subsequently!students)!from!disciplines!which!I!had! !
no!prior!knowledge!of,!either!academically!or!professionally.!!This!was!an!
!
attempt!to!‘fight!familiarity’!(Delamont,!1992)!and!also!to!encourage!staff!to!
!
thoroughly!explain!their!experiences!and!the!context!and!ethos!of!the!
!
courses!on!which!they!were!teaching.!This!led!to!the!choice!of!Sports,!
!
Health!and!HospitalityNrelated!staff!and!students!being!included!in!the!
!
sample.!!This!!also,!coincidentally,!meant!that!two!out!of!the!three!modules!
!
observed!had!majority!(over!80%)!female!cohorts.!
3.! I!also!explored!the!extraNcurricular!activity!available!to!students!attending!! !
in!their!‘spare!time’!to!explore!whether!what!was!offered!was!different!to!
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!
that!in!formal!classroom!settings!and!how!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!
!
were!framed!in!these!sessions.!
! This! sample! reflects! an! interactive! ! approach,! given! that! a! focus! on! staff! emerged! from! the! discourse! analysis! of! phase! one! and! suggestions! that! the! role! of! staff! was! ! hidden! and/or! unproblematised! within! the! literature.! The! orientation! stage! of! the! research! highlighted! a! number! of! staff! to! interview! of! whom! seven! were! availableW! five! educators! from!Health,!Sport!and!HospitalityNrelated!courses!and!two!nonNteaching!staff1:! ! Henry:!Teaching!an!entrepreneurship!module!on!a!SportNrelated!course! Imogen:!Manager!of!Northfield’s!enterprise!support!unit! James:!Teaching!on!the!Sport!module!with!Henry! Margaret:!Teaching!a!leadership!module!on!a!HealthNrelated!course! Miranda:!Teaching!on!the!Health!module!with!Margaret! Richard:!!Teaching!an!entrepreneurship!module!on!a!HospitalityNrelated!course! Rosalind:! Business! Support! worker! based! in! Northfield’s! enterprise! support! unit! ! I!chose!semiNstructured!interviews!as!I!did!not!want!to!impose!strict!limits!on!what!would! be!discussed!but!!had!a!series!of!themes!and!opening!questions!as!I!felt!I!could!not!preN empt! what! might! be! said! and! wanted! to! be! led! by! the! interviewees! (see!Appendices! for! interview! schedules).! ! As! they! are! less! directive,! Cohen! and! Mannion! (1987,! p.! 324)! suggest! that! semiNstructured! interviews! can! help! to! ‘get! at! the! deeper! attitudes! of! and! perceptions! of! the! person! being! interviewed! in! such! a! way! as! to! leave! them! free! from! interviewer! bias’.! I! was! interested! in! how! ideas! and! themes! might! emerge! from! the! interviews! to! inform! subsequent! interviews! and! also! my! analysis.! Wengraf! (2001,! p.5)! emphasises! the! robustness! of! semiNstructured! interviews,! arguing! that! they! have! to! be! particularly! ‘wellNprepared’! because! ‘most! of! the! informant’s! responses! cannot! be! predicted! in! advance…and! (the)! interviewer! (has)! to! improvise! probably! half…of! (the)! responses! to! what! they! say! in! response! to! (the)! initial! prepared! questions…'.! Wengraf! concludes!that!semiNstructured!interviews!are!therefore!‘highN!preparation,!highNrisk,!highN gain!and!highNanalysis!operations’.!Although!there!is!some!concern!regarding!the!lack!of! comparability! between! semiNstructured! interviews! and! their! potential! to! make! analysis!
1
All names have been changed and are based on Shakespearean characters. Specific course titles have not been used and instead are identified as being subject or discipline-related (e.g. Health Related)
84
more! timeNconsuming! and! complex! (Silverman,! 2001),! Miller! and! Salkind! (2002,! p.310)! remind! us! that! interviews! are! powerful! when! we! want! to! ascertain! 'information! that! is! interlocked! in! a! social! system! or! personality! structure'! and! these! are! exactly! the! areas! that!I!explore!in!this!research.!! 4.3!Phase!Three:!Assumptions,!aspirations,!structure!and!agency!!
! This!phase!of!data!collection!was!designed!to!address!the!following!research! questions:!! ! 4.! How!do!female!students!from!a!range!of!social!backgrounds!respond!to!and! experience!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!education!in!HE?! 5.!
What!influence!(if!any)!does!teaching!around!entrepreneurship!and! entrepreneurship!have!on!female!students’!aspirations!for!business! ownership!and!their!perceptions!of!!their!chances!of!success!as! entrepreneurs?!
! The! phase! two! classroom! observations! and! interviews! with! staff! helped! to! identify! potential! student! cohorts! to! approach! as! research! respondents.!As! with! phase! two! this! was! based! on! a! purposive! sample! and! it! was! also! linked! to! the! staff! sample,! in! that! I! wanted!to!interview!some!of!the!students!!taught!by!staff!that!I!had!interviewed.!This!was! to:! explore! whether! staff! attitudes! and! beliefs! expressed! in! interviews! were! apparent! to! students! and! how! students! responded! to! entrepreneurial! and! enterprise! discourses.! I! interviewed! 14! female,! finalNyear! students! on! the! following! courses:! HealthNrelated! (six! whiteNBritish,! mature! students! aged! between! 30! and! 60,! both! part! and! fullNtime)W! HospitalityNrelated! (five! whiteNBritish! students,! two! of! whom! identified! themselves! as! mature,! all! fullNtime)W! BusinessNrelated! (one! ChineseNBritish! and! two! whiteNBritish,! one! who!identified!herself!as!dyslexic,!all!fullNtime).!!FinalNyear!students!were!identified!for!the! following!reasons:! ! ! 1)!They!are!in!a!transition!stage!between!university!and!employment!and! are!experiencing!uncertainty,!exploring!possibilities!and!preparing!for!a! changing!environment!and!I!hoped!that!this!would!enhance!their!reflexivity! and!offer!insights!into!their!views!on!their!courses!and!also!their!future! career!options.! !
2)!They!have!experienced!an!institutionally!situated!HE!system!and!are!in!
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!
a!position!to!reflect!on!what!! skills! and! knowledge! their! course! has! helped!
!
them!to!develop!and!what!they!can!usefully!‘take!with!them’!to!support!their!
!
postNgraduation!careers.!!
!
3)! By! their! finalNyear,! given! Northfield’s! commitment! to! embedding!
!
entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! across! the! curriculum,! most! students! will!
!
have! had! some! experience! of! either! formal! or! informal! teaching! around!
!
entrepreneurship!and!enterprise.!
! The!initial!purposive!sampling!process!resulted!in!11!students!being!selected!from!Health! and!Hospitality.!!However,!I!decided!later!in!the!process!that!I!would!expand!my!student! sample! to! include! students! attending! extraNcurricular! sessions! and! business! focused! courses.!!This!resulted!in!an!opportunistic!sample!of!three!further!students!from!businessN related! courses,! one! of! whom! also! attended! the! extraNcurricular! business! support! sessions!run!at!Northfield.!I!decided!to!only!interview!female!students!because!I!wanted! to!explore!the!differences!between!female!students!as!well!as!the!similarities.!In!matched! pair!studies!(i.e.!those!that!have!the!same!number!of!male!and!female!participants)!there! is! a! danger! of! using! males! as! a! benchmark! against! which! to! judge! the! females! which! leads!to!women!being!judged!as!deficient!(Marlow!and!Strange,!1994W!Carter!and!Shaw,! 2006).! There! is! also! the! danger! of! dualism,! framing! men! and! women! as! homogeneous! groups! and! I! am! mindful! of! suggestions! that! ‘women! experience! gender! related! disadvantages! but! these! are! articulated! in! a! myriad! of! ways! sensitive! to! context! and! agency’! (McAdam! and! Marlow,! 2009! p,! 3).! ! I! wanted! to! bring! the! experiences! of! these! women!sharply!into!focus!in!this!research,!to!illuminate!the!experience!of!female!students! through! a! gendered! lens,! something! that! is! currently! lacking! in! the! mainstream! body! of! knowledge.!!However,!I!am!aware!that!the!student!sample!is!majority!whiteNBritish,!which! affects! the! breadth! of! experiences! explored! and! representations! of! the! female! student! cohort! of! this! university.! There! are! therefore! issues! around! the! experiences! of! female! students! from! a! wider! range! of! cultural,! ability! or! ethnic! backgrounds! that! will! potentially! be! missed! or! ignored! and! this! is! a! valid! criticism.! ! However,! the! demographic! mix! of! students! interviewed! was! something! over! which! I! had! little! control! as! I! was! unable! to! access!demographic!information!prior!to!approaching!students!for!interview.!Again,!there! is! a! danger! that! the! sample! may! have! an! unrepresentative! interest! in! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise,! given! their! willingness! to! talk! about! this! in! an! interview.! However,! this! does!not!make!their!experiences!or!thoughts!any!less!compelling!or!authentic!and!when! we! hear! them! later! in! this! thesis! we! will! see! there! are! similarities! of! experience! and!
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attitude!which!cross!discipline!and!age!boundaries!and!which!highlight!important!areas!for! future!research.!! ! As! with! staff,! the! interviews! were! semi—structured,! exploring! social! trajectories,! dispositions! and! forms! of! capital! including! family! backgrounds,! ! ‘journey’! to! studying! on! their! particular! course,! their! experiences! of! learning! about! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship,! their! general! attitudes! and! experiences! around! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! and! their! thoughts! on! their! future! career! options! in! light! of! this! (See! Appendices!for!interview!schedules).!!The!interviews!also!included!two!separate!opening! and!concluding!‘exercises’:! ! 1.! At! the! beginning! all! students! were! given! paper! and! coloured! pencils! and! asked!to!sketch!out!ideas!or!thoughts!that!came!into!their!heads!when!they! heard! the! term! ‘entrepreneur’! –! this! was! an! attempt! to! understand! where! their! ideas! related! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! come! from! –! e.g.! their!prior!experience,!their!learning!about!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise,! family! members,! media! etc.! I! also! hoped! that! it! would! be! a! ‘fun’! way! of! relaxing! the! students! into! the! interview! and! getting! them! to! talk! about! this! area!in!a!more!creative!way!whilst!at!the!same!time!attempting!to!capture! ‘unthought’! ideas! and! indications! of! the! collective! ideas! around! the! ‘entrepreneurial!habitus’!and!the!forms!of!capital!accruing!to!entrepreneurs! or!required!to!‘be’!an!entrepreneur.! 2.! At! the! end! of! the! interview! students! were! asked! to! complete! an! entrepreneurial! selfNassessment! questionnaire! (see! Appendix! 6)! which! is! used! on! one! of! the! modules! as! an! entrepreneurial! assessment! exercise.! They!were!asked!to!‘talk!through’!their!responses!to!the!questions,!offering! insight! into! the! thought! process! involved! and! to! externalise! the! ‘internal! conversation’!(Archer,!2003)!that!such!exercises!can!provoke.! ! 5.!!Ethical!Considerations! ! Although! my! research! was! subject! to! compliance! with! the! ethical! guidelines! of! my! own! HEI,! ! it! is! ! important! to! outline! and! engage! with! the! ethical! dilemmas! involved! in! this! research.!Scott!and!Morrison!(2007,!p.22)!suggest!that!caseNstudy!research,!with!its!small! numbers! and! intensive! research! gaze,! 'can! magnify! risks! to! individuals'! and! for! this!
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reason!I!was!determined!that!my!approach!would!not!disadvantage!or!expose!any!of!my! research! participants.! Mason! (1996,! p.! 29! –! 30)! suggests! ethical! questions! help! researchers! to! identify! which! individuals! or! groups! might! be! interested! or! affected! and! what!the!implications!are!for!these!parties!of!framing!the!research!problem!in!a!particular! way.!Perhaps!the!most!obvious!concerns!are!that!we!do!not!harm!participants!and!that!we! acknowledge! and! address! the! potential! issues! that! might! arise! from! analysing! and! presenting! individual! experiences! for! ‘public! consumption’! (Watts,! 2006).! This! covers! areas!such!as!informed!consent,!confidentiality!and!privacy!and!an!understanding!of!the! risks! that! these! may! entail! for! all! research! participants! including! the! researcher! (Shaw,! 2003).! Wengraf! (2001,! p.45)! suggests! that! we! should! also! be! mindful! of! the! power! relations!which!occurW!an!element!of!interview!interaction!that!is!‘dangerously!likely’!to!be! overlooked.!My!positioning!in!relation!to!staff!respondents!was!ethically!complex!in!that!I! was!a!student!but!my!age!and!employment!background!in!business!support!and!teaching! also!suggested!that!I!was!‘one!of!them’!and!this!did!help!me!gain!entry!to!the!field!and!to! build!credibility!and!rapport!with!staff!respondents!and!institutional!gatekeepers.!!!Another! overNarching! ethical! concern! was! that! my! respondents! would! remain! anonymous! and,! because! this! research! was! undertaken! in! one! institution,! that! they! would! not! be! identifiable! to! each! other.! ! ! Also,! given! my! critical! approach! to! the! research,! I! had! to! acknowledge!and!militate!against!the!potential!negative!impacts!on!my!respondents!as!a! result!of!this.!!All!names!are!therefore!anonymised!and!job!titles,!or!exact!course/module! names! are! not! used! in! this! thesis! –! although! it! was! necessary! to! identify! disciplines! to! make! the! resulting! analysis! more! meaningful! and! relevant.! Ultimately,! in! preserving! the! confidentiality! and! anonymity! of! the! participants! it! was! necessary! to! sacrifice! some! contextual!accuracy.!! ! I! purposefully! did! not! tell! participants! that! my! research! was! conducted! solely! within! Northfield,!causing!difficulties!when!I!was!directly!asked!by!members!of!staff!!about!who!I! was! interviewing! and! which! universities! I! was! working! with! and! this! did! cause! some! ethical!dilemmas!about!the!respondent!information!I!provided.!Likewise,!I!did!not!disclose! the! gendered! focus! of! my! research! as! I! did! not! want! to! this! to! impact! on! interviews! or!! staff!behaviour!!in!the!classroom.!!!However,!I!was!able!to!reflect!on!this!in!my!research! journal! and! with! my! supervisory! team.! Ultimately! I! chose! to! focus! on! the! teaching! and! learning! side! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! the! supporting! documentation! given! to! research! respondents.! ! All! interviewees! were! asked! to! sign! a! consent! form! and! given! my! full! contact! details! and! an! independent! contact! for! any!
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questions! or! concerns! about! me! or! my! conduct! (please! see! Appendices! 7! and! 8! for! copies!of!consent!forms!and!information!sheets).!There!were!also!ethical!dilemmas!linked! to! my! role! as! researcher,! namely! that! if! my! approach! is! that! the! people! that! I! interview! have! knowledge! and! are! ’knowers’! there! is! a! difficulty! of! then! approaching! my! analysis! from!the!perspective!of!someone!who!has!the!‘special!ability’!to!analyse!their!situation!or! comment!on!their!experiences!through!linking!it!to!a!theoretical!concept!which!they!may! or!may!not!agree!with.!!This!also!insinuates!that!interviewees!are!unable!to!reflect!on!their! experiences! or! make! the! practical! and! analytical! connections! that! the! privileged! researcher!can.!However,!I!aimed!to!!mitigate!this!by!making!myself!part!of!the!research! and! by! analysing! my! own! experiences! while! at! the! same! time! making! it! clear! that! I! am! approaching!from!a!specific!ontological!and!epistemological!perspective.!!I!hope!that!this! will!allow!the!reader!to!place!this!research!and!any!‘conclusions’!reached!within!a!context! which!accounts!for!the!standpoint!of!the!researcher!as!well!as!the!research!subjects!and! recognises! that! this! is! a! ‘synthesis! of! understandings’! ! rather! than! the! ‘truth’! of! the! situationW!!the!knowledge!produced!being!fallible!and!incomplete!but!valid,!given!my!aims! of!contextualisation!and!reflection.! ! My! main! ethical! consideration! in! relation! to! student! participants! was! that! they! would! not! be!disadvantaged!by!their!involvement!in!my!research!and!I!needed!to!ensure!they!could! not! be! identified! by! staff,! particularly! as! adverse! comments! could! potentially! result! in! differential!treatment!with!regards!teaching!and!assessment.!!For!this!reason!I!did!not!ask! staff! to! identify! potential! student! participants! (as! some! suggested! they! might! do)! but! approached!students!en!masse!during!lectures.!!I!gave!a!brief!description!of!my!research! and!asked!them!to!put!their!details!on!postNit!notes!N!!placed!on!desks!prior!to!the!start!of! the!lecture!–!if!they!would!like!further!information,!stating!that!I!would!randomly!select!a! group! of! students! to! approach! to! be! interviewed.! ! I! collected! these! at! the! end! of! the! lecture! and! the! size! of! the! lecture! rooms! made! it! difficult! for! the! staff! to! identify! which! postNit! notes! had! been! written! on! and! which! hadn’t.! Also,! as! I! did! not! mention! the! gendered! element! of! my! research! neither! staff! or! students! knew! that! I! only! interviewed! female!students.!Ultimately,!the!risks!to!the!students!were!deemed!to!be!minimal!as,!by! the! time! my! thesis! is! published,! all! of! these! students! will! have! graduated.! Other! ethical! considerations! paralleled! those! already! discussed! in! relation! to! staff! and! were! hopefully! addressed!through!a!sampling!and!data!production!process!which!emphasised!informed! consent!and!the!right!to!participate!or!withdraw!at!any!time!during!the!research!process! (see!Appendices).!!
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! 6.!Interpretation!and!Analysis! ! Qualitative! data! analysis! is! based! on! the! concept! of! 'theoretical! sensitivity’! (Strauss! and! Corbin! 1998,! p.42)! i.e.! the! researcher's! ability! to! understand! and! give! meaning! to! the! research! data.! It! is! therefore,! interpretative! and! 'open'! to! exploring! the! complex! factors! that!influence!human!behaviourW!drawing!on!Weber's!concept!of!‘verstehen’!or!subjective! meaning!and!interpretive!understanding!(Oakley!2000).!Ryan!and!Bernard!(2003,!p.!260)!! in! their! typology! of! qualitative! analysis! techniques! ! distinguish! between! analysis! of! texts! as! ‘proxy! for! experience’! or! as! ‘objects! of! analysis’! and! in! this! case! the! interview! and! observation! ! texts! represent! ! the! ‘experience’! of! staff! and! students! and! the! policy! and! other! documents! are! analysed! as! 'objects'.! However! Ryan! and! Bernard! suggest! that! a! ‘text!as!object’!approach!necessities!a!linguistic!rather!than!a!sociological!approach!to!the! text!whereas!I!would!argue,!given!my!utilisation!of!discourse!analysis!as!an!approach!to! exploring!!the!wider!social!reality!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE,!that! I!use!documents!and!other!official!texts!as!objects!of!sociological!analysis.!The!discourses! identified!in!phase!one!are!linked!to!ideas!and!themes!which!emerge!in!phases!two!and! three!to!provide!a!complex!and!emergent!account!of!a!particular!institution!and!the!social! structures!within!which!it!is!positioned.!!
Given! that! I! draw! upon! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! and! gender! theory! in! this! research! one!could!argue!that!this!was!not!a!totally!inductive!analytical!process.!However,!although! my! analysis! of! interviews! and! observations! was! framed! by! my! engagement! with! Bourdieu’s! theories,! capital! and! habitus! were! linked! to! areas! mentioned! by! research! participants!such!as!their!family!and!educational!backgrounds!and!therefore!grounded!in! their!experience.!However,!I!did!move!in!the!later!stages!from!an!inductive!to!a!deductive! approach,! bringing! back! into! the! analysis! Bourdieu’s! concepts! and! gender! theory! to! inform!discussion!of!the!core!themes!which!were!identified.!Moving!between!inductive!and! deductive! approaches! is! supported! by! exponents! of! qualitative! research! ! such! as! Charmaz! (2000),! with! Strauss! and! Corbin! also! emphasising! the! acknowledgement! of! theories! which! initially! drive! the! ! research! focus! and! data! collection! methods! (1998).! Aspects!of!the!research!design!and!concepts,!themes!and!foci!N!such!as!staff!interviews,! classroom! observations! and! including! more! student! participants! from! different! courses! N!! also! emerged! during! the! research! process.! This! is! also! in! line! with! a! social! realist! approach,! which! recognises! the! emergent! nature! of! theory! as! being! created! by! the!
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Deleted:'and!
coming!together!of!different!data!sets!from!different!groups!in!different!environments.!!! ! Analysis!and!interpretation!was!ongoing!and!iterative,!starting!long!before!I!!brought!any! of! my! data! into! Nvivo.! ! It! began! during! informal! talks! with! staff! and! the! literature! review! which! suggested! thematic! and! analytical! approaches! and! ideas.! !After! each! interview! or! observation! I! would! make! field! notes! and! this! was! an! important! element! of! the! analysis! and!interpretation!of!what!was’!happening’!through!writing,!analysing!!and!‘thinking!out’!my! experiences! in! field! journals! before! fully! mapping! out! the! research! design! process.! This! ongoing! analysis! also! included! notes! on! the! books! and! journals! that! I! was! reading! and! how!these!informed!my!interpretation!of!what!was!‘going!on’!in!the!field.!I!also!transcribed! the! observations! and! interviews! myself! and,! although! ! timeNconsuming,! this! was! an! important! element! of! the! interpretive! and! analytical! process,! allowing! me! to! immerse! myself!in!the!data,!to!'get!to!know'!the!people!involved!in!my!research!and!also!to!capture! emerging! themes! and! ideas! (including! differences! and! surprises).! This! is! a! recognised! approach!within!qualitative!research!with!Miles!and!Huberman!(1984,!p.!49)!arguing!that:!
Analysis!during!data!collection!lets!the!field!worker!cycle!back!and!forth! between! thinking! about! the! existing! data! and! generating! strategies! for! collecting!new!N!often!better!quality!N!data.!! The! three! phases! of! data! collection! were! a! form! of! ongoing! analysis! as! suggested! by! Miles!and!Huberman!and!continued!throughout!the!data!production!phases,!as!early!on!in! the! analytical! process! I! had! to! construct! a! corpus! for! a! discourse! analysis! of! policy! and! research! texts! and! also! in! the! discourse! analysis! itself! –! which! was! done! manually.!! Again,! this! early! stage! of! analysis! was! ! in! parallel! with! my! reading! and! notes! about! emerging!themes!and!possible!ideas!for!further!investigation!in!phases!two!and!three.!In! phases!two!and!three!the!process!of!manually!transcribing!audio!from!observations!and! interviews! continued! the! analytical! process,! with! ideas! and! concepts! emerging,! ‘echoes’! of! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice! (i.e.! issues! of! habitus,! capital! and! field)! ! and! themes! identified!in!phase!one!emerging!!out!of!the!discourse!analysis!and!resonating!with!ideas! and! themes! in! the! transcribed! texts! –! which! were! noted! as! I! transcribed.! In! this! way,! before! formerly! importing! my! ! data! into! NVivio! a! lot! of! initial! analysis,! memo! making,! thematic! exploration! and! narrative! coding! ideas! had! already! been! developed! (see! Appendix! 9).! ! This! meant! that! I! had! a! loose! coding! framework! as! a! starting! point! for! analysis,!!based!around!issues!which!had!emerged!from!the!discourse!analysis!and!in!the! process! of! transcribing.!This! initial! coding! framework! was! added! to! during! Nvivo! coding!
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and!through!ongoing!data!analysis.!The!main!reason!for!using!Nvivo!was!for!ease!of!data! management! and! its! code! and! retrieve! functions! which! I! became! aware! of! early! on! through!attending!NVivo!training!sessions.!!!Another!reason!for!using!Nvivo!is!its!potential! to!add!transparency!and!rigour!to!data!analysis!(Dey!1993W!Welsh,!2002)!allowing!me!to! document! the! analytical! process! and! also! helping! me! to! analyse! within! and! between! cases!more!easily.!I!realise!that!it!is!good!practice!to!have!several!coders!when!analysing! qualitative!data!but!given!the!timeNscales!and!the!fact!that!this!is!a!piece!of!doctoral!work! this! was! not! possible.! ! I! was! however,! mindful! of! this! and! where! I! felt! that! there! were! areas! of! bias! or! conflict! with! regards! my! analysis! I! was! able! to! identify! and! discuss! this! with!my!supervisors!rather!than!simply!ignoring!them.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
STAGE 1 Initial Coding & Analysis (outside Nvivo) CDA Interviews Drawings Assessment Ex. Field notes Transcription Writing up field notes
STAGE 2
STAGE 3
STAGE 4
First coding iteration (in Nvivo)
Second coding iteration (outside Nvivo)
Third coding iteration (in Nvivo)
Initial coding frame imported Additional open coding Initial axial coding
Work with codes generated in Nvivo Return to data Return to interview questions
Axial coding done to regroup codes under broad themes
Final Themes Identified (see appendix 11)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Initial coding frame (see appendix 9)
Third coding frame
Second coding frame (see appendix 10)
! ! Figure!4.2!!Analytical!stages!(moving!between!manual!and!!computerNaided!data!analysis)! !
As!Figure!4.2!illustrates,!initial!analysis!began!during!the!data!collection!phases!and!initial! codes,!memos!and!thematic!ideas!were!generated!during!my!field!work,!observations!and! in! the! process! of! transcribing! my! notes! and! recordings! of! observations! and! interviews.! I! decided,!as!my!research!was!so!theoretically!driven!by!Bourdieu’s!theory!of!practice!that! my! initial! coding! frame! would! use! the! Bourdieuian! concepts! with! the! option! of! adding! codes! and! thematic! directions! as! they! emerged! from! the! data.!As! this! was! an! iterative! process! and! as! a! certain! amount! of! time! had! elapsed! between! the! development! of! the!
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initial! and! tentative! coding! frame! I! did! some! additional! coding! and! comparison! within! Nvivo! and! by! the! end! of! this! process! had! added! more! codes! to! my! initial! coding! frame! which! meant! that! I! had! generated! too! many! codes! to! work! with! both! practically! and! theoretically!(see!Appendix!11).!!Also,!I!felt!that!I!was!being!driven!down!certain!analytical! avenues!due!to!the!hierarchical!features!of!the!software!and!started!to!feel!distanced!from! my!data!because!it!was!‘chopped!up’!into!so!many!codes.!!!I!therefore,!decided!to!come! out!of!Nvivo!and!return!to!the!individual!documents!and!transcripts!to!‘reconnect’!with!the! research! participants! and! documents! as! ‘people’! and! discrete! artefacts! rather! than! as! clusters!of!codes.!After!reNreading!the!transcripts!and!other!documents!I!then!decided!to! spend!some!time!reflecting!and!thinking!about!the!codes!that!I!had!generated.!This!also! required!a!return!to!the!interview!questions!to!reflect!on!the!theoretical!concerns!that!I!had! envisaged! the! questions! would! raise.! Having! done! this,! and! with! further! reflection! and! movement!between!the!codes!generated,!the!data!itself!and!the!research!questions,!three! main!thematic!areas!(or!axial!codes)!emerged!which!drew!together!my!themes:!Choices,! Positions! and! Struggles.! Having! identified! these! three! overNarching! themes! I! returned! to! Nvivo! for! a! final! iteration! and! refined! and! reduced! my! codes! under! these! three! core! themes.! This! movement! between! manual! and! computer! aided! analysis! is! suggested! by! Welsh! (2002)! as! appropriate,! because! researchers! should! not! privilege! electronic! or! manual! methods! but! combine! the! best! features! of! both.! In! this! respect! my! findings! are! ‘issue! focused’,! identifying! themes! and! concepts! rather! than! ‘case! focused’! ! (Weiss,! 1994),!something!which!also!reflects!my!engagement!with!Bourdieu’s!theory!of!practice,! discourse! analysis,! gender! theory! and! feminism! and! highlights! movement! from! the! inductive!to!the!deductive!in!the!latter!stages!of!my!analysis.!! ! 7.!Summary! ! Critical!and!feminist!approaches!to!the!analysis!of!higher!education! …offer! some! of! the! most! challenging! and,! therefore! most! interesting! –! and! most! methodologically! developed! –! pieces! of! research…!(Tight,!2003!p.!8)! ! This! chapter! outlined! the! theoretical! foundations,! research! design! and! methods! driving! this!thesis,!based!on!particular!ontological!and!epistemological!concerns!which!are!in!turn! guided! by! an! engagement! with! Bourdieu’s! theory! of! practice.! This! chapter! also! outlined! the! threeNphase! research! design! aimed! at! capturing! the! complex! and! stratified! social! reality!within!which!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!is!located.!It!!delineated!
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the! ! analytical! process! which! was! iterative! and! onNgoing! and! utilised! both! manual! and! computer!aided!data!analysis.!!! ! The! approach! taken! reflects! my! engagement! with! a! social! realist! ontology! and! social! constructionist! epistemology! and! my! aim! to! explore! the! interplay! of! habitus,! capital! and! field! and! how! this! has! the! potential! to! position! male! and! female! students! differently,!! enabling!and!constraining!!particular!students!in!particular!environments.!In!rendering!staff! visible!through!mesoNlevel!analysis,!I!highlight!how!educators!navigate!and!delineate!the! wider! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship.! This! is! an! element! of! HE! entrepreneurship! education! currently! missing! in! policy! and! research.! Entrepreneurship! is! underNtheorised! (Pittaway!and!Cope,!2006W!Carter!and!Marlow,!2007)!and!this!thesis!creates!and!captures! new! theoretical! directions! which! emerge! from! the! bringing! together! of! different! data! and! methods.!My!threeNphase,!qualitative,!multipleNmethod!caseNstudy!approach!captures!and! highlights! the! complexity! of! the! field.! In! using! discourse! analysis! to! tease! out! and! make! visible!the!broader!political!!and!educational!agendas!at!play!and!by!analysing!classNroom! talk,! drawings,! and! 'talkNthroughs'! of! survey! completion!N! ! as! well! as! the! more! traditional! semiNstructured! interview! approach! N! I! address! calls! for! qualitative! research! to! offer! different! perspectives! on! entrepreneurship! (Bruni! et! al,! 2005W!Ahl,! 2006W! De! Bruin! et! al,! 2007W!Gartner,!2009).!! ! Having! outlined! and! engaged! with! the! theoretical! and! methodological! foundations! of! the! research,!and!how!this!research!addresses!significant!gaps!and!silences!in!theory,!policy! and!literature,!the!following!three!chapters!form!Part!Two!–!and!focus!on!the!data!produced! as!a!result!of!this!methodological!approach!and!research!design.!!
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! PART!TWO! Chapter!Five! A!View!from!Above:!!Analysing!the!wider!field!of!influence!and!identifying! entrepreneurship!discourses! 1.!Introduction! ! ...every! discourse! is! historically! produced! and! interpreted...it! is! situated! in! time! and! space:! and...legitimated! by! ideologies! of! powerful! groups.! (Wodak,!2001!p.3)! ! This!thesis!is!based!on!the!premise!that!discourses!have!the!power!to!shape!social!reality! and!to!produce!the!conditions!that!they!name.!This!research!phase!therefore!explores!the! wider!field!of!influence!on!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!to!identify!dominant! discourses!driving!developments!in!HE!and!how!these!position!female!students,!staff!and! the!role!of!HEIs.!Fraenkel!and!Wallen!(1993,!p.!389)!suggest!that!‘A!person’s!or!group's! conscious!and!unconscious!beliefs,!attitudes,!values,!and!ideas!are!often!revealed!in!the! documents!they!produce’!and!this!chapter!focuses!on!policy!and!research!documents!to! explore! a! view! ‘from! above’! of! the! wider! field! of! influence! on! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! as! it! has! developed! theoretically,! socially! and! politically! and! the! suggested!beliefs!and!attitudes!on!which!the!field!of!HE!draws.!I!concentrate!on!a!close! reading!of!a!sample!of!recent!national!and!international!entrepreneurship!and!HE!focused! policy! and! research! informed! by! Brine! (2008)! and! in! light! of! the! enduring! influence! of! historically! androcentric! entrepreneurship! theory! and! education! structures! as! suggested! in!my!literature!review.!!It!explores!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as!it!is!constructed!in! official!texts!which!in!turn!drive!developments!in!HEW!investigating!the!forms!of!capital!and! dispositions! necessary! to! ‘play! the! game’! and! become! a! ‘successful’! entrepreneur.! As! such!I!take!a!macroNanalytical!approach!led!by!the!following!research!questions:! ! 1.!!Is!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!masculinist?! 2.!!How!are!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!presented!in!HE!and!is!this!!!!!!!! discipline!dependent?! 3.!What!role!do!HE!staff!have!in!the!construction!and!negotiation!of!! entrepreneurship,!enterprise!and!the!entrepreneur?!
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! Phase! one! is! therefore! an! attempt! to! explore! the! suggested! social! reality! of! the! field! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! it! relates! to! HEW! a! reality! which! HEIs! and! staff! negotiate! and! arbitrate! in! their! approaches! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise.! Indeed,! the! suggested! aim! of! analysed! documents! is! to! inform! the! development! of! entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!education!in!HE!through!highlighting!structures,!frameworks!and!templates! which!represent!‘good!practice’!aimed!at!influencing!the!arbiters!of!knowledge!in!this!areaW!! HE! policy! makers,! HEIs! and! staff! rather! than! students.! These! documents! therefore! represent! the! knowledge,! policy! and! research! around! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! that! educators! draw! upon,! arbitrate! and! negotiate! in! order! to! develop! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! teaching! and! ! offers! a! useful! starting! point! for! critical! engagement! with! the! seemingly! ‘objective'! and! valueNfree! concepts! that! guide! HE! entrepreneurship! education.!This! is! not! a! unique! approach! to! exploring! the! gendering! of! entrepreneurship,! as! Ahl’s! (2004)! work! highlights,! however,! little! research! has! explored! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! and! how! gendered! discourses! potentially! inform!and!impact!on!what!is!presented!in!the!curriculum!and!the!classroom!and!how!staff! and,! ultimately,! female! students,! respond! to,! negotiate! and! position! themselves! within! these!discourses.! ! This!chapter!comprises!two!sectionsW!section!one!engages!with!the!documents!and!how! each!defines!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!its!position!in!the!HE!education!system! internationally!and!in!the!UK.!!Section!one!also!locates!the!texts,!identifying!the!suggested! audience! for! each! document,! the! suggested! role! of! HEIs! and! staff,! and! the! disciplines! (and! therefore! students)! positioned! as! benefiting! from! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education,! paying! particular! attention! to! gendered! subject! positioning! within! the! documents.!Section!two!moves!on!to!highlight!!dominant!discourses!within!the!documents! and! the! common! ideological! approaches! and! beliefs,! attitudes! and! values! linked! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! how! these! might! shape! the! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! HE,! inhibiting! the! interplay! of! ‘diverse! voices,! perspectives,!accounts!and!narratives’!(Baxter,!2002,!p.!831).!! ! 2.!
Exploring!the!Wider!Field!of!Influence:!Critical!engagement!with!policy!and! research! !
This! section! outlines! the! documents! analysed,! offering! insights! into! areas! such! as! the!
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rationale!given!for!entrepreneurship!education!in!HE,!framings!of!the!ascribed!role!of!HE! within! wider! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! agendas,! the! positioning! of! academic! disciplines!and!subjects!such!as!‘staff’,!‘stakeholders’,!‘entrepreneurs’!and!‘students’,!and! the! ascribed! roles! and! gendered! positions! of! subjects! within! the! documents.! The! documents!are!presented!in!four!groupings:!moving!from!an!international!perspective!via! government!enterprise!policy!and!education!reviews!to!focused!UK!HE!entrepreneurship! and!education!documents!(see!Appendix!2!for!further!details!of!document!analysis).! ! 2.1!International!Documents!Analysed! ! Entrepreneurship! education! (is)! an! important! way! to! create! more! entrepreneurial!mindsets!among!young!people.!(EC,!2004,!p.5!)! ! Entrepreneurship! education! is! critical! for! developing! entrepreneurial! skills,! attitudes! and! behaviours! that! are! the! basis! for! economic! growth.! (Volkmann!et!al,!2008!p.9)! ! ! One!International!and!three!European!Commission!documents!were!analysed:! ! 1.!Volkmann!et!al!(2009)!Educating!the!Next!Wave!of!Entrepreneurs:!Unlocking! entrepreneurial!capabilities!to!meet!the!global!challenges!of!the!21st!Century,!World! Economic!Forum.!!! 2.!European!Commission!(2007)!The!Oslo!Agenda!for!Entrepreneurship!Education!in! Europe!! 3.!European!!Commission!(2006)!Implementing!the!Community!Lisbon!Programme:!!!!! Fostering!entrepreneurial!mindsets!through!education!and!learning! 4.!European!!Commission!!(2004)!Action!Plan:!The!European!agenda!for! entrepreneurship!! ! In!line!with!the!numerous!definitions!and!approaches!to!entrepreneurship!identified!within! the!literature!review,!definitions!within!these!documents!are!broad!and!suggested!as!being! relevant! to! all! aspects! of! a! person’s! lifeW! making! a! strong! link! between! entrepreneurship! and! individual! skills,! knowledge! and! behaviours! rather! than! being! linked! to! business! creation!with!the!suggestion!that:! ! Entrepreneurship!refers!to!an!individual’s!ability!to!turn!ideas!into!action.! It! includes! creativity,! innovation! and! risk! taking,! as! well! as! the! ability! to!
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plan! and! manage! projects! in! order! to! achieve! objectives.!This! supports! everyone!in!dayNtoNday!life!at!home!and!in!society...!(EC!2006,!p.4)!! ! ! Where!definitions!of!entrepreneurship!are!not!explicitly!stated,!entrepreneurial!behaviours! are!suggested!as!being!'curiosity,!creativity,!autonomy,!initiative,!team!spirit'!(EC,!2007),!or!! 'creativity,!selfN!confidence,!resourcefulness,!willingness!to!take!risks,!the!ability!to!see!the! consequences!of!one’s!own!actions,!and!the!willingness!and!ability!to!come!up!with!new! solutions'! (Volkmann! et! al,! p.144).! All! documents! clearly! link! entrepreneurship! with! economic!growth,!employment!and!future!prosperity,!!closely!tied!to!the!economic!fate!of! the!wider!economy!and!prosperity!for!all.!!They!suggest!an!economically!driven!need!for! people! to! become! entrepreneurs! and! a! sense! of! ‘social! engineering’,! with! talk! of! persuasion! and! changing! perceptions.! This! task! is! difficult! however! ! –! despite! much! funding!and!focus!–!due!to!resistance!to!turning!students!‘into!businessmen’!(EC!2007,!p.! 4).! ! The! documents! emphasise! ‘entrepreneurship! as! a! career’! (EC! 2004,! p.! 7)! and! the! need! to! promote! different! ways! of! being! an! entrepreneur! (expansion! driven,! partNtime,! craft,! etc)! and! focus! on! the! need! to! develop! entrepreneurial! mindsets! to! drive! economic! growth!and!business!expansion.!The!World!Economic!Forum!(WEF)!report!by!Volkmann! et! al! positions! the! entrepreneur! within! an! ‘ecosystem’,! acknowledging! complex! links! between!entrepreneurship!and!ethical!and!socially!responsible!practices,!suggesting!that! current!approaches!or!views!of!entrepreneurship!do!not!necessarily!take!these!issues!into! account.! This! offers! a! more! inclusive! and! socially! embedded! approach! to! entrepreneurship! than! the! EC! documents,! which! are! firmly! focused! on! the! economic! rather! than! the! social! or! ethical! benefits! of! entrepreneurship.! Within! Volkmann! et! al's! document,! however,! entrepreneurship! education! in! HE! is! positioned! as! ‘different’! from! entrepreneurship!for!social!inclusion,!and!there!is!a!focus!on!the!role!of!HE!in!supporting! graduates! and! staff! to! pursue! highNgrowth! enterprises! and! creating! ‘growthN entrepreneurs’.!!The!!importance!of!education!in!influencing!students!from!an!early!age!is! recognized!with!!suggestions!that!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!should!start! at!primary!school!as!a!‘key!competence!for!all’!(EC,!2006).!!
There!are!suggestions!throughout!the!documents!that!entrepreneurship!education!should! move! from! business! schools! into! other! areas! of! the! curriculum! –! with! a! science! and! technology! focus! N! and! for! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! to! be! compulsory! and! for! universities! to! provide! practical! services! such! as! science! parks! and! incubators.! This!focus!on!science!and!technology!as!a!driver!for!entrepreneurship!is!evident!in!all!of! the!documents,!with!talk!of!‘matching!scientific!potential!with!entrepreneurship!skills’!(EC!
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2004,!p.!7),!something!that!may!have!an!unintended!gendered!consequence,!!given!that! these!are!traditionally!(and!are!still)!maleNdominated!HE!disciplines.!This!also!echoes!an! emphasis! on! highNgrowth! businesses! ! by! Volkmann! et! al! and! positions! HE! as! providing! certain! support! for! certain! students! (those! in! science! and! technology)! to! encourage! certain! types! of! businesses! (highNgrowth! and! rapid! expansion).! ! This! privileges! a! particular! type! of! business! model! and! 'entrepreneurial! mindset’!–! one! that! is! traditionally! masculinised! and! that! women! are! less! likely! to! have! access! to! or! a! disposition! towards,! partly! due! to! choice! of! HE! discipline.! It! is! acknowledged! that! business! schools! are! currently!the!main!sites!for!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!and!that!business! courses! should! ‘! place! more! emphasis! on! starting! a! business,! managing! growth! and! continuously!innovating'!(EC!2006!p.!10)!to!support!wider!economic!aims!and!focusing!on! supporting! fastNgrowing! businesses! or! ! ‘gazelles’! (Volkmann,! et! al,! p.19).! With! this! emphasis! on! the! economic! benefits! for! both! students! and! the! wider! economy! in! mind,! universities! are! positioned! as! mechanisms! for! embedding! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!skills!within!the!HE!curriculum!for!those!students!and!disciplines!considered!as! best! placed! to! offer! opportunities! for! growth.! This! suggests! that! HE! is! positioned! as! a! persuasive! or! coercive! environment,! where! students! are! exposed! to! the! benefits! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! for! economic! and! career! gain! and! for! the! greater! economic!good!of!society.!In!this!way!it!is!a!’winNwin’!scenario!in!which!those!who!take!up! these! opportunities! and! inculcate! an! entrepreneurial! mindset! are! ! better! placed! to! succeed!in!a!neoNliberal,!globalised,!insecure!and!flexible!market!which!is!in!turn!positively! impacted! by! the! growth! in! business! creation! and! employment! opportunities! provided! within! an! entrepreneurial! culture.! All! four! documents! link! these! positive! economic! outcomes! with! the! development! of! an! ‘entrepreneurial! mindset’,! emphasising! the! role! of! HE! in! supporting! this! through! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! (with! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! being! closely! linked).! !There! is! a! sense! of! urgency! and! nonNnegotiability! evident,! with! entrepreneurship! described! as! ‘critical’! or! ‘essential’! for! economic! growth! and! to! solve! global! challenges.! Indeed,! this! is! a! common! theme! throughout!the!documents!suggesting!a!dominant!discourse!that!there!is!no!alternative!to! encouraging!entrepreneurship!and!that!it!is!an!urgent!issue!and!one!that!all!nations!must! address!if!they!seek!to!grow!and!prosper.!! ! The! overall! focus! is! on! the! need! to! change! student! attitudes! towards! entrepreneurship! through!the!development!of!entrepreneurial!behaviours!and!mindsets.!!This!suggests!an! emphasis!on!delineating!and!developing!an!entrepreneurial!habitus!in!students!whilst!also!
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positioning!students!as!not!currently!having!the!‘right’!mindset!or!the!required!capabilities! in! order! to! be! entrepreneurial.! There! is! an! acceptance,! as! evidenced! in! the! wider! literature,!that!entrepreneurship!can!be!learned!and!developed!and!that!it!is!not!‘naturally’! within!certain!types!of!people!and!that!entrepreneurship!education!can!influence!student! attitudes! towards! their! chances! of! success! and! make! it! seem! a! more! ‘feasible’! (and! socially! or! ethically! attractive)! option.! Part! of! this! approach! emphasises! ‘the! responsible! behaviour!of!many!entrepreneurs!(EC,!2004,!p.7),!suggesting!that!entrepreneurs!are!not! currently! seen! as! responsible! and! that! this! may! alienate! people,! making! them! feel! that! entrepreneurship! is! not! for! ‘people! like! them’.! However,! the! insistence! on! developing! an! ‘entrepreneurial!mindset’!implies!a!belief!!that!all!entrepreneurs!have!the!‘same’!mindset! and!that!this!is!measurable,!able!to!be!learned!and!desirable!for!all!–!stressing!the!need!to! inculcate! these! suggested! skills! and! abilities.! ! There! is! no! meaningful! engagement! with! where! these! suggested! skills! and! abilities! have! developed! from,! with! no! evidence! or! research! basis! offered! for! this! entrepreneurial! mindset,! suggesting! a! settlement! and! certainty! that! is! contested! in! the! literature.! Ultimately,! all! of! these! documents! position! entrepreneurship!
as!
an!
economic!
imperativeW!
according!
entrepreneurs!
and!
entrepreneurial!behaviours!high!status!skills!and!responsibility!and!emphasising!their!role! as!economic!drivers!for!the!‘global’!economy.!! ! Volkmann!et!al,!(2009)!do!focus!on!women!as!subjects!(with!women!being!the!third!most! mentioned! subjects! after! students! and! entrepreneurs)! however,! women! are! ! primarily! positioned! within! a! social! exclusion! chapter! and! are! only! mentioned! once! within! the! entrepreneurship! education! in! HE! chapter.! The! ! images! chosen! to! illustrate! ! HE! entrepreneurship!education!!(pp.!42!–!79)!are!also!maleNdominated:!!five!of!the!nine!show! maleNonly! groups! (three! of! which! have! a! science/technology! focus)! and! one! shows! a! femaleNonly! group! (of! one! white! and! one! black! woman! in! lab! coats! handling! chemicals,! also! suggesting! a! science! focus).! ! Of! the! other! three! images! that! include! men! and! women,!one!shows!a!lecture!theatre!with!a!male!lecturer!and!one!visible!female!student! amongst! approximately! 30! male! students! (suggesting! a! lecture! in! a! maleNdominated! discipline),! another! shows! a! group! of! 10! males! with! one! female! and! one! is! a! more! abstract!image!of!mortar!boards!(presumably!to!signify!graduates)!which!shows!two!longN haired! graduates! from! behind.! Women,! however,! dominate! photographs! illustrating! entrepreneurship! education! for! social! inclusion! (pp.! 80! –! 113)! with! four! of! the! five! photographs! being! exclusively! black,! female! subjects! and! one! photo! showing! a! black! male.! ! This! highlights! the! positioning! of! gender! and! ethnicity! with! regards! different!
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imaginings! of! entrepreneurshipW! focused! on! science! and! technology! and! men! within! HE! and! on! social! enterprise! and! black! women! within! entrepreneurship! for! social! inclusion.! The!suggested!concern!in!this!document!N!that!women!receive!support!and!education!N!!is! undermined! by! an! emphasis! on! science! and! technology! in! HE! which,! in! the! UK,! has! a! lower!female!undergraduate!intake.!The!only!mention!of!women!in!the!HE!section!is!that! they!are!'less!inclined!to!found!and!manage!innovationNorientated!highNgrowth!firms'!whilst! 'ethnic! and! immigrant! entrepreneurs'! are! suggested! as! not! being! 'initially! innovative! in! their!business!approach.’!!(p.45).!!The!link!to!discipline!studied!is,!however,!not!explored! suggesting!that!women!are!'weak'!in!this!area!or!unaware!of!their!options!–!which!again! may! be! indicative! of! relative! access! or! exposure! to! entrepreneurship! and! ! enterprise! activities.! In!the!EC!documents!women!are!!identified!as!posing!a!‘difficulty’!or!a!‘problem’! as! they! don’t! ‘fit’! with! the! suggested! approaches! needed! for! economic! growth.! In! all! documents! women! N! who! are! often! linked! with! ethnic! minorities! as! in! ! 'women! and! entrepreneurs!from!ethnic!minorities'!(EC,!2004)!N!are!positioned!as!having!different!and! specific! needs! from! mainstream! entrepreneurs! who! are! suggested! as! not! being! women! and!not!being!ethnic!minorities.!This!also!insinuates!that!women!and!ethnic!minorities!are! discrete! groups,! raising! questions! about! where! women! from! ethnic! minorities! ‘sit’! within! the!conceptualisations!of!difference!and!‘othering’!within!these!documents.!There!is!also!a! suggestion! that! ‘women! and! ethnic! minorities’! need! to! change! somehow,! or! be! encouraged!to!become!more!like!the!mainstream!high!growth!entrepreneur,!implying!that! these! ‘others’! do! not! possess! an! entrepreneurial! mindset! or! that! their! entrepreneurial! potential! is! not! yet! being! fully! ‘exploited’! (EC,! 2006,! p.3).! In! the! Oslo! Agenda! the! only! mention! of! gender! is! masculine,! rebutting! worries! that! entrepreneurship! education! is! about!‘turning!all!pupils!into!businessmen”!(EC,!2007!p.2)!and!suggesting!an!acceptance! of!a!link!between!‘business’!and!‘men’! ! The! relative! importance! and! visibility! of! subjects! in! ! these! documents! also! crystallises! around!!students!rather!than!teachers!or!academic!staff!and!emphasises!learning!rather! than!teaching.!The!role!of!the!teacher!or!lecturer!in!shaping!or!influencing!the!curriculum! is! ignored,! suggesting! an! unproblematic! approach! to! the! role! of! teachers,! positioning! educators!as!neutral!conduits!of!valueNfree!and!uncontested!information,!knowledge!and! skills! with! little! importance! in! the! negotiation! or! arbitration! of! the! suggested! knowledge! base!that!is!drawn!upon!within!the!classroom.!!Indeed,!entrepreneurs!and!other!‘external! experts’! are! suggested! as! relatively! more! important! than! educators,! emphasising! the! external! influences! on! entrepreneurship! education! in! HE! and! positioning! it! as! a! subject!
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which! is! heavily! informed! by! external! agendas.! ! Where! educators! are! specifically! mentioned! they! ‘lack! motivation! and! specific! training’! (EC,! 2006,! p.! 8)! requiring! the! ‘organisation! of! seminars! and! training’.! ! In! line! with! the! emphasis! on! external! stakeholders,! much! of! the! talk! about! educators! revolves! around! their! engagement! with! businesses! and! entrepreneurs! and! the! involvement! of! business! people! in! teaching! (EC! 2006,!p.!12),!emphasising!the!role!of!educators!other!than!lecturers!such!as!practitioners! and! entrepreneurs! (EC! 2007,! p.! 1)! with! private! actors! in! the! form! of! businesses,! entrepreneurs!and!outside!organisations!identified!as!prime!movers!in!the!development!of! employability!and!entrepreneurship!skills!amongst!students!(EC,!2006).!This!emphasises! the!multiplicity!of!stakeholders!and!external!influences!on!HE!entrepreneurship!education! with!‘mentoring!and!coaching!from!people!with!business!experience’!suggested!as!a!basic! element! in! all! entrepreneurship! training! (EC! 2007,! p.! 4),! deemphasising! the! role! of! the! teacher!!and!highlighting!the!lack!of!status!and!credibility!that!teachers!are!afforded,!with! the!EC!documents!particularly!emphasising!the!role!of!SMEs!rather!than!HE!educators!or! academics.! A! lack! of! fit! is! suggested! between! the! fields! of! business! and! HE,! with! suggestions! that! HE! educators! do! not! speak! the! language! of! entrepreneurship,! emphasising! that! educators! lack! direct! experience! of! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship,! creating! an! academic/vocationalNpractical! divide! and! a! clash! between! academic! and! vocational! approaches! in! HE! suggesting! that! entrepreneurship! and! those! who! teach! in! this!area!lack!not!only!business!but!academic!credibility.!! ! 2.2!UK!Policy!Documents!Analysed:! ! 5.!!BERR!(2008)!Enterprise:!unlocking!the!UK’s!talent!HM!Treasury!! ! Although!two!years!old,!this!document!is!cited!on!the!recently!established!Department!for! Business,! Innovation! and! Skills! (DBIS)! web! site! as! forming! the! government’s! current! enterprise! strategy! (with! DBIS! also! having! responsibility! for! the! UK! HE! sector).! Surprisingly,! given! the! title! of! the! document,! there! is! no! definition! of! ! enterprise! or! what! enterprise!skills!might!be!although!!enterprise!is!frequently!used!as!a!preNfix!in!to!words! such!as!‘culture’,!‘spirit’,!‘vision’!and!‘economy’.!This!lack!of!definition!regarding!enterprise! and! entrepreneurship,! suggests! that! these! terms! are! ‘commonNknowledge’! and! that! the! authors! and! the! readers! both! understand! and! agree! the! meaning! of! these! terms.! This! presents! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! as! ! uncontested! ! and! settledW! linked! with! business! ownership,! selfNemployment,! economic! growth! and! prosperity! for! all,! including!
102
those! who! are! identified! as! 'notNenterprising’! such! as! women,! young! people! and! other! ‘disadvantaged! groups’.!Although! the! document! does! not! delineate! what! enterprise! ‘is’! it! suggests!that!there!are!five!key!enablers!for!‘it’:!!cultureW!knowledge!and!skillsW!access!to! financeW! regulatory! frameworkW! and! business! innovation’! (p.! 14).! ! The! suggestion! that! enterprise! is! a! ‘talent’! positions! it! as! something! innate! or! naturally! within! individuals! and! the!positioning!of!the!UK!as!a!concrete!particular!suggests!that!the!talent!and!abilities!of! people!within!the!UK!should!be!put!to!work!in!developing!the!international!position!of!the! United!Kingdom!–!that!the!UK!somehow!‘owns’!this!talent!and!is!responsible!for!creating! the! conditions! that! will! tease! this! innate! talent! out! of! UK! individuals! once! the! suggested! enablers!are!in!place.!!! ! Although! this! document! is! not! specifically! focused! upon! the! role! of! HE,! there! are! suggestions! that! women! who! are! selfNemployed! are! better! educated! than! their! male! counterparts!and!that!‘around!a!quarter!of!selfNemployed!women!(24%)!have!a!degree!or! equivalent,! compared! with! a! lower! level! of! 18! per! cent! of! selfNemployed! men.! This! is! almost! a! reversal! of! the! situation! for! paid! employment.’! (p.39).! This! suggests! that,! for! women,! education! is! an! important! preNcursor! to! selfNemployment! and! also! that! women! have!a!disposition!towards!HE.!!However,!the!only!graduates!specifically!mentioned!in!the! report! are! from! Science,! Technology,! Engineering! and! Maths! (STEM)! based! disciplines,! subject!areas!which,!as!previously!discussed,!continue!to!be!maleNdominated!in!the!UK.!!! As!in!Volkmann!et!al!above,!whilst!women!are!identified!as!a!group!to!be!supported!and! encouraged!in!their!entrepreneurial!endeavours!and!whilst!they!are!also!likely!to!be!‘better! educated’! than! their! male! counterparts,! this! does! not! translate! into! a! focus! on! female! undergraduates! and! there! is! an! emphasis! on! highNgrowth! businesses,! premised! on! science!and!technologyNbased!disciplines!as!the!basis!for!HE!entrepreneurial!outcomes.!! ! Women!are!the!only!subjects!picked!out!strongly!and!identified!as!a!group,!mentioned!146! times! (men! are! mentioned! 11! times).! It! is! also! interesting! to! note! that! 10! out! of! the! 11! mentions! of! men! are! related! to! comparisons! with! women! and! only! once! are! men! mentioned! as! an! independent! subject! and! not! used! as! a! benchmark! for! the! apparent! ‘failures’!or!‘deficits’!of!women,!with!‘ethnic!minorities’!and!‘the!young’!being!the!next!most! mentioned! subjects.! !There! is! an! intimation! that! these! groups! are! ‘othered’! in! relation! to! white! masculinity! with! ‘men’! and! ‘male’! ! rarely! mentioned,! and! appearing! to! be! the! 'invisible'! scale! against! which! ‘other’! identified! groups! are! measured.! It! is! argued! that! entrepreneurship! should! now! be! encouraged! in! these! ‘others’! –! more! specifically! in!
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women.! Women! are! positioned! as! a! homogeneous! group,! lacking! skills! and! knowledge! with!a!discrete!subNsection!of!the!document!entitled!–!Skills!for!Women!(pp.!42!–!45).!The! role! of! HE! in! supporting! women! is! not! mentioned,! with! the! support! of! nascent! women! entrepreneurs!viewed!as!a!function!of!business!support!agencies!such!as!Business!Link! and! of! regional! development! agencies! (RDAs)! rather! than! being! addressed! through! the! education! system.! ! Students! are! presented! as! a! genderNneutral,! homogeneous! group,!! rendering! female! students! invisible! N! although! they! currently! form! the! majority! of! HE! undergraduates!N!and!undermining!the!document’s!suggested!focus!on!supporting!women! in!their!entrepreneurial!aspirations.!!! ! Ultimately,! ! women! are! suggested! as! being! a! 'problem'! as! they! have! the! lowest! aspirations! and! the! most! reservations! about! entrepreneurship! and! ‘On! measures! of! enterprise! culture,! women! score! consistently! lower! than! men’! (p.10).! ! In! addressing! this! lack!of!aspiration!there!is!an!emphasis!on!how!women!can!be!‘improved’!or!'persuaded'! through!training!and!support!which!positions!women!as!‘notNknowing’!and!deficient!in!skills! that!men!already!'have'.!The!document!suggests!that!'the!Government!will!make!sure!that! the!progress!we!have!made!with!young!people!feeds!through!to!other!sections!of!society,! particularly! girls! and! women.'! (p.35)! and,! again,! as! with! mentions! of! women! and! ethnic! monitories,!there!is!a!suggestion!that!by!young!people!the!authors!mean!young!men.!! ! There! are! suggestions! of! a! female! gendered! habitus! and! also! the! gendered! conditions! which!support!the!development!of!entrepreneurial!capital!with!differences!between!males! and!females!(p.!27!–!28):! ! ! ! !
Women’s!fear!of!failure!is!higher!(39.2!per!cent)!compared! with!men!(32.6!per!cent)!and!women!are!substantially!less! likely:! i.!to!know!an!entrepreneur!(22.5!per!cent! compared!with!31.7!per!cent!of!men)W! ii.!to!see!good!business!opportunities!(32.1!per! cent!compared!with!41.2!per!cent!of!men)W! and! iii.! or!to!think!they!have!the!skills!to!start!a! business!(39.8!per!cent!compared!with!58.6! per!cent!of!men).!
! The! use! of! statistics! such! as! these,! comparing! men! and! women,! uses! males! as! a! benchmark!against!which!to!‘judge’!women!and!find!them!wanting,!leading!to!suggestions! that! women’s! deficiency! is! due! to! a! combination! of! gendered! capital! and! a! feminised!
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habitus!–!that!women!lack!the!social!capital!inherent!in!knowing!entrepreneurs!and!they! are! not! as! proficient! as! men! in! recognising! ‘good’! business! opportunitiesW! that! women! might!pursue!ideas!which!are!not!considered!to!be!‘good’!or!might!identify!‘bad’!business! ideas.! The! use! of! the! word! ‘good’! indicates! particular! value! judgements! about! what! is! considered! to! be! a! ‘good’! business! opportunity! and! who! or! what! the! idea! considered! is! ‘good’! for.! The! potential! for! women! to! think! that! they! do! not! have! the! skills! to! start! a! business! and! the! fact! that! nearly! two! thirds! of! men! do! consider! themselves! as! having! these!suggests!a!privileging!of!skills!positioned!as!more!readily!available!to!males.!!This! creates! a! symbolic! link! between! gender! and! the! skills! required! for! business! ownership! and! that! males! are! either! encouraged! or! offered! opportunities! to! gain! these! skills! or! at! least!to!‘think’!that!they!have!gained!these!skills!in!a!way!that!women!are!not.!The!report! also! compares! women’s! enterprise! in! the! United! States! and! United! Kingdom! and! positions! women's! lack! of! enterprise! in! the! UK! as! the! primary! ‘cause’! of! the! ‘enterprise! gap! between! the! UK! and! the! US! (p.3).! However,! rather! than! exploring! the! UK! environment!as!less!‘friendly’!to!women!who!wish!to!set!up!in!business,!this!is!presented! as! particular! to! UK! women! and! their! lack! of! confidence! and! so! the! development! of! projects! to! ! ‘instil! women! with! the! confidence,! skills! and! knowledge! they! need! to! successfully!start!their!own!businesses,!and!to!increase!their!understanding!of!how!they! could! grow! their! businesses’! ! (p.3)! is! advocated.! Agency! is! stressed,! emphasising! the! current!(in)capabilities!of!women,!rather!than!the!structures!and!mechanisms!that!women! may! navigate.! It! is! assumed! that! once! women! overcome! their! inadequacies! they! will! automatically!choose!enterprise!and!grow!their!businesses!in!line!with!the!current!models! of!the!‘successful’!entrepreneur.!However,!this!clashes!with!earlier!assertions!that!the!UK! ‘has! the! lowest! barriers! to! entrepreneurship! of! all! OECD! countries’! and! as! OECD! countries! include! the! USA! this! suggests! that! there! are! cultural! (rather! than! business)! barriers! in! the! UK! ! that! actively! undermine! female! entrepreneurship.! It! is,! however,! suggested!that!women!are!so!deficient!that!even!with!these!low!barriers!to!business!in!the! UK!they!do!not!have!the!skills!or!abilities!to!take!advantage!of!business!ownership.!!!! ! 2.3!UK!!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise!Education!Focused!Documents!Analysed! ! 6.!Herrmann,!K!(2008)!Developing!Entrepreneurial!Graduates:!Putting! entrepreneurship!at!the!centre!of!higher!education!(NESTA,!NCGE,!CIHE)! 7.!Moreland,!N.!(2006)!Entrepreneurship!and!higher!education:!an!!employability! perspective!!(Enhancing!Student!Employability!CoN!ordination!Team!–!ESECT!and!
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the!HE!Academy)! 8.!Davies,!H.!(2002)!A!Review!of!Enterprise!and!the!Economy!in!! Education!(HM! Treasury)!! ! Herrmann’s! report! is! on! behalf! of! three! organisations,! the! National! Endowment! for! Science,! Technology! and! the! Arts! (NESTA),! the! National! Council! for! Graduate! Entrepreneurship!(NCGE)!and!the!Council!for!Industry!and!Higher!Education!(CIHE).!It!is! a!result!of!bringing!together!a!panel!of!international!experts!and!presents!a!‘framework!to! help! every! HEI! to! create! an! enabling! environment! as! part! of! a! crossNcampus! approach’! (p.4)!N!this!framework!!!is!based!upon!Gibb!(2005),!which!is!analysed!later!in!this!chapter.! Moreland’s! report! is! primarily! intended! for! ‘staff! in! higher! education! institutions! who! are! considering! the! enhancement! of! student! employability’! and! is! on! behalf! of! the! Higher! Education!Academy.! ! The! Davies! Review! is! the! result! of! a! review! team! made! up! of! ‘A! huge! number! of! organisations,! businesses! and! individuals’! with! 17! named! schools! and! colleges!identified!and!the!review’s!audience!!being!‘the!government’!and!others!involved! in!developing!enterprise!education.!The!documents!offer!varying!definitions!of!enterprise! and! entrepreneurship,! with! Moreland! suggesting! a! focus! on! what! an! entrepreneur! does! rather!than!who!an!entrepreneur!is,!and!that!‘entrepreneurs!come!from!all!walks!of!life!and! have!all!sorts!of!backgrounds’!(p.4)!and!a!widening!of!definitions!and!a!move!away!from!a! focus! on! business! creation! is! evident! in! Herrmann’s! report! which! stresses,! ‘Entrepreneurship!is!not!solely!about!business!skills!or!starting!new!venturesW!it!is!a!way!of! thinking! and! behaving! relevant! to! all! parts! of! society! and! the! economy’! and! this! way! of! thinking:!! ! develops! individuals’! mindsets,! behaviours,! skills! and! capabilities! and! can!be!applied!to!create!value!in!a!range!of!contexts!and!environments! from! the! public! sector,! charities,! universities! and! social! enterprises! to! corporate!organisations!and!new!venture!startNups.!Entrepreneurial!and! enterprising!graduates!should!be!equipped!to!fulfill!their!potential!and!to! create!their!own!futures.!(Herrmann,!2008!p.12,!author's!emphasis)! ! In! this! way! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! are! suggested! as! personally! liberating,! emphasising!the!agential!capacity!inherent!in!being!able!to!‘create!one’s!own!future’!and!a! sense!that,!if!one!is!equipped!with!the!'right'!skills!and!capabilities!then!success!or!failure! is! the! responsibility! of! the! individual.! The! Davies! Review’s! definition! of! ‘enterprise! capability’! echoes! this,! suggesting! that! this! is! an! individual’s! capacity! to! ‘handle! uncertainty! and! respond! positively! to! change...! to! make! reasonable! risk/reward!
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assessments!and!act!upon!them!in!one’s!personal!and!working!life.’!(pp.!18!–!19)!which!is! premised!upon!the!development!of!certain!knowledge,!skills,!attitudes!and!qualities.!!The! role!of!HE!education!in!developing!these!capabilities,!skills!and!attitudes!is!positioned!as! urgent!and!‘a!call!for!action’!(Herrmann,!2008!p.6)!with!Moreland!(2006,!p.!5)!suggesting! that! ! ‘higher! education! can! help! students! develop! an! entrepreneurial! cast! of! mind,! to! appreciate!some!of!the!practicalities!of!an!entrepreneurial!life!and!to!take!the!first!steps!to! selfNemployment.’!The!role!of!HE!is!to!develop!and!inculcate!this!‘entrepreneurial!cast!of! mind’! within! students! as! they! do! not! currently! possess! ‘it’! and! ! their! ! future! success! as! employable!graduates!depends!upon!this!–!more!so!than!their!knowledge!of!their!subject! or! any! other! abilities! not! allied! to! entrepreneurial! success! and! employability.! However,! HEIs,! whilst! having! pockets! of! good! practice,! are! positioned! as! needing! to! develop! learning! environments! to! support! ! entrepreneurial! mindsets! in! students! and! this! is! only! possible! by! embedding! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! throughout! the! HE! curriculum.! However,! a! sense! of! cultural! hostility! towards! entrepreneurship! within! the! education!sector!is!suggested,!with!Davies!arguing!that!‘our!schools!are!positively!hostile! to! entrepreneurship’! and! Herrmann! (p.6)! that! ‘Major! structural,! cultural! and! attitudinal! barriers! are! making! it! hard! to! embed! entrepreneurship! education! in! HEIs.'! Staff! are! barriers! to! this:! lacking! the! necessary! confidence,! training! or! understanding! of! the! possibilities!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!for!their!studentsW!being!wary!of! the! extra! burden! of! embedding! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! within! the! school! curriculum! and! the! development! and! management! of! external! relationships! that! this! impliesW! and! emphasising! the! many! ! ‘forces! external! to! higher! education’! that! influence! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE.!Although!the!Davies!report!!focuses!on! schools!and!colleges!rather!than!HE,!it!suggests!N!in!common!with!many!of!the!documents! N! that! education! has! a! part! to! play! in! changing! perceptions! and! attitudes! and! in! building! skills! and! knowledge! that! will! help! young! people! to! succeed! in! their! own! businesses! stating,!‘!the!education!system…!can!play!a!positive!role!in!equipping!young!people!with! the! attitudes,! skills,! knowledge,! and! understanding! that! help! them! manage…their! future! working! lives.’! particularly! with! regards! job! insecurity! and! the! need! to! be! enterprising! in! order!to!succeed!in!life.!
Herrmann’s!report!positions!students!as!genderNneutral!and!homogeneous,!suggesting!an! overNarching!need!for!all!students!regardless!of!their!background!to!become!enterprising! and! entrepreneurial.! This! suggested! homogeneous! student! body! highlights! the! way! in! which!the!HE!sector!is!positioned!as!set!apart!from!wider!national!and!international!focus!
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on!the!development!of!womenNowned!businesses!and!links!are!not!made!between!these! wider! agendas! and! how! HE! might! support! women.! ! Likewise,! the! Davies! Review! is! genderN! neutral! –! presenting! students! as! homogeneous! and! only! making! distinctions! between! students! at! different! stages! of! their! school! ‘career’! e.g.! primary,! secondary! and! tertiary.! ! Herrmann’s! report! ! does,! however,! acknowledge! the! importance! of! discipline! studied,! ! placing! an! emphasis! on! Science,! Technology,! Engineering! and! Innovation! graduates!and!suggesting!that!students!from!the!‘arts’!are!suspicious!and!alienated!from! entrepreneurship! (p.14).! While! Moreland! too! concentrates! on! the! homogeneous! student! and! graduate! he! does! mention! ‘other! examples’! of! entrepreneurship! as! being! ‘social! entrepreneurs,! minority! ethnic! and! female! entrepreneurs,! and! ecoNentrepreneurs’! (p.! 4),! suggesting! these! ‘others’! are! ‘outside’! the! purely! economic! conceptions! of! the! entrepreneur! and! that! these! ‘types’! of! entrepreneur! do! not! necessarily! contribute! to! economic! growth! and! are! different! to! mainstream! imaginings! of! entrepreneurship.! This! suggests! a! concept! of! ‘true’! or! ‘real’! entrepreneurship! against! which! these! ‘other’! types! are! positioned! and! judged! ! –! marginalizing! them! and! rendering! them! less! important.! In! line! with! the! wider! literature! and! with! other! documents! analysed,! it! is! suggested! that! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE!has!low!status!and!that!this!also!affects! the! status! and! motivation! of! staff! towards! being! involved! with! teaching! in! this! area.!This! low!status!may!explain!the!lack!of!staff!visibility!in!the!documents!and!their!implied!lack!of! importance!in!shaping!and!developing!the!HE!curriculum,!with!the!focus!on!students!and! graduates!as!recipients!of!knowledge!and!skills!and!on!external!stakeholders!as!the!main! influencers!of!these!required!skills!and!abilities.!!Indeed,!Herrmann!emphasises!students,! entrepreneurs!and!stakeholders!more!prominently!than!academic!staff!and,!again,!there!is! an!emphasis!on!learning!rather!than!teaching.!!!
In! all! of! the! documents! educators! are! positioned! as! ‘delivering’! and! ‘implementing’! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! rather! than! teaching,! positioning! them! as! delivery!mechanisms!and!conduits!of!information!and!knowledge!flow!between!the!wider! field!of!influence!and!students.!In!ignoring!the!potentially!arbitrating!role!of!educators!the! documents! suggest! a! takenNforN! granted! conceptualisation! of! ‘what’! educators! ‘do’! that! masks!the!reality!of!their!roles!in!different!institutional!contexts!and!with!different!students! cohorts,!further!suggesting!that!students!are!homogeneous!and!have!the!same!needs!and! requirements!from!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!because!they!are!all!lacking! in!this!area.!There!is!no!engagement!with!the!impact!or!influence!that!educators!may!have! upon!the!presentation!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!other!than!the!need!for!them!to!
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be!trained!to!deliver!and!understand!the!knowledge!and!attitudes!that!their!students!‘need’! to!gain.!!However,!there!is!also!a!suggestion!that!educators!do!not!have!any!experience! outside! the! field! of! education! –! i.e.! in! the! field! of! business! N! so! they! do! not! understand! what!this!‘really’!entails!and!for!this!reason!it!is!argued!that!HEIS!should!involve!external! experts!who!‘really’!know!about!entrepreneurship.!!In!HE!this!need!for!an!understanding!of! both! the! field! of! education! and! the! field! of! business! results! in! a! focus! on! developing! teachers!and!educators!who!straddle!the!fields!of!business!and!education!and!is!evident! in! mentions! of! professors! of! practice! (Herrmann,! 2008)! and! in! the! suggested! need! for! educator!mobility,!allowing!them!to!move!between!the!fields!of!academia!and!business.!! 2.4!Research!and!Policy!Documents!published!through!the!National!Council!for! Graduate!Entrepreneurship! ! 9.!!!Botham,!R.!and!Mason,!C.!(2007)!Good!Practice!in!Enterprise!Development!in! UK!Higher!Education!!! 10.!National!Council!for!Graduate!Entrepreneurship!(2007)!Enterprise!and!!! Entrepreneurship!in!Higher!Education!! 11.!Hannon,!P!(2006)!Defining!a!Research!and!Education!Policy!Framework! 12.!Kirby,!D.!(2006)!Creating!Entrepreneurial!Universities!!! ! 13.!Mckeown,!J.,!Milman,!C.,!Sursani,!S.R.,!Smith,!K.!and!Martin,!L.!M.!(2006)!UK!!! Graduate!Entrepreneurship!!Education!in!England!Wales!and!Scotland!! 14.!Pittaway!L.!and!Cope,!J.!(2006)!Entrepreneurship!Education:!A!systematic! review!of!the!evidence!! 15.!Gibb,!A.!(2005)!Towards!the!Entrepreneurial!University:!entrepreneurship! education!as!a!lever!for!change!! ! Botham! and! Mason’s! stated! aim! is! to! shape! ‘the! environment! for! entrepreneurship! education!in!HE!through!identifying!examples!of!good!practice.',!however!in!doing!so!they! acknowledge! that! ‘there! is! no! consensus! on! what! constitutes! enterprise! education! or! enterprise! activity! in! the! HEI! context.’! (p.! 8).! They! do! attempt! to! differentiate! between! enterprising! individuals! and! entrepreneurs! suggesting! that! enterprising! individuals! ‘demonstrate!behaviours,!attitudes!and!skills!such!as!independence,!opportunity!seeking,! strategic!thinking!and!a!commitment!to!making!things!happen.!They!can!apply!these!skills! in! more! or! less! any! walk! of! life.’! (p.8)! and! that! entrepreneurs! ‘apply! such! skills! and! behaviours!to!the!process!of!setting!up!and!running!(and!perhaps!growing)!a!new!for!profit! or!social!business!organisation.’,!therefore!making!a!clear!link!between!entrepreneurship!
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and! business! ownership,! which! other! documents! have! challenged! and! also! positioning! entrepreneurship!as!linked!to!individuals!and!their!behaviours.!!In!their!attempt!to!define! good!practice!and!to!offer!recommendations!for!HE!entrepreneurship!education!that!build! upon!this!they!engage!with!Gibb's!(2005)!NCGE!outcome!framework!(Botham!and!Mason,! 2007,! pp.! 10! N12)! aimed! at! delineating! the! desired! outcomes! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!in!HE.!They!also!emphasise!!the!importance!of!discipline!studied!by! undergraduates,!saying!that!‘A!preNrequisite!for!many!entrepreneurs!is!the!technical!skills! and! knowledge! which! underpin! their! products,! service! and! business! ideas.! Biotech! companies,! for! example,! are! generally! created! by! biotechnologists,! not! individuals! specialising! in! entrepreneurship'! (p.8).! Botham! and! Mason's! paper! is! one! of! the! few! documents!analysed!with!a!sense!of!history!and!it!places!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise! within!the!wider!historical,!political!and!social!context,!mentioning!Schumpeter’s!influence! and!also!charting!the!development!of!courses!and!modules!in!HE!since!the!early!80s.!!
Pittaway! and! Cope! (2006)! suggest! there! is! a! lack! of! clarity! around! entrepreneurship! education!and!that!'the!idea!of!‘entrepreneurship!education!as!one!thing'!is!problematic!(p.! 11),! challenging! suggestions! of! stability! or! settlement! and! highlighting! ! areas! of! contestation!!identified!earlier!in!this!thesis.!Mindful!of!this!contestation!Pittaway!and!Cope! (2006.!p.!26)!do!not!offer!a!definition!because:! ! We! do! not! really! know! what! ‘entrepreneurship! education’! actually! ‘is’W! policy! is! generally! unclear! about! what! outputs! are! to! be! created! when! such! education! is! promotedW! and,! even! if! these! policy! questions! were! resolved!we!do!not!know!what!works!and!to!what!end.! ! This! highlights! the! onNgoing! uncertainties! and! instability! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!as!subjects!within!HE,!given!that!Pittaway!and!Cope's!document!is!the!result!of! a! systematic! literature! review! of! papers! from! entrepreneurship! focused! journals.! ! This! instability! and! contestation! is! evident! within! the! research! base! but! not! within! policy! or! review! documents! –! an! aspect! of! the! grey! literature! highlighted! by! Pittaway! and! Cope! when! they! say:! 'the! evidence! on! which! policy! is! being! made! is! unsubstantial'! and! this! is! reflected! in! the! policy! documents! analysed! and! suggestions! of! settlement! in! this! area.! Indeed,!Gibb's!report!for!the!NCGE,!about!developing!entrepreneurial!universities,!shows! no! engagement! with! the! research! literature! –! having! no! citations! or! references.! Entrepreneurial! universities! are! defined! by! Gibb! (2005! p.! 2)! as! places! where! ‘entrepreneurship! is! part! of! the! fabric! of! the! institution’! and! he! rejects! the! traditional! business! model! N! which! he! defines! as! focused! on! 'innovation,! technology,! scale! and!
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growth'! and! the! 'centrality! of! the! business! plan! and! business! startNup! based! upon! a! 'market! model'! of! the! context! in! which! entrepreneurs! work.'! ! Gibb! argues! against! this! traditional! view,! suggesting! the! need! for! pedagogical! approaches! that! allow! students! to! 'feel! what! it! is! like! to! be! entrepreneurial'.! (p.5).! !There! is,! however,! no! engagement! with! where! these! models! have! come! from,! other! than! that! they! have! developed! from! the! marketNled!culture!in!business!schools.!Gibb!argues!that!these!businessNfocused!models! do! not! 'fit'! with! the! HE! sector! and! are! difficult! for! HEIs! to! accept! and! so! suggests! alternative!models,!!based!on!the!role!of!'entrepreneurship!in!society',!and!suggests!this! will! make! entrepreneurship! more! acceptable! within! HE,! ! 'open! to! all! and! not! exclusively! the! domain! of! the! highNflying,! growth! seeking! businessperson'! (p.6).! ! This! positions! entrepreneurship! as! one! of! a! range! of! employment! options! for! students! and! graduates! and!that!'!the!range!of!entrepreneurial!behaviours...(are)!central!to!their!future!careers!and! social!life,!irrespective!of!whether!they!immediately!start!a!businesses!or!not.”!(p.!8).!!!
All! of! the! documents! argue! that! HE! can! have! a! positive! impact! on! rates! of! entrepreneurship! but! there! are! recurrent! suggestions! of! cultural! hostility! in! subjects! outside! business! schools! and! that! it! is! difficult! to! bring! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! into! these! courses! due! to! ideological! differences! N! with! enterprise! being! seen! as! ‘too! Thatcherite'! (Hannon,! p.99)! or! too! marketNled! and! not! fitting! the! ethos! of! HEIs! (Gibb)! whilst!Kirby!(!p.5)!cites!McNay!(2002)!who!says:!‘Enterprise’!provokes!“an!image!of!shady! villainy,! a! fifth! column! gnawing! away! at! the! basic! values! that! define! a! university,! a! wolf! masquerading!as!a!milchNcow”.!!!However,!all!of!the!documents!do!agree!that,!regardless! of! a! potential! lack! of! 'fit'! between! HEIs! (and! indeed! certain! disciplines)! and! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education,! this! is! important! for! all! students.! Along! with! their! students,! HEIs! are! also! judged! as! entrepreneurial! or! not! ! (GibbW! Kirby! and! NCGE)! with! the! NCGE! suggesting! that! fewer! than! 50%! of! universities! display! entrepreneurial! characteristics.! ! All! argue! that! the! development! of! both! entrepreneurial! students! and! entrepreneurial!universities!is!challenging!but!necessary,!given!the!affects!of!'globalisation'! and! the! rise! of! the! 'knowledge! economy'! and! that! HEIs! are! well! placed! to! support! the! economic!aims!of!governments!allied!to!this.!!Gibb!foregrounds!the!importance!of!building! relationships! with! 'business! and! wider! stakeholder! community',! emphasising! the! importance!of!encouraging!students!to!interact!with!entrepreneurs,!again!highlighting!the!! importance! placed! on! external! relationships! rather! than! relationships! between! HEIs,! educators!and!students.!In!emphasising!the!role!of!external!stakeholders!Gibb’s!focus!is,! surprisingly,! not! on! universities! but! on! the! relationships! and! the! influence! of! external!
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stakeholders! rather! than! the! institutions! themselves,! also! evident! in! the! lack! of! focus! on! academic!staff!in!the!document.!Although!Gibb!emphasises!that!his!suggested!Template! for!Entrepreneurship!Learning!Outcomes!is!!'not!meant!to!represent!the!definitive!article,! nor! are! they! a! template! against! which! to! assess! the! worthiness! of! programmes',! ! they! form!the!basis!for!the!framework!outlined!in!Herrmann's!(2008)!report!and!do!not!appear! to! have! changed! in! the! intervening! three! years.! Therefore! they! appear! to! have! been! accepted! as! the! definite! article! and! a! template! against! which! to! judge! HE! provision! and! what! is! suggested! as! tentative! in! 2005! has,! in! 2008! become! the! basis! for! the! future! development!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!HE.!!
All!of!the!documents!suggest!that!HE!has!a!positive!impact!on!rates!of!entrepreneurship,! with! varying! degrees! of! emphasis! on! 'whose'! rate! of! entrepreneurship! this! might! impact! on.!Botham!and!Mason!(p.7)!assert!that,!although!participation!in!HE!is!associated!with!an! increase! in! entrepreneurial! activity,! 'a! significant! gender! gap! persists',! with! studies! confirming! 'that! participation! in! Higher! Education! does! not! close! the! entrepreneurial! gender! gap.'! Gibb’s! and! ! Kirby’s! papers! are! genderNneutral,! with! no! mention! of! the! experiences! of! male! and! female! students! and,! although! Hannon! suggests! that! he! used! data!search!terms!that!included!gender,!women/female!and!ethnic!minority,!!these!do!not! feature! heavily! in! the! resulting! analysis! or! discussion.! Botham! and! Mason! highlight! the! gender! gap! in! graduate! entrepreneurship! early! on! but! do! not! explore! the! role! of! HE! ! in! relation! to! this.! Mckeown! et! al! (p.! 60)! do! identify! that! 'female! entrepreneurship,! ethnic! entrepreneurship! and! social! enterprise',! are! emerging! as! 'key! components'! in! HE! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!but!suggest!that!this!has!not!led!HEIs!to!focus! on! the! needs! of! these! particular! groups! of! students,! with! respondents! suggesting! that:! 'there!was!no!need!to!have!these!as!specific!modules'!especially!as:!'singling!these!things! out! only! makes! it! worse! for! the! groups! in! question”! (p.60).! Mckeown! et! al! conclude! that! future! research! would! benefit! from! more! ‘qualitative! reviews! of! the! “spirit”! of! education! being! offered’! and! issues! around! 'whether! or! not...topics! (such! as! female! entrepreneurship)! need! to! be! more! strongly! addressed! in! graduate! enterprise! programmes”!(p.!61).!!
Debates!around!the!masculinised!roots!of!entrepreneurship!are!not!touched!upon!and!the! genderNneutral!documents!also!tend!to!ignore!ethnicity,!presenting!students!N!!other!than! those!STEM!students!identified!as!particularly!suitable!for!support!N!!as!homogeneous!and! lacking!in!enterprise!skills.!!This!leads!to!calls!for!students!to!be!encouraged!to!internalise!
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how! it! 'feels'! to! be! an! entrepreneur,! to! experience! the! entrepreneurial! lifeNworld! (Botham! and! MasonW! HannonW! GibbW! Pittaway! and! Cope)! and! to! inculcate! an! entrepreneurial! mindset! (Botham! and! MasonW! GibbW! McKeown! et! al).! However,! ! suggesting! a! set! of! measurable! behaviours! or! abilities! as! outcomes! is! not! congruent! with! arguments! about! the!lack!of!agreement!around!'what'!entrepreneurship!'is'.!! ! In! contrast! to! Botham! and! Mason’s! highlighting! of! the! entrepreneurial! gender! gap! and! McKeown!et!al’s!concerns!around!institutional!attitudes!to!female!entrepreneurship,!social! enterprise! and! ethnically! diverse! entrepreneurship! in! the! curriculum,! the! NCGE! (2007)! report! suggests! that! there! is! equal! gender! engagement! with! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! within! UK! HEIs! and! that! the! ‘gender! split! is! relatively! balanced! at! 53%!maleW!47%!female’.!However,!this!masks!wide!regional!variations!in!male!and!female! undergraduate! participation! and! a! large! disparity! between! the! engagement! of! white! students!(67%)!and!nonNwhite!(33%),!with!most!of!this!activity!also!currently!being!extraN curricular.! ! There! is! no! acknowledgement! that! these! apparently! ‘equal’! gender! engagement! figures! are! not! representative! of! the! gender! balance! of! graduates! who! pursue!entrepreneurship!or!indeed!what!the!gender!split!is!regarding!the!different!subject! areas! identified.! ! The! NCGE! suggests! that! the! main! subject! areas! currently! embedding! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! are! (in! order)! BusinessW! EngineeringW! Art! and! Design,! Maths!and!Computing,!Natural/Pure!Science!and!Medicine/Health,!with!the!majority!(61%)! being! based! in! businessNrelated! courses.! Kirby! highlights! science,! engineering! and! technology! students! as! particularly! benefiting! from! or! meriting! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!and!this!is!also!echoed!in!Mckeown!et!al’s!suggestion!that!‘the!most! effective!programmes…have!a!basis!in!science!and!technology,!with!engineering!taking!a! lead! role.’! This! suggests! that! access! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! is! discipline! dependent,! with! an! emphasis! on! subjects! allied! to! science,! engineering! and! technology.!Pittaway!and!Cope!continue!this!privileging!of!science!and!technologyNbased! subjects,! arguing! that! that! the! development! of! enterprise! education! in! HE! generally! has! been! driven! by! the! Science! Enterprise! Programme,! suggesting! that! current! provision! is! based!on!working!with!STEM!graduates!in!traditionally!maleNdominated!subject!areas.!!
Regardless!of!their!subject!area,!students!are!positioned!as!knowing!about!their!particular! discipline!but!not!necessarily!about!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!(Botham!and!Mason)! and!‘lacking!a!propensity!to!act’!(Hannon).!Students!are!also!positioned!as!different!from! the! entrepreneurs! that! they! are! encouraged! to! emulate,! lacking! in! entrepreneurial! skills!
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and!abilities,!or!the!!'entrepreneurial!mindset'!which!they!need!to!develop!if!the!suggested! outcomes!and!frameworks!are!to!be!achieved.!Also,!although!the!effects!of!education!and! the! teaching! of! entrepreneurship! are! considered,! the! role! of! the! educators! is! not! –! with! suggestions! that! entrepreneurs! should! take! on! teaching! roles! rather! than! simply! being!! ‘storyNtellers’! (Hannon).! There! is! an! emphasis! on! highlighting! appropriate! role! models! which! are! 'near'! to! where! the! students! are! themselves! and! in! exposing! students! to!! ‘images!of!entrepreneurial!people!‘just!like!them’!(Gibb)W!echoing!Bourdieu's!ideas!around! ‘people!like!me’!and!suggesting!a!wide!variety!of!entrepreneurship!which!is!at!odds!with! the! concept! of! ‘the! entrepreneurial! lifeNworld’! and! 'mindset’! and! his! suggestion! that! students!should!have!some!entrepreneurial!‘heroes!as!friends’!!(p.11.).!This!clashes!with! the! idea! of! moving! away! from! the! ‘heroic! entrepreneur’! ! suggested! as! being! part! of! the! business! school! ethos.! ! Pittaway! and! Cope! argue! that! ‘male! and! younger! students! with! family! experience! of! business! appear! to! have! greater! intentionality! (with! regards! entrepreneurship)’!but!that!‘intentionality!is!embedded!in!cultural!expectations'!(p.!18N19),! suggesting! the! influence! of! wider! notions! of! the! acceptability! or! appropriateness! of! entrepreneurship!for!these!‘male!and!younger!students’!which!may!be!different!for!female! and!older!students.!! ! Hannon!suggests!that!‘a!new!paradigm’!is!needed!to!position!entrepreneurship!education! as! an! ‘independent! academic! discipline’,! implying! that! it! is! not! ! viewed! as! such! and! that! the!status!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!needs!to!be!raised!within!HE.!In! line! with! other! documents! analysed,! the! role! of! educators! is! not! delineated! –! with! little! acknowledgement! of! the! staff! role! in! supporting! or! influencing! entrepreneurial! outcomes! for! graduates.!This! lack! of! concern! about! educator! attitudes! and! influences! is! evident! in! Mckeown! et! al's! survey! of! educators! towards! entrepreneurship! education! which! actively! did! not! ask! questions! about! whether! entrepreneurship! education! can! be! taught! or! nature/nurture! questions! as! these! are! suggested! as! obsolete! in! the! wider! body! of! knowledge.! Likewise,! Botham! and! Mason! include! interviews! with! staff! involved! in! managing! and! delivering! ‘enterprise! development! activities’! based! upon! descriptions! of! the! activity! and! its! outcome! rather! than! any! engagement! with! ideas! around! how! staff! experiences!and!attitude!may!impact!on!teaching!in!this!area.!! ! 3.!
The!Social!Reality!of!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise!within!HE:!Dominant! Discourses!and!Constructed!Subjects!
!
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Reality!is!constructed!by!means!of!repetition.!! (Ahl,!2004!p.!8)!! ! Several! dominant! discourses! emerged! from! these! documents! which! provide! an! insight! into! the! ‘unconscious! beliefs,! attitudes,! values,! and! ideas’! that! currently! drive! the! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!agendas!in!the!UK!and!shape!the!social!reality! of!the!wider!field!of!influence.!This!section!delineates!the!dominant!discourses!evident!in! the!analysed!documents!W!discourses!that!crystallise!around!issues!of!choice,!position!and! struggle,! contributing! to! and! defining! power! relations! between! groups! that! legitimise! particular!ways!of!thinking!and!'being'.!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! 3.1!!
Enterprise!and!Entrepreneurship!as!an!Urgent!and!NonYnegotiable! Imperative!for!All:!The!'No!Choice'!Discourse! !
The! urgent! need! to! instil! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! skills! within! the! general! population!N!!as!well!as!within!HE!students!and!graduates,!N!is!a!dominant!discourse!from! which! all! other! discourses! spring! and! this! is! evident! in! repeated! use! of! words! such! as!! ‘must’,! ‘should’! and! ‘need’! and! an! insistence! that! there! is! no! alternative! for! HEIs! or! students!but!to!pursue!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!because!of!the!obvious!economic! and!employability!benefits.!Entrepreneurship!is!accepted!as!a!'good!thing'!with!universally! positive! outcomes! and! it! is! suggested! as! vital! that! this! project! has! full! support! from! nations,! governments,! institutions! and! individuals.! ! To! compete! in! an! 'enterprise! culture'! students!must!be!supported!to!develop!their!skills!and!abilities!so!that!they!can!respond!to! the! uncertain! global! employment! conditions! and! flexible! job! markets! inherent! within! a! globalised! knowledge! economy.! With! more! women! entering! HE! this! would! suggest!! focusing! on! how! support! might! encourage! or! dissuade! women! from! pursuing! entrepreneurship!and!or/!accessing!support!services!from!HEIs!but!the!urgency!to!support! women! is! located! outside! the! academy! in! the! general,! rather! than! the! HE! student,! population.! ! ! The! documents! stress! that! the! imperative! to! develop! entrepreneurial! skills! and! 'mindsets'! is! aimed! at! helping! individuals! to! help! themselves,! through! developing! entrepreneurial! selfNefficacy! and! that! the! push! for! everyone! to! develop! an! 'enterprising! spirit'! is! centred! on! economic! gain! and! competition! within! a! global! marketplace.! Presenting! this! as! nonNnegotiable! and! suggesting! that! there! is! no! alternative! requires! a! sense! of! certainty! around! the! aims! and! affects! of! entrepreneurship! education! and! the! need! for! an! enterprise! culture! generallyW! effectively! masking! the! debate! and! dissent! around! the! historical! development! of! this! area! and! presenting! it! as! unproblematic! and!
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commonlyNagreed! knowledge.! This! nonNnegotiable! imperative! is! evident! in! calls! for! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!!to!be!embedded!across!all!HEis!in!all!subjects! and! for! all! students! to! have! access! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! and! at! all! levels! of! their! schooling,! from! primary! to! higher! education.! ! It! is! also! evident! in! the! increasing! importance! of! ‘entrepreneurial! universities’! as! seen! in! the! NCGE! research! reports! and! the! work! of! Kirby! and! Gibb.! This! effectively! closes! down! opportunities! for! dissent! or! alternative! imaginings! of! the! role! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! society!and!whether!we!do!indeed!'need'!to!encourage!everyone!to!be!entrepreneurial.!!!
This!nonNnegotiable!imperative!ultimately!presents!a!‘settlement’!around!!the!urgent!need! for!the!skills!and!abilities!that!students!need!to!inculcate,!given!that!HEIs!need!to!be!able! to!identify!and!measure!what,!who!and!how!well!they!are!meeting!this!imperative.!This!is! despite!debates!in!the!literature!about!what!entrepreneurship!is!and!contestation!around! its!retrospective!nature!and!tendency!to!privilege!masculinised!behaviours!and!attitudes.! These!documents!suggest!that!there!is!one!‘it’!–!and!that!there!is!little!debate!around!what! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! entails.! ! Pittaway! and! Cope! do! suggest! that! there!is!more!than!one!'it'!when!describing!the!lack!of!clarity!and!differences!in!teaching! and! learning! approaches,! but! this! is! masked! by! repeated! ! 'calls! for! action',! and! the! development!of!frameworks!and!templates!which!delineate!exactly!which!skills!need!to!be! taught.! Underlining! this! are! neoliberal! discourses! of! globalisation,! free! markets! and! the! need!for!workforce!mobility!and!flexibility!and!that!N!in!the!pursuit!of!economic!growth!and! market! freedom! N! it! is! the! responsibility! of! all! citizens! and! institutions! to! 'become'! entrepreneurial! ! and! enterprising! and! this! is! noticeable! in! calls! for,! not! only! individual! entrepreneurship,! but! also! entrepreneurial! institutions.! To! choose! 'not'! to! be! entrepreneurial!is!to!be!unable!to!respond!the!realities!of!the!modern!social!and!economic! climate! and! is! positioned! as! irresponsible! both! for! students! –! who! are! responsible! for! transforming!the!cultural!capital!of!HE!into!the!economic!capital!of!a!wellNpaid!career!after! graduation! N! and! for! HEIs! N! ! whose! function! is! to! prepare! students! to! respond! to! these! market!conditions.!Other!motivations!for!entrepreneurship!not!linked!to!economic!growth! or! gain! –! such! as! to! aid! social! inclusion! or! for! social! enterprise! ! N! are! effectively! marginalised! within! a! discourse! that! emphasises! highNgrowth! entrepreneurship,! particularly!within!a!HE!sector!whose!role!is!to!encourage!science!and!technology!based! 'gazelle'!companies!which!will!in!turn!support!the!economic!growth!of!nations.! !
3.2!!
Staff!as!Neutral!'Delivery'!Agents! 116
! The! most! surprising! subjectNpositioning! discourse,! which! informed! my! approach! to! field! work,! was! in! representations! of! educators.!Accounts! of! lecturers! as! potential! arbiters! of! the!curriculum!were!missing!within!policy!and!research,!as!evidenced!by!a!concentration! on! students,! entrepreneurs! and! other! suggested! stakeholders.! Indeed! 12! of! the! 15! documents! concentrated! on! students! rather! than! staff,! nine! mentioned! external! stakeholders! such! as! entrepreneurs! more! than! staff! and! only! one! document! mentioned! teachers!more!than!students,!with!Moreland's!report!not!mentioning!educators!at!all.!Allied! to! the! dominant! discourse! of! 'noNchoice',! HEIS! and! their! staff! are! positioned! as! neutral! delivery! mechanisms! of! nonNnegotiable! skills,! behaviours! and! abilities! linked! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise.! ! With! little! situated! research! and! a! lack! of! educator! 'voices'!in!the!literature,!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!becomes!a!'black! box'! N! ! masking! classroom! practices! and! the! impact! of! staff! perceptions! and! beliefs.! Indeed,! when! I! went! back! to! the! literature! in! light! of! this,! ! I! found! little! staffNfocused! research!generally,!and!a!concentration!on!learning!and!students!rather!than!teaching!and! teachersW! a! surprising! outcome,! ! given! that! the! documents! purported! to! concentrate! on! developing! approaches! to! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education.! ! The! fact! that! more!female!than!male!students!now!enter!HE!and!yet!so!few!female!graduates!go!on!to! pursue! entrepreneurship! suggests! that! something! is! 'going! on'! within! this! black! box! of! institutional!approachesW!something!worthy!of!further!investigation!and!potentially!linked!to! institutional!structures!and!attitudes!towards!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship.!!! ! Where!staff!are!mentioned!it!is!suggested!that!they!are!in!need!of!training!as!they!do!not! necessarily! understand! or! have! personal! ! experience! of! entrepreneurship! (! or! in! some! cases!of!!'life'!outside!academia).!This!makes!it!difficult!for!educators!to!adequately!meet! the! suggested! entrepreneurial! learning! outcomes! –! particularly! in! inculcating! entrepreneurial! mindsets.! The! related! concentration! on! students! and! graduates! also! suggests! a! shift! of! power,! from! the! HEI! to! the! individual! student! possibly! in! light! of! changes! in! the! way! that! UK! students! fund! their! learning,! with! ! students! increasingly!! positioned! as! clients! making! consumer! choices! within! a! competitive,! educational! market! place!with!the!focus!on!the!function!of!HE!as!a!provider!of!employabilityNrelated!skills!also! linked!to!the!costs!and!benefits!of!university!education.!In!this!way!students!can!be!seen! as!transferring!economic!capital!in!exchange!for,!not!the!cultural!capital!of!education!per! se,! but! for! greater! future! economic! capital! and,! with! the! emphasis! on! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship,!the!promise!of!the!symbolic!capital!inherent!in!being!an!'entrepreneur'.!
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One! would! assume! that! the! increase! in! female! students! would! prompt! some! thought! about!how!women!may!be!'served'!and!acknowledged!within!HE!–!however,!this!does!not! seem!to!be!the!case!with!women!generally!being!!seen!as!a!'problem'!or!a!barrier!to!the! creation! of! enterprising! nations! in! their! lack! of! understanding! or! willingness! to! pursue! entrepreneurship.! ! 3.3!!
The!Entrepreneurial!Mindset!! !
The! nonNnegotiable! imperative! for! entrepreneurship! is! linked! to! a! set! of! generic,! nonN negotiable!skills!and!attributes!which!'have'!to!be!inculcated!in!students!if!they!are!to!have! the! 'right'! frame! of! mind! for! success.! These! skills,! abilities! and! knowledge! are! clearly! delineated!in!Gibb's!Benchmarking!Template!of!Potential!Key!Outcomes!(pp.!11N12)!which! is! used! as! an! analytical! tool! in! Botham! and! Mason's! 2007! report! and! also! presented! in! Herrmann's! report! (pp.! 31N33)! and! the! ! metaphor! of! the! 'entrepreneurial! mindset'! resonates! throughout! these! documents,! first! appearing! in! the! 2004! EC! document.! ! This! entrepreneurial!mindset!and!the!allied!metaphor!of!the!'entrepreneurial!lifeNworld'!suggest! an!acceptance!of!psychological!and!traitNbased!ideas!of!entrepreneurship!!that!emphasise! agency!and!take!little!account!of!the!environment!in!which!entrepreneurship!occurs!or!the! way! that! institutions! and! societal! structures! may! impact! on! an! individual's! abilities! to! put! this!'entrepreneurial!mindset'!into!practice.!If!'reality!is!constructed!by!means!of!repetition'! as!Ahl!suggests,!then!this!phrase,!which!appears!in!eight!of!the!documents!N!with!a!further! two! documents! echoing! it! in! phrases! such! as! 'entrepreneuriallyNminded'! (BERR)! and! 'entrepreneurial!cast!of!mind'!(Moreland)!N!has!a!clear!impact!on!the!suggested!reality!of! entrepreneurship! education.! The! remaining! five! documents,! which! do! not! mention! the! need!to!change!or!develop!mindsets,!are!concerned!with!institutional!approaches!or!with! wider!reviews!of!the!literature!and!suggest!that,!where!there!is!a!focus!on!individuals!and! groups! of! people,! entrepreneurship! and! its! related! development! through! education! is! linked! to! changing! attitudes! from! those! who! are! hostile! to! business! and/or! entrepreneurship!to!ones!that!actively!accept!them!and!put!them!into!practice.!!
Entrepreneurs!are!presented!as!a!group!and!rarely!referred!to!in!the!singular,!positioned! as! a! homogeneous! group! with! similar! characteristics! and! with! a! similar! 'entrepreneurial'! mindset.! This! suggests! that! there! is! one! 'right'! way! of! 'being'! an! entrepreneur! and,! as! problematised!earlier,!this!has!traditionally!been!linked!with!masculineNtypified!behaviours,! skills! and! abilities.! ! In! this! way! calls! for! students! to! ! inculcate! the! mindset! of! an!
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entrepreneur! could! be! argued! as! encouraging! students! ! to! inculcate! the! mindset! of! a! young,!white!male.!!This!is!further!emphasised!by!suggestions!that!women,!older!people! and! those! from! ethnic! minorities! need! support! to! develop! this! mindset! as! they! are! less! likely!to!have!developed!these!particular!ways!of!'being'!and!require!extra!help!to!change! their! attitudes! to! entrepreneurship.! Talk! of! the! ! 'entrepreneurial! mindset'! and! the! 'entrepreneurial!lifeNworld'!also!suggests!the!construction!of!an!'entrepreneurial!habitus'!or! set! of! particularly! entrepreneurial! dispositions! and! related! entrepreneurial! capital,! with! white! males! positioned! as! more! able! to! transform! the! symbolic! capital! of! their! ethnicity! and! masculinity! into! the! economic! and! cultural! capital! inherent! in! being! entrepreneurial.!! This! is! allied! to! gendered! discourses! around! 'who'! is! socially! sanctioned! to! 'be'! an! entrepreneur! and! socially! constructed! agendas! around! 'why'! it! is! important! for! people! to! be! enterprising! and! entrepreneurial.! The! skills! agenda! and! suggested! entrepreneurial! skills! or! mindset! are! based! around! the! masculineNframed! behaviours! and! attitudes! problematised! in! the! literature! and! reproduced! in! an! uncritical! and! ahistorical! way.! !This! concentration! on! developing! entrepreneurial! mindsets! also! ignores! arguments! that! entrepreneurial! traits,! abilities! and! behaviours! may! be! developed! after! ! embarking! on! entrepreneurial! activities,! being! an! outcome! rather! than! a! precursor! of! entrepreneurial! success!or!endeavour.!!Certain!disciplines!or!subjects!areas/sectors!are!also!imbued!with! high! levels! of! symbolic! capital! with! regards! entrepreneurship! –! particularly! those! in! Science,! Technology! ,! Engineering! and! Maths! (STEM)! subjects! N! academic! disciplines! that!currently!attract!relatively!few!female!students.!In!line!with!the!othering!of!women!and! the! positioning! of! the! male! as! a! ‘neutral’! benchmark! in! many! of! the! documents,! this! attention! on! particular! disciplines! has! the! effect! of! imbuing! masculinity! with! significant! symbolic! capital,! leading! to! suggestions! that! women! need! support! to! become! more! like! ‘true’!entrepreneurs.! ! 3.4!!
Deficiency!Discourses:!Students!and!Women!as!'NotYKnowing'! !
The! ! nonNnegotiable! imperative! of! developing! a! general! entrepreneurial! culture,! with! its! indicative!and!!prescribed!entrepreneurial!mindset,!can!also!lead!to!deficiency!discourses! linked! to! particular! groups.!This! is! highlighted! by! the! normalisation! of! the! white! male! as! the! entrepreneur! in! documents! and! the! lack! of! mention! of! males! or! men! (except! as! benchmarks! for! the! underperformance! of! women! and! females! and! those! from! an! ethnic! minority).!Throughout!the!documents!it!is!suggested!that!students!are!deficient,!!lacking!in! the! skills! and! knowledge! of! business! and! business! ownership! and! that! this! acts! as! a!
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major!barrier!to!graduate!entrepreneurship.!This!leads!to!calls!for!support!to!help!students! develop!an!‘entrepreneurial!mindset’!and!to!appreciate!the!‘lifeNworld’!of!the!entrepreneur! in!order!to!learn!what!‘being’!an!entrepreneur!is!like!(Gibb,!2005),!positioning!students!as! deficient! and! ! ‘notNknowing'.! ! With! women! in! the! documents! also! being! positioned! as! ‘different’! and! in! need! of! extra! support! and! help! because! they! lack! the! necessary! selfN efficacy! or! other! entrepreneurial! attributes,! this! results! in! a! ! ‘double! deficit’! discourse! for! female!students!(and!potentially!a!triple!deficit!for!women!students!from!ethnic!minorities).! The!fact!that!the!benchmark!against!which!these!groups!are!being!judged!as!deficient!is! contestable! and! unstable! is! not! acknowledged! and! a! notion! of! the! ‘desirable’! form! of! entrepreneurship! needed! to! support! economic! growth! (i.e.! high! growth! business! or! ‘gazelles’)!and!the!behaviours!and!attributes!associated!with!these!particular!businesses! and! their! owners! is! used! as! a! ‘measure’! of! successful! entrepreneurship.! ! ! The! arbitrary! and!!socially!constructed!nature!of!these!concepts!is!not!discussed!and!there!is!an!air!of! certainty!when!advocating!entrepreneurial!mindsets!which!belies!this!contestation.!!! ! These! deficiency! discourses! suggest! that! students! as! a! whole,! and! women! in! particular,! need! to! change! in! order! to! be! considered! enterprising! or! capable! of! entrepreneurial! success.! ! There! is! little! discussion! regarding! how! representations! of! entrepreneurship! may! influence! perceptions! or! act! as! barriers! other! than! an! acknowledgement! of! ‘irresponsible’! entrepreneurship! as! a! perceptual! barrier.! ! While! the! EC! and! BERR! documents! do! acknowledge! social! structures! such! as! lack! of! networks! or! access! to! finance!as!barriers!which!might!impinge!on!women's!abilities!to!set!up!a!business,!there!is! a! general! consensus! that! if! women! and! students! became! more! skilled! and! develop! the! prescribed! entrepreneurial! behaviours! then! these! barriers! would! ! automatically! be! overcome.!!Like!students!generally!women!generally!are!positioned!as!needing!extra!help! and! support,! with! BERR! suggesting! that! there! is! a! need! to! 'instil! women! with! the! confidence,! skills! and! knowledge! they! need! to! successfully! start! their! own! businesses,! and! to! increase! their! understanding! of! how! they! could! grow! their! businesses.'! (p.47)! suggesting!that!women!do!not!understand!the!opportunities!which!entrepreneurship!might! offer!and!do!not!have!the!necessary!confidence!or!knowledge!of!their!male!counterparts.! This! also! supposes! that! men! have! somehow! developed! this! confidence,! knowledge! and! understanding! 'naturally',! without! support! or! development! –! suggesting! an! acceptance! than! males! are! somehow! 'better'! at! developing! knowledge! and! confidence! (rather! than! this! being! a! result! of! socially! constructed! and! gendered! access! ! to! resources! linked! to! masculinity).!!
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3.5!
Students!and!Graduates!as!Gender!Neutral!and!Homogeneous!! !
It!is!surprising,!given!the!apparent!UK!and!EC!governmental!focus!on!supporting!women! to!become!enterprising!!that!in!the!majority!of!documents!gender!is!barely!acknowledged.! In! some! documents! females! are! mentioned! but! males! are! not! (McKeown!et! al,! Hannon,! Moreland)! but! this! is! in! the! context! of! distinguishing! female! entrepreneurs,! rather! than! female! students.! Women! and! ethnic! minorities! are! also! often! linked! together! as! disadvantaged! groups,! with! white! males! rarely! mentioned! as! a! discrete! group.! ! This! indicates! that! women! and! ethnic! minorities! are! positioned! as! 'others'! in! these! texts,! with! the! unspoken! benchmark! of! the! successful! entrepreneur! being! a! young,! white! male.!!! Bourdieu!suggests,!commonNsense!concepts!'...(go)!without!saying!because!(they!come)! without!saying'!(Bourdieu,!1977,!p.169)!resulting!in!the!symbolic!violence!of!arbitrary!and! socially!constructed!notions!being!accepted!as!somehow!'natural'!or!common!knowledge! and! this! is! one! potential! consequence! of! a! genderNneutral! approach.! ! This! seemingly! genderNneutral! response! ! masks! an! emphasis! on! the! positioning! of! ! male! subjects! as! experts! and! as! entrepreneurial! referents,! indicating! that! policy! and! research! around! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! is! a! masculinised! discursive! space.! The!! genderNneutrality!(or!invisibility!of!gender)!in!many!of!the!documents!(implying!that!gender! is!not!an!'issue'!or!that!these!ideas!and!polices!include!a!diversity!of!referents)!effectively! masks!the!masculinisation!of!this!discursive!space.!!!Volkmann!et!al's!report!does!focus! on! women! and! is! written! by! both! male! and! female! authors! with! the! main! author! being! female.! However,! within! this! document! there! is! an! emphasis! ! on! women! as! ! part! of! the! social! exclusion! agenda! rather! than! being! important! within! the! HE! or! graduate! entrepreneurship!agendas.! 3.6!!
Persuasion,!Coercion!and!Culture!Clash! !
The! suggested! role! of! HE! is! ultimately! to! present! entrepreneurship! ! as! an! attractive! life! option!by!changing!'mindsets'!and!developing!the!desirability!for!this!as!a!career!!through! 'creating! a! want,! and! not! only! a! need,! for! becoming! entrepreneurial'! (Volkmann! et! al,! 2009)!therefore!making!entrepreneurship!acceptable!and!desirable!to!all.!However,!within! the! documents! the! field! of! education! is! positioned! as! culturally! hostile! to! the! field! of! business! and! to! entrepreneurship,! with! suggestions! of! an! 'antiNbusiness'! culture! and! of! schools!being!‘positively!hostile!to!entrepreneurship’!(Davies!Review)!and!echoed!in!talk! of! a! cultural! hostility! to! business! generally! within! academia! (Kirby,! Volkmann! et! al,! ! EC! 2006,! Herrmann,! Botham! and! Mason,! Gibb).! This! is! positioned! as! a! barrier! to! the!
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development!of!both!entrepreneurial!students!and!entrepreneurial!universities!and!as!an! issue!that!needs!to!be!addressed!given!the!nonNnegotiable!aim!of!supporting!students!to! be! enterprising! and! entrepreneurial.! This! is! predicated! upon! persuasion! and! coercion! in! the!form!of!staff!training!(so!that!they!can!deliver!!the!'right'!messages),!through!raising!the! status! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! academia! (so! that! it! is! accepted! as! a! legitimate! subject! area! and! these! messages! are! listened! to! and! accepted)! and! also! through! building! relationships! with! business! and! entrepreneurs! (or! stakeholders! external! to! academia)! in! order! to! make! the! field! of! business! more! attractive! and! accessible! to! students! and! to! institutions.!There! are! also! suggestions! that! the! practical! and! vocational! aspects! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! are! set! in! opposition! to! the! academic! or! theoretical! basis! of! study! at! HE! level.! ! This! is! presented! as! an! ideological! struggle! between! the! fields! of! business! and! education! generally! to! gain! the! acceptance! and! credibility! needed! in! order! to! ‘persuade’! students! of! the! imperative! to! become! more! enterprising!and!also!to!persuade!educational!institutions!to!accept!and!embed!this!as!an! educational!function!throughout!the!educational!life!course,!from!primary!school!to!HE.!! ! There! is! a! tension! here! between! which! field's! symbolic! capital! is! ultimately! legitimised! N! ‘business’! or! ‘education’! N! and! whose! needs! will! have! to! be! compromised! and! how! relatively! ! important! these! needs! are! e.g.! the! need! to! meet! the! future! employability! agendas! of! businesses! and! HEIs! or! the! need! to! have! a! rounded,! academically! and! interest! driven! education! that! is! not! functionalised! to! meet! presumed! market! and! economic! ! drivers.! ! Involving! external! groups! and! organizations! in! HE! teaching! and! learning! is! contentious! with! HE! (Mckeown)! and! there! are! suggestions! that! business! and! academia! do! not! ! necessarily! ‘mix’! (Gibb)! highlighting! a! clash! of! culture! between! these! fields! where! different! capital! is! valued! differently! in! different! fieldsW! with! economic! capital! more!highly!valued!and!sought!after!by!business!!and!cultural!capital!more!highly!valued! in!HE.!!Related!to!this!is!the!symbolic!capital!linked!with!the!status!and!suggested!‘aims’! of!the!fields!of!education!and!business!and!an!apparent!lack!of!cultural!'fit'.!!It!does!seem! that,!increasingly,!economic!capital!is!prioritised!and!accepted!as!the!most!legitimate!form! of! capital! in! both! fields,! particularly! where! it! is! linked! to! student! employability! and! the! potential! to! increase! the! economic! growth! of! the! UK! generally! through! graduate! entrepreneurship.! Within! this! students,! staff! and! HEIs! are! positioned! as! possible! impediments!to!the!wider!acceptance!and!pursuit!of!entrepreneurship!and!its!acceptance! within!HE.! !
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There! is! an! emphasis! on! the! need! to! develop! an! enterprise! or! entrepreneurial! ! culture! (something! which! has! become! more! predominant! since! the! 1980s! and! the! calls! for! an! enterprise!culture)!and!that!this!will!happen!as!a!result!of!people!generally!developing!an! entrepreneurial! mindset! to! help! them! to! response! to! changes! in! the! employment! market! and! it! is! suggested! that! certain! groups! (women! and! ethnic! minorities)! and! institutions! (HEIs)! act! as! impediments! to! the! development! of! an! enterprise! culture.! ! In! this! way! the! sense!of!enterprise!culture!has!shifted!since!the!1980s!from!a!focus!on!culture,!on!society! and! its! structures! and! the! need! to! change! the! structural! conditions! within! which! businesses!could!flourish!by!lessening!'red!tape'!and!bureaucracy!etc.!to!an!emphasis!on! the! individual!and!their!agency!in! internalising! an!entrepreneurial!mindset.! However,!this! development!of!culture!is!seen!as!problematic!where!there!are!barriers!around!the!clash! between!the!fields!of!business!and!academia,!of!vocational!and!academic!subjects!and!of! certain! disciplines! and! their! perceived! incompatibility! with! a! business! ethos.! This! is! exacerbated!by!the!concentration!on!multiple!stakeholders!in!the!wider!field!and!suggests! that!the!choice!of!HEIs!to!embed!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!within!their!curriculum! or!to!'become'!entrepreneurial!universities!does!not!lie!wholly!with!the!individual!HEIs.!! ! Increasingly!HE!has!to!be!seen!to!respond!to!government!policy!and!the!needs!of!society! such! as! employers,! who! will! ultimately! employ! graduates,! and! national! and! international! product!or!service!'gaps'!and!opportunities!which!students!will!also!respond!to!in!order!to! create! their! own! businesses.! Multiple! stakeholders! also! represent! different! fields! –! business,! education! and! government! N! ! and! these! documents! outline! the! struggles! involved!in!prioritising!or!privileging!the!suggested!needs!of!the!business!sector!over!the! suggested! needs! of! students! and! HEIs! within! the! context! of! the! greater! perceived! governmental! need! to! support! ! the! economy.! ! This! also! suggests! that! the! citizens! of! a! nation,! particularly! female! and! ethnic! minority! citizens,! are! positioned! as! untapped! resources! that! are! yet! to! be! fully! to! be! exploited! and! that! any! emphasis! on! supporting,! encouraging! or! ‘persuading’! those! who! have! not! traditionally! pursued! highNgrowth! businesses!is!based!on!economic!!rather!than!emancipatory!goals.!Similarly,!the!drive!to! embed!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!within!HE!is!primarily!economic!rather! than! emancipatory! with! its! focus! on! students! who! can! be! moulded! or! persuaded! and! supported!to!develop!an!‘entrepreneurial!mindset’!W!a!mindset!that!is!arguably!based!upon! behaviours,! attitudes! and! skills! that! are! predicated! upon! the! masculinisation! of! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise.! !
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4.!
Summary!
! ...to! contradict! appearances,! social! science! must! assume! that! what! is! true!is!not!the!same!thing!as!what!is!held!to!be!true.!(Collier,!1998!p.!55)! ! This!chapter!outlined!the!first!phase!of!research!and!dominant!discourses!identified!within! 15!policy!documents.!I!argued!that!these!discourses!shape!and!inform!the!social!reality!of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE,! highlighting! issues! around! the! positioning! of! both! staff! and! female! students! for! further! exploration! in! phases! two! and! three! of! my! research.! ! I! recognise! that! this! is! a! partial! analysis! but! argue! that! the! emergence! of! dominant! discourses! which! 'resonate'! ! and! repeat! throughout! the! texts! reflect!themes!and!ideas!identified!in!the!literature,!!particularly!around!issues!of!gender,!! the! positioning! of! female! students! and! the! masking! of! the! role! of! HE! educators! in! delineating! and! developing! 'entrepreneurial! mindsets'W! reflecting! gaps! and! notable! silences! in! the! literature.! These! discourses! suggest! that! HEIs! have! no! choice! but! to! provide!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!to!their!students!across!all!disciplines! (but! ! more! particularly! science,! technology! and! engineering! related! disciplines.Nrelated! ones).! ! ! The! ! discourse! ! of! ! the! nonNnegotiable! imperative! would! seemingly! require! a! pedagogy! of! certainty! and! a! closing! down! of! debate! around! other! possibilities! and! presumes! a! settlement! within! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! that! does! not! currently!exist.!! ! The! next! chapter! engages! with! the! data! produced! during! phase! two! of! the! research! which!builds!on!the!ideas,!issues!and!debates!that!emerged!from!phase!one.!Phase!two! explores! ! situated,! institutional! responses! to! the! embedding! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! across! the! HE! curriculum! in! one! postN1992! university! setting.! It! employs! document! analysis,! classroom! observations! and! interviews! with! staff! involved! in! formal! and!informal!teaching!and!support.!!As!such!it!presents!a!view!from!the!middle!of!how! the!discourses!and!gendering!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!identified!in! phase! one! ! 'play! out'! in! practice,! addressing! a! major! gap! identified! in! the! literature! by! bringing! the! role! of! HEIs! and! HE! staff! and! their! framings! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!and!education!firmly!into!focus.! ! ! ! !
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! Chapter!Six! A!View!from!the!Middle:!!Institutional!and!Staff!Positions,!Choices!and!Struggles! 1.!
Introduction! ! It!seems!possible!that!the!level!of!control!and!ownership!that!academics! have!of!the!recontextualization!of!disciplinary!knowledge!into!curriculum! is!highly!significant!in!shaping!academics’!and!students’!experiences!of! teachingNlearning!interactions!in!higher!education.!(Ashwin,!2009!p.103)!
! ! The! previous! chapter! identified! some! dominant! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! how! HE,! staff! and! female! students! are! positioned! within! these! and! this! chapter! explores! how! these! positions! play! out! at! the! mesoNlevel! of! institutional! approaches.! The! previous! chapter! highlighted! a! lack! of! acknowledgement! of! the! arbitrating!role!of!HEIs!and!staff,!positioning!them!as!neutral!delivery!agents!of!the!skills,! knowledge! and! ability! required! for! the! development! of! an! entrepreneurial! mindsetW! masking! the! potential! for! institutional! challenge! to,! or! reproduction! of,! 'takenNforNgranted'! and! gendered! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise.! Discourse! analysis! also! suggested!!that!students!are!positioned!as!'notNknowing',!with!women!viewed!as!deficient! with! regards! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! generally! and! in! light! of! traditionally! maleN dominated! courses! such! as! those! allied! to! science,! engineering! and! technology! positioned!as!'best'!for!the!most!privileged!form!of!entrepreneurship!N!high!growth!STEMN based!businesses.!Here!I!bring!institutional!actors!into!focus!to!investigate!the!field!from! their!perspective!and!explore!how!their!choices!and!positions!manifest!in!curriculum!and! classroom!practices!through!interrogating!documents,!classroom!activities!and!interviews! with! staff! involved! in! the! enterprise! agenda! within! one! HEI.! I! also! explore! how! these! approaches! may! be! informed! by! lecturer! understandings! about! the! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! how! this! may! shape! the! symbolic! significance! of! entrepreneurship!and!the!entrepreneur!that!they!present!to!students.!!! ! In!order!to!reflect!on!and!engage!with!the!depth!and!range!of!data!produced!during!this! phase! of! research! this! chapter! comprises! three! main! sections.! Section! one! explores! the! institutional! context! i.e.! Northfield! University! and! focuses! on! two! institutional! documents! that!highlight!its!position!within!the!wider!HE!field,!the!suggested!institutional!positioning!of!! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! across! Northfield! and! suggestions! of! institutional!
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settlement! around! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! and! its! manifestation! within! the! institution.!Section!two!presents!interview!data!from!seven!staffW!five!educators!from!three! discrete! disciplines,! who! teach! formally! on! modules! identified! as! focusing! on! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! two! staff! from! Northfield's! enterprise! unit,! who! manage! and! support! staff! and! student! enterpriseNrelated! activities.! ! These! interviews! explore! staff! positioning! within! institutionally! driven! agendas! but! also! focuses! on! their! 'journey'!to!teaching!in!HE,!their!previous!employment!and!institutional!position!and!how! this!informs!their!approaches!to!teaching.!Section!three!draws!on!classroom!observations,! exploring! how! these! institutional! and! staff! approaches! ‘play! out’! within! formal! classroom! environments! and! extraNcurricular! business! support! seminars.! Here! I! outline! ‘insightful! instances’! drawn! from! recordings! and! field! notes,! highlighting! how! staff! ! (and! ! in! some! cases! students)! link! the! wider! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! to! ! the! classroom!as!they!negotiate!their!positions!within!it.!!As!such!this!chapter!presents!a!view! from! the! middle! –! and! how! the! assumptions! and! assertions! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! discourses! shape! institutional! positioning! and! staff! attitudes! towards! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! by! exploring! how! these! ideas! shape! the! ‘rules! of! the! game’! and! how! these! ‘play! out’! in! the! curriculum! and! classroom.! In! doing! so! it! touches! upon! all! of! my! research! questions,! being! an! exploration! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!in!a!particular!institution!and!amongst!particular!staff!from!particular! disciplines!and!the!positioning!of!both!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!gender!within! these! and! how! this! may! be! informed! by! institutional! approaches! and! ! teacher! attitudes! and!rolesW!!constructions!of!the!!'entrepreneurial!mindset'!and!the!'entrepreneur'!presented! within! the! curriculum! and! classroomW! and! the! positioning! of! students! and! their! chosen! discipline! within! this.! Therefore! this! phase! explores! the! institutional! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! a! particular! context! and! the! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! that! institutions! and! staff! mobilise! in! the! framing! of! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education.!!! ! 2.!
Institutional!Context!
! Many!of!your!modules!and!courses!will!specifically!help!to!develop!your! enterprise!skills…Some!may!have!“enterprise”!in!the!title!of!the!module! or! course! and! some! may! not! but! you! will! still! be! learning! enterprising! skills.!(Northfield!University!Enterprise!leaflet)! ! My!fieldwork!took!place!at!Northfield!University,!a!large,!urban!postN1992!university!in!the!
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north! of! England.! As! a! postN1992! university! Northfield’s! development! is! historically! informed! by! the! polytechnic! movement,! with! a! traditional! focus! on! teaching! and!! vocational/professional!education!and!!grounded!in!links!with!employment!and!employers! and! this! is! reflected! in! the! courses! offered! and! also! in! those! explored! for! this! research:! SportNrelated,! HealthNrelated! and! HospitalityNrelated.! ! In! common! with! many! HEIs! in! the! UK,!Northfield!offers!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!focused!course!modules!as!well!as! extraNcurricular! activities! supported! by! an! enterprise! unit! which! is! separate! from! formal! faculty!and!school!structures.!! ! Northfield! has! an! institutional! agenda! to! embed! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! throughout!the!HE!curriculum!and!this!is!supported!by!named!enterprise!champions!who! act!as!links!between!the!enterprise!unit!and!the!schools!where!they!are!based.!Their!role! is! to! raise! awareness,! encouraging! and! supporting! staff! to! include! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!within!their!teaching!and!learning.!In!outlining!the!institutional!context!I!explore! institutional! positions! and! agendas! through! the! analysis! of! institutional! and! course! documents! and! this! section! outlines! two! institutional! documents.! The! two! documents! discussed! are! aimed! at! students! at! different! stages! in! their! university! ‘journeys’! with! the! 'Enterprise'! leaflet! aimed! at! potential! students! and! outlining! the! 'ABC'! of! the! enterprising! opportunities!available!‘everyday’!at!Northfield!University,!and!the!!'Enterprise!Workbook'! aimed! at! current! and! graduating! Northfield! students.! These! documents! illustrate! how! Northfield! projects! itself! to! potential! students! as! an! enterprising! university! and! also! how! this!institutional!positioning!is!located!within!the!employability!agenda!as!suggested!by!the! careers! booklet! which! aims! to! help! students! to! assess! and! develop! their! enterprising! capabilities.! ! The!'Enterprise'!document!is!A4!and!folded!into!three,!being!light!and!portable!and!easy! to! pick! up! and! take! away.! It! is! available! at! various! locations! around! the! campus,! presumably!aimed!at!those!potential!students!visiting!the!university!for!more!information,! attending!open!days!!and!generally!!in!the!process!of!deciding!which!university!they!want! to! attend! ! (‘This! leaflet! might! help! you! to! decide! whether! to! come! to! Northfield’).! ! It! is! branded!by!Northfield's!enterprise!and!employability!units!and!!suggests!that!'being!open! to!enterprise'!will!help!its!audience!make!the!most!of!their!time!at!Northfield!and!prepare! them!for!the!future.!!Taking!the!format!of!an!alphabetical!‘list’!and!with!the!suggestion!that! 'it’s!as!easy!as!ABC!’!the!leaflet!outlines!the!various!approaches!and!understandings!that! drive!Northfield’s!enterprise!agenda.!!It!contains!two!images!–!the!front!being!an!image!of!
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a!young!white!male!with!a!light!bulb!above!his!head!–!presumably!signifying!new!ideas!as! a!focus!of!enterprising!capacity.!The!other!image,!which!is!immediately!visible!on!opening! the! leaflet,! is! of! three! young! women! (two! white! and! one! seemingly! of! dual! heritage! or! Asian!descent).!!All!are!smiling!and!focused!on!the!laptop!around!which!they!are!sitting.! This! image! appears! directly! beneath! ! text! which! suggests! the! purpose! of! the! leaflet! in! ‘helping!you!to!decide’!about!coming!to!Northfield,!suggesting!an!awareness!of!its!target! audience,! given! the! rise! in! female! undergraduates.! The! leaflet! suggests! a! certain! positioning!with!regards,!enterprise,!potential!students!and!Northfield's!!institutional!'ethos'! or!habitus:!that!students!don't!know!how!to!be!enterprising!every!day!or!have!little!grasp! of! how! being! enterprising! might! help! them! at! university! and! in! the! futureW! that! being! enterprising!is!linked!with!being!employableW!and!that!Northfield!is!the!'type'!of!university! that,!unlike!others,!can!help!students!to!develop!their!enterprising!skills!and!therefore!their! employability.! ! It! is! therefore! a! form! of! persuasive! marketing,! playing! on! the! future! employability! of! students! and! positioning! Northfield! as! a! university! which! is! an! enterprising! environment,! offering! opportunities! for! its! students! to! be! enterprising! 'everyday'! and! in! doing! so! enhancing! their! enjoyment! of! both! university! and! their! future! career!prospects.! ! The!other!document!is!branded!by!Northfield's!enterprise!and!careers!units.!It!is!a!large! A4! document! and! is! described! as! a! 'work! book',! suggesting! an! element! of! input! from! students! and! containing! several! tasks! to! help! 'students! choose! and! prepare! a! career! route! after! graduation'.! In! a! quote! cited! as! coming! from! the! SEC! ! (the! Social! Enterprise! Council)! enterprise! is! defined! as! 'purposeful! active! behaviours...! making! things! happen,! having! ideas,! doing! something! about! them,! taking! advantage! of! opportunities! to! bring! about!change'.!Enterprise!is!also!linked!with!starting!a!business!but!!it!is!suggested!that!it! does!not!only!apply!to!'budding!entrepreneurs'!but!is!a!'vital!part'!of!everyone's!personal! development.!Whilst!this!booklet!contains!several!case!studies!and!tasks!I!have!chosen! to! discuss! ! the! first! task,! as! this! effectively! highlights! institutional! framings! of! what! enterprise!'is',!the!'type'!of!person!who!is!enterprising!and!what!this!'means'.!This!first!task! involves! the! reader! completing! a! 'basic! entrepreneurial! test'! or! audit! under! the! heading! 'Are!you!enterprising!enough?',!implying!an!enterprise!scale!N!with!certain!behaviours!or! beliefs! linked! to! being! enterprising! and! suggesting! that! there! is! an! 'acceptable'! level! of! entrepreneurial! capability! that! can! be! defined! and! identified! .! !The! suggested! outcomes! and!scores!are!hierarchical:! !
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over!75!=!Entrepreneurial!N!'You!are!a!success!already!!Your!powers! of! creativity! and! imagination! ensure! that! you! go! through! business! (and! life)!without!a!care,!making!a!roaring!success!of!everything!you!do'! 59!–!75!=!Enterprising!N!'You!are!well!on!your!way!to!developing!a!true! entrepreneurial!mindset'! 47!–!59!=!Employable!N!'You!have!potential!to!run!your!own!business!but! need! to! push! yourself! if! you! want! to! demonstrate! entrepreneurial! capability'! under!47!=!! Not! ready! yet! N! 'SelfNemployment! is! probably! not! for! you...! Work! on! becoming! selfNaware! and! reflect! on! the! skills! you! need! to! become! more! employable! and! more! enterprising! and! take! action! to! develop!them'! ! In!line!with!Fairclough's!(2003,!p.!47)!comments!about!the!balance!between!assertion!and! assumption! in! texts! N! where! assertions! 'leave! no! room! for! other! possibilities'! N! this! suggestion! of! a! 'hierarchy! of! personality'! closes! down! possibilities! for! those! who! do! not! score! highly.! ! This! hierarchy! positions! entrepreneurship! as! linked! with! success! and! achievement,!in!one's!life!as!well!as!one's!career,!with!being!entrepreneurial!!positioned! as! 'better'! or! of! higher! status! than! being! enterprising! or! employable.! An! emphasis! on! business! ! and! ! selfNemployment! also! undermines! comments! that! there! is! more! to! being! enterprising!that!starting!a!business.!The!phrase!'not!ready!yet'!suggests!that!these!skills! can!and!should!be!enhanced!but!with!the!underlying!assumption!(which!Fairclough!links! to! ideology)! that! students! 'need'! to! develop! certain! skills! and! 'take! action'! to! become!! 'enterprising! enough'.! ! This! suggests! not! only! a! nonNnegotiable! imperative! around! enterprise!and!entrepreneurship,!as!highlighted!in!the!previous!chapter!but!also!a!sense! of! the! personal! responsibility! of! students! and! that! being! entrepreneurial! guarantees! success.! ! There! is! a! privileging! of! agency! ! which! individualises! success! (and! by! implication,! failure)! ! and! encourages! students! to! view! the! development! of! a! 'true! entrepreneurial! mindset'! as! crucial! to! career! success.! ! This! also! assumes! that! there! is! one!'true'!entrepreneurial!mindset!against!which!one!can!be!judged!and!measured.!This! mindset,! as! problematised! throughout! this! thesis,! is! based! on! historically! masculinised! foundations! and! N! given! the! ! research! cited! in! my! literature! review! around! gendered! responses! to! selfN! assessment! and! the! 'confidence! bias'! linked! to! traditionally! gendered! roles! N! there! is! scope! for! female! students! to! underestimate! their! entrepreneurial! capabilities!and!to!be!considered!'not!ready!yet'!or!'only'!to!be!enterprising!or!employable.!!! This!assumes!a!settlement!around!these!terms!which,!as!highlighted!by!the!wider!body!of! knowledge,! is! still! contested,! debated! and! challenged.! Both! of! the! documents! ultimately! link!enterprise,!entrepreneurship!and!employability!–!with!enterprise!!not!only!supporting! selfNemployment! and! business! startNup! but! also! making! students! more! attractive! to!
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potential!employers.!!A!sense!of!institutional!habitus!is!also!constructed,!suggesting!that! Northfield! is! an! enterprising! university! and! using! this! as! a! way! of! distinguishing! it! within! the!wider!HE!sector!to!encourage!students!to!apply!to!Northfield.!Northfield’s!institutional! approach!to!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!therefore!places!these!subjects!firmly!within! the! student! employability! agenda! and! suggests! that! entrepreneurial! or! enterprising! students!will!be!more!successful!than!'un'Nenterprising!students.! ! 3.!!Interviews!with!Staff!at!Northfield!University:!Paying!Attention!to!Teacher! ! The! seven! staff! interviewed! are! involved! in! a! range! of! formal! curriculumNbased! approaches! and! informal,! extraNcurricular! activities! across! different! disciplines.!All! of! the! formally! taught! modules! are! compulsory! (and! therefore! positioned! as! a! nonNnegotiable! element!of!their!learning).!!Five!of!the!staff!are!lecturers!and!two!work!outside!the!formal! discipline! structures,! supporting! enterpriseNrelated! activities! throughout! the! university,! including! business! startNup! training! sessions! and! oneNtoNone! advice! and! support.! ! The! interviews! and! observations! examine! four! areas! of! Northfield! provision! in! the! following! contexts:!A!maleNdominated!SportsNrelated!level!one!moduleW!a!femaleNdominated!HealthN related!level!3!moduleW!a!femaleNdominated!HospitalityNrelated!level!3!moduleW!and!!extraN curricular! provision! of! a! seminar! series.!Table! 6.1! below! provides! contextual! information! about!these!modules!and!outlines!the!aims,!learning!outcomes!and!assessment!used.! ! Table!6.1!!Module!overviews!! Discipline'&'
Aims'
Learning'Outcomes'
Assessment'
Sport&related+&+
Develop+an+understanding+of+
Understand+and+begin+to+apply+the+concepts+of+
50+%+Group+presentation+of+
11+weeks+&+
the+process,+circumstances,+
entrepreneurship+in+a+variety+of+commercial+
business+proposal+
draws+together+
considerations+and+barriers+
and+social+enterprise+contexts+within+sportI+
50%+Individual+evaluation+of+
large+first+year+
to+enterprise+planning+and+
understand+the+purpose+and+processes+of+
business+idea,+stages+of+
cohort++from+
development+within+sports+
business+planning+in+developing+sustainable+
development+and+
different+
organisations+and+the+sports+
investment+in+the+public,+voluntary+and+
participants+own+aptitudes+
courses.+The+
environment.+This+includes+
commercial+sport+sectorsI+and+develop+and+
for+this+area+
Educators''
terms+'Business'+ sports+related+commercial,+
assess+their+own+personality+and+aptitudes+in+
and+'Enterprise'+ public+and+voluntary+
this+area.+
are+used++in+the+ organisations+in+a+local,+ module+title.+
regional+and+national+
(Henry+&+
context.++
James)+ Hospitality&
Introduce+students+to+
Demonstrate+a+clear+understanding+of+
Group+investigation+into+an+
related+&+13+
entrepreneurial+theory+and+in+
entrepreneurial+theoryI+Identify+the+
organisation/business+to+
weeks++&+draws+
particular+the+characteristics+
contribution+entrepreneurial+behaviour+can+
analyse+its+entrepreneurial+
130
together+a+large+ of+entrepreneurs+to+enable+
make+at+different+stages+of+business+
culture+and+to+produce+a+
cohort+of+final&
them+to+critically+evaluate+the+ developmentI+
business+strategy+to+assist+
year+students+
contribution+that+they+can+
Explain+how+an+entrepreneurial+culture+can+be+
the+organisation+to+improve+
from+different+
make+to+a+successful+
developed+within+a+business+environmentI+
its+results.+
courses.+The+
businesses.++It+will+present+a+
Develop+a+strategy+for+a+business+using+
65%+&+Business+Report+
entrepreneurial+skills+
35%+&+Presentation+
terms+'Business'+ number+of+perspectives+ and+
relating+to+a+range+of+strategic+ Be+an+effective+team+player+for+the+group+
'Entrepreneurshi approaches+to+business+ p'+are+used++in+
assessment+
development.+
the+module+title.+ (Richard+&+ Adam)+ Health&related+&+ By+critically+analysing+
Demonstrate+knowledge+and+understanding+of+
100%+&+Reflective+analysis+of+
19+weeks++&+
leadership+and+management+
leadership+and+management+theory+by+critically+
managing+a+change+within+
draws+together+
practice+the+student+will+
analysing+the+effectiveness+of+management+and+
practice+(3000+words)+
large+cohort+
examine+the+theoretical+
leadership+roles+in+relation+to+own+area+of+
from+level+3+
underpinning+and+complexity+
practiceI+Recognise+the+drivers+for+change+an+
Heath&related+
of+delivering+health+and+social+ demonstrate+a+critical+understanding+and+ability+
courses.+The+
care+services.+
to+become+a+change+creator+and+innovator+by+
terms+
facilitating,+initiating+and+evaluating+changes+in+
'Leadership'+and+
practiceI+Demonstrate+critical+understanding+of+
Management'+
how+organisational+culture+exerts+influence+on+
are+used+in+the+
nursing+practice+in+relation+to+organisational+
module+title.+
behaviourI+Critically+analyse+support+
(Margaret+&+
mechanisms+form+developing+new+and+
Miranda)++
experienced+staff+promoting+the+philosophy+of+a+ learning+organisation.+
Business+
For+those+who+want+to+know+
Support+
more+about+starting+their+own+ people,+who+all+have+their+own+strength+and+
To+recognise+that+there+is+a+diverse+range+of+
workshops+–+7+
business+and+self&employment+ weaknesses.+
weekly++extra&
as+a+potential+career+option.+
n/a+
curricular,+cross& Session+1:+To+explore+the+ campus+
abilities+and+skills+required+in+
workshops+open+ business+start&up.+++ to+students+(and+ graduates+ (Ross)+
Here! Richard,! (a! Hospitality! lecturer),! describes! his! understanding! of! entrepreneurship! and!how!it!informs!his!!teaching:! ! So,! entrepreneurship,! very! difficult! to! define! N! we! all! think! of! Richard! Branson...! we! try! and! get! people! to! reflect! on! themselves.! How! sincerely! do! you! want! to! work! all! the! hours! that! god! sends?! How! sincerely! are! you! going! to! drive! a! business! forward?! Are! you! totally! committed! to! this! business?! You! know,! to! the! exclusion! of! all! else?...!! and!we!look!to!say!‘can!you!asses!your!own!entrepreneurship?’!!I!think! there’s! no! doubt! about! it! ! that! that! vision,! the! drive! that! you! have! to! have,!the!ambition,!the!focus.!I!mean,!often!entrepreneurs!are!not!very!
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nice! people! to! work! for! (he! laughs).! And! of! course! one! of! the! big! debates! is! whether! an! entrepreneur! is! born! or! made,! my! personal! opinion!is!they’re!born!(he!laughs).!! ! Although!Richard!initially!acknowledges!the!difficulty!of!defining!entrepreneurship!he!goes! on! to! suggest! that! entrepreneurs! are! born,! that! entrepreneurial! ability! can! be! measured! and!that!there!is!'no!doubt'!that!to!be!successful!means!total!commitment!to!the!'exclusion! of! all! else'.! He! emphasises! singleNmindedness! and! commitment! 'to! the! exclusion! of! all! else'! is! required! to! be! successful,! promoting! an! individualistic,! masculinised! work! ethic! that! assumes! no! other! commitments! or! external! demands! on! a! person's! time! N! a! masculinised! work! ethic! that! has! been! problematised! by! some! feminist! researchers! (Hochschild! and! Machung,! 2003).! It! is! also! interesting! that,! while! Richard! suggests! that! there! is! uncertainty! around! definitions,! we! can! nevertheless! 'measure'! certain! traits! and! abilities! in! order! to! define! whether! a! person! is! entrepreneurial.! ! He! suggests! that! this! entrepreneurial! person,! with! the! 'right'! traits! is! someone! who! has! 'drive',! who! has! 'total! commitment',!who!is!not!a!very!'nice'!person!and!who!is!'born'!an!entrepreneur!–!a!framing! of!the!'traditional'!entrepreneur!increasingly!problematised!in!the!wider!body!of!knowledgeW! particularly!the!idea!that!entrepreneurs!are!'born'!as!this!suggests!that!one!can!not!'learn'! to! be! an! entrepreneur.! ! It! is! surprising! that! Richard! should! suggest! this! given! that! he! is! tasked!with!'teaching'!!on!an!entrepreneurship!focused!module.!!He!also!emphasises!risk! in!his!conceptualisation!of!entrepreneurship:! ! The!risk!that!you!take!is!amazing...Would!you!mortgage!your!house!and! put! everything! into! a! business?! With! the! chance! that! it’ll! go! bust?! It’s! a! very!special!person!that!does!that.!I!think!you’re!down!to!5%!(of!business! owners).! ! And! those! aren’t! your! survivalists,! and! they’re! not! your! life! stylists,! they’re! not! your! control! freaks,! you! know.! So! the! risk! factor…really!sorts!the!entrepreneurs!out.! ! Richard! positions! entrepreneurs! as! 'special'! and! privileges! riskNtakers! as! being! 'real'! entrepreneurs! ! rather! than! those! who! are! 'survivalists'! or! 'life! stylists'W! business! models! and!their!owners!that!are!'othered'!in!relation!to!this!privileged!5%.!This!leaves!little!space! for!negotiation!of!who!a!'real'!entrepreneur!is!and!is!the!basis!of!Richard's!assertion!that! only! a! special! 5%! of! people! are! 'true'! entrepreneurs! and! that! true! entrepreneurship! is! based!on!'risking!it!all'!for!the!sake!of!your!business!idea.!Reflecting!the!idea!that!very!few! people! can! be! 'true'! entrepreneurs,! Richard's! course! is! one! that! teaches! 'about'! entrepreneurship!rather!than!'for'!entrepreneurship,!with!students!being!assessed!on!their! ability! to! create! a! tool! (such! as! a! survey)! to! measure! how! entrepreneurial! a! particular!
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company!is!and!whether!the!business!owners!are!'entrepreneurs'.!!In!this!way!the!module! aims! to! 'teach'! students! how! to! recognise! prescribed! entrepreneurial! traits! rather! than! encouraging!or!expecting!them!to!develop!these!skills!and!abilities!themselves.!This!does! not! seem! ! supportive! of! the! institutional! positioning! of! entrepreneurship! education! as! a! driver!for!student!employability!and!suggests!few!expectations!that!students!will!be!in!the! position! to! become! entrepreneurs! themselves.! In! contrast! Henry,! who! teaches! a! similar! module! on! a! SportN! related! course! with! his! colleague! James,! emphasises! opportunity! rather!than!risk!in!his!conceptualisation!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise:! ! I!think!it’s!indicating!how!big!the!opportunities!are!for!them…it’s!something! that! they! should! be! taught! in! the! curriculumW! to! look! for! the! opportunity.! (Henry,!Sport)! ! James!agrees!that!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!is!‘a!real!opportunity!for! anyone!who!wants!to!start!a!business’!and!both!lecturers!focus!on!opportunity!rather!than! risk:! ! My! view! of! entrepreneurship! is! that! drawing! together! of! the! idea! and! the! opportunity...We!see!it!in!a!very!simple!way...It’s!complex!but!simple!in!the! way!that!it!operates!and!it’s!one!that!we!know!well…!(James,!Sport)! ! James!and!Henry!position!themselves!as!'experts'!who!'know'!how!to!bring!business!and! sport!together!and!who!both!have!the!abilities!and!experience!to!simplify!the!complexity! and! help! students! through! this! process! in! order! to! produce! a! sportsNfocused! business! plan.! James! suggests! this! is! a! simple! process! and! open! to! all! students! rather! than! restricted! to! a! 'naturally'! occurring! few.! Although! they! suggest! a! certain! complexity! in! linking!their!disciplines!to!the!concept!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!Richard,!Henry! and! James! do! go! on! to! undermine! this! through! suggestions! of! ! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!as!'things'!that!are!stable!and!can!be!measured!and!are!in!danger!of!framing! complex! issues! in! a! straightNforward,! unquestioning! and! uncritical! way,! presenting! common! sense! and! takeNforNgranted! notions! as! framing! the! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise.! However,! beneath! his! initial! sense! of! certainty! James! does!voice!ethical!concerns!about!bringing!sport!and!business!together!–!touching!on!the!! potential! conflict! between! the! field! of! business! and! the! field! of! sport! and! expressing! concerns!around!'fair!play'!and!!'a!level!playing!field':! ! if! poor! business! ethics! come! into! sport! then! sport! will! suffer…! maybe! that’s! where! we! as! a! university! have! to! develop! individuals! who! have! a!!
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moral! conscience.! They’re! not! just! money! grabbing,! supposedly! entrepreneurial,! riskNtaking,! devil! take! the! hindmost.! It’s! like! when! somebody! cheats,! they! alter! that! balance! and! you! can’t! have! that.! If! there!isn’t!that!level!playing!field,!if!there!isn’t!at!least!the!premise!that!we! play!the!game!then!what’s!the!point!in!playing!it?!! ! So,! although! James! positions! the! linking! of! enterprise! and! sport! as! an! opportunity! for! students!he!is!also!wary!of!the!influence!that!business!ideals!may!have!on!the!wider!field! of!sport,!being!based!on!the!ideals!of!fair!play!which!he!suggests!that!the!field!of!business! is! not! based! upon! –! echoing! the! potential! for! culture! clash! apparent! in! the! previous! chapter.!!Margaret!and!Miranda,!lecturers!on!a!HealthNrelated!course,!suggest!that!N!rather! than! being! positioned! as! a! risk! or! opportunity! within! their! particular! discipline! N!! entrepreneurship,!in!the!form!of!social!enterprise,!is!positioned!as!a!threat:! ! We! are! aware! that! students! are! feeling! threatened! by! the! concept! of! social! enterprise.! Because! they! feel! their! jobs! are! being! threatened.! (Margaret,!Health)! ! (students)!see!the!NHS!changing!and!they!don’t!know!how!to!respond!to! that! and! all! they! see! is! threat.! ! They! see! social! enterprise! might! force! them! outside! the! NHS! and! therefore! threaten! their! security! and! if! they! see!social!enterprise!models!threatening!that!then!they!are!going!to!be! hostile!to!it.!(Miranda,!Health)! ! In! this! way,! Margaret! and! Miranda! suggest! that! emphasising! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship!within!their!module!would!be!counterNproductive!and!not!in!keeping!with! student! attitudes.! This! was! surprising! as! Health's! enterprise! champion! suggested! this! module! as! one! whose! students! had! an! interest! in! setting! up! social! enterprises! themselves.!The!worries!about!student!reactions!to!social!entrepreneurship!they!express! could! explain! why! social! entrepreneurship! is! somewhat! 'othered',! and! may! also! ! explain! why! there! are! no! mentions! of! enterprise! in! the! course! title! or! course! content.! The! only! discrete!focus!on!enterprise!in!the!module!is!on!social!enterprise!–!but!as!a!form!of!healthN related! business! that! students! may! need! to! commission! services! from! in! the! future.!! Miranda!and!Margaret!do!however!insist!that!their!module!does!help!students!to!develop! enterprising!capabilities!and!that!these!are!important:! ! That’s! the! only! time! the! word! enterprise! is! used! (in! relation! to! social! enterprise)! but! we’re! talking! about! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! all! the! time! because! to! change! practice! you! have! to! be! enterprising...It’s!! there! all! the! time...! it’s! just! like,! culture! N! we! know! it’s! there,! but! it’s! not! always!named!is!it?!(Miranda,!Health)!
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! You! can’t! have! a! healthy! organisation! if! they’re! not! enterprising...! certainly! the! skills! and! attributes! of! health! specialists! is! to! have! an! awareness!of!enterprise.!(Margaret,!Health)! ! Miranda! also! frames! this! choice! not! to! 'name'! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! as! a! reaction!to!the!instability!or!lack!of!certainty!of!the!term!and!the!fact!that!entrepreneurship! is! not! adequately! defined! and! is! premised! on! language! that! does! not! cross! the! field! boundaries!between!business!and!health!very!easily:!! ! There! is! an! unfamiliarity! with! (enterprise)! in! terms! of! using! that! language...!and!entrepreneurship!(3!second!pause)!What!does!it!mean! to! people?! It’s! important! that! we! use! language! that! is! meaningful! and! I’m! not! sure! that! that! is! particularly! meaningful.! It! used! to! be! 'dynamic! and! innovative! practice'! and! that’s! more! accepted! now! than! terms! like! entrepreneurship.! ! In! this! way! Miranda! describes! an! approach! to! teaching! in! Health! which! staff! position! as! being! 'for'! enterprise! N! in! that! the! course! is! focused! on! helping! students! to! develop! enterprising!skills!in!order!to!change!their!practice!–!but,!due!to!the!implications!of!using! this! particular! terminology! within! this! particular! educational! setting! and! with! these! particular! students,! staff! actively! choose! to! position! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! as! part!of!a!'hidden'!curriculumW!informing!the!curriculum!but!not!explicitly!named!or!promoted! to! students! for! fear! of! alienating! them.! This! echoes! comments! made! about! Northfield's! approach! to! enterprise! in! the! leaflet! discussed! in! section! one! and! that! while! enterprise! may!not!be!in!the!title!of!their!course!students!are!nonetheless!still!'learning!enterprising! skills'.! Interestingly,! the! lecturers! from! Health! N! who! profess! to! have! less! ‘expert’! knowledge!in!this!area!N!are!the!most!reflective!about!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and! question! its! usefulness! as! a! term.! This! may! be! because,! unlike! those! teaching! on! an! explicitly! named! entrepreneurship! or! enterprise! focused! course,! ! they! have! less! of! a! personal! investment! as! a! business! or! entrepreneurship! educator! and! so! feel! able! to! acknowledge!and!engage!with!contradiction!and!uncertainty:! ! I! don’t! think! anybody! has! offered! me! a! satisfactory! definition! of! either! enterprise!or!entrepreneurship!and!so!when!I’m!talking!about!innovative! practice!and!I’m!talking!about!leadership!skills!that’s!what!we’re!talking! about,! it’s! implicit! within! that.! Just! because! it’s! called! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise…! They! just! seem! to! me! to! be! the! latest! buzz! words! really...!if!people!can!hone!their!management!and!leadership!skills!then! they! will! be! enterprising,! ! they! may! classify! themselves! as!
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entrepreneurs.! But! what! they’re! doing! is! being! dynamic! and! innovative! leaders.!(Miranda,!Health)! ! This!framing!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as!the!latest!'buzz'!words!!by!those!with! little! personal! investment! in! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! is! perhaps! understandable! given!both!Margaret!and!Miranda's!apparent!rejection!of!these!as!meaningful!or!legitimate! terms! to! use! within! their! teaching.! ! However,! somewhat! surprisingly,! this! notion! of!N! and! emphasis!on!N!!developing!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!within!students!and!across!the! university! as! being! 'a! buzz! word'! is! also! touched! upon! by! lecturers! from! Sport! and! Hospitality,!with!all!of!the!formal!teaching!staff!expressing!concerns!that!entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!education!is!a!'fashion'!or!a!'fad',!with!'trendy'!terminology!used!to!signify!a! sense!of!Northfield!as!institutionally!proNactive:! ! Enterprise!is!modern,!current,!sexy.!With!all!of!what’s!happening!on!TV! now,! the! government! sponsorship! and! all,! I! think! most! people! put! the! words!enterprise!in!(courses).!(Henry,!Sport)! ! The!teaching!team!keeps!up!to!date!and!goes!with!the!flow!of!what!is!the! ‘in’! phrase…! (students)! need! an! understanding! of! how! enterprise! is! influencing!the!NHS!and!it!is!(pause)!at!the!moment.!(Margaret,!Health)! ! It’s! quite! fashionable! to! be! thought! of! as! entrepreneurial,! eh?! So! I! do! believe! that! distorts! people’s! view! a! bit! N! we! should! all! be! enterprising.! Well,!should!we?!(laughs).!(Richard,!Hospitality)! ! There! are! so! many! high! profile! entrepreneurs,! they're! also! seen! as! celebrities!now.!Alan!Sugar,!Duncan!Bannatyne,!the!Dragon’s!Den!N!!the! TV!thing!seems!to!glamourise!it.!(Rosalind,!Enterprise!Unit)! ! This! suggestion! of! entrepreneurship! being! fashionable! and! high! profile! also! suggests! a! sense! of! high! status,! linked! with! celebrity! culture! and! media! imaginings! of! 'successful'! people.!However,!like!Miranda,!Rosalind!(who!works!in!the!enterprise!unit!and!owns!her! own! business)! expresses! unease! with! the! language! used! to! frame! entrepreneurship,! particularly!the!term!'entrepreneur'!and!its!suggested!connotations:! ! I'm! not! a! big! fan! of! it,! I! think! that! it! has! certain! characteristics! or! stereotypes! assigned! to! it.! In! my! experience! an! entrepreneur! is! somebody!who!has!the!desire!to!work!for!themselves!and!actually!goes! and!does!it...!I've!been!called!an!entrepreneur!before,!I!kind!of!wriggle!it! off,! I'm! not! massively! comfortable! with! it.! I'm! a! business! owner! and! I'm! happy!with!that.!I!suppose!part!of!me!is!uncomfortable!with!it!because!I! see! an! entrepreneur,! and! I! guess! I'm! joining! in! with! the! stereotype,! as!
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somebody! who! starts! something,! moves! on! quickly,! starts! something,! moves!on!quickly!and!I'm!not!that!sort!of!person.! ! Rosalind! not! only! feels! uncomfortable! with! the! term! entrepreneur! as! people! apply! it! to! themselves! and! the! suggested! traits! or! abilities! traditionally! linked! to! the! term,! but! she! also!feels!uncomfortable!when!the!term!is!applied!to!her!–!suggesting!that!entrepreneurs! are!positioned!as!a!particular!'type'!of!person,!who!do!particular!things!in!a!particular!way! and!that!she!is!not!'that!sort!of!person'.!!While!she!acknowledges!that!this!is!a!stereotype,! she! describes! a! form! of! entrepreneurial! habitus! that! ! 'people! like! her'! do! not! have! and! that,! for! her,! ! being! a! business! owner! is! about! staying! with! that! business! rather! than! moving! on! to! to! the! next! thing.! ! In! this! way! she! echoes! Richard's! comments! about! entrepreneurs!not!being!'control!freaks'!or!'survivalists'!whilst!also!suggesting!that!she!is! happy!to!be!positioned!as!a!business!owner!rather!than!an!entrepreneur!as!this!describes! what!she!does!rather!than!!'who'!she!is.! ! As! well! as! acknowledging! wider! debates! and! positioning! of! entrepreneurship,! staff! also! acknowledge! the! institutional! ! changes! that! an! emphasis! on! 'repositioning'! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!from!Business!schools!brings!and!that!there!is! now! an! onus! on! embedding! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! teaching! within! 'other'! disciplines! where! it! is! still! to! be! academically! and! pedagogically! embedded.! ! This! 'reN badging'!of!business!is!commented!on!by!several!interviewees:!! ! The!business!school!teach!many!different!aspects!of!enterprise!which…! 10!years!ago!wouldn’t!have!had!an!enterprise!labelW!it!would!have!been! a!business!course.!(Henry,!Sport)! ! (The!students)!get!a!hell!of!a!shock!when!they!turn!up!and!find!they’ve! got!to!do!profit!and!loss!and!balance!sheets!(laughs)!and!business! ratios!with!me.!(Richard,!Hospitality)! ! What!traditionally!I!may!have!called!business!I’m!suddenly!starting!to! call!enterprise.!(Margaret,!Health)! ! This!potentially!alienates!those!who!are!suspicious!or!ambivalent!about!the!promotion!of! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! and! can! come! as! a! 'shock'! to! students! on! courses! traditionally! unrelated! to! business.! This! can! lead! to! a! distrust! or! suspicion,! evident! in! apparently! valueNdriven! attitudes! to! the! concept! with! Richard! describing! how! hard! and! 'risky'!entrepreneurship!is,!while!James!highlights!the!'corrupting'!influence!of!business!on! sport!and!both!Margaret!and!Miranda!position!social!entrepreneurship!as!a!threat.!!!In!line! with! this! repositioning! of! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! as! relevant! to! all! HE! students!
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Richard! is! suspicious! of! suggestions! that! entrepreneurship! is! open! to! all! and! that! ‘fashionable’!policies!which!support!this!are!misguided:! ! If! it’s! fashionable! it’s! almost! suggesting! that! everybody! could! be! (an! entrepreneur)! and! that’s! not! true.! Not! everybody! can! be…! no! matter! how! much! academic! stuff! and! support! they! get…So! let’s! not! get! hung! up! that! we!all!should!be!(entrepreneurs)!because!we!shouldn’t!be!and!most!people! aren’t.!(Richard,!Hospitality)! ! Richard! believes! that! most! people! cannot! ! become! entrepreneurs! and! that! the! required!! skills!or!'mindset'!cannot!be!taught.!!This!conflicts!with!the!wider!body!of!knowledge!which! suggests! that! arguments! over! the! 'teachability'! of! entrepreneurship! are! obsolete.!! However,! the! attitudes! of! staff! such! as! Richard! suggest! that! this! might! be! an! onNgoing! debate! 'on! the! ground'! which! can! impact! on! practice! and! on! the! student! experience.! Richard!is!consistent!in!his!attitude!that!only!a!few!special!people!are!entrepreneurial!and! that!entrepreneurship!is!'special'!and!should!not!be!positioned!as!simply!one!of!a!range!of! employment! options! for! students.! The! ! idea! that! everyone! has! entrepreneurial! potential!! clashes!with!his!conceptualisation!of!entrepreneurship!and!his!suggestion!that!no!matter! how!much!help!students!receive!it!is!unlikely!that!!they!will!!become!entrepreneurs.!!This! also! clashes! with! Northfield's! wider! institutional! approach! to! enterprise! which! projects! Northfield! as! an! entrepreneurial! institutionW! touched! upon! by! some! of! the! staff! and! highlighting! their! understanding! of! the! symbolic! capital! of! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!and!its!importance!in!differentiating!HEIs!to!attract!both!funding!and! students:! ! We! are! an! enterprising! university! –! we! support! enterprise! or! develop! enterprise,! that! should! be! what! people! think! when! they! look! at! our! prospectus.!(Henry,!Sports)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! Of!course!Northfield,!being!an!enterprising!institution,!everybody's!trying! to! encourage! each! other! to! be! as! enterprising! as! possible.! (Rosalind,! Enterprise!Unit)! ! (Enterprise)!is!part!of!the!Northfield!ethos,!of!who!we!are!and!what!we!do! and!how!Northfield!is!different!from!(other!universities)!within!the!region! and!our!competitors!on!a!national!level.!(Imogen,!Enterprise!Unit)! ! Enterprising! institutions! are! also! positioned! ! as! being! responsible! for! preparing! students! for!future!employment!and!for!Henry,!Rosalind!and!Imogen!this!informs!their!positioning!of! Northfield! in! preparing! students! for! the! realities! of! a! marketNdriven,! globalised! economy.!! This!echoes!ideas!around!entrepreneurship!being!just!one!of!a!range!of!graduate!career!
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options! and! the! responsibility! of! HEIs! to! help! students! to! thrive! in! this! new! world! order.! Imogen! underlines! Northfield's! institutional! habitus,! ! comparing! it! to! a! Russell! Group! university!where!she!worked!previously:! ! (The! Russell! Group! university)! turned! enterprise! into! an! initiative! rather! than! an! educational! level! like! an! academic! subject.! It! would! be! a! skills! project! or! an! IT! project...It’s! something! they! have! to! go! and! do! as! opposed! to! a! way! of! working! academically! which! is! embedded! within! their! subject.! I! genuinely! haven’t! felt! that! at! Northfield! but! I! am! aware! (laughs)!of!other!universities!where!it!would!have!been!a!tension...! ! Imogen! suggests! that! in! researchNfocused! establishments! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! is! 'othered'! or! sideNlined! and! seen! as! a! skillsNdevelopment! process! rather! than! an! academic! discipline.! This! highlights! issues! around! the! positioning! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! universities! and! its! relatively! low! status! ! and! struggles!for!the!subject!itself!to!be!recognised!as!a!discrete!discipline.!However,!although! Imogen! suggests! that! these! tensions! are! not! apparent! at! Northfield,! the! way! that! it! is! approached!by!some!staff!does!seem!to!be!similar,!with!a!focus!on!skills!development!and! practice!and!a!distrust!of!the!‘academic’!worth!of!entrepreneurship,!which!is!seen!by!some! as!a!generic!skill!rather!than!an!academic!discipline!per!se:! ! You!could!take!(the!module)!to!Art,!to!Health,!to!Business…!and!I!think!the! framework! fits.! It’s! a! very! simple! procedure...! We! just! get! the! students! to! think!through!those!key!steps!N!the!structure,!!marketing!and!finance!and!I! think!you!can!do!that!in!any!industry!sector!anywhere…!(Henry,!Sport)! ! !If! you! map! all! the! skills! that! you! need! when! you! deliver! both! on! sports! development! programmes! and! business! development! programmes,! the! skills!are!exactly!the!same.(James,!Sport)! ! It!is!'simple'!because!these!are!generic!skills!which!can!be!‘bolted’!on!to!other!courses!and! in! this! way! the! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! can! be! simplified! –! suggesting! an! emphasis! on! skills,! behaviors! and! processes! rather! than! ! knowledge,! understanding!or!theoretical!underpinning.!There!is!also!an!emphasis!on!these!lecturer's! abilities!to!'make'!this!into!a!simple!process!and!to!construct!and!define!'what'!enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! is! for! their! students! suggesting! little! time! for,! or! emphasis! on,! reflection! or! critical! engagement.! Imogen! however,! suggests! that! ! embedding! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!is!not!necessarily!a!simple!process!and!can!be! met!with!ideological!opposition!and!ambivalence!based!on!the!sense!of!‘habitus’!of!HE!as! a!sector!and!that!it!has!taken!a!while!to!overcome!this:!
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! (Enterprise)! wasn’t! something! that! was! well! received! in! Higher! Education!originally.!It’s!the!opposite!of!choosing!education!as!a!career! (laughs)…I!meet!staff!who!say,!'I!am!a!Marxist,!what!are!you!talking!to! me!about!enterprise!for?'!(Imogen,!Enterprise!Unit)! ! Here!Imogen!articulates!the!clash!of!culture!between!the!fields!of!business!and!education! and!the!sense!of!cultural!hostility!outlined!previously!–!with!its!implication!that!these!fields! do! not! have! a! comfortable! 'fit'.! Imogen's! comment! that! becoming! an! entrepreneur! is! the! 'opposite'!of!choosing!education!as!a!career!also!distinguishes!between!the!academic!and! the! vocational,! something! highlighted! by! other! staff,! who! feel! that! these! approaches! are! incompatible.! This! is! linked! to! ! a! questioning! of! how! academic! the! subject! is,! and! intimations! that! putting! an! academic! ‘spin’! on! entrepreneurship! is! problematic! and! can! actually!make!it!more!difficult!to!engage!and!support!students:! ! I!do!think!we!have!made!it!academic!because!we!are!an!HE!establishment! and!if!you’re!going!to!deliver!anything!it!has!to!have!academic!rigor.!But,!I! think!that!if!you!went!out!to!an!entrepreneur!and!you!showed!them!the!units! we!deliver,!it!could!raise!a!wry!smile.(Henry,!Sport)! ! I!hear!some!of!the!academic!delivery!and!my!concern!is!it’s!divorced!from! real!world!stuff!(James,!Sport)! ! There!is!an!intimation!here!that!entrepreneurship!cannot!be!taught!or!that!what!is!!taught! does!not!reflect!the!social!reality!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!–!bringing!us!back!to! issues!around!innate,!natural!traits!and!behaviours,!with!Henry!privileging!the! 'entrepreneur'!as!the!expert!rather!than!the!institution.!Indeed,!both!Henry!and!James! suggest!that!having!academic!rigour!and!a!focus!on!theory!actively!undermines! entrepreneurship!–!setting!up!a!binary!(!as!Imogen!does!earlier)!of!!academia!versus! entrepreneurship:! ! The!students!don’t!see!the!abstract!value!of!academic!rigor,!we!do!because! we!teach!it,!they!don’t!because!they!see!things!in!the!real!world.!And!it’s! trying!to!make!sure!that!their!entrepreneurial!approach!isn’t!knocked!out!of! them!through!academic!rigor.!(James,!Sport)! ! I!think!there’s!a!need!to!underpin,!things!like!law,!marketing,!HR.!I!think!the! trouble!is!sometimes!they!become!barriers!to!some!people!because!you! can!almost!take!the!enterprise!out!of!people!(Henry,!Sport)! !
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This!suggests!that!Henry!and!James!regard!HE!as!not!reflecting!!the!wider!social!reality! of!entrepreneurship!or!the!'lifeNworld'!of!the!'real'!entrepreneur.!This!also!suggests!that! both!Henry!and!James!believe,!like!Richard,!!that!enterprising!abilities!are!already!‘within’! students!before!they!enter!the!classroom!and!can!be!educated!'out'!of!them.!The! inconsistencies!and!contradictions!in!staff!comments!and!perceptions!are!understandable! when!we!consider!my!original!premise,!and!one!supported!by!feminist!and!genderN focused!research!cited!in!this!thesis,!that!entrepreneurship!theory!is!based!on!the! historically!exclusive!study!of!males!by!males!and!that!theories!developed!from!this!in! mainstream!approaches!to!entrepreneurship!are!based!upon!these!maleNnormative! ideas.!!Their!habitus,!as!lecturers!therefore!'...incorporates!a!'feel!for!the!game'!that!is! already!authorized'!(Lawler,!2004,!p.123)!but!is!not!necessarily!accepted!within!their! disciplines!or!institutions.!Even!those,!such!as!James,!Imogen!and!Henry!who!are! relatively!enthusiastic!about!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!feel! marginalised!and!that!they!have!to!persuade!their!colleagues!about!its!merits!or!that!they! are!positioned!as!‘practitioners’!rather!than!accepted!as!‘academics',!further!emphasising! an!apparent!!vocational/academic!dichotomy!and!its!influence!on!staff!positioning!within! Northfield.!Indeed,!only!Imogen!describes!herself!as!an!academic!with!the!other!staff! identifying!themselves!as!practitioners!first!and!academics!second.!Being!a!practitioner!is! part!of!the!habitus!and!capital!that!these!staff!bring!to!HE!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!education!which!in!turn!shapes!their!practiceW!informing!their!sense!of!what! Bourdieu!and!Passeron!(1990)!call!pedagogic!authority!and!their!choice!of!pedagogic! actions,!or!teaching!approaches:! ! I!hope!that!when!I’m!stood!in!front!of!them!lecturing!that!experience!comes! through!and!helps!them!to!understand!the!dilemmas!from!both!(theory!and! practice),!‘cos!I’ve!done!it!from!both!ends…!and!I!can!understand!their! frustrations.!(Miranda,!Health)! ! for!!years!I’ve!had!my!own!business...!so!I’ve!always!been!looking!outside! the!box,!never!really!looked!at!my!job!here!as!being!the!reason!for!life...!you! (have)!to!get!out!from!the!academic!ivory!tower!and!meet!with!people!in!real! industry,!in!real!business...!So!it’s!taking!academia!into!a!more!commercial! light,!which!is!why!I!got!involved!with!(teaching!in!this!area)!!!(Henry,!Sport)! ! I’ve!20!years!as!a!leader!and!a!manager!in!practice!so!I!brought!those!skills! over...!the!fact!that!I’m!experienced!in!the!concept!that!we’re!trying!to! develop!the!skills!and!knowledge!of!within!the!students,!brings!the!topic!to! life...!(Margaret,!Health)! ! I!don’t!come!at!it!from!the!same!point!of!view!as!most!of!the!academics!here! and!I!must!admit!that!I’m!a!bit!of!a!hybrid...!Not!being!an!academic!for!that!
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long!and!being!a!consultant,!I!have!a!much!more!pragmatic!view!of!the!real! world.!That! it! doesn’t! happen! in! the! way! that! academics! think! that! it! does.! Having!said!that,!the!way!that!business!people!do!it!is!not!correct!either!and! it’s!finding!this!balance!somewhere!in!the!middle.!(James,!Sport)!! ! Being! a! practitioner,! and! someone! who! has! to! 'find! the! balance'! between! theory! and! practice! informs! their! sense! of! identity,! their! position! within! the! institution! and! their! relationship! with! both! 'what'! they! teach! and! with! their! colleagues! and! students.! Due! to! these! apparent! contradictions! and! clashes! between! the! academic! and! the! vocational! some! staff! identify! their! role! as! being! based! on! persuasion,! with! James! suggesting! that! part!of!his!role!is!to!persuade!less!enthusiastic!colleagues!in!Sport!about!the!benefits!of! HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education.!Here!Richard!describes!his!position!within! his!particular!department:! ! We’re! referred! to! in! this! building! as! practitioners,! as! opposed! to! the! academics!who!have!been!here!for!donkey’s,!and!they’re!a!bit!at!odds.! Because! I,! as! a! practitioner,! can! sit! here! and! think! ‘well,! you’ve! never! been!out!there!and!done!it’.!(laughs).!Whereas!your!academic!says!'But! here’s! the! body! of! knowledge'.! ! But! there’s! the! body! of! knowledge! and! the!research!and!the!academic!information!that!I’ve!got!that!they!should! have...! I! mean! you! know! now! industry! says! “students! are! all! crap,! they! all! come! out,! wet! behind! the! ears,! ! they! don’t! know! anything,! what! do! you!teach!them?”!and!of!course!what!they!teach!them!is!academic.! ! All! of! the! educators! teaching! on! formal! courses! are! therefore! aware! of! their! roles! as! a! 'bridge'!between!!the!'real!world'!and!academia,!a!role!described!as!'pracademic'!(Posner,! 2009)!and,!as!staff!who!also!take!on!consultancy!work!and!other!external!roles!they!do,! as!Posner!suggests,!!'straddle!both!worlds',!having!!knowledge!of!the!'real!world'!outside! academia!that!career!academics!do!not!have,!with!Richard!and!James!!suggesting!that!an! academic! or! theoretical! approach! is! out! of! touch! with! this! 'reality'.! Their! practitioner! knowledge! is! arguably! easier! to! apply! within! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! (and! is! framed! as! being! more! relevant)! because! entrepreneurship! is! still! a! theoretically!unstable!area,!therefore!offering!opportunities!to!base!pedagogic!actions!on! experience!rather!than!the!wider!body!of!knowledge!as!they!are!the!'experts'!in!the!more! valuable!!'real!world'!rather!than!in!the!'academic'!approach!in!this!area.!This!leads!them!! to!emphasise!their!personal,!practical!knowledge!(linked!to!habitus!and!'feel!for!the!game')! rather!than!the!knowledge!and!approaches!of!the!'academics'.!Inherent!in!the!concept!of! the!pracademic!is!idea!of!straddling!two!worlds!and!of!!'crossing!fields'!i.e.!understanding! and! translating! ! the! 'rules! of! the! game'! of! one! field! within! another! and! in! negotiating! the! links!and!the!'fit'!between!fields.!Given!the!emphasis!on!graduate!employability!in!current!
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HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! policy! this! further! legitimatises! these! staff! in!the!classroom,!giving!them!pedagogic!authority!and!emphasising!their!role!as!'experts'!! in!supporting!students!to!convert!this!'practical'!!knowledge!into!future!economic,!cultural! and! symbolic! capital.! !The! instability,! inconsistencies! and! contradictions! identified! earlier! are! arguably! due! to! the! fact! that! lecturer's! privilege! their! own! knowledge! ! and! many! of! their! attitudes! and! approaches! to! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! are! based! on! their! own! experiences! of! working! in! disciplineNrelated! sectors,! or,! in! Richard,! Henry,! James! and! Margaret's! cases,! of! running! businesses! and/or! being! selfNemployed.! This! emphasis! on! practice! rather! than! theory! could! explain! ambivalence! towards! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as!a!fad!or!a!novelty!because!it!is!a!developing!area!and! the!knowledge!base!still!has!gaps!and!inconsistencies.!It!could!also!explain!the!curriculum! focus! on! developing! skills! such! as! finance,! marketing! and! business! planning! –! on! skills! and! competencies! rather! than! critical! engagement! with! the! ideas! upon! which! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!is!based.! ! It!is!apparent!that,!although!Northfield!seeks!to!position!itself!as!an!enterprising!university,! offering!opportunities!for!students!to!both!formally!and!informally!engage!!with!enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! education! leads! to! struggles! for! staff! around! how! to! approach! this! within! their! particular! disciplines! with! their! approaches! ! based! upon! a! complicated! synthesis! of! their! experiences,! their! attitudes,! their! understandings! and! their! position! within! the! university! and! externally.! This! highlights! how! educators'! experiences! and! attitudes! are! drawn! upon! to! inform,! contextualise! and! frame! their! response! to! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! educationW! reflecting! the! instability! of! HE! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!and!informing!the!pedagogic!actions!used!and! pedagogic!authority!of!educators.!It!could!be!argued!that!this!inconsistency!of!approach!is! linked!to!the!emerging!nature!of!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!which!still! has! to! find! its! 'place'! within! HE.! This! inconsistency! of! approach! further! highlights! the! instability!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as!an!academic!discipline!!and!how!different! interpretations!can!influence!how!it!is!presented!in!the!classroom.!If!HE!entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!education!is!presented!as!riskNtaking!then!there!are!negative!connotations,! if! presented! as! an! opportunity! entrepreneurship! is! positioned! as! positive! and! if! it! is! a! threat! then! students! will! potentially! be! hostile! to! it! and,! depending! upon! which! discipline! they! are! studying! or! which! member! of! staff! is! teaching! them,! students! receive! different,! valueNdriven! framings.! This! is! particularly! contradictory! given! that! staff! are! invisible! in! many! policy! and! research! documents,! with! an! assumption! that! they! are! supportive! and!
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that! their! role! is! unproblematic,! being! to! deliver! ! 'neutral'! and! valueNfree! knowledge! and! skillsW!a!view!which!is!not!reflected!in!my!interviews!with!staff.!! Although! entrepreneurship! education! is! presented! in! mainstream! research! and! policy! literature!as!a!neutral,!valueNfree,!theoretically!informed!area,!educators!express!differing! views! on! what! entrepreneurship! education! 'is'! and! the! sort! of! skills! and! behaviours! needed! to! 'be'! entrepreneurial! or! enterprising.! These! views! are! partly! based! on! their! 'practical! logic'! or! 'feel! for! the! game',! which! is! –! as! highlighted! in! previous! chapters! N! grounded! in! an! historically! masculineNframed! approach! to! entrepreneurship! education.! These!promote!individualistic!discourses!that!!emphasise!agency!and!take!little!account!of! how! socially! constructed! cultural! expectations! may! act! as! constraints! –! even! if! students! do!possess!‘drive,!ambition!and!vision’.!Bourdieu!suggests!that!our!perceived!chances!of! success! vary,! depending! on! the! capital! and! habitus! we! bring! to! a! particular! field! (in! this! case!entrepreneurship)!and!how!this!is!valued!or!rewarded!within!that!particular!field.!It!is! arguable! that! male! gender! capital! and! a! ‘masculinised’! form! of! habitus! is! more! readily! converted! into! the! symbolic! capital! associated! with! entrepreneurship,! given! the! lack! of! visible!female!entrepreneurs!both!in!and!outside!of!the!classroom.!! ! A! focus! on! agency! implies! that! the! possession! of! an! 'entrepreneurial! habitus'! and! the! necessary!'entrepreneurial!capital'!is!all!one!needs!to!succeedW!masking!issues!related!to! the! symbolic! capital! inherent! in! the! privileging! of! masculinity! and! its! related! symbolic! economic!and!cultural!capital.!Interestingly,!male!staff!were!more!likely!to!privilege!agency! than! female! staff,! who! acknowledged! structural! barriers! such! as! the! 'glass! ceiling’,! the! impact! of! women’s! culturally! prescribed! role! as! primary! carer! and! issues! around! female! advancement! within! male! dominated! organisational! structures.! This! raises! questions! about! the! perceived! symbolic! power! of! gender! capital,! i.e.! that! masculinity! is! privileged! and! rewarded! within! entrepreneurship! discourses,! suggesting! that! it! is! 'easier'! or! more! accepted! that! masculine! gender! capital! can! be! converted! to! the! symbolic! capital! associated! with! entrepreneurship,! or! 'convertibility! into! legitimacy'! (Elam,! 2008).! Richard! highlights!this!link!between!entrepreneurship!and!the!symbolic!capital!of!masculinity!when! he!spontaneously!mentions!gender!dynamics!in!answer!to!a!question!about!what!makes!a! ‘successful’!!classroom!session:! ! Most!of!the!entrepreneurs!in!this!country!are!men.!Now!in!a!class!that’s! 70%! women! you! can! soon! get! a! good! organised! chat! going! (laughs)! “Why! is! that?”! We’re! not! supposed! to! be! different! but! we! are! different.! We’re!all!supposed!to!be!equal!aren’t!we?!(laughs)!So,!there!should!be!
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as! many! women! entrepreneurs! as! there! are! men,! unless! there’s! something!different!about!us.!There’s!not!many!judges!who!are!women,! are! there?!There’s! not! many! managing! directors! who! are! women...So! I! think! entrepreneurs! just! fit! in! the! same! category.! Is! it! a! realistic! expectation!that!we!should!be!the!same!in!numbers?! ! Richard!suggests!the!gender!disparity!in!entrepreneurship!as!related!to!innate!differences! between! men! and! women! rather! than! being! linked! to! different! opportunities! available! to! men! and! women! or! the! way! that! societal! structures! may! encourage! and! support! male! entrepreneurship.! This! again! raises! questions! around! the! symbolic! power! of! gender! capitalW! reinforcing! dualistic! ideas! around! gendered! and! entrepreneurial! homogeneity! whilst!forcing!female!students!to!'defend'!their!gender!and!to!engage!in!a!managed!'battle! of!the!sexes'W!a!discourse!identified!as!damaging!within!educational!research!(Sunderland,! 2004W! Leathwood! and! Read,! 2009).! ! The! fact! that! Richard! is! positioned! as! the! expert! gives!him!pedagogic!authority!within!this!'discussion'!and!allows!him!to!question!and!deny! links!between!feminine!symbolic!capital!and!entrepreneurial!success.!!Interestingly,!when! asked!directly!about!gender!informed!approaches!staff!adopt!a!genderNneutral!approach,! suggesting! that! they! haven't! 'noticed'! the! gender! of! their! students! or,! if! they! have,! that! it! does! not! affect! teaching.! Henry! frames! entrepreneurial! intentions! as! a! genderNneutral,! 'rational'!choice:! ! Some!people!can!see!they!can!use!their!skills!and!knowledge!to!move!into! enterprise! and! some! people! don’t! want! that…! There’s! been! more! males! coming!to!see!me!afterwards!to!bounce!ideas!and!clarify!thinking!but!I!think! the!girls…!as!the!boys!are..!some!are!very!innovative,!very!aware.!Some!of! them,!it’s!not!for!them…which!is!fine.! ! Rosalind!echoes!Henry's!suggestion!of!the!importance!of!the!lecturer!as!the!first!level!of! help! and! support! for! nascent! student! entrepreneurs,! saying! that! a! 'male! student! is! more! likely!to!ask!for!support!and!help!from!a!lecturer'!and!that:! ! Female! students! looking! to! start! a! business! are! more! likely! to! ask! a! family!member!who's!already!done!it!and!they!tend!to!keep!it!a!bit!more! private! whereas! male! students! are! more! likely! to! be! a! bit! more! public! about! it! and! look! for! the! additional! support.! I'm! not! sure! why! that! is,! it! just!seems!to!have!happened!for!many!years!and!this!is!why!we're!trying! to! get! into! as! many! courses! as! possible! and! say! 'Look,! we're! here! for! everybody'! and! I! think! with! me! obviously! being! a! girl! (laughs)! perhaps!! that!will!encourage!other!girls!to!come!forward!and!ask!for!the!help.! ! However,!rather!than!problematising!!this,!she!echoes!Richard's!view!that!this!is!just!'how!
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things! are',! with! no! reflection! on! how! institutional! or! societal! mores! may! inform! student! behaviour.! Rosalind! does! suggest! her! visibility! as! a! female! mentor! might! ! encourage!! female!students!but!there!is!little!acknowledgement!of!different!issues!that!may!be!at!play! for! different! students! or! that! educators! themselves! may! play! a! part! in! shaping! student! perceptions! of! their! chances! of! success.! This! privileges! agency! and! does! not! acknowledge!issues!of!structure!linked!to!the!habitus!and!capital!that!students!bring!to!HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education.! ! When! we! unpick! this! argument! of! agential,! 'rational! choice'! we! can! argue! that! truly! agential! choice! is! only! possible! if! everyone! has! access! to! all! the! available! choices.! However,! as! Bourdieu! argues,! the! choices! we! have! are!not!based!on!the!total!availability!of!all!choices!but!on!those!delineated!by!the!habitus! and! capital! (both! individually! and! collectively! accrued)! that! we! bring! to! a! field! and! our! related! chances! of! success.! I! would! argue! that! institutional! positionings! of! entrepreneurship!shape!student!‘subjective!expectations!of!objective!probability'!(Jenkins,! 1992)! and! conceptualisations! of! ‘the! future! in! the! present’! (Grenfell,! 2004),! informing! choices!around!entrepreneurship!as!a!viable!career!option.!The!!privileging!of!agency!and! the! predominance! of! male! students! ! pursuing! entrepreneurship! support! ! is! not! explicitly! acknowledged,! with! some! staff! suggesting! that! they! provide! a! genderNneutral! approach,! projecting!themselves!as!effectively!'genderNblind'.!When!asked!about!the!male!to!female! ratio!on!his!course!Henry!answers:! ! I’m! guessing! it’s! something! like! 80/20,! 70/30! (male! to! female)...! it’s! not! something!I’ve!studied…!but!I!think!the!females!are!as!able!to!move!into! enterprise! as! the! males…! because,! if! you’re! going! to! go! into! business! the! gender,! from! my! viewpoint,! is! not! particularly! relevant! if! you’ve! got! the!desire,!the!will,!the!wish,!the!finance,!the!funding!and!the!knowledge! to!succeed.! ! Again,! individualised! agency! is! privileged! and! a! genderNneutral,! level! playing! field! is! suggested!that!takes!no!account!of!the!interplay!of!agency!and!structure!or!ideas!around! gendered! capital! and! habitus.! Henry! suggests! that! the! possession! of! an! entrepreneurial! habitus!combined!with!the!'right'!forms!of!capital!ensures!success.!This!genderNblindness! and! the! tendency! for! genderNneutral! approaches! to! privilege! male! experience! was! also! evident! in! the! sessions! I! observed! where,! even! when! –! as! in! Hospitality! N! ! the! vast! majority!of!students!are!female,!those!people!identified!as!successful!entrepreneurs!were! male.!!Margaret,!on!the!other!hand,!suggests!that!she!actively!takes!note!of!the!students! on!her!course!and!that!this!does!affect!her!general!teaching!approach:!! !
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I’m! always! conscious! of! the! diversity! of! the! group! of! students,! their! ethnicity,! age,! gender...because! any! example! or! anything! that! we! ! use! has!to!be!!free!from!discrimination.! ! She!also!mentions!that!she!has!'at!least!one!male'!in!her!class!each!year!and!suggests! that!men!tend!to!progress!more!quickly!in!!organisations!than!their!female!counterparts! 'like! in! any! female! dominated! environment'.! Margaret! shows! awareness! of! her! ‘lone’! male!students!and!their!potential!for!alienation!or!exclusion!in!the!way!she!approaches! her!teachingW!and!in!a!way!that!is!not!reflected!by!those!in!the!other!disciplines.!Indeed,! when!asked!about!the!gender!mix!on!her!course,!and!in!expectation!that!she!might!talk! about! how! a! highly! feminised! course! may! influence! the! way! she! teaches,! she! immediately!starts!to!talk!about!how!she!makes!teaching!accessible!and!comfortable!for! the!notional!male!student,!almost!protecting!him,!in!a!classroom!situation!where!students! are!talking!about!infection!control!and!the!need!to!wear!tights!in!surgery:! ! I! was! controlling! the! women! from! saying! too! much! in! front! of! the! male! student.!I!just!want!him!to!be!embarrassed!by!(she!laughs!and!continues! to! laugh! while! she’s! saying! the! rest! of! the! sentence)! the! joke! about! whether!they!wear!knickers!or!not!in!theatre.!Or!the!concept!of!knickers! or…!(Margaret,!Health)! ! In! this! way! Margaret! shows! an! awareness! of! gender! in! the! classroom! but! in! an! unexpected! way! and! one! which! privileges! and! 'protects'! the! ! lone! maleW! actively! taking! account!of!his!minority!status.!Miranda!also!suggests!that!an!awareness!of!gender!shapes! her! approach! to! her! teaching,! however! she! is! cautious! ! about! constraining! student! ambitions!!N!suggesting!an!awareness!of!the!complex!interplay!of!agency!and!structure!for! her!majority!female!student!cohorts:! ! I!resist!all!the!feminist!stuff!(laughs)…!there’s!an!awful!!lot!of!leadership! writing! based! in! the! feminist! perspective.! Glass! ceiling! theory! and! all! this!kind!of!stuff…!I!think!if!we!study!it!and!if!we!make!it!important!in!the! classroom! the! chances! are! that! the! students! will! think! 'Well,! I’ll! never! make!it'!(laughs)!So!I!try!N!not!to!ignore!it!N!but!I!try!to!approach!things! as!if!it’s!an!even!playing!field.!(Miranda,!Health)! ! Her! talk! of! approaching! these! issues! as! if! it! is! an! even! playing! field! suggests! that! she! does! not! consider! the! Health! sector! to! be! an! even! playing! field! –! echoing! Margaret's! comments! about! the! speedy! progression! of! males! in! female! dominated! workplaces.! Miranda! is! also! wary! of! proclamations! about! male! and! female! management! and! leadership! abilities! and! any! genderNrelated! differences! –! although! she! does,! again,!!
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suggest!an!awareness!of!the!gendered!implications!of!the!course!that!she!is!teaching!on! and!a!critical!engagement!with!the!related!debates!in!this!area:! ! It’s!too!simplistic!to!say!women!don’t!make!good!managers!or!men!make! better! managers! or! women! have! more! traits! that! make! them! better! at! leadership...!Because!there’s!arguments!from!every!aspect!aren’t!there?! And! you! know,! ! the! really! successful! chief! execs! of! major! businesses! who! are! women,! have! adopted! male! traits.! Well,! is! that! right?! There’s! lots!of!research!that!says!‘yes,!that!is!right’!but!there’s!also!research!that! says!‘no,!that’s!not!right’! ! This!critical!engagement!with!the!research!base!around!gender!is!not!evident!in!lecturers! from! other! areas! which! may! reflect! Miranda's! recognition! of! structural! issues! for! her! students! and! that! she! recognises,! whilst! underplaying! any! feminist! motives,! that! her! students! are! working! in! a! particularly! gendered! environment! and! that! this! informs! her! teaching,! student! learning! and! their! external! work! situations.! This! complexity! of! issues! around!gendered!constraints!and!the!interplay!of!agency!and!structure!or!habitus,!capital! and! field! are! also! highlighted! by! Rosalind! who,! when! asked! about! relative! numbers! of! male!to!female!students!seeking!support,!says:! ! The! majority! of! people! who! are! starting! up! are! male! and! there's! lots! of! different! reasons! for! that.! I! think! it's! an! attitude! and! ! I! think! it's! a! media! influence! as! well! that! the! most! high! profile! business! owners! out! there! seem!to!be!male!but!I!think!there's!(sighs)!a!bit!of!a!fallacy!really!about! how! women! do! business! differently,! I've! not! necessarily! seen! that...! the! only!thing!that!women!do!differently!is!that!they!share!and!that!men!see!it! as!competition!and!that's!it,!so!far.!But!there's!also!things!that!would!put! a! woman! off! that! a! man! doesn't! necessarily! have! to! consider! so! much...things! like! child! care,! family,! that! kind! of! thing.! There's! also! still! the!stereotypes!of!roles,!but!they're!being!thrashed!through!every!single! day.! ! Rosalind! acknowledges! the! complexity! of! the! interplay! of! agency! and! structure,!! although! she! does! not! think! gendered! ‘styles’,! approaches! or! issues! are! necessarily! clear!cut.!!She!questions!gendered!stereotypes!whilst!also!accepting!that!these!still!go! unquestioned! and! that! these! gendered! constraints! are! part! of! people’s! daily! ‘reality’W! informing!how!and!if!they!seek!support.!There!is!a!recognition!here!of!the!importance!of! making! ‘people! like! me’! visible! to! students! and! that! perhaps,! with! her! involvement! in! crossNcampus! enterprise! sessions,! female! ! students! can! see! ‘people! like! them’! framed! as!'experts'!in!entrepreneurship!and!as!successful!business!owners,!making!it!easier!for! them! to! come! forward! and! ask! for! helpW! something! which! is! suggested! as! not! being! a!
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barrier!for!male!students,!perhaps!because!they!already!see!many!'people!like!them'!in! course!materials,!case!studies!and!visits!from!external!experts.!! !! All!three!male!staff!view!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!as!clearly!linked!to! business!creation!however,!Richard,!with!a!mainly!female!cohort,!leads!a!module!which! is! 'about'! entrepreneurship! with! no! expectation! that! students! will! pursue! entrepreneurship!whereas!!James!and!Henry!N!!working!with!a!mainly!male!cohort!N!are! open!to!the!possibility!that!their!students!might!pursue!entrepreneurship!on!graduation! whilst!Margaret!and!Miranda,!with!an!almost!exclusively!female!student!cohort!choose! to!!'hide'!the!suggested!emphasis!on!enterprise!from!their!students.!It!would!seem!that,! in!the!case!of!these!particular!disciplines,!!the!gender!appropriateness!or!'likelihood'!of! entrepreneurship!as!an!option!on!graduation!is!informed!by!the!gendering!of!academic! disciplines! with! those! teaching! on! traditionally! masculinised! courses,! such! as! Sport,! having! an! expectation! that! their! students! will! pursue! entrepreneurship! and! will! ! be! successfulW! encouraging! students! to! engage! with! the! 'entrepreneurial! lifeNworld'.! In! contrast,! those! students! on! ! traditionally! feminised! courses! N! such! as! Hospitality! and! Health!–!are!positioned!more!passively!–!with!expectations!that!Hospitality!students!will! observe! and! measure! entrepreneurial! 'others'! or,! that! Health! students! will! feel! threatened!by!explicit!reference!to!enterprise,!leading!to!the!hiding!of!entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! terms! such! as! 'leadership'! and! 'enterprising! practice'.! ! It! is! interesting! (but! perhaps! not! surprising)! that! female! staff! acknowledge! the! interplay! of! structural!issues,!agency!and!choice!in!their!conceptualisation!of!how!and!why!women! engage!with!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!in!HE.!However,!I!find!it!problematic!that,! within! a! university! sector! that! is! now! majority! female,! ways! of! actively! engaging! and! encouraging!female!students!are!not!explored!or!deemed!relevant!or!worthwhile!within! the!wider,!mainstream!curriculum.!! ! 4.!
Classroom!Observations:!Paying!Attention!to!Teaching! Processes! which! appear! to! be! simply! educational! in! nature! can! be! understood! as! a! form! of! pedagogic! work! and! socialization! within! a! particular!field.!(James,!1998!p.!106)!
! This! section! comprises! excerpts! from! course! documents,! field! notes! and! transcripts! of! audio!recordings.!!In!each!of!the!sections,!after!setting!the!scene,!!I!identify!and!discuss! 'insightful! instances'! which! form! the! basis! for! discussion! of! staff! teaching! around!
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entrepreneurship!and!enterprise,!their!delineation!of!the!subject!and!also!their!relationship! with! the! students! and! their! positions! as! 'experts'.! ! I! identified! the! first! session! of! each! module! as! the! most! important! to! attend! given! that! these! initial! encounters! between! staff! and!students!are!where!the!‘social!perimeters’!are!negotiated!and!where!'rules!and!ruleN breaking!are!defined!much!more!explicitly!than!when!relationships!have!‘settled!down’!and! thereby! become! accessible! to! the! researcher! who! is! also! trying! to! learn! the! rules’! (Edwards!and!Westgate,!1987!p.!101).!!In!all!cases!staff!and!students!do!not!necessarily! know!each!other,!as!modules!draw!together!students!from!different!pathways,!resulting!in! large! student! cohorts! and! staff! who! are! all! potentially! 'new'! to! each! other! as! well! as! the! module!and!ideas!around!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!as!framed!by!the!staff.!These! sessions!therefore!suggest!the!'working!out'!of!a!power!relationship!both!between!the!staff! and!students,!between!!students!!and!between!the!experts!or!those!who!‘know’!and!those! who!don’t!‘know’!about!the!valid!knowledge!in!each!context.!I!was!particularly!interested!in! the! delineation! of! entrepreneurship! and! 'successful'! entrepreneurs! and! how! these! might! combine! to! present! a! template! for! the! 'entrepreneurial! mindset'! or! 'entrepreneurial! lifeN world'! as! emphasised! in! recent! policy! and! research.! I! was! also! interested! to! explore! whether!the!ambivalence!and!uncertainty!staff!expressed!in!the!interviews!was!apparent! in!their!teaching!practice.! ! 4.1!SportYRelated!Classroom!! ! (entrepreneurs)! like! working! for! themselves,! they! don’t! like! working! for! somebody!else.!So!when!you’re!looking!at!those!traits…Are!you!that!type!of! person?!!If!you!are!you!should!be!looking!closely!at!what!you!need!to!do!to! run! your! own! business.! Having! run! my! own! business,! it’s! a! better! way! of! making!a!living,!James’s!done!the!same.!That’s!why!we’re!both!here!running! this!course.!(Henry,!from!lecture!transcript)! !! This!is!the!introductory!session!of!a!module!based!around!creating!a!business!plan!for!a! sportsNrelated!organisation,!with!students!working!in!groups!to!research,!plan!and!present! a!business!proposal!to!be!assessed!at!the!end!of!the!module.!!The!lecture!takes!place!in! a! large,! formal! environment! with! rows! of! chairs! in! the! middle! of! the! room! and! six! large! tables!around!the!perimeter.!!It!is!not!a!traditional!lecture!theatre!and!has!a!'corporate'!feel! with!two!large!projection!screens!either!side!of!the!lectern.!The!session!is!three!hours!long! and!in!four!sections:! ! 1.!Introduction!and!overview!of!module!aims/objectives/assessment!criteria!
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2.!Presentation!by!James!about!different!sports!organisation!models! 3.!Group!exercise!where!each!team!is!given!a!'type'!of!business! (voluntary/private/public)!and!asked!to!discuss!and!plan!for!a!business!based!upon! this! 4.!Presentation!by!Henry!on!entrepreneurship!! ! Although!the!tutors!expect!!approximately!125!students!there!are!23!female!students!and! 51! male! students! in! attendance,! the! majority! are! white! and! appear! to! be! in! their! late! teens/early! twenties.! This! module! (and! this! lecture)! is! delivered! by! two! white,! male! lecturers! N! Henry! and! James! N! and! draws! together! cohorts! from! several! different! sports! courses! at! Northfield.! !As! we! can! see! from! Henry's! opening! quote,! and! from! the! course! objectives! and! learning! outcomes! in! Figure! 4.2! above,! the! emphasis! is! firmly! on! the! entrepreneur! as! a! person! and! lecturer's! legitimise! their! knowledge! and! their! position! as! experts! on! the! basis! of! their! personal! experience! of! entrepreneurship.! ! Although! the! course!does!not!appear!to!privilege!any!specific!business!model!N!offering!opportunities!to! develop! business! proposals! for! organisations! from! the! commercial,! public! and! voluntary! sectors!N!!there!is!an!implicit!notion!that!to!develop!any!of!these!business!ideas!and!to!be! successful!requires!a!certain!‘type’!of!person!and!that!only!this!‘type’!of!person!with!certain! preNdetermined! (and! nonNnegotiable)! traits! can! become! a! successful! entrepreneur.! ! The!! lecturers! identify! themselves! as! entrepreneurs,! ! privileging! their! knowledge,! experience! and! pedagogic! authority.!The! required! traits,! and! their! nonNnegotiability,! are! emphasised! by!Henry!when!he!says:! ! So,! we’re! looking! at! entrepreneurs.! ! Well! that’s! what! you! lot! are! gonna! be!for!the!next!11!weeks...we’ll!!provide!you!with!enough!skills!to!be!able! to! take! that! through! and,! maybe! not! straight! after! university,! but! to! use! those!skills!to!generate!ideas,!business!ideas!!whether!that!be!in!small! organisations!of!your!own!or!in!large!organisations.!The!types!of!things! that! you! would! need! to! be! an! entrepreneur! is! a! high! level! of! drive! and! energy.!If!you’re!thinking!you’re!gonna!run!a!business!on!your!own!and! you’ve!not!got!high!levels!of!energy!and!you!haven’t!got!that!drive,!forget! it!because!it!will!not!work.!!You’ll!need!to!work!15,!16,!17!hours!a!day!not! for!a!couple!of!months!but!for!years.!(Henry)! ! The!template!presented!to!the!students!is!one!of!a!high!octane,!energised!individual!and! there!is!no!sense!in!this!depiction!that!enterprise!might!be!learnt!or!even!that!there!is!an! alternative!model.!!!While!such!a!depiction!might!appear!to!be!genderNneutral!there!is!no! discursive! space! for! students! to! imagine! a! life! that! might! include! caring,! rather! ‘drive’! is! presented! as! defaulting! to! the! masculine! norms! of! long! hours! (although! of! course! this!
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masculinised! space! might! be! one! that! women! may! choose! to! occupy).! This! reflects! a! traditionally! ‘masculinised’! and! heterosexual! work! pattern! where! men! ! can! have! a! home! and!family!life!and!work!long!hours!because!there!is!a!woman!in!the!background!tending! to! the! home.! ! ! If,! as! Fairclough! suggests,! interactional! control! is! related! to! turnNtaking,! topic! control,! control! of! agendas! and! formulation! there! is! very! little! interaction! between! staff!and!students!in!this!first!part!of!the!lecture,!although!students!do!have!the!opportunity! to! interact! with! each! other! and! staff! in! the! group! focused! part! of! the! session! once! the! 'rules'! have! been! established.! These! apparently! nonNnegotiable! ideas! and! models! are! what!the!students!will!be!assessed!on!and!the!tutors!make!it!clear!what!an!understanding! of!the!concepts!of!entrepreneurship!entails,!closing!down!the!possibility!of!deviating!from! this!in!students’!assessed!work:! ! On!successful!completion!of!this!module!!the!student!should!be!able!to! understand! and! begin! to! apply! the! concepts! of! entrepreneurship! and! intrapreneurship.! ! The! difference! between! intrapreneurship! and! entrepreneurship!is,!it’s!exactly!the!same!traits...we’ll!be!able!to!provide! you!with!enough!skills!to!be!able!to!take!that!through.!(James)! ! The! lecturer's! 'provide'! the! relevant! information! and! this! is! a! tightly! controlled! exercise! where! ! students! do! not! need! to! question! or! think! for! themselves! (apart! from! using! their! imagination! and! creativity! to! come! up! with! business! ideas).!There! is! a! suggestion! that! if! students!do!as!they!are!told!they!will!pass!the!assessment!following!a!clearly!delineated,! discrete! process! and! series! of! steps! and! issues! to! be! addressed! that! will! result! in! the! failure!or!success!of!the!business!proposal!(and!in!the!module!itself).!!This!lack!of!choice! and! control! and! the! focus! on! the! tutors! as! providers! of! information! and! knowledge! suggests! an! ‘empty! vessel’! approach! to! teaching! –! which! assumes! the! students! aren’t! ‘knowers’!and!that!they!currently!have!little!skill,!knowledge!or!understanding!in!this!area.!! The!lecturers!focus!on!their!experiences!throughout!the!lecturer!–!telling!the!group!about! their!hatred!of!authority,!that!they!have!run!a!business!in!the!past,!that!it!is!‘the!best!way! to! earn! a! living’,! positioning! themselves! as! experts! and! seem! highly! invested! in! the! presentation! of! entrepreneurship! because! of! this.! ! They! seem! careful! to! identify! themselves!as!entrepreneurial!and!in!possession!of!particular!traits,!presenting!their!own!! 'lifeNworld'! as! fitting! with! the! suggested! behaviours! and! abilities! of! entrepreneurs.! Suggestions! of! the! entrepreneurial! lifeNworld! extend! to! a! focus! on! identifying! ways! of! being! entrepreneurial! and! of! students! assessing! their! own! capabilities,! behaviours! and! attitude!in!light!of!this!–!with!the!module!handbook!containing!a!selfNassessment!exercise! where! students! assess! ! their! entrepreneurial! potential.!There! is! also! an! expectation! that!
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students!will!put!together!a!viable!business!plan!as!a!group!to!be!presented!at!the!end!of! the! module.! ! At! the! end! of! the! session! the! students! are! encouraged! to! complete! a! personal!skills!audit!using!‘Gibb’s!scale!of!entrepreneurial!behaviours,!skills!and!attributes'! in!their!module!handbook.! ! Insightful!Instance:!!'The!three!guys!that!we’ve!got!up!there'!!
! In!the!final!part!of!the!threeNhour!session!Henry!leads!a!presentation!on!entrepreneurship! which! he! suggests! focuses! on! theoretically! driven! ideas! around! ! ‘Entrepreneurial! Qualities’! and! he! delineates! ‘what’! entrepreneurship! is! through! focusing! on! examples! of! three! people:!Alan! Sugar,! Richard! Branson! and! Donald! Trump.! Henry! emphasises! their! relevance!and!that!they!illustrate!the!issues!that!have!been!covered!in!the!session:! ! The! three! guys! that! we’ve! got! up! there...didn’t! make! a! fortune! to! start! with.!Alan! Sugar! used! to! sell! off! the! back! of! a! barrow! in! a! market! and! moved! into! PCs! ...The! skills! he! learned! are! the! skills! that! you've! just! learned! in! a! very! short! space! of! time:! how! to! generate! income,! how! to! use! money,! how! to! market.! ! He’s! now! worth! a! significant! amount! of! money.! ! Richard! Branson! started! selling! magazines! when! he! was! at! university! at! a! very! similar! age! to! you.! ! He! dropped! out! of! university,! started!a!business,!he’s!now!worth!four!and!a!half!billion.!!Donald!Trump,! exactly!the!same.!But!what!they’ve!all!got!is...enough!selfNconfidence!to! take! carefully! calculated! risk...an! entrepreneur! is! not! a! risk! taker.! They! calculate!the!risk,!they!see!an!opportunity!N!!a!business!opportunity!N!and! they! make! money! from! it.! ! What! you! need! to! be! able! to! do! is! demonstrate! how! you! use! that! as! a! way! of! being! successful! because! four,!five,!six!years!down!the!line!that!generates!the!way!that!you!make! your! living.! Hard! work.! High! but! realistic! and! achievable! goals.! ! Belief! that!you!can!control!your!own!destiny.!Some!people!will!go!into!!running! their! own! businesses! simply! because! they! hate! authority.! Some! of! us,! unfortunately,! work! in! large! organisations,! but! we! still! hate! authority.! (From!transcript)! ! Henry!does!attempt!to!!make!links!with!student!experiences!by!focusing!on!these!men's! 'starting!points'!as!a!barrow!boy!or!dropping!out!of!university!to!start!a!business!however,! there!is!some!confusion!amongst!the!students!as!to!who!Donald!Trump!is,!suggesting!that! these!are!not!particularly!relevant!role!models!for!these!particular!students.!Indeed,!these! three!men!are!more!representative!of!the!lecturers!than!the!students,!being!white,!middleN aged,! males.! There! is! no! attempt! to! engage! with! the! students! or! to! discuss! any! other! people! that! they! may! consider! as! entrepreneurs,! with! lecturers! providing! their! students! with! role! models! which! may! or! may! not! be! of! ! interest! to! them.! This! does! seem! ! to!
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perpetuate! a! construction! of! entrepreneurship! which! has! been! problematised! both! as! being! masculinist! and,! as! Patel! (2005,! p.! 45)! suggests! ! 'hackneyed,! inappropriate! and! remote! from! young! people’s! interest! in! business',! ! being! far! removed! from! the! current! situation! of! these! students.! ! It! is! also! interesting! that! neither! Alan! Sugar! or! Richard! Branson!have!university!degrees!and!this!is!part!of!their!'mythology'!as!'selfNmade!men',! with!a!'hatred!of!authority'!(something!which!Henry!and!James!suggest!they!also!have).!! ! The! examples! used! suggest! a! maleNnormative! template! for! the! successful! entrepreneur! and! an! unreflexive! choice! of! exemplars! taken! as! much! from! popular! culture! as! from! theoretical! principles.! Indeed! the! trope! of! ‘no! education’! indicates! the! demotic! familiar! of! rags!to!riches!stories!and!selfNmade!men,!and!N!given!that!these!students!are!studying!at! HE! level! N! it! undermines! the! value! of! education! within! entrepreneurship! discourses.! !As! the! lecturers! have! already! established! their! pedagogic! authority! there! is! little! scope! for! students! to! question! these! suggested! entrepreneurs! as! relevant! to! them! or! of! the! suggested! entrepreneurship! and! entrepreneurial! ‘traits’! and! there! was! no! space! to! give! examples! of! their! own! ! knowledge! or! understandings! of! entrepreneurs.! The! sense! of! certainty!about!the!skills!and!knowledge!necessary!to!be!a!successful!entrepreneurs!also! suggests! that! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! are! concrete,! uncontested! concepts! that! exist! as! a! set! of! rules.! Likewise,! the! more! problematic! issues! around! entrepreneurship! and!enterprise!potentially!being!a!'fad'!or!James'!concerns!about!the!ethical!implications!of! bringing! Sport! and! Business! together! are! not! mentioned! during! this! session.! In! Sport! it! seems!that!masculine!gender!capital!is!valued!and!acknowledged!but!not!feminine.!This! might!be!traditionally!related!to!the!discipline!but!given!that!almost!a!third!of!the!students! were! female! they! are! effectively! ignoring! the! skills,! experiences! and! gender! capital! of! a! third! of! the! students.! This! is! also! evident! in! an! emphasis! ! on! male! entrepreneurs! and! masculine!dominated!sports!mentioned!throughout.!There!is!no!explicit!attempt!to!engage! or! focus! on! the! experiences! of! female! students! in! any! way! in! the! Sport! session! and! the! subtext!seems!to!be!that!to!be!successful!in!sports!business!you!need!to!be!male!and!you! need!to!be!running!a!male!orientated!organisation.!! ! 4.2!Hospitality!!classroom!! ! The! (entrepreneurial)! personality! we're! exploring...we'll! look! at! traits.! (They're)! driven,! have! a! vision! and! real! focus.! Do! we! measure! up! to! that?!!(Richard,!from!field!notes)! !
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The! lecture! takes! place! in! a! formal! classroom! setting! with! desks! and! chairs! facing! a! lectern! and! whiteboard/projection! screen! for! PowerPoint.! ! The! majority! of! students! are! female! (approximate! 80! %)! and! not! visibly! ethnically! diverse.! This! lecture! N! entitled!! 'Defining!Entrepreneurship'!N!!is!!twoNhours!long!and!introduces!the!students!to!the!module! and! to! ideas! about! entrepreneurship! and! the! entrepreneur! .! ! As! with! the! SportNrelated! course,! the! aims! and! learning! outcomes! of! this! module! are! linked! to! identifying! the!! 'character! of! entrepreneurs'.! However! unlike! the! Sports! module! there! is! no! expectation! that! these! students! will! 'become'! entrepreneurs! or! develop! their! own! entrepreneurial! capabilities! during! the! course,! only! that! they! will! acquire! the! skills! to! be! able! ! to! identify! entrepreneurial! capabilities! in! others.! !After! introducing! himself! and! the! module! Richard! focuses! on! the! students! and! asks! for! a! show! of! hands! N! 'Who! thinks! they're! an! entrepreneur?! N! nobody! puts! their! hand! up.! He! then! asks! 'How! many! would! like! to! start! your!own!!business?'!and!about!10%!of!the!students'!hands!go!up.!Then!Richard!asks!:! 'How!many!of!you!are!enterprising!individuals?'!and!noNone!puts!their!hands!up.!! ! After!suggesting!that!there!is!no!agreed!definition!of!entrepreneurship!Richard!!cites!two! definitions:! one! from! the! Oxford! English! Dictionary! (which! defines! an! entrepreneur! as! 'A! person!who!attempts!to!profit!by!risk!and!initiative')!and!the!other!from!Burns!(2004)!that! entrepreneurs! 'exploit! existing! markets! –! identify! a! commercial! opportunity! and! then! exploit! it'.! During! this! section! Richard! asserts! his! pedagogic! authority! through! talking! about!his!experiences!as!a!business!adviser!and!suggests!that!his!role!was!to!'try!to!stop! people!taking!a!risk'!on!a!business!idea!that!wasn't!viable!and!to!identify!small!businesses! that! could! grow! into! 'a! big!one'.! ! He! goes! on! to! ask! the! group! 'What! percentage! do! you! think!were!interested!in!high!growth?',!suggesting!that!it!is!4%!of!businesses!(rather!than! 5%!that!he!mentioned!in!his!interview).!In!line!with!Richard's!attitudes!and!the!!framing!of! the!social!reality!of!entrepreneurship!in!his!interview,!Richard!positions!entrepreneurs!and! entrepreneurial! businesses! as! 'special'! and! tells! the! students! that! he! believes! that! entrepreneurs!are!'heroes!and!heroines!N!!It's!all!about!innovation!and!it's!all!about!risk'.! Like! Henry! and! James! he! also! provides! a! template! of! a! high! octane! individual! as! entrepreneur! with! talk! of! ! 'traits'! such! as! 'drive',! 'vision'! and! 'focus'! and! asks! 'Do! we! measure!up!to!that?'!and!'Are!you!a!real!get!up!and!go!person?'.!
So,!while!Richard!does!acknowledge!that!there!is!no!agreed!definition!of!entrepreneurship! or!of!enterprise!he!provides!a!clearly!delineated!template!of!'who'!an!entrepreneur!is!and! the!skills!and!abilities!required!to!be!successful!N!emphasising!high!growth!aspirations!and!
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riskNtaking! as! representing! 'true'! entrepreneurs! and! entrepreneurial! organisations.!! Richard! does! mention! some! 'types'! of! entrepreneurs! such! as! 'ecoNpreneurs',! 'social! entrepreneurs'!and!'even!elderNpreneurs'!but!!suggests!an!othering!of!these!in!relation!to! the! 'true'! entrepreneur! that! is! constructed! during! this! lecture.! He! suggests! that! social! entrepreneurship! is! something! that! 'normal! business! people'! wouldn't! pursue! and! that! social!enterprises!help!!'the!handicapped'!or!people!with!'a!criminal!record!–!arguably!not! you! and! me'.! ! Again,! this! suggests! a! construction! of! 'true'! entrepreneurship! and! the! othering! of! those! forms! which! do! not! ! fit! the! template! of! the! 'special'! 4%! of! businesses.! Given! that! the! module! assessment! is! based! around! the! identification! and! measuring! of! the!'entrepreneurial!abilities'!of!businesses!and!their!staff!and!that!students!are!tasked!!to! produce! a! group! report! on! a! business! assessing! these! abilities,! Richard! is! in! effect! providing! the! 'entrepreneurial! template'! upon! which! these! groups! will! base! their! judgements,! which! will! frame! judgements! around! whether! the! students! are! 'right'! or! 'wrong'.! ! ! Unlike! the! Sports! lecturers,! who! suggests! students! are! 'going! to! be! entrepreneurs!for!11!weeks',!Richard!constructs!'true'!entrepreneurship!as!something!that! it! will! be! very! difficult! for! his! students! to! pursue! themselves! but! can! be! identified! and! measured! in! others.! However,! he! does! suggest! that! they! initially! measure! their! own! entrepreneurial! potential! and! ends! the! lecture! by! talking! about! the! next! session,! asking! the!students!to:!'Look!at!entrepreneurial!traitsW!think!about!how!the!traits!can!be!measured! and!consider!how!you!measure!up'!and!suggests!that!they!complete!the!!entrepreneurial! audit!exercise!before!the!next!session.!! ! Insightful!Instance:!'Who!are!the!entrepreneurs?'! !
! The! first! slide! in! the! section! 'Who! are! the! entrepreneurs?'! has! three! photographs:!Donald!Trump,!Alan!Sugar!and!Richard!Branson.!Richard! doesn't! comment! on! these! and! moves! on! to! the! next! slide! and! asks! 'what!about!these!people?'.!On!this!slide!are!photos!of!Oprah!Winfrey,! three!men!from!Innocent!Smoothies,!Anita!Roddick!and!Bob!Geldof.!He! suggests! that! entrepreneurs! are! 'always! on! to! the! next! challenge'! asking! 'What! makes! Richard! Branson! get! out! of! bed?! I! think! it's! the! buzz! of! doing! deals'.! Then! he! says! 'What! about! Oprah?! Is! she! an! entrepreneur?'![one!female!student!says!'Hmmm'].!Richard!says!!'She's! making!a!lot!of!money.'!He!then!says!'What!about!him?'!pointing!at!Bob! Geldof! [some! of! the! students! don't! know! who! Bob! Geldof! ! is]! ! 'He's! been! pushing! ideas,! he's! enterprising'.! ! He! then! says! that! being! entrepreneurial!is!about!'taking!risks!to!make!money!for!yourself'.!! (From!classroom!observation!field!notes).!
! Part! of! Richard's! presentation! focuses! on! 'who'! entrepreneurs! are! and,! as! in! the! Sport!
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lecture,! the! three! people! chosen! to! represent! entrepreneurs! are! Branson,! Sugar! and! Trump,!again!reflecting!the!lecturer!rather!than!the!students!(i.e.!they!are!all!white,!middleN aged! men)! a! reprise! of! the! 'typical'! (and! stereotypical)! 'takenNforNgranted'! image! of! the! entrepreneur! visible! in! mainstream! media.! Indeed,! these! appear! to! be! so! 'takenNforN granted'!and!'obvious'!that!Richard!does!not!comment!on!them!or!engage!students!in!any! discussion,! moving! quickly! on! to! the! next! slide.! Whilst! his! next! slide! brings! in! more! potential!entrepreneurs,!the!way!they!are!presented!seems!to!suggest!that!the!first!three! are!the!benchmark!against!which!to!measure!these!'others'!N!who!are!female,!black!and/or! young!–!and!in!Bob!Geldof's!case!interested!in!making!money!for!others!rather!than!'for! himself'.!Anita!Roddick!is!presented!but!she!is!now!deceased!!and,!although!I!would!not! question! her! importance! in! raising! the! status! and! visibility! of! female! entrepreneurs,! to! present!female!role!models!who!are!either!dead!or!American!seems!to!suggest!that!there! no!living,!female!British!entrepreneurs!worthy!of!note!or!who!can!compete!with!the!'true'! entrepreneurs! with! which! they! are! apparently! being! compared.! This! lack! of! relevant! female! representation! is! also! at! odds! with! the! largely! female! cohort! suggesting! that! students!are!positioned!as!not!only!!'notNknowing'!but!also!as!not!interested!in!or!capable! of! entrepreneurship! themselves.! Also,! in! ! common! with! the! presentation! of! entrepreneurship! in! Sport,! the! emphasis! is! on! the! accumulation! of! personal! wealth! as! a! driver! for! entrepreneurship! and! also! as! a! possible! point! of! inspiration! for! students.! Students! are! 'given'! role! models! and! there! is! no! discussion! about! whether! the! students! accept!these!(indeed,!as!with!the!Sports!lecture!many!students!did!not!know!who!some!of! these! people,! such! as! Bob! Geldof,! were).! As! with! Sport,! none! of! these! suggested! entrepreneurs!are!from!within!the!discipline!area!or!related!sectors.!!! ! 4.3!Health!Classroom! ! You!will!be!able!to!recognise!the!drivers!for!change!and!demonstrate!a! critical! understanding! and! become! a! change! creator...! you! are! going! to! exit!this!course!as!a!specialist!practitioner,!you!are!going!to!be!influential! in!practice!and!be!a!change!enabler.!(Margaret,!from!transcript)! ! As! previously! suggested! by! both! Miranda! and! Margaret,! an! emphasis! on! enterprise! or! entrepreneurship! ! is! not! explicitly! stated! in! either! the! course! aims! or! learning! outcomes! with!words!such!as!'change!creator',!'change!enabler'!and!!'innovator'!used!to!frame!the! module!aims.!The!other!main!difference!from!Sport!and!Hospitality!is!that!assessment!is! based! on! an! individual! rather! than! a! group! project! with! students! having! to! identify! and!
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manage! 'a! change! within! practice'! and! produce! a! 3000! word! reflective! analysis! of! this! process.!This!twoNhour!session!has!three!sections:! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1.!!!!An!introduction!to!the!module!by!Margaret! !2.!!! A!group!discussion!exercise!'What!is!Management?!What!is!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !
Leadership?'!(led!by!Miranda)! 3.!!! A!presentation!by!Miranda!around!leadership!and!management! !
theory!!
! This!introductory!lecture!is!led!by!three!lecturers,!Margaret,!Miranda!and!a!male!colleague! with! the! majority! of! the! session! taken! by! Margaret! and! Miranda.! It! takes! place! in! a! traditional! lecture! theatre! and! there! are! approximately! 60! students! in! the! room! of! whom! four!are!male,!with!five!female!students!and!two!male!students!being!visibly!black!or!Asian! and! with! all! students! appearing! to! be! over! 30.! In! the! first! part! of! the! session! they! are! asked! for! ideas! about! using! the! virtual! learning! system,! with! suggestions! that! they! will! create!some!of!the!learning!resources!by!sharing!links,!articles!and!ideas.!Margaret!does,! however,! assert! her! pedagogic! authority! and! the! experience! of! the! lecturers! when! she! says!during!this!discussion:! ! In!attending!the!lectures,!you!get!the!knowledge!of!the!lecturers,!which!is! the!value!of!university...So!I’m!trusting!you!to!turn!up.!Is!that!OK?!! ! They! are! not! exhorted! to! turn! up! or! threatened–! they! are! 'trusted'! to! attend! and! ! the! reason!for!attending!is!not!that!they!will!fail!the!module!but!that!they!will!miss!out!on!the! experience!of!the!lecturers.!This!!asserts!the!pedagogic!authority!of!the!lectures,!that!they! have!more!relevant!experience!than!the!students!and!that!this!experience!and!knowledge! is! one! of! the! main! reasons! for! ‘turning! up’! to! lectures.! However,! ! Margaret! positions! the! lecturers! as! helping! to! 'point'! students! towards! 'useful! areas'! of! investigation! rather! than! providing!the!answers!or!suggesting!that!there!are!right!or!wrong!ways!of!'being'!a!leader! or!a!manager,!with!students!positioned!as!!'change!enablers'!and!knowledgeable!as!!'we! don’t!expect!any!of!these!to!be!new!concepts!for!you!as!practitioners'.!!Miranda!suggests! that!she!'hates!talking!at!students'!and!that!they!are!'all!professionals!and!know!far!more! than! the! lecturers! about! their! subject! specialisms'.! In! this! way! the! lecturers! portray! themselves! as! peers! rather! than! authority! figures,! calling! the! students! 'professionals',! 'specialists'! ! and! 'practitioners'! and! acknowledging! that! they! are! already! working! in! professional!environments.!!!
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! The!session!seemed!more!collaborative!and!there!is!time!for!debate!and!for!some!critique! and!analysis!of!the!concepts!presented.!Students!are!actively!encouraged!to!be!critical!–! to!analyse!and!evaluate,!to!have!their!own!ideas!and!thoughts!regarding!how!these!ideas! translate! into! their! own! particular! situations! with! comments! centred! around! the! need! to! 'critically! analyse'! and! 'examine! the! theoretical! underpinning'! of! the! concepts! explored! in! the!module!and!an!emphasis!on!'analysing,!evaluating!and!justifying'!their!own!approach! to!creating!change!within!their!particular!work!environments.!However,!rather!than!'giving'! students!the!necessary!information!they!are!told!that!'you!do!have!to!find!the!information! for!yourselves'.!The!students!are!encouraged!to!take!ownership!of!the!negotiation!of!these! ideas! and! decide! what! is! appropriate,! with! a! concentration! on! 'your! practice! issues'! and!! 'linking! to! your! practice'.! In! this! respect! students! are! offered! opportunities! to! guide! and! inform! the! ideas! and! agendas! for! discussion! in! the! module! and! are! positioned! as! more! active! in! knowledge! creation! than! students! in! Sport! or! Hospitality.! Students! are! also! positioned!as!'knowers'!and!experts!in!their!particular!fields,!as!experienced!practitioners! with! the! ability! and! experience! to! make! critical! judgements! of! the! theories! and! concepts! around!leadership!and!management!upon!which!!the!course!is!based.!!This!emphasises! the!'lifeNworld'!of!students!(rather!than!leaders!or!managers),!allowing!them!to!relate!their! personal! situation! very! closely! to! the! subject! topic,! the! assignment! and! the! assessment! criteria! without! a! preNdefined! 'template'.! The! academic! rigour! and! level! expected! is! commented! on! several! times! and! students! are! reminded! that! they! are! reading! for! a! degree!and!that!they!need!to!read!around!the!subject.!The!term!'enterprise'!is!used!once! within!the!lecture:! ! You’re! going! to! become! a! change! creator,! innovator,! by! facilitating,! initiating,!and!evaluating!changes!in!practice.!So!we!say!you’re!going!to! be!enterprising!in!practice!(laughs)...!(Margaret,!from!transcript)! ! The! ! last! statement! and! Margaret's! laugh! seemed! odd! –! she! appeared! embarrassed! by! the!term,!suggesting!ambivalence!about!the!terminology!(also!expressed!in!her!interview)! and! also! ! about! student! reactions! to! the! terminology.! The! ! uncertainty! of! both! staff! and! students!around!the!usefulness!and!appropriateness!of!the!term!enterprising!is!evident!as! well!as!a!sense!of!it!being!incompatible!with!practice!even!as!it!is!linked!to!practice.!!Also!N! as!both!Margaret!and!Miranda!suggest!in!their!interviews!N!!social!enterprise!is!apparently! considered! a! potential! threat! by! students! and,! ! in! her! laughter,! Margaret! appears! to! be! 'softening'!or!undermining!the!terminology!or!preNempting!laughter!or!comments!from!the!
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students.!There!are!no!explicit!references!to!gender!and!the!ability!to!be!a!change!creator,! change!enabler!or!innovator!is!not!linked!to!any!particular!people.!!Miranda!does!allude!to! the! historical! masculinisation! of! the! leadership! and! management! literature! however,! despite! her! qualms! about! acknowledging! feminist! debates,! suggesting! that! many! of! the! theories!upon!which!management!and!leadership!is!based!come!from!'great!man!theories'! and!encourages!a!discussion!around!Maslow's!hierarchy!of!needs!saying:!'I!don't!want!to! like! Maslow.! ! He! was! a! middle! class! guy'! and! his! research! was! 'based! on! other! middle! class!men!in!a!male!dominated!work!place',!showing!an!awareness!of!!both!the!gendered! implications! of! the! subject! area! and! also! highlighting! the! possibilities! for! students! to! challenge!and!discuss!the!masculinised!framing!of!leadership!and!management!theory.!! ! Insightful!Instance:!!'What!do!you!mean?'!
!
! (Miranda)!asks!the!students!to!work!in!groups!of!10!and!discuss!'what’s! management'!and!'what’s!leadership'.!!They!split!into!groups!at!10.45am! N!they!seem!engaged!and!!happy!to!discuss!–!!most!of!them!are!talking! in! pairs! or! threes.!At! 10.50! they! feed! back.! The! lecturer! is! accepting! of! their! ideas! and! develops! them! but! also! asks! for! clarification.! ! She! asks! for! examples! of! leadership! and! management! ,! saying! “what! do! you! mean?”!–!clarifying!and!checking.!She!brings!up!a!list!of!words!on!screen! linked!to!management!and!then!she!asks!them!if!they!agree.!!She!then! asks!them!to!'think!of!some!words!that!might!be!linked!to!leadership'.!The! students! respond:! 'motivate',! 'inspire',! 'innovative',! 'challenge! and! question',! 'advocate',! 'team! member! and! team! leader',! 'charisma',! 'you! have!to!take!people!with!you'!(the!tutor!doesn’t!agree!or!disagree).!One! student!says!'empowering'!and!the!tutor!asks!“what!do!you!mean?”!! (From!classroom!observation!field!notes)! !! Unlike!the!approaches!in!Sport!and!Hospitality!students!are!engaged!in!the!negotiation!of! who! and! what! a! manager! or! leader! might! be,! with! the! starting! point! being! group! discussions!based!upon!student!conceptualisations.!Students!are!actively!encouraged!to! give! their! thoughts! and! they! also! challenge! some! of! the! suggestions,! at! one! point! discussing! whether! 'you! have! to! be! a! born! leader',! with! one! female! student! arguing! that! 'you! are! changing! all! the! time,! you! can! grow! into! a! good! leader'.! !The! lecturer! does! not! suggest! that! there! are! 'right'! or! 'wrong'! answers! and! encourages! clarification! and! explanation! so! that! she! can! understand! what! students! 'mean'! by! phrases! such! as! 'empowerment'! including! these! ideas! in! the! debate! and! discussion.! Students! are! encouraged! to! disagree,! allowing! the! lecturer! to! highlight! the! arguments! around! these! issues!in!the!literature!and!encouraging!critical!engagement!with!these.!!!In!this!way!she! encourages!the!students!to!develop!their!own!'template'!of!a!'good'!leader!using!both!the!
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academic!literature!and!their!experiences!of!being!led!and!leading!within!the!work!place.! Interestingly,! although! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! are! not! emphasised! within! this! session! the! suggested! attributes! of! a! good! leader! are! reminiscent! of! the! entrepreneurial! behaviours!presented!in!the!Sport!and!Hospitality!lectures!–!with!a!focus!on!!'motivation,! inspiration,!innovation!and!being!challenging!and!questioning'.!!!! ! 4.4!Business!Support!Classroom!! This! twoNhour! workshop! is! based! in! the! Enterprise! Unit! at! Northfield! University! and! I! attended! as! a! participant! to! explore! ‘…how! what! is! done! here! may! differ! from! what! is! taught!in!formal!classroom!settings’!(from!field!notes).!My!rationale!for!choosing!to!attend! the!first!session!was!again,!because!'this!is!where!they!will!be!exposed!to!the!‘big!ideas’! about! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship…I! am! also! interested! to! see! who! turns! up! to! these! sessions! and! which! disciplines! they! are! drawn! from'! (from! field! notes! ).! ! ! The! session!title!does!not!mention!entrepreneurship!or!enterprise!but!the!first!three!tasks!of! the!session!were!the!!'enterprise!test'!in!the!careers!workbook!analysed!aboveW!'drawing! a!cartoon!to!represent!our!collective!view!of!enterprise!and/or!entrepreneurs'!and!thinking! about! what! 'enterprise! and! selfNemployment! means! to! us'.! So,! although! the! information! about! the! workshop! series! does! not! explicit! mention! entrepreneurship! or! enterprise! (focusing! instead! on! 'Business! Skills')! they! form! the! main! focus! of! this! session! suggesting! that! these! ideas! and! concepts! form! the! foundations! of! the! knowledge! and! skills! to! be! developed! ! and! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! are! explicitly! linked! to! business!startNup!and!selfNemployment.!!The!room!is!small!and!informal,!a!meeting!room! rather!than!a!classroom.!!Five!minutes!before!the!session!starts!there!are!six!female!and! eight! male! attendees! in! the! room.! The! tutor! welcomes! us! and! introduces! himself,! stressing! that! this! is! an! introduction! to! the! subject! ! 'not! a! finishing! school'.!The! session! involves! some! formal! Powerpoint! presentations! but! mainly! involves! discussion! around! participants'! skills! and! opportunities! to! work! together! on! exercises! such! as! generating! business!ideas.!! ! Insightful!Instance:!'Shall!I!draw!a!man!in!a!suit?'! ! The!first!group!task!is!to!'draw!a!cartoon!to!represent!our!collective!view!of!enterprise!and! entrepreneurship.'! I! work! with! the! three! women! at! my! table! –! two! are! from! a! Hospitality! courseW! one! (a! White! Hospitality! student)! is! in! her! fourth! year,! another! (Asian)! is! also! a!
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Hospitality! student! on! her! thirdNyear! placement,! the! other! woman! (White)! is! in! the! final! year!of!a!Social!Science!degree.!!I!made!detailed!field!notes!on!this!exercise!as!I!thought!! it!might!provide!insights!into!how!these!female!students!envisaged!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!and!where!they!might!position!themselves!within!this:!! ! The!tutor!asks!us!to!get!into!groups,!and!to!draw!a!cartoon!to!represent!our! collective!view!of!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship.!!Our!group!comes!up! with!the!following!list!(in!this!order):! Big!headed!(White!Social!Science!student)! Hard!worker!(White!Hospitality!student)! Creative!(WSS)! Energetic!(Me)! “Charismatic,!aren’t!they?”!(Asian!Hospitality!Student)! Opportunistic!(WSS)! Networker!(me)! Leadership!(WHS)! Confident!(WSS)! Team!builders!(me)! Winners!(WSS)! “Shall!we!draw!a!copy!of!Britain’s!Rich!List?”!(AHS)! Richard!Branson!is!mentioned!by!the!WSS!and!drawing!Richard!Branson!is! then!suggested,! “Shall!I!draw!a!man!in!a!suit?”!!(AHS)! “We!should!make!it!into!a!woman”!(!WSS)! “Let’s!draw!a!pound!sign!around!it”!(AHS)! The!WSS!says!that!there’s!an!element!of!rebelliousness!about!it!too.!The! WHS!agrees!saying!that!she!wants!to!start!a!family!eventually!and!thinks! that!she’ll!be!in!a!better!position!if!she!has!her!own!business.!We!then! return!to!the!task!and!add!some!more!elements:! Stubborn!(me)! Independent!(WHS)! Innovative!(WHS)! Problem!solver!(me)! Motivator!(WSS)! Team!player!!(WHS)! We!then!have!a!conversation!around!team!playing!and!the!AHS!says!that! that’s!not!necessarily!the!case!–!'What!about!Gordon!Ramsay?'–!the!group! discuss!his!programmes!and!his!approach!and!that!he!can!see!the! problems!that!happen!in!teams!in!restaurant!that!he!goes!into!save.!All!four! groups!then!feedback!on!their!cartoons.!! (From!classroom!observation!field!notes)! ! Like! the! Health! lecture! this! session! encouraged! participants! to! suggest! their! own! views! on! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! to! negotiate! some! of! the! discourses! around! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!used!in!the!classroom.!!As!a!participant!observer!it!was! interesting! to! see! how! my! group! came! up! with! the! ideas! expressed! and! how! these! seemed! to! reflect! ideas! around! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! in! the! general! public!
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discourse.!Although! the! tutor! asked! us! to! consider! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! the! group! immediately! focused! on! the! individual! entrepreneur! and! their! presumed! characteristics! and! behaviours,! with! named! entrepreneurs! being! Richard! Branson! and! Gordon! Ramsay! (both! highNprofile,! 'celebrity'! entrepreneurs).! This! 'takenNforNgranted'! construct!of!the!masculine!entrepreneur!is!also!evident!in!the!comments!about!drawing!a! 'man! in! a! suit'! to! represent! the! entrepreneur,! although! this! is! quickly! overridden! by! a! realisation!that!we!are!a!group!of!females!in!a!session!on!how!to!start!a!business.!When! the!groups!fed!back!on!their!cartoons!all!had!masculinised!figures!at!the!centre!of!their! drawings!and,!if!we!had!not!of!changed!our!representative!figure!to!a!feminised!one,!all! of! the! groups! would! have! chosen! masculinised! representations.! Indeed,! the! tutor! comments! on! this! saying! 'it's! interesting! that! you! chose! to! draw! a! man! in! a! suit! when! I! can!see!that!we!certainly!don't!only!have!men!in!this!room.'!!In!this!way!the!tutor!shows! an! awareness! of! the! potential! to,! not! only! gender! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise,! but! also!to!construct!a!certain!form!of!masculinity!i.e.!the!'business!man'!in!a!suit.!By!actively! drawing!attention!to!this!the!session!highlighted!the!commonNsense!tendency!towards!a! masculine! norm! or! ! 'maleNinNtheNhead'! (Holland! et! al,! 1998).! This! highlights! the! stereotypes! linked! to! entrepreneurship! and,! like! the! ! Health! session,! opens! up! the! discursive! space,! encouraging! challenge! and! debate! and! the! questioning! of! 'takenNforN granted'!ideas!about!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!which!the!tutor!also!links!to!gender.! The!white!hospitality!student's!comments!about!wanting!to!start!a!family!and!that!having! her!own!business!means!she!will!be!'in!a!better!position'!illustrates!the!idea!of!'the!future! in! the! present'! (Grenfell,! 2004)! and! that! the! choices! that! we! make! are! based! on! our! understandings! of! what! happens! to! 'people! like! me'.! ! Her! suggestion! that! business! ownership!will!allow!her!to!be!more!flexible!suggests!a!view!of!!the!hospitality!sector!as! one! that! does! not! support! women's! maternal! choices! and! so! N! rather! than! positioning! business! ownership! as! requiring! long,! antiNsocial! working! hours! to! the! exclusion! of! all! else! N! ! here! business! ownership! is! framed! as! an! option! that! allows! flexibility,! 'time! out'! and! a! focus! on! both! ! family! and! career.! The! extraNcurricular! business! support! session! therefore!offered!opportunities!!to!challenge!the!ideas!!that!the!entrepreneur!is!'a!man!in! a! suit'! and! although! there! is! an! emphasis! on! traits! and! characteristics! in! all! of! the! sessions! discussed,! different! approaches! are! evident! with! regards! the! negotiation! or! debate!of!these!suggested!attributes.! ! 5.!
Summary!
!
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This!chapter!acknowledged!and!explored!how!the!positioning!of!the!institution,!the!staff!and! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!may!inform!the!choices!of!staff!and!their!attitudes!towards! teaching!in!this!area.!!Unlike!the!unproblematic!framing!of!HEIs!and!staff!within!the!wider! field! of! influence,! staff! do! express! personal! and! valueNladen! attitudes! and! opinions! on! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! an! academic! subject! and! as! an! externally! driven! educational! agenda! within! HE.! Some! of! the! educators! involved! in! ! formal! teaching! also! articulate!particular!struggles!linked!to!the!positioning!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as! a! teaching! area! that! privileges! a! practical! approach! and! how! this! might! clash! with! conceptualisations!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!as!an!academic!subject!based!on!a! robust!theoretical!body!of!knowledge.!Issues!around!cultural!hostility!and!clashes!between! the!suggested!capital!of!business!and!that!of!academia!are!also!evident,!suggesting!that!the! embedding!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!within!nonNbusiness!courses!in!this!particular! institution! is! not! a! straight! forward! process! and! that! several! aspects! of! institutional! culture! and! the! positioning! of! staff! and! students! combine! to! create! an! environment! where! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! is! approached! differently! by! different! staff! in! different! academic!setting.!!It!seems!therefore!that!this!is!not!the!neutral,!objective!area!suggested!by! HE!policy!and!research!and!that!these!educators!are!not!disinterested!purveyors!of!'facts'! but! that! the! views! and! attitudes! of! educators! towards! the! wider! social! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! their! context! ! and! for! their! students! informs! their! responses! to! teaching! and! learning! in! this! area.! ! And! it! is! to! the! experiences! of! female! students,! the! ultimate! beneficiaries! of! this! mediated! response! to! how! staff! perceive! and! present!entrepreneurship,!which!I!turn!in!the!next!chapter.!
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Chapter!Seven! ! A!View!from!Below:!Female!Undergraduate!Responses!to!Framings!of! Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise! ! 1.!
Introduction!
! Individuals! pursue! strategies! of! action! based! on! what! seems! possible! and!what!seems!appropriate.!(Elam,!2008!p.23)! ! Building!on!phases!one!and!two!of!this!research!which!explored!a!‘view!from!above’!and!a! ‘view! from! the! middle’,! I! now! explore! a! ‘view! from! below’! –! i.e.! the! experiences! and! perceptions! of! female! students! who! receive! this! potentially! politicised,! masculinised! and! mediated! curriculum! and! where! they! place! themselves! within! these! framings! of! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise.!The!chapter!gives!a!brief!'pen!portrait'!of!each!student,! their! background,! and! experiences/attitudes! around! entrepreneurship! and! education.! I! then! focus! on! some! individual! students,! comparing! and! contrasting! experiences! and! insights! relevant! to! my! research! questions.! In! this! way! I! investigate! a! social! space! that! seeks! to! institutionally! embed! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! the! curriculum! and! how! respondents! relate! to! entrepreneurship! and! entrepreneurs! as! presented! ! in! the! classroom! as! well! as! placing! these! within! the! wider! context! of! collective,! culturally! informed!notions!of!entrepreneurship.!!As!such!this!phase!seeks!to!explore!the!research! questions! around! negotiating! the! curriculum,! how! students! experience! this! and! their! positioning! with! regards! entrepreneurship! and! education! and! its! gendered! implications! and! how! this! may! play! out! in! their! attitudes! to! their! chances! of! success! as! future! entrepreneurs.!!In!line!with!investigating!institutional!influences,!this!chapter!outlines!how! different!students!describe!their!personal!experiences!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise! and!their!engagement!with!disciplineNrelated!'takes'!on!these.!In!Hospitality,!for!example,!! the! cultural! and! symbolic! capital! that! students! can! gain! is! related! to! the! knowledge! and! the!skills!‘needed’!to!identify!the!traits!and!behaviours!of!the!successful!entrepreneur!and! their!application!within!a!project!with!an!external!company.!In!Health!enterprise!is!hidden! but! linked! to! social! enterprise! (positioned! as! threatening! to! students)! and! not! suggested! as! something! that! students! would! necessarily! consider! for! themselves! but! as! something! that! they! may! encounter! in! commissioning! work! in! the! Health! system.! However,! the! majority! of! women! from! the! Health! course! expressed! a! desire! to! set! up! their! own!
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business,! with! three! out! of! six! describing! how! they! also! have! an! 'entrepreneur'! in! the! family.!!!
It! should! be! acknowledged! that! this! is! not! a! very! ethnically! diverse! sample! with! one! student!(Viola)!being!of!Chinese!descent!and!the!rest!being!of!white,!British!descent.!One! of! the! students! (Helene)! discussed! her! dyslexia! during! the! interview! but! no! other! disabilities! were! disclosed.! ! Likewise! sexual! orientation! was! not! specifically! mentioned,! although!the!majority!of!students!interviewed!did!talk!of!relationships!with!male!partners.! There!is,!however,!a!diverse!age!range,!with!older!students!(between!30!and!55)!coming! from! Health.! !The! Hospitality! students! are! all! in! their! early! twenties! and,! of! the! students! from!a!more!businessNfocused!discipline,!two!are!in!their!early!twenties!with!one!(Celia!N! also!in!her!twenties)!identifying!herself!as!a!mature!student.!Few!respondents!have!taken! the! 'traditional'! ! pathway! to! a! degree! –! with! all! of! the! Health! students! returning! to! education! and! many! of! the! younger! students! having! either! previously! left! other! degree! courses,! completing! 'topNup'! years! after! a! HND! or! foundation! degree! or! studying! for! 'accelerated'!degrees.! ! 2.!
Health!Students!
These!students!attend!a!module!on!Leadership!N!a!core!module!bringing!together!several! undergraduate!pathways!to!create!a!large!cohort!of!mainly!female!mature!students,!all!of! whom!are!working!whilst!studying.!!Some!are!funded!by!their!employers,!some!are!selfN funded,! some! have! actively! pursued! attendance! on! this! course,! some! have! ‘had’! to! pursue!a!degree!level!qualification!in!order!to!meet!their!employers’!demands!and!others! are! taking! a! degree! in! order! to! change! their! specialism! or! increase! their! responsibility! within! their! particular! workplace.! While! many! students! completed! nursing! diplomas! and! other! professional! or! vocational! qualifications! in! order! to! gain! employment! in! the! health! sector,! for! the! majority! of! them! the! degree! represents! a! return! to! education! after! many! years! of! work.! Although! most! students! come! from! the! NHS! and! public! sector,! some! students! work! in! the! private! health! sector! and! others,! from! areas! such! as! occupational! health,! may! become! selfNemployed! practitioners.!The! vast! majority! of! students! are! white! and! British! and! this! is! also! true! of! the! lecturers! (Margaret! and! Miranda)! and! of! the! students!interviewed.!!As!previously!outlined,!the!terms!enterprise!or!entrepreneurship!are! not! mentioned! in! the! module! title,! which! focuses! on! leadership! and,! as! Margaret! suggests,! being! ‘enterprising! in! practice’.! As! such! I! was! not! able! to! explore!
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entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!teaching!per!se!as!this!was!not!explicit!for!the!students.! However,! we! did! explore! their! attitudes! and! experiences! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! generally! and! how! enterprise! might! impact! on! their! learning! and! on! their! practitioner! ! roles.! Indeed,! all! of! the! students! actively! positioned! themselves! as! health! professionals!and!did!not!appear!to!accept!the!identity!of!a!student.! ! Adriana's!father!was!a!coal!miner!and!her!mother!trained!as!a!nurse,!giving!up!when!she! got! married.! Two! of! her! four! siblings! own! their! own! business.! She! was! encouraged! educationally! but! left! school! during! her!A'levels! and! 'fell! into! nursing! by! accident'! at! 17.! Adriana! ! left! nursing! to! run! a! pub! with! her! husband! but! has! since! returned! to! a! public! sector!role!outside!the!NHS!and!is!doing!the!degree!to!improve!her!promotion!prospects.! She!does!not!aspire!to!business!ownership,!although!she!feels!she!was!successful!in!her! previous!business.! ! Elinor! describes! her! family! unit! of! mother,! father! and! brother! as! ‘very! average’! and! ‘middle!class’.!!She!was!expected!to!go!to!university!but!she!‘didn’t!want!to!do!that’,!doing! a! secretarial! course! at! a! technical! college! instead.! Having! decided! that! this! was! not! for! her,! she! took! a! nursing! diploma! and! has! worked! in! several! roles! in! Health! including! 18! months! as! a! selfNemployed! private! nurse,! which! she! gave! up! when! she! got! married! because! it! involved! having! to! spend! long! periods! of! time! away! from! home.! ! Elinor! is! currently!supporting!her!husband!who!is!in!the!process!of!setting!up!a!business.! ! Bianca's! family! background! was! ‘difficult’! and! her! family! was! ‘very! poor’.! She! describes! hardNworking!parents!in!lowNpaid!and!unskilled!manual!jobs!N!!although!she!stresses!that! her! parents! were! ‘very! loving’.! She! started! a! BSc! after! completing! her! nursing! qualifications! but! stopped! after! giving! birth! to! her! first! child.! She! has! owned! a! business! with!her!husband!and!is!currently!supporting!him!in!setting!up!a!new!venture,!which!may! eventually!employ!her.!Bianca!she!would!'love'!to!own!her!own!business.! ! Diana! comes! from! a! ‘middle! class'! family! of! mother,! father! and! five! children.! Her! father! was!a!teacher!and!her!mother!a!secretary!who!became!a!‘housewife’!when!they!married.! She!describes!her!family!as!being!‘mainly!teachers’.!She!was!the!‘different!one’,!choosing! nursing! at! 18! rather! than! teaching.! Diana! has! worked! in! the! NHS! for! over! 30! years! in! various!roles,!and!is!currently!a!school!nurse.!She!is!doing!the!degree!partNtime!over!two! years! and! would! consider! business! ownership! or! selfNemployment! in! the! future.! She! is!
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currently!supporting!her!husband!in!setting!up!a!‘one!man!band’!business.!Although!she! wants! to! build! on! her! degree! she! would! consider! business! ownership! given! the! 'right! opportunity'!! ! Juliet!comes!from!a!family!of!mother,!father!and!two!children.!They!moved!several!times! before! she! was! 12! and! she! describes! being! bullied! at! her! new! schools.! She! didn't! like! school! but! enjoyed! college! and! decided! to! go! into! nursing! after! advice! from! the! college! careers!service.!She!has!been!an!NHS!employee!for!10!years!and!decided!to!do!a!degree! because!she'd!'got!to!the!point!where!I!couldn't!go!any!further'.!None!of!her!family!have! owned!businesses!and!she!would!not!consider!selfNemployment!She!mentions!three!selfN employed!friends!! ! Katherine! comes! from! a! 'very! small! family'! –! like! Juliet! she! moved! a! lot! when! she! was! young!and!went!to!'seven!different!schools',!her!last!being!a! 'very!strict'!grammar!school.! She! was! expected! to! go! to! Oxford! or! Cambridge! after! her!ANlevels! but! chose! to! do! an! Open! University! diploma! instead.! Like!Adriana,! Katherine! also! 'fell! into'! nursing! and! she! currently! works! in! a! private! hospital.! She! knows! family! members! who! run! their! own! businesses!but!would!not!'ever'!want!to!own!her!own!business.! ! ! 2.1!
The!Positioning!of!Entrepreneurship!and!Entrepreneurs!
! Based!on!the!exercise!that!I!had!participated!in!during!the!Business!Support!session!and! the!issues!that!this!highlighted,!at!the!beginning!of!each!interview!I!asked!participants!to! quickly! scribble! down! words! and! images! they! liked! with! 'entrepreneurship'! or! ‘entrepreneur’!(See!Appendix!12!for!examples).!This!was!to!explore!unreflexive!or!'takenN forNgranted'!responses!to!the!term!and!suggestions!of!the!symbolic!and!gendered!capital! collectively! associated! with! entrepreneurship! and! also! to! act! as! a! reference! point! when! discussing! their! experiences! and! knowledgeW! in! this! way! I! attempted! to! externalise! the! ‘internal!conversations’!around!entrepreneurship,!their!chances!of!entrepreneurial!success! and!what!‘people!like!me’!do.!Elinor's!!immediate!comments!after!completing!this!exercise! are:! ! I!instantly!thought!of!entrepreneurs!that!you!see!on!the!TV,!people!like! Richard! Branson! and! the! lady! from! the! Body! Shop,! Roddick?...! people! that! have! developed! things! from! nothing! really! and! then! just! gone! with! their!ideas!of!what!it!is!that!they!believe.!I!suppose!it's!belief,!selfNbelief!
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that!yes,!they!can!do!this!and!pursue!it!and!make!it!work.!! ! At! this! stage! Elinor! does! not! mention! her! own! experiences,! suggesting! a! lack! of! fit! between! her! experiences! of! selfNemployment! and! her! conceptualisation! of! entrepreneurship.! Her! initial! thoughts! are! of! ‘famous’! entrepreneurs! such! as! Richard! Branson! and! Anita! Roddick! (whose! name! does! not! spring! as! easily! to! mind)! and! she! emphasises! selfNbelief! and! ideas! as! important! elements.! ! She! suggests! that! an! entrepreneur!has!to!identify!an!area!that!is!completely!new,!unique!or!‘innovative’,!with!a! dogged!determination!to!see!things!through!and!‘make'!it!workW!emphasising!agency!and! a! sense! of! individualism! that! suggests! no! commitments! outside! the! business! and! an! availability!of!time!and!space!to!concentrate!on!making!ideas!work!to!the!exclusion!of!all! else.! This! also! highlights! the! influence! of! wider! culture! on! student! conceptualisations! of! the! entrepreneur! and! their! pervasive! influence! on! imaginings! of! the! entrepreneur.! ! This! mythologising! seems! to! position! these! highly! visible! individuals! as! ‘special’! and! different! from! people! like! Elinor,! emphasising! their! symbolic! role! as! 'cultural! heroes'.! She! does! mention!a!female!in!this!context!(albeit!one!who!died!in!2007)!and!which!may!be!linked!to! her!age,!both!entering!the!public!consciousness!and!ultimately!becoming!‘famous’!during! the!rise!of!the!‘enterprise!culture’!in!the!1980s.!This!is!also!echoed!by!Adriana!who!draws! a!stick!man!wearing!a!crown!to!signify!Alan!Sugar!and!the!power!of!entrepreneurs!saying:! 'he's! got! this! aura! of! power! about! him! so! hence! the! crown'.! Bianca! also! mentions! the! television!programme!Dragons'!Den!and!two!women:!Carol!Black!(Chair!of!the!Academy! of! Medical! Royal! colleges! and! the! Nuffield! Trust)! and! Margaret! Thatcher.! Both! of! these! women!however,!are!not!entrepreneurs!as!envisaged!in!the!popular!imagination!but!they! are! high! profile,! high! status! women! and! potential! role! models! to! Bianca.! In! response! to! this! exercise! Juliet! suggests! that! she! is! not! entrepreneurial! and! that! her! understandings! are!based!on!friends!and!also!on!the!media:! ! Obviously! you're! not! an! entrepreneur! in! nursing! so! it's! just! from! seeing! friends!start!their!own!business,!acquire!skills,!do!training,!watching!it!on! telly...!I!don't!think!I've!ever!had!the!option!(to!be!enterprising)! ! So,! despite! the! Health! lecturers'! talk! of! being! 'enterprising! in! practice'! Juliet! 'obviously'! rules! that! out! because! she! is! a! nurse! ,! ! linking! her! representation! with! common! media! personalities,! such! as! Alan! Sugar! (mentioned! by! three! of! the! students! in! their! initial! exercise).! ! Juliet! also! suggests! that! she! is! heavily! influenced! by! the! media! mentioning! 'Duncan! Bannatyne',! 'all! them! on! Dragons'! Den',! she! also! mentions! '! that! woman! who! runs! a! football! team'! and! 'bras',! concluding! that! it's! 'literally! who! you! see! on! the! telly'.! Interestingly! she! does! mention! some! female! entrepreneurs! but! she! cannot! name! them,!!
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suggesting!that!they!are!not!as!firmly!fixed!in!the!public!consciousness!as!the!males!she! mentions!but!that!she!has!taken!note!of!them.!Katherine!however,!!mentions!Alan!Sugar! when! asked! about! the! media,! describing! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! a! cultural! rather!than!an!individual!phenomena:! ! You!lived!through!it!in!the!'80s!and!'90s!...!lots!of!people!making!money! fast...for! the! people! involved! it! was! a! positive! thing! but! I! don't! ! know! about!the!impact!on!other!people.!It!seemed!to!be!very!much!an!every! man!for!himself!culture.! ! Here!she!describes!an!individualistic!approach!!as!forming!the!'enterprise!culture'!of!the! 1980s!and!1990s!–!linked!with!the!!accumulation!of!personal!wealth!for!certain!sections!of! society.! She! also! seems! to! distance! herself! from! this,! talking! about! 'those! people'! and! 'every! man! for! himself',! again! linking! it! with! a! sense! of! individualist! masculinity.! Indeed,! although! many! students! linked! ideas! around! 'success',! 'confidence',! 'innovation'! and!! 'opportunity',! ! for! them! the! entrepreneur! also! had! negative! connotations,! with! Bianca! suggesting! that! they! are! 'chancers',! 'difficult! to! understand'! or! 'eccentric',! and! ! Diana! suggesting!that!entrepreneurs!are!'dreamers'!'working!in!isolation'!and!they!are!'different',! while!Elinor!suggests!issues!around!'fear'.!When!talking!about!people!that!they!know!who! are!entrepreneurs!or!who!own!their!own!businesses!it!seems!that!these!women!do!take! notice! of! the! apparent! rewards! and! risks! involved! through! watching! the! experiences! of! family! and! friends.! ! Here! Juliet! describes! her! observations! before! and! during! the! recent! recession:! One! of! my! husband's! friends! is! a! selfNemployed! plasterer! and! I've! got! another!who's!a!kitchen!fitter!...!before!the!recession!started!they!were! earning! tonnes! of! money,! getting! nice! new! cars,! going! on! holidays!! whereas!now...!His!wife's!had!to!go!back!to!university...she's!had!to!do!a! return!to!nursing!course!because!she's!the!major!breadwinner!now.!!My! friend! that's! a! kitchen! fitter,! he's! only! getting! one! job! a! week! but! his! wife's!a!nurse,!so!she's!had!to!go!fullNtime!to!support!them...! ! Here!the!traditional!gender!role!of!the!male!breadwinner!is!subverted!by!women!!in!the!! traditional! female! role! of! nursing.! !Their! work! allows! them! flexibility! to! take! on! the! ! sole! earning! responsibility! whilst! supporting! ! their! partner's! businesses,! ! with! women! in! the! public! sector,! working! in! traditionally! feminised! roles! subsidising! the! private! sector! and! male! entrepreneurship.! This! ! entanglement! of! traditional! female! roles! and! entrepreneurship!is!also!reflected!by!Adriana's!talk!of!her!siblingsW!describing!her!sister!as! not!!being!entrepreneurial!because!she!now!has!a!family!and!has!'got!what!she!wanted'! with! regards! her! business! in! contrast! ! with! her! brother,! who! she! describes! as! an!
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entrepreneur!because:! ! He's!built!his!business!up!and!it's!very!successful!but!he!needs!it!to!be! more!successful!and!more!successful!and!he'll!never!stop!until!he!ends! up!in!a!box...!He's!not!got!a!wife!and!he's!not!got!a!family,!whereas!my! sister's!got!a!husband!and!she's!got!kids!so!her!priorities!have!changed! and! the! business! ticks! along! but! her! priorities! now! are! her! family! whereas!my!brother's!not.!!I!think!it's!a!substitute!for!not!having!anything! else!in!his!life.! ! She!presents!entrepreneurship!in!her!brother's!case!as!being!a!response!to!not!having!a! family!and!that!he!is!a!entrepreneur!because!he!has!no!other!priorities.!She!positions!him! as! being! the! masculinised! 'true'! entrepreneur! against! which! she! judges! her! sisterW! focused! and! successful,! driven! by! wealth! and! the! need! for! achievement! and! with! no! family!commitments.!However!she!positions!this!as!somewhat!negative!in!that!he!'hasn't! got!anyone!else!in!his!life'!and!it!'being!a!substitute'!for!a!family!which!she!positions!as! more! positive! outcome! ! for! her! brother.! ! ! She! makes! his! existence! sound! lonely,! undesirable!and!unfulfilled!despite!his!!success!and!wealth.!! ! These! students! do! ! have! some! practical! knowledge! about! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!!and!this!has!arguably!informed!their!choices!and!positions.!This!can!also!lead! to! struggles! amid! the! entanglements! of! study,! work! and! family,! highlighting! issues! of! agency! and! structure! and! how! this! impacts! on! students! in! a! gendered! way.! Three! students! N! Elinor,! Diana! and! Bianca! –! ! are! in! the! process! of! emotionally! and! financially! supporting!their!male!partners!in!setting!up!new!businesses,!echoing!issues!related!earlier! about! those! in! feminised,! public! sector! roles! subsidising! male! entrepreneurship.! This! seemingly! affects! their! views,! both! of! entrepreneurship! and! ‘who’! they! think! of! as! an! entrepreneur,!with!all!three!identifying!their!husbands!as!entrepreneurs:! ! My!husband's!trying!to!be!one!at!the!moment!–!he’s!setting!up!his!own! business! as! a! design! technologist.! So,! we're! going! along! this! path! together! and! looking! at! ways! that! you! can! develop! ideas...! I! would! say! that! he! is! (an! entrepreneur)! because! he! has! great! ideas! ...! his! personality's! changed! while! he's! doing! it! as! well...! he! just! looks! more! alive,!so!it's!very!positive.!(Elinor)! ! He's! got! the! talents! of! an! entrepreneur.! He! sees! things! differently,! and! he's!always!grabbing!opportunities.!I!think!he's!a!bit!eccentric.!!It's!very! difficult! to! understand! somebody! like! that! who! is! very! positive! all! of! the! time!and!he!is!quite!bright!really!N!he's!not!educated!but!he's!very!bright! and! clever.! He's! been! very! successful! and! I! think! that! shows! he's! an! entrepreneur!because!he!doesn't!fit!in!the!normal!mould.!(Bianca)! ! Elinor!talks!of!‘going!along!this!path!together’!suggesting!that!they!are!both!involved!in!the!
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learning! processes,! information! gathering! and! decision! making! but! does! not! see! herself!! in!an!active!role,!positioning!herself!as!a!supportive!but!passive!observer!of!her!husband’s! experience.! The! suggestions! that! his! ‘personality’s! changed’! touches! on! arguments! around! hindsight! within! entrepreneurship! theory!–! specifically! the! idea! that! research! into! entrepreneurship! behaviours! and! abilities! are! usually! conducted! on! successful! entrepreneurs! in! an! attempt! to! create! a! ‘template’! for! success! built! upon! common! characteristics! which! may! be! a! consequence! of! business! creation! rather! than! a! cause! (Chell,!2008).!When!Elinor!talks!of!her!husband’s!personality!changing!she!is!describing!a! change! in! his! habitus! and! the! gaining! of! symbolic! capital! through! ‘trying! to! become’! an! entrepreneur.! This! is! arguably! the! source! of! her! positive! comments! about! entrepreneurship!which!include!‘fun’,!‘empowerment’,!‘choice’!and!‘independence’.!! Diana!is!also!supporting!her!husband!to!set!up!a!‘one!man!band’!business.!He!has!owned! businesses!before,!most!recently!in!a!partnership!that!failed!and!she!talks!about!the!relief! that!she!felt!when!he!had!to!go!back!to!being!employed:! ! It! was! lovely! to! have! that! money! coming! in! every! month! because! my! money's!always!had!to!be!there!all!the!time...But!he's!got!flexibility!in!his! work!and!he’s!a!lot!happier!working!for!himself.!He!can!call!the!shots,!he! can!make!the!decisions,!there’s!no!ceiling!on!what!you!can!earn!it's!just! that!sometimes!you!don't!earn!a!lot.!So!I've!always!got!to!plod!on!and!do! what!I'm!doing!(laughs).! ! Like!Elinor!and!Bianca,!Diana’s!income!is!the!family's!income,!a!regular!one!that!supports! a! partner’s! business! and! which! means! that! these! women! can! not! pursue! business! ownership! themselves,! although! each! of! them! aspires! to! this.! Diana! talks! of! going! into! business! herself! and! suggests! that! ‘if! something! came! up! she! probably! would’! start! a! business.! However,! her! first! point! of! extra! income! generation! would! be! to! increase! her! hours!in!her!current!job!or!!seek!a!promotion!–!rather!than!going!into!business:! ! If!I!need!the!money!I'll!go!and!be!a!(laughs)!a!manager!because!!this!is! a! recession....! he's! a! oneNman! band,! if! it! doesn't! do! that! well! then! I'd! have!to!think!about!that.! ! Diana! does! not! mention! that! her! husband! would! go! back! into! employment! but! that! she! would!be!the!one!who!would!increase!her!hours!or!change!her!job!to!support!the!family.!!It! seems! that! all! three! women! see! it! as! their! role! to! support! their! husbands! in! their! entrepreneurial! endeavours! at! the! expense! of! their! own! aspirations,! and! they! talk! of! seeing!their!husbands!blossom!and!grow!as!individuals,!gaining!control!and!flexibility!and! becoming!happier!but!do!not!suggest!that!they!can!pursue!the!same!positive!experiences.!
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Like!Elinor!and!Bianca,!Diana!also!aspires!towards!business!ownership!but!does!not!call! herself!an!entrepreneur!and!she!also!intimates!that!her!ability!to!start!her!own!business!is! very!much!tied!up!with!family!responsibilities!in!a!way!that!her!partner’s!isn’t!and!that!she! has!always!had!to!‘plod!on’!and!provide!a!steady!income!while!he!enjoys!the!flexibility!and! happiness!that!she!associates!with!being!one’s!own!boss.!!
The! experiences! of! these! three! students! represents! a! complex! entanglement! of! home,! work! and! study! with! their! role! within! the! family! being! at! the! same! time! ‘traditionally’! gendered! and! ‘nonNtraditionally’! gendered.! ! It! is! traditionally! gendered! in! that! they! all! assume!responsibility!for!their!children!and!for!the!maintenance!of!relationships!and!family! support! through! their! emotional! support! of! their! partners! as! entrepreneurs.! Their! ‘ownership’! of! the! family! responsibilities,! particularly! of! childNrearing,! is! highlighted! by! phrases! such! as! Diana! stating! ‘I’ve! been! too! busy! bringing! up! three! children’! or! Bianca! suggesting! '! if! I! didn't! have! the! children! I! probably! would! take! more! risks'.! Children! are! seen! as! ‘theirs’! –! they! do! not! mention! that! ‘we’! have! children! or! position! the! children! as! being!a!joint!responsibility.!Although!Diana!does!not!mention!children,!she!did!give!up!selfN employment!when!she!married!due!to!the!long!hours!and!time!spent!away!from!home.!It! is! arguably! this! responsibility! to! their! families! and! the! maintenance! of! relationships,! and! not!just!to,!what!Bianca!describes!as,!‘selfish’!ends,!which!informs!their!attitudes!towards! their! ability! to! pursue! business! ownership.! All! of! them! support! their! partners! either! practically,! through! ‘doing! the! books’! or! providing! a! sounding! board! for! ideas! or! emotionally!through!the!support!and!respect!of!their!partner’s!choice!to!pursue!business! ownership! and! they! do! this! on! top! of! ! paid! work,! study! and! family! maintenance.! Given! their! multiplicity! of! roles! as! carers,! students,! employees! and! unpaid! business! advisers/staff!they!suggest!they!do!not!have!the!‘time!to!develop!ideas’!or!the!‘choice’!or! ‘flexibility’!accorded!to!‘entrepreneurs’!in!their!'takenNforNgranted'!and!immediate!responses! to! the! term.! ! Likewise,! as! the! main! breadwinners! they! cannot! be! seen! as! ‘eccentric’,! ‘difficult! to! understand’! or! as! ‘chancers’,! ‘dreamers’! or! ‘misfits’! or! having! ‘no! formal! education’! (as! suggested! in! their! drawings)! as! these! are! all! potential! barriers! to! finding! and! keeping! a! traditional! job.! Their! sense! of! habitus! and! capital! is! therefore! linked! to! ‘fitting! in’! and! gaining! the! ! qualifications! that! will! enable! them! in! their! role! as! main! breadwinner!and!they!suggest!a!lack!of!fit!between!this!and!entrepreneurship.!!However,! Bianca!also!!talks!of!her!role!as!student!meaning!that!she!no!longer!feels!she!fits!into!the! workplace!and!that!she!feels!like!‘an!alien’!–!thus!making!her!feel!forced!into!leaving!the! NHS! to! set! ! up! a! business! –! in! this! sense! she! has! come! to! feel! like! a! misfit,! making!
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business!ownership!available!as!a!‘way!out’!of!this!current!‘lack!of!fit’!between!her!sense! of!habitus!and!capital!and!the!workplace.! ! Although! I! am! mindful! of! stereotypical! approaches! to! women’s! roles! and! how! they! are! mobilised! to! support! ‘female! deficit’! or! ‘mother! deficit’! arguments! N! ! linking! women! to! essentialist! and! biologically! deterministic! roles! N! this! role! as! a! responsible! carer! and! maintainer! of! the! ‘family’! is! something! that! is! clearly! voiced! by! these! particular! students! and!is!very!much!part!of!their!habitus,!informing!the!‘choices!of!the!habitus’!and!the!capital! that! they! feel! they! bring! both! to! business! ownership! and! also! to! HE! generally.! Whether! this!is!a!role!(as!the!responsible!breadwinner)!that!they!have!‘had’!to!!assume,!given!their! partner’s! pursuance! of! business! ownership,! or! whether! this! is! something! that! they! have! positively! pursued! is! difficult! to! gauge.! However,! their! comments! about! how! happy! and! fulfilled! their! partners! are! in! their! own! businesses! and! comments! about! ‘plodding! on’! or! not! being! ‘selfish’! suggest! a! coveting! of! the! positive! potential! for! selfNfulfilment! or! ‘empowerment’!that!business!ownership!seems!to!bring!their!partners.!These!women!are! not!traditional!in!their!role!as!the!main!breadwinner!and,!although!this!is!tied!up!with!their! taking!on!of!family!responsibilities,!they!take!on!this!role!so!that!their!partners!can!pursue! business! ownership.! All! three! position! themselves! as! not! entrepreneurial! and! their! partners! as! entrepreneurial,! so! much! so! that,! although! they! talk! of! not! being! risk! takers! themselves,!they!are!willing!to!support!their!husbands!in!what!they!consider!to!be!a!‘risky’! choice! –! i.e.! pursuing! entrepreneurship.! ! This! suggests! an! othering! of! entrepreneurship! and!a!willingness!to!invest!others!with!the!‘talents’!and!‘qualities’!of!entrepreneurship!and!! an!assumption!that!their!male!partners!will!somehow!be!‘better’!at!‘it’!than!them.!Indeed,! Elinor!downplays!her!own!experience!of!selfNemployment:! ! I!was!playing!at!it,!it!was!something!that!I!knew!I!could!do!and!there!was! only! me! to! think! about! and! provided! I! could! keep! getting! the! work! and! keep!doggedly!doing!what!I!was!expected!to!do!in!various!households...! that! whole! thing! about! being! one! of! the! staff! almost,! you! never! get! a! break! …! so! being! out! of! control! and! all! that! kind! of! stuff...! whereas! in! paid! employment! N! the! work! and! health! regs! suggest! that! you! should! have! regular! breaks! ...! So! I've! just! had! a! taste! of! it,! I! don't! think! I! ever! thought!that!it!was!any!more!than!just!a!dabble!and!financially!I!was!in!a! good!position!because!I!had!a!house!and!then!sold!it!so!it!wasn't!a!risk! risk!in!the!way!that!his!is.! ! There! is! a! privileging! of! both! her! husband’s! experiences! and! also! of! the! ! ‘real’! risk! necessary!for!serious!entrepreneurship!and,!unlike!her!husband,!!flexibility!or!control!!was! not! part! of! her! selfNemployment! experience.! She! downplays! her! experience! saying! she! was! ‘playing! at! it’,! that! she! only! ‘had! a! taste’! and! that! she! was! ‘dabbling’W! tentative! and!
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downbeat! language! that! she! does! not! use! to! describe! her! husband’s! endeavours.! Her! experiences! are! also! linked! to! the! particular! selfNemployment! that! she! pursued,! as! a! private!nurse.!!The!nursing!profession,!seemingly!values!feminised!gender!capital!but!in! such!a!way!that!frames!being!‘caring’!and/or!‘nurturing’!as!being!somehow!more!‘natural’! and! therefore! 'easy'! for! women,! resulting! in! a! lack! of! respect! for! or! valuing! of! these! supposedly! feminised! characteristics! which! is! evident! in! the! poor! working! conditions! which!Elinor!describes.!!Her!status!as!selfNemployed!is!undermined!by!her!perceived!role! as!‘one!of!the!staff’!within!a!household,!which!positions!her!as!a!servant!with!little!control.! Her! husband’s! ITNrelated! business! is! positioned! as! ‘harder’! and! higher! status! as! he! is! starting!something!from!scratch!N!and!more!of!a!risk!N!whereas!becoming!a!selfNemployed! nurse! was! something! that! ‘I! knew! I! could! do’.! ! There! are! no! suggestions! that! this! experience!caused!a!change!in!her!personality!or!habitus,!perhaps!because!of!gendered! notions! about! nursing! as! a! particularly! feminine! vocation,! traditionally! positioned! as! low! status.!In!fact,!Elinor's!selfNemployment!in!the!private!sector!seemed!to!exacerbate!this!as! she!was!not!able!to!rely!on!legal!employer!requirements!for!breaks!or!health!and!safety! regulations.! ! This! certainly! does! not! reflect! the! ‘fun’,! ‘empowerment’,! ‘independence’! or! ‘choice’!that!she!links!with!entrepreneurship!in!her!drawing!and!that!she!also!links!with!her! husband’s! experiences.! She! does! see! some! comparison! between! studying! for! a! degree! and! ! what! her! husband! is! experiencing! but! again,! the! benchmark! is! the! level! of! risk! involved.! Returning! to! study! is! viewed! as! an! opportunity! rather! than! a! risk,! ! offering! the!! credibility!and!knowledge!to!purse!a!career!change!which!may!lead!!‘in!a!couple!of!years’! time’!to!setting!up!her!own!business.!When!asked!about!what!would!prompt!her!to!do!this! she!says:! ! It's! the! selfNconfidence,! the! true! selfNbelief! that! 'Right,! this! is! what! I'm! going!to!do,!on!my!own,!without!a!safety!net'...!I!think!there's!an!element! of! doubt! that! somebody's! going! to! say! 'Ha!! You! can't...! YOU!?'! That! somebody's!going!to!!say!'I!can’t!believe!you!think!that!we!would!buy!that! service! from! you'.! But! then! talking! to! my! friends! who! are! selfNemployed!! –!one!friend!in!particular!–!she!thinks!that!every!day!of!the!week!(laughs)! they! still! pay! her! and! they! value! her! work! but! in! her! mind! she! doesn't! believe! that! she! really! is! this! person...! But! I! would! say! that! maybe! in! a! couple!of!years’!time,!once!I!know!a!lot!more,!that!I!might!well!do!that!as! a!selfNemployed!person.! It! is! not! traditionally! ‘feminine’! to! be! selfNconfident! or! legitimised! in! making! choices! and! there!is!also!an!element!here!of!being!‘found!out’!which!suggests!that!both!Elinor!and!her! selfNemployed! friend! do! not! feel! legitimised! as! ‘experts’! in! their! fields.! This! might! also! partly! account! for! the! general! rise! in! women! entering! HE,! in! that! it! is! not! enough! to! be!
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good! at! one’s! job! or! to! be! knowledgeable! or! skilfulW! women! have! to! be! seen! to! be! knowledgeable! and! to! prove! they! are! skilful,! credible! etc.! through! the! gaining! of! qualifications,! which! act! as! an! objective! and! external! ‘truth’! or! stamp! of! credibility.! ! This! does,! however,! clash! with! the! mythologising! around! ideas! of! the! ‘selfNmade’! man! often! described! as! not! having! qualifications! and! starting! with! ‘nothing’! and! who! seemingly! do! not!value!education.!! ! ! 2.2!
Representations!of!Enterprise/Entrepreneurship!on!the!course!
! Most! of! the! students! found! ! it! difficult! to! relate! ideas! around! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! to! their! workplace! roles! and! when! asked! to! link! being! enterprising! at! work!and!whether!she!is!enterprising,!!Adriana!says!she!is!not:! ! Because! there's! no! reward! at! the! end! of! it.! ! Financial! reward,! praise,! there's! nothing! at! the! end! of! it.! We! do! it! because! we're! professional! people! and! we! get! selfNsatisfaction! but! I! wouldn't! say! it! was! entrepreneurial...! we! don't! get! any! recognition,! we! don't! get! any!! financial!reward,!we!don't!even!get!thanks!for!it.! ! This!sense!of!the!linking!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!with!rewards!is!also!echoed!by! Juliet!who!says:! ! In! private! enterprise! you've! got! targets! and! you! get! rewarded! for! ! it! whereas!in!the!NHS!(laughs)!you're!lucky!if!you!get!a!thank!…!you!don't! get!any!pay!bonuses...!I!think!that!that's!a!big!thing!in!the!private!sector,! because! of! the! rewards! you! receive! you're! encouraged! to! be! enterprising.! ! There!is!a!focus!on!reward!rather!than!risk,!and!where!there!is!an!expectancy!of!financial! or!personal!reward!people!are!perceived!as!more!enterprising,!with!the!impetus!for!being! enterprising! linked! to! individual! reward! and! recognition.! ! Interestingly,! no! students! spontaneously! mention! social! entrepreneurship,! only! discussing! it! when! I! mention! it.!! Diana! suggests! that! social! enterprise! would! be! an! opportunity! for! her! department! to! sell! services! but! that! it! can! be! perceived! as! 'morally! wrong'! given! the! NHS! culture! of! free! provision.! Elinor! has! worked! as! a! private! nurse! and! ! a! selfNemployed! nurse! and! if! she! does!set!up!a!business!in!the!future!it!would!be!as!a!private!occupational!health!therapist.!! She! may! work! with! the! social,! public! or! voluntary! sectors! and! she! may! be! working! in! a! health! related! role! but! she! does! not! view! this! as! being! linked! to! social! enterprise.! ! The!! emphasis!on!social!enterprise!within!the!module!therefore!does!not!reflect!the!possibilities!
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and! opportunities! that! may! be! available! to! students! like! Elinor! and! Diana! on! graduation! and! yet! those! who! develop! approaches! within! Health! ! focus! on! the! social! enterprise! aspect!of!it.!!One!could!argue!that!this!is!a!reflection!of!'takenNforNgranted'!notions!about! the!student!cohort!and!Health’s!links!with!‘caring’!and!that!this!may!clash!with!notions!of! the!individualism!and!profitNmotives!linked!to!the!private!sector.!!! ! ! 2.3!
Do!People!Like!You!Become!Entrepreneurs?! ! I! don't! think! so! (laughs! very! loudly)! ! I! haven't! got! a! trade,! I've! got! a! profession!but!I've!not!got!a!trade.!(Juliet)! (laughs)! I! don't! think! so...I! like! the! security,! particularly! if! I'm! married! to! somebody! who! doesn't! have! the! same! security.! But! even! if! that! wasn't! the!case!I!wouldn't!consider!myself!to!be!entrepreneurial!(Elinor)!
There! is! a! lack! of! fit! between! students'! vision! of! themselves! and! their! vision! of! an! 'entrepreneur'!in!that!they!are!kind!and!caring!(suggesting!that!entrepreneurs!are!not)!and! that!they!are!not!rewarded!for!what!they!do!(and!entrepreneurs!are),!that!it!requires!one! to!have!a!trade!and!it!means!that!there!is!no!security!and!that!only!one!person!within!a! family!unit!can!pursue!entrepreneurship.!!Bianca!highlights!this!by!suggesting!her!desire! for!business!ownership!is!a!‘selfish!want’!and!more!of!a!risk!than!her!husband’s!!and!this! is!tied!up!with!her!family!commitments!and!the!financial!responsibility!to!ensure!that!they! keep!their!current!standard!of!living!although!she!would!‘love!to…get!out’!of!the!NHS:! ! It! wouldn't! be! fair! would! it?! To! risk! what! I've! got,! the! money! and! the! house!and!the!car!and!everything!for!my!own!selfish!wants.!I'd!like!to!do! other! things! but! I! just! wouldn't! be! able! to! do! it.! Because! of! those! entrenched! issues,! those! determinants,! ! in! the! younger! years,! that! formulated!my!personality!and!my!views!about!how!things!work.! ! Here!she!sums!up!the!effect!of!habitus!and!capital!on!her!discomfort!with!both!the!idea!of! herself! as! an! entrepreneur! and! also! with! her! view! of! what! entrepreneurship! involves:! namely! a! high! level! of! (for! her)! unacceptable! risk.! She! considers! it! selfish! to! consider! putting! her! family! in! the! position! of! losing! 'everything'! and! suggests! that! she! feels! responsible!for!shoring!up!the!cultural!and!economic!capital!of!her!family.!!However,!she! does! not! frame! her! husband’s! entrepreneurial! endeavours! as! being! selfish! or! undermining! the! family’s! social! position! and! is! very! supportive! of! his! new! business,! suggesting!that!she!views!the!family!as!her!exclusive!responsibility.!This!also!chimes!with! Elinor’s!comments!about!supporting!her!partner!to!pursue!his!entrepreneurial!aspirations!
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because!she!too!sees!this!as!less!of!a!risk!than!if!she!were!to!pursue!this!for!herself!and! Diana's! suggestion! that! she! has! to! 'plod! on'! with! her! job! to! support! her! husband's! business.! Bianca,! Elinor! and! Diana! therefore! frame! entrepreneurship! as! inherently! less! ‘risky’! for! their! male! partners! which! suggests! that! they! feel! that! they! will! somehow! be! ‘better’!at!it!or!that!they!have!the!‘big!ideas’!or!innovations!that!are!representative!of!what! ‘real’! entrepreneurship! is! about.! Although! Bianca! has! been! involved! in! a! property! development! business! with! her! husband! and! thinks! that! ‘I'm! not! going! to! have! much! choice’!about!starting!a!business!in!the!future!N!!due!to!current!issues!with!working!within! the!NHS!N!she!does!not!identify!herself!as!having!entrepreneurial!potential.!!! ! However,! although! most! do! not! suggest! ! that! 'people! like! them'! become! entrepreneurs,! five!of!the!six!interviewees!do!identify!themselves!as!potential!business!owners.!Adriana! doesn't! have! a! business! and! doesn't! want! to! set! up! a! business! but! she! feels,! given! her! experience!with!running!a!pub!that!she!would!succeed!if!she!tried,!whilst!Diana!suggests! it! would! 'depend! on! the! opportunity'.! Juliet! is! the! only! one! who! thinks! she! wouldn't! have! the!skills!to!start!a!business!although!Juliet,!Katherine!and!Adrian!do!not!ultimately!aspire! to!business!ownership.!Both!Adriana!and!Katherine!are!confident!that!they!would!succeed! in!business!if!they!did!choose!to!pursue!it!(with!Katherine!having!a!GNVQ!in!business!and! suggesting! that! she! does! 'have! an! insight'! into! running! a! business).! ! Ultimately,!Adriana! wants!to!pursue!her!career!in!occupational!health!and!Katherine!'couldn't!be!bothered':! ! I'd! rather! work! for! somebody! else! that! had! the! responsibility! of! paying! the!tax!and!doing!the!national!insurance!and!everything!that!goes!with!it,! I! couldn't! be! bothered...my! stepNbrother! has! his! own! building! firm..! and! my!stepNdad...!and!it!seems!to!be!easy!but!it!just!doesn't!appeal!to!me.! (Katherine)! ! Diana! suggests! the! influence! of! staff! on! student! perceptions! of! what! 'people! like! them'! might!achieve!when!she!mentions!another!module!run!by!a!different!lecturer:! ! The!tutor!!was!very!enterprising!and!she!was!tempted!to!leave!and!set! up! her! own! consultancy! and! she! put! that! thought! in! people's! minds! N! that!you!could!!actually!do!that.!!I!thought!like!that!anyway!but!she!made! it!OK!that!I!thought!like!that.! ! The!comment!that!'she!made!it!OK!that!I!thought!like!that'!!suggests!that!students!who!are! considering! selfNemployment! or! business! ownership! are! encouraged! by! their! lecturers! own! acceptance! of! their! ideas! around! the! possibilities! related! to! their! discipline! and! students'!'subjective!expectation!of!objective!probability'!(Jenkins!1992,!p.!106)!which!also! has! an! influence! on! how! students! position! themselves! with! regards! their! likelihood! of!
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success!as!entrepreneurs!and!the!likelihood!of!success!for!'people!like!!me'.! ! ! 3.!
Hospitality!Students!
! This!is!a!cohort!of!mainly!white!and!female!students,!with!a!younger!age!profile!than!the! Health!students,!being!in!their!early!to!mid!Ntwenties.!All!students!have!had!the!opportunity! of!a!placement!year!and,!for!many!of!them,!this!final!year!is!a!return!to!formal!study!after!a!! year! of! work.! Like! the! Health! students! many! are! following! a! nonNtraditional! path! to! a! degree,! for! example! taking! accelerated! degrees! (in! two! years)! or! joining! this! final! year! after! completing! a! HND! or! Foundation! Degree.! ! This! arguably! reflects! the! changes! in! degree!provision!over!the!past!ten!years!and!also!suggests!that!the!‘typical’!student!profile! is! changing,! with! immediate! progression! from!ANlevel! to! a! three! year! degree! course! not! necessarily! representing! the! experiences! of! students! interviewed! for! this! research.! For! their! assessment! students! produce! a! group! report! and! devise! a! measuring! tool! and! a! presentation! which! analyses! how! entrepreneurial! a! business! and! its! employees! are! and! suggests!areas!where!this!can!be!improved.!!Entrepreneurship!is!therefore!presented!as! a! definite,! objectively! measurable! ‘thing’! with! benchmarks! to! measure! organisations! and! individuals!against.!It!is!not!necessarily!suggested!that!the!students!will!go!on!to!start!their! own!businesses!but!the!module!aims!to!help!them!!to!identify,!measure!and!support!the! entrepreneurial!potential!of!others.! ! ! Anne!comes!from!a!family!of!mother,!father!and!one!sister.!Her!mother!was!a!secretary! and!has!not!worked!since!getting!married.!Her!father!studied!Hospitality!management!at! university! and! is! 'really! successful'.! She! had! a! rural! upbringing! and! went! to! a! private! school,! which! she! enjoyed.! She! 'worked! really! hard'! but! did! not! go! straight! to! university,! taking! a! gap! year! instead.! She! would! like! to! start! her! own! business! at! some! point! but! wants!to!'learn!everything!I!can!before!I!ever!throw!myself!into!doing!something!like!that'.! ! Cordelia! comes! from! a! family! of! mother,! father! and! two! sisters! and! her! father! was! 'the! breadwinner’.! Her! older! sisters! have! gone! to! university! and! she! says! she! ‘followed! suit’.! Neither!of!her!parents!went!to!university!and!she!talks!about!her!father!‘working!his!way! up! in! a! business’.! Cordelia! compares! herself! to! her! sister! who! she! says! is! ‘very! academic’,!describing!herself!as!'not!the!bright!one'.!!She!would!eventually!like!to!own!her! own!business!but!this!might!be!'five!or!ten!years!down!the!line'.!
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! Jessica's!!father!has!a!degree!but!her!mother!‘never!knew!what!she!wanted!to!do!so!she! did!the!married!thing’.!She!is!one!of!four!children!and!!describes!a!'very!family!orientated'! upbringing,!living!in!a!small,!rural!community.!She!previously!started!a!degree!at!another! university! but! left! and! worked! for! two! years.! She! chose! the! Hospitality! degree! because! she!‘wanted!to!set!my!own!company!up'!and!hopes!that!gaining!a!degree!will!help!her!with! this.! She! did! not! ! do! a! placement! year! and! sees! the! degree! as! ! a! vital! step! towards! business!ownership!but!wants!to!gain!more!experience!after!graduating!and!has!already! accepted!a!job!offer.! Isabella's!father!is!retired!and!her!mother!is!a!receptionist!and!she!describes!her!family! as!'close'!and!!'busy'.!She!isn't!!'very!academic'!!and!found!her!GCSEs!'very!hard',!leaving! school! before! ANlevels! and! gaining! a! Hospitality! qualification! at! a! local! college.! ! She! is! doing! an! accelerated! degree! over! two! years! and! aspires! to! business! ownership.!! However,!she!wants!to!gain!more!experience!and!had!accepted!a!job!the!day!that!we!met.! Olivia!describes!her!family!as!'upper!middleNclass'!but!not!affluent.!Both!her!parents!were! teachers!who!divorced!when!she!was!five.!She!went!to!a!private!secondary!school!and!it!! was! 'given'! that! she! would! go! to! university.! Her! older! brother! attended! Cambridge! university! and! she! applied! but! ! 'wasn't! smart! enough'.! Like! Jessica,! she! has! previously! started!and!left!a!degree!course.!She!started!on!the!second!year!of!!the!!course!based!on! her! ! previous! experience! and! qualifications! and! works! partNtime! while! studying.! Her! mother!inherited!a!family!business!which!Olivia!will!eventually!inherit!half!of.!Although!she! does! not! want! to! take! over! this! business! she! thinks! that! business! ownership! is! 'the! direction!I'm!ultimately!heading!in'.! ! 3.1!
The!Positioning!of!!Entrepreneurship!and!Entrepreneurs!
! In! their! initial! responses! to! the! term! entrepreneurship! the! students! talked! through! what! they!had!drawn!and!their!reasons!for!linking!these!!ideas!with!entrepreneurship.!Only!two! students!named!an!entrepreneur,!!with!Richard!Branson!being!mentioned!by!Jessica!and! Olivia,!whilst!the!others!concentrated!on!the!symbolic!aspects!of!entrepreneurship:! I!could!draw!money...I’ll!put!a!pound!sign...it’s!a!risk...!I!keep!wanting!to! draw!a!present!!as!in!it’s!something!that,!you!don’t!know!what’s!going!to! happen...I! keep! thinking! of! being! on! my! own,! so! just! a! person! on! their! own.!(Anne)!!
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I! think! about! money...! taking! risks...I'd! say! they! were! quite! lonely...! always!on!top,!the!big!boss...!very!creative.!(Cordelia)! I! think! for! some! people! it's! 'That's! not! me! at! all'! so! I! drew! a! warning! triangle! and! ! it's! a! risk.! You've! got! to! be! confident! and! talk! about! business!plans!and!then!this!one!is!(she!laughs)!riskN!taking!so!I've!put! him!jumping!off!a!cliff.!(Isabella)! There! are! suggestions! of! high! status! and! leading! an! organisation! as! well! as! being! famous,!confident!and!wealthy.!The!more!negative!suggestions!are!that!entrepreneurship! is!lonely,!it!is!risky!and!it!is!uncertain.!Whilst!Anne!and!Cordelia!do!not!!mention!particular! people!or!talk!about!'a!person'!Isabella!suggests!that!her!entrepreneur!is!male,!with!him! 'jumping! off! a! cliff'.! Cordelia! also! says! 'they'! suggesting! that! it! is! 'other'! people! who! are! entrepreneurs! .When! probed! about! where! her! ideas! have! come! from! Cordelia! suggests! that!they!have!developed!during!the!module:! ! We've! done! it! in! the! module! ...! they're! business! orientated! that's! why! they've! always! got! money! and! obviously! top! of! ! the! hierarchy,! taking! risks,! that's! one! thing! that! we've! learned! from! the! module.! We! had! a! guest!speaker!last!week!and!he!was!talking!about!how!he!always!used! to! take! risks! and! I! link! that! one! with! this! one! because! they! like! to! do! things! off! their! own! back,! they! find! it! hard! to! settle! down,! they! move! quickly!on!to!the!next!thing...!(Cordelia)! ! Cordelia! highlights! the! use! of! external! entrepreneurs! as! ! 'experts'! ! brought! in! as! representatives! of! the! reality! of! entrepreneurship! and! as! a! template! against! which! students! can! eventually! judge! the! businesses! they! will! work! with! during! their! group! project.! ! ! The! entrepreneur! mentioned! seemingly! fits! the! module's! concept! of! 'who'! an! entrepreneur!!is!and!'what'!an!entrepreneur!does!and!is!presumably!brought!in!to!enforce! the! module's! assertion! of! the! 'true'! entrepreneurW! ! as! special,! ! as! a! riskNtaker,! and! as! constantly! seeking! out! the! 'next'! opportunity! to! make! money! .! This! also! highlights! the!! mythologising!of!entrepreneurs!as!'different'!from!other!people,!having!certain!traits!which! are! innate! rather! than! developing! through! the! process! of! establishing! and! owning! a! business.! This! emphasis! on! the! delineation! of! entrepreneurship! is! highlighted! by!Anne,! who,!when!asked!what!she!thinks!the!aim!of!the!module!is,!!says:! ! To!give!us!an!understanding!of!exactly!what!it!is!and!how!it!works!for!an! organisation!and!how!it!works!for!an!individual!and!see!how!important!it! is!to!have!people!like!that!within!your!company!or!maybe!how!they!need! to!be!separate!and!how!you!can!deal!with!that.!Maybe!with!the!thought! that!we!might!eventually!end!up!owning!our!own!company!and!we!need! to!be!able!to!manage!these!people!properly.!
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! Again!there!is!a!distancing!or!othering!of!'these!people'!!with!entrepreneurs!positioned!as! different! or! challenging,! needing! to! be! 'separate'! from! the! 'normal'! employees.! Interestingly! she! suggests! that! the! module! also! aims! to! help! students! to! 'deal! with'! or!! 'manage'! entrepreneurs,! should! they! own! their! own! company! in! the! future,! ! suggesting! that! entrepreneurship! and! business! ownership! are! different! and! that! entrepreneurs! can! cause!problems!for!organisations.!!This!echoes!the!misgivings!of!!Health!students!about! entrepreneurs! as! 'eccentric'! ! 'misfits'! ! who! are! hard! to! understand.! As! many! of! these! students! want! to! be! employees! (and! therefore! employable)! and! gain! more! workplace! experience! before! pursuing! business! ownership,! being! positioned! ! as! a! ! 'problem'! for! a! manager! might! lead! them! to! ! actively! 'other'! entrepreneurship! or! risk! being! seen! as! unemployable! and! unmanageable.!Anne! also! suggests! an! expectation! that! the! students! on!this!module!are!framed!as!future!ownerNmanagers!rather!than!future!entrepreneurs!–! roles!that!are!traditionally!presented!as!dichotomous!(Ahl,!2002).!!!
Some!students!question!the!emphasis!on!education!in!relation!to!entrepreneurship,!!and! that! the! learning! on! the! course! is! not! necessarily! relevant! to! the! reality! of! business! ownership!anyway!–!suggesting!that!they!consider!themselves!to!be!'knowers':! The!lectures!are!quite!common!sense,!they!are!a!bit!boring!and!we!can! print!off!the!power!point!slides!and!read!them!in!our!own!time.!(Olivia)!! ! I!don't!think!you!necessarily!have!to!have!a!degree!to!set!up!your!own! company!but!there's!a!lot!of!things!on!this!course!that!I've!learned!about! setting! up! your! own! company! which! obviously! I! think! would! be! useful.! But! you! can! learn! ! the! academics! but! it's! about! putting! it! into! practice! really.!(Jessica)! ! This!questioning!of!the!relevance!of!education!to!entrepreneurship!reflects!ideas!around! the! 'uneducated! entrepreneur'! and! is! emphasised! when! students! discuss! whether! entrepreneurship!can!be!taught,!!further!highlighting!a!tension!between!the!academic!and! the!practical!and!the!privileging!of!entrepreneurship!as!'special':! I! don't! think! you! could! teach! someone! who's! not! an! entrepreneur! to! be! an!entrepreneur.!(Cordelia)!! I! think! it's! a! certain! type! of! person! ...! some! people! can! just! do! it! very! naturally.! When! you! get! a! successful! entrepreneur! they! are! just!! massively! successful! ...I! think! that! it's! a! certain! personality! trait! ...! (Jessica)! I!think!you!get!people!and!you!think!'God,!how!can!they!do!that?!How!do!
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they! think! like! that?! How! do! they! do! the! things! they! do?'! ! I! think! it's! because!they!don't!know!any!different!and!that's!how!they!are.!(Anne)! I! don't! think! (the! module)! is! teaching! us! to! be! entrepreneurs! I! think! it's! teaching!us!what!it's!like,!what!an!entrepreneur!is!and!!you!could!look!at! that! and! say! 'Right,! well,! an! entrepreneur! has! this,! this,! and! this,! so! I'll! work!on!these!skills!and!that!will!make!me!an!entrepreneur'!but!I!think!if! you!were,!at!heart,!an!entrepreneur!you!wouldn't!need!to!do!that.!(Olivia)! ! Again,! this! questioning! of! whether! entrepreneurship! can! be! taught! chimes! with! staff! attitudes! and! is! in! contrast! to! the! settlement! of! this! debate! suggested! ! in! the! entrepreneurship! education! literature.! This! highlights! student! understanding! of! entrepreneurship!as!an!!immutable!and!measurable!'thing',!possessed!by!certain!special! individuals.!The!focus!upon!white,!middleNaged!and!supposedly!uneducated!males,!such! as! Alan! Sugar! and! Richard! Branson,! as! unchallenged! representatives! of! the! 'true'! entrepreneur! ! (with! the! entrepreneurial! status! of! black! females! such! as! Oprah! Winfrey! being!open!to!!discussion)!and!the!fact!that!students!are!learning!'about'!entrepreneurship! rather! than! being! prepared! 'for'! entrepreneurship! suggests! an! encouragement! of! the! primarily! female! cohort! to! view! entrepreneurship! ! as! special,! as! being! found! ! in! 'others'! and,!as!so!few!are!female!and!only!5%!of!the!population!are!!'true'!entrepreneurs!!anyway,!! I!would!argue!this!module!positions!entrepreneurship!as!masculine!and!as!an!'innate'!and! 'natural'! trait.! Olivia! suggests! that! these! ideas! are! so! 'obvious'! that! there! is! no! need! for! students! to! attend! lectures! N! ! describing! them! as! ! 'common! sense'! ! and! suggesting! that! she!already!'knows'!about!entrepreneurship!and!that!the!knowledge!in!this!area!!is!easily! accessible! and! settled.! Olivia! will! inherit! a! business! from! her! mother! and! so! there! is! an!! expectation!that!she!will!own!a!business!in!the!future.!Although!her!attitude!downplays!the! importance! of! theoretical! knowledge! and! of! the! lecturer! it! may! also! suggest! that,! in! reproducing! takenNfor! granted! notions! of! entrepreneurship,! the! module! does! not! present! anything!'new'!or!different!to!ideas!that!she!is!exposed!to!outside!HE.!! ! Jessica!emphasises!practical!knowledge!and,!while!she!believes!a!degree!will!support!her! in! business! ownership,! she! also! suggests! a! tension! between! academic! and! vocational! approaches.! A! tendency! to! privilege! practice! can! be! seen! in! the! module! assessment! –! which! is! based! on! quantifying! the! practice! of! an! organisation! and! its! staff! and,! although! the! suggested! 'tools'! are! based! upon! theoretical! models,! ! these! have! already! been! suggested!to!students!and!are!linked!to!certain!'commonNsense'!expectations!and!criteria! of!the!'true'!entrepreneur!that!are!delineated!in!the!module!handbook!and!its!framing!within! the!curriculum.!Student!understandings!of!the!entrepreneurial!mindset!are!therefore!based!
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on!a!series!of!tightly!defined,!nonNnegotiable!'rules'!regarding!the!'traits'!that!delineate!'it'W!! that! there! is! a! ! 'right'! way! to! be! entrepreneurial! and! that! students! who! deviate! from! this! may! fail! the! ! module.! This! 'ruleNfollowing'! is! suggested! in! the! similarity! of! approaches! which!students!take!in!their!group!project:! ! We've!found!the!ten!traits!in!the!Burns!books!and!a!few!journals!about!it! and!about!riskNtaking!and!moving!on!quickly!and!(being)!unmanageable.! We've! found! topics! about! background,! work! experience,! education! and! we're!thinking!of!questions!about!the!traits!that!fit!into!those!categories.! They!can't!all!be!true!entrepreneurs!otherwise!they!obviously!wouldn't!be! working!there.!(Cordelia)!! We'll!try!and!ask!questions!that!get!out!what!kind!of!a!person!they!are...! so! we'll! come! up! with! guidelines! saying! if! a! person! is! very! confident! they're! more! entrepreneurial! but! it's! got! to! be! based! on! what! has! been! found!before.!(Anne)! ! We've!done!a!questionnaire...!I!think!I'd!probably!say!''Are!you!willing!to! take!risks!with!your!business?”!(Isabella)! ! There's!a!lot!of!surveys!on!how!you!would!measure!how!an!individual!is! entrepreneurial....!out!of!15!characteristics!they've!got!to!choose!five!and! obviously! we! know! that! one! of! the! sets! of! characteristics! are! not! entrepreneurial!and!the!other!ones!are.!(Jessica)! ! ! The! expectation! is! that! entrepreneurship! is! evident! in! a! set! of! immutable! characteristics!! which! can! be! measured,! thus! promoting! an! idea! of! the! 'entrepreneurial! mindset'! as! outlined! in! the! mainstream! literature! and! in! HE! education! policy! documents.! This! suggests!an!emphasis!on!agency!and!that!those!who!have!the!suggested!'traits'!are!'true'! entrepreneurs! and! will! be! successful.! The! suggested! role! of! students! as! observers! of! others!entrepreneurial!!agency,!rather!than!active!entrepreneurial!agents!could!be!linked! to! the! feminisation! of! Hospitality! and! contrasts! to! the! 'for'! entrepreneurship! approach! taken!in!the!Sports!module,!which!is!majority!male.!!The!students!are,!however,!!!aware! of! the! feminisation! of! their! course! and! its! potential! to! ! position! both! them! and! their! discipline!as!deficient:! It's! the! service! industry! and! more! women! go! into! it...it's! not! seen! as! a! very!masculine!course!because!it's!events!and!parties…!in!reality!it's!a! business!course,!it's!business!maths,!it's!human!resources,!it's!finance.! ..we! don't! do! how! to! dress! a! table! and! things! like! that,! but! maybe! the! perception!is!that!it!is!like!that.!(Olivia)! ! It's! not! a! very! 'boyNey'! subject! really...! if! you! say! 'hospitality'! or! 'events'!
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the! first! thing! people! say! is! 'Oh,! party! planning?'! and! so! you! just! associate!that!with!girls!don't!you?!(Anne)! ! There's! a! handful! of! males! on! our! course...it's! just! the! perception! it's! party!planning!isn't!it?!Like!you're!probably!prone!to!be!gay!or!something! if! you're! a! party! planner...! every! work! force! that! I've! worked! in! all! the! event! managers! have! been! female...and! all! the! people! higher! up! are! male.!(Cordelia)! Ironically,!although!they!suggest!that!the!course!is!not!attractive!to!male!students!and!it!is! not!a!very!masculinised!industry,!Cordelia!does!suggest!that!in!this!feminised!sector!the! people! in! the! 'higher'! positions! are! male.! ! This! echoes! comments! made! by! Margaret! about!the!quick!progression!of!males!in!the!Health!sector,!another!apparently!'feminised'! sector.!Whilst!at!first!these!students!do!suggest!that!this!is!'just!the!way!things!are',!further! probing!uncovers!an!awareness!that!in!being!positioned!as!!'feminised'!their!discipline!is! not!taken!seriously,!with!a!tendency!for!people!to!view!the!course!as!vocational!and!not! academic,! further! undermining! the! gender! capital! linked! to! their! position! as! graduates! without!a!'proper'!degree:! People!think,!'Oh,!everyone's!going!to!university!these!days!and!they're! making! up! all! these! courses'! like! David! Beckham! Studies! and! that! makes! people! look! at! other! courses! and! go! 'Oh! well,! it! can't! be! very! academic'.!!(Olivia)! ! It!does!offend!you!a!bit...!I!got!good!grades!but!this!is!what!I!chose!to!do,! it's! really! annoying! that! people! seem! to! think! 'Oh! you're! just! not! clever! enough,!you're!doing!this!because!you're!not!very!clever'.(Anne)! ! Feminised! courses! are! often! positioned! as! not! being! academic! (Leathwood! and! Read,! 2009),!and!this!further!illustrates!the!lack!of!gender!capital!accruing!to!both!these!female! students! and! to! their! discipline.! ! This! also! touches! on! changes! in! the! HE! sector! since! 1992! and! ! the! ! focus! on! widening! participation! which! has! encouraged! more! women! to! enter! HE! and! the! suggestions! of! 'dumbing! down'! that! have! accompanied! this! apparent! feminisation!of!HE!(GlazerNRaymo,!2008)!with!wider!cultural!suggestions!that!the!increase! in! female! students! has! led! to! a! fall! in! academic! standards! and! that! the! acceptance! of! academically!inferior!female!and/or!working!class/ethnic!minority!students!is!the!cause!of! this!(Maton,2004bW!Leathwood!and!Read,!2009).! ! 3.2!
Responses!to!the!Positioning!of!‘Female!Entrepreneurs’!!
! Ideas! around! gender! and! the! positioning! of! both! female! students! and! female! entrepreneurs! are! further! highlighted! by! the! responses! of! Cordelia! and! Jessica! to! a!
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particular! lecturer! (by! 'Adam',! Richard's! colleague)! on! 'Diversity! and! Entrepreneurship'! where! ethnic! minority! and! female! entrepreneurs! are! discussed! and! delineated.! The! positioning! of! ethnic! minorities! and! females! as! 'different'! ! from! 'true'! entrepreneurship! is! evident! in! this! 'cordoning! off'! of! the! subject! from! the! main! subject! area! (although! the! cohort! is! predominantly! female)! and! also! reflects! the! grouping! together! of! women! and! ethnic! minorities! evident! in! phase! one! of! this! research.! Jessica! and! Cordelia! have! differing! responses,! ! with! Jessica! seemingly! accepting! what! she! is! told! (and! apparently! being! encouraged! by! it)! and! Cordelia! rejecting! what! she! is! being! told! for! its! lack! of! ‘evidence’! and! its! reproduction! of,! what! she! considers! to! be,! stereotypically! gendered! notions.!However,!in!their!end!comments!they!both!suggest!that!they!view!entrepreneurs! as! 'others'! regardless! of! whether! they! are! encouraged! by! or! resistant! to! these! representations.!! ! Here!Jessica!spontaneously!mentions!Adam's!lecture!that!day:! ! Jessica:...today!they!were!talking!about!how!females!get!on!and!how! statistics!aren't!coming!up...! Interviewer:!How!females!get!on!in!running!businesses?! J:!Yeah!and!it!was!diversity!and!all!the!different!types!of!groups!and!on! how!women!get!on.!Because!we!did!a!lot!about!the!glass!ceiling!and! that!sort!of!thing!in!HR!but!I!suppose!that!all!really!applies!as!well...!he! said!that!a!female!entrepreneur!would!be!a!business!owner!in!that!role! so...! !I:!What...?! J:!That!a!female!entrepreneur!wouldn't!be!called!a!female!entrepreneur! N!a!female!entrepreneur!would!be!called!a!business!owner,!!so!this! shows!that!you!would!expect!the!successful!person!to!be!the!man.!! I:!And!did!that!make!you!feel!more!positive!about!running!your! own!business!or...?! J:!Well,!yeah,!!because!he!said...!there's!an!increase!in!the!amount!of! females!in!leadership!roles!and!that!was!really!interesting!and!kind!of!! motivating!but!I!think!if!that!hadn't!have!been!in!I!would!have!been!like! (she!throws!her!hands!up!and!laughs)!because!we!got!a!lot!of!this!glass! ceiling,!N!'You'll!only!get!so!far!and!that's!it'!N!last!year...!but!then!I!don't! know,!I!think!if!I!got!that!responsibility!I!wouldn't!know!what!to!do!(she! laughs)! ! I!interviewed!Cordelia!after!Jessica!and!asked!her!directly!about!the!lecture!that!Jessica! mentioned:! ! Cordelia:!It!was!making!a!lot!of!assumptions!to!be!quite!honest.!He!was! just!saying!how!you!get!less!females!being!entrepreneurs!because!they! aren't!respected!or!they!find!it!harder!to!get!the!funding!because!their! family!don't!believe!in!them!or!whatever.!..he!was!just!coming!up!with! loads!of!barriers!that!there!are!to!women....!obviously,!!the!glass!ceiling! affect!and!businesses!find!it!hard!to!get!over!the!different!roles!and! things,!different!life!and!cultures,!they!want!to!have!families,!they're!
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expected!to!have!families...! Interviewer:!So!was!it!all!just!about!the!barriers!or!were!there!any! sort!of!solutions!or...?! C:!No,!not!really!no,!it!was!very!like!'OK'...! I:!When!you!say!it!was!based!on!assumptions!what!do!you!mean!by! that?! C:!Well,!he!didn't!sort!of!put!many!references!up!there!N!obviously!he! must!have!got!it!from!somewhere!but!it!was!all!very!negative.! I:!So!if!you!were!in!two!minds!about!it...?! C:!If!I!was!an!entrepreneur!I'd!be!like!'I'll!show!them'.!I!think!I!more!came! out!of!it!like!that,!even!though!I!know!I'm!not,!haven't!got!the!ability!to!go! out!there!and!go!'!I'm!going!to!show!you'!but!I!think!I!was!more!like! 'Whatever.!I!don't!think!so'!! I:!But!there!was!no,!he!didn't!open!it!up!in!the!lecture!to...?! C:!Well,!we!just!did!the!same!thing!–!he!asked!us!what!the!barriers!were! to!female!entrepreneurs!! I:!and!then!didn't!sort!of!say!'But...'! C:!Yeah.!And!I!think!a!lot!of!them!were!like!'this!is!what!is!found'!and!like! the!solutions!would!just!be!like...!it!wouldn't!apply!to!a!lot!of!them!as!in! like!there!was!religion!and!like!the!family!cultures...they're!just!expected! to!have!children!and!things!like!that!so!the!solution!would! be,...hmmm.....to!not!have!kids!(laughs).! I:!So!what!do!you!think!was!the!point!of!the!lecture!then?!How!was! it!presented?! C:!!I!think!it!was!just!to!show!us!that!they're!predominantly!male,!I!don't! know,!I!didn't!really!understand!(laughs)!! I:!!and!nobody!asked!'where!is!all!this!coming!from?'!or...! C:!well,!we!did!in!the!lecture!and!he!gave!us!a!journal!where!it!came! from!and!we!were!like!'Oh,!OK'!! I:!Because!when!I!stood!up!in!front!of!the!class!it's!mainly!women..!! C:!Oh!yeah,!that's!what!he!said...he!was!talking!about!education!and!he! was!like!'the!men!have!got!more!of!a!drive!to!go!to!university!and!we! were!all!literally!like!(she!mimes!looking!around)!'What?!Are!you! kidding?'.!He!said!girls!get!better!grades!but!boys!are!more....'!I!don't! know,!I!didn't!really!understand.!We!were!all...everyone!was!just!like!'OK,! whatever,!Adam'!(she!laughs).! ! There!are!several!issues!to!unpick!here.!!First!there!is!an!acknowledgement!of!the!wider! gendering! of! entrepreneurship! with! the! suggestion! that! female! entrepreneurs! would! be! called! business! owners! rather! than! entrepreneurs.! ! This! also! reflects! views! in! the! literature! that! business! owners! are! not! necessarily! entrepreneurs! and! highlights! the! apparent!tension!between!being!female!and!being!‘seen’!to!be!an!entrepreneur.!!This!!is! also! linked! to! ideas! about! women! as! leaders! and! the! concept! of! the! glass! ceiling! and! echoes! the! Health! lecturer's! concerns! about! concentrating! on! ! issues! such! as! the! glass! ceiling! as! students! may! feel! they! can! ‘only! get! so! far! and! then! that’s! it’.! Cordelia! also! suggests! that! entrepreneurship! is! presented! as! incompatible! with! having! children! –! placing! female! students! in! the! position! ! of! potentially! having! to! choose! between!
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entrepreneurship! and! having! children! in! a! way! that! is! not! ! problematic! for! male! entrepreneurs! –! emphasising! that! ! the! traditional! female! ! role! of! primary! carer! is! incompatible!with!being!a!successful!entrepreneur.!Cordelia!challenges!Adam’s!pedagogic! authority!but!this!is!uncomfortable!for!her!and!she!attempts!to!distance!herself!from!this!by! saying! that! she! did! not! understand! what! was! being! said.! !There! is! a! lack! of! fit! between! Cordelia's!sense!of!habitus!and!capital!as!a!female!student!in!a!largely!female!cohort!and! this! plays! out! in! her! resistance! to! the! apparently! 'takenNforNgranted'! assumptions! in! this! lecture.! ! This! lecture! comes! under! a! 'diversity'! banner! and! seemingly! aims! to! address! issues!around!the!lack!of!diversity!in!entrepreneurship!but!in!doing!so!it!positions!women! and!ethnic!monitories!as!being!'others',!reinforcing!white,!masculinity!as!the!'norm'!within! entrepreneurship.!!These!gendered!assertions!are!unchallenged!or!problematised!in!both! this! lecture! and! other! areas! of! the! course.! This! leads! Cordelia! to! negotiate! and! divert! Adam's!authority,!emphasising!its!negativity!whereas!it!is!accommodated!by!Jessica!who! suggests!a!positive!message.!!! ! Jessica!and!Cordelia's!responses!highlight!the!complex!interaction!of!habitus!and!capital! which!informs!!the!!perceptions!of!the!fit!between!field!and!!our!place!within!the!field!and! what!we!are!legitimised,!or!expected,!!to!‘do’.!There!is!a!suggestion!in!both!excerpts!that! the!students!'choose'!not!to!understand!what!is!being!said,!perhaps!because!the!views!in! the! lecture! suggest! a! lack! of! fit! between! the! habitus! and! capital! that! they! bring! to! entrepreneurship! that! will! be! difficult! to! overcome.! This! is! understandably! affecting! for! them!as!they!both!expressed!a!desire!in!the!interviews!to!establish!their!own!businesses! in! the! future.! Although! both! Jessica! and! Cordelia! both! 'see'! themselves! as! business! owners! in! the! future,! neither! of! them! position! themselves! as! entrepreneurs! and! both! appear!uncomfortable!with!the!term!in!relation!to!themselves.!They!also!both!mention!the! glass! ceiling! and! how! women's! limitations! in! the! workplace! are! emphasised! throughout! their! course,! not! just! within! this! module,! suggesting! future! limitations! for! ! ‘people! like! them’.! The! tutor’s! talk! about! men! having! more! of! a! ‘drive’! to! go! to! university! also! has! echoes!of!biological!determinism!and!certainly!is!not!borne!out!by!the!fact!that!there!are! more!women!than!men!currently!studying!in!HE.!! !! 3.3!!!!Do!People!Like!You!Become!Entrepreneurs?! ! ME?! no! I! don't! think! so,! I! don't! think! I've! got! that! thing...! the! just! 'keep! going,! keep! going',! I! think! that! if! I! got! to! a! stage! where! if! I! was! successful...! I'd! be! happy! so! I! don't! think! ! I! would! make! a! very! good!
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entrepreneur.!(Jessica)! ! Probably!not!me,!but!(laughs)!I!suppose!there!must!be!an!entrepreneur! or! two! on! our! course! but! it's! whether! or! not! they've! got! the! drive! to! go! out!and!do!that.!(Isabella)! ! I!don't!spend!a!lot!of!time!thinking!'am!I!an!entrepreneur?'!really.!!I!just! want! to! do! everything! well! rather! than! 'I! want! to! be! right!THERE! doing! THAT'.!So,!maybe!not!me.!(Anne)! ! If!you!choose!to!be...it's!like!something!you!have,!but!whether!you!use!it! or! not! is! up! to! you.! ! I! know! that! I! will! go! into! business! at! some! point...Because! I'm! quite! clued! up! on! it! because! my! mum! owns! a! business!...!and!maybe!that's!where!I!get!it!from,!because!she's!very!like! me!(Olivia)!! ! (she!backs!away!from!me)!I!can't!see!myself!as!one!…!I!don't!wanna!say! that! I! might! have! entrepreneurial...! I! think! it's! just! that! whole! riskNtaking! thing,!I've!never!been!a!riskNtaker!at!all...!!(Isabella)!! ! I!think!it!would!be!my!own!business!rather!than!'I'm!gonna!be!massive'! and! I! will! only! do! the! one! thing.! I! wouldn't! concentrate! on! just! being! successful.!(Cordelia)! ! ! Jessica! seems! surprised! to! be! asked! this! question! and! Isabella! is! physically! very! uncomfortable,!backing!away!when!I!ask!it,!whilst!Isabella!and!Anne!suggest!that!it!is!not! something!that!they!would!consider,!or!have!given!much!thought!to!–!effectively!othering! entrepreneurship!as!an!option.!Cordelia!voices!the!idea!that!there!is!a!difference!between! business! ownership! and! entrepreneurship! and! that! entrepreneurship! means! 'being! successful'.!Olivia!is!the!only!one!who!suggests!that!she!could!become!an!entrepreneur!if! she! chose! to.! She! is! also! due! to! inherit! her! mother's! business! ! and! so! has! perhaps! already! considered! how! this! might! work! and! whether! she! could! run! the! business.!! However,!Olivia!distances!herself!from!the!term!entrepreneur!saying!‘!if!you!choose!to!be’! but!uses!‘I’!when!talking!about!business!ownership.!!!Jessica!does!aspire!to!setting!up!her! own! business! but! feels! that,! although! she! has! worked! before! her! degree,! she! needs! to! gain! more! experience.! When! she! talks! about! the! sort! of! company! that! she! would! like! to! own! she! downplays! her! ambition,! much! like! the! Health! students,! talking! of! setting! up! a! ‘little!company’!and!she!also!laughs!after!she!says!this!suggesting!that!this!is!something! that!she!feels!uncomfortable!or!embarrassed!to!be!talking!about.!!She!goes!on!to!outline! her!view!of!the!sort!of!business!that!she!imagines!herself!owning:! ! I! don’t! want! it! to! be! massive...! it's! something! that! would! make! me! enough! money! but! would! be! manageable.! I! don't! know! how! entrepreneurial! that! makes! me! really…Enough! for! me! to! be! happy,! to!
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make!a!lot!of!money!N!it's!sustaining!control...!as!soon!as!it!starts!to!go! out!of!control!I'd!want!to!reign!it!back!in!again.! ! As! somebody! who! has! no! familiar! role! models! one! could! infer! that! her! notions! around! entrepreneurship! come! from! a! combination! of! external! discourses! and! the! framing! of! entrepreneurship!that!she!has!been!exposed!to!on!this!particular!module,!as!she!says!that! she! ‘hasn’t! really! thought! about! it! before’.! However,! despite! their! negative! ! reactions! to! this!question,!most!of!the!students,!like!those!in!Health,!do!aspire!to!business!ownership! and!this!differentiation!between!business!owners!and!'true'!entrepreneurs!!does!appear!to! be!partly!based!upon!what!they!have!learnt!on!their!course:! ! I!suppose!from!what!I've!learnt,!being!an!entrepreneur!is!someone!that! brings! in! something! really! new,! whereas! you! could! just! be! setting! up! a! business....! there's! so! many! people! in! the! world! setting! up! businesses,! especially!in!hospitality.!(Anne)! ! The!words!'especially!in!hospitality!'!suggest!that!Anne!thinks!businesses!in!this!sector!are! unlikely! to! be! entrepreneurial! businesses! and! given! that,! in! Adam's! lecture! there! is! a! suggestion! that! female! entrepreneurs! aren't! in! fact! considered! to! entrepreneurs! but! are! positioned!as!business!owners,!it!does!seem!that!the!framing!of!'true'!entrepreneurship!as! rare,! as! based! upon! certain! traits! and! characteristics! such! as! drive,! ambition,! and! the! accumulation! of! wealth! and! with! male! business! owners! ! being! unquestionably! accepted! as! entrepreneurs! in! a! way! that! female! ones! aren't! does! influence! what! is! deemed! 'possible'! for! these! students.! ! Therefore! the! representation! of! entrepreneurship! in! this! module! seems! to! encourage! these! female! students! to! view! themselves! as! potential! business! owners! rather! than! entrepreneurs! and! to! judge! themselves! against! the! traditionally! masculinised! traits! and! behaviours! of! the! 'true'! or! 'typical'! entrepreneur.!! However,!although!only!Olivia!believes!that!she!could!be!an!entrepreneur!and!that!this!is! an! active! choice,! emphasising! agency,! actively! choosing! not! ! to! ! identify! as! an! entrepreneur! but! to! focus! on! the! business! ownership! is! also! an! agential! choice! and! one! which!the!students!see!as!positive!and!for!'people!like!me'.!!!
4.!
Students!from!businessYrelated!courses/disciplines!
! Viola!is!second!generation!Chinese,!and!her!parents!came!to!the!UK!in!the!1970s.!!She! has!two!older!sisters!and!the!family!has!always!been!involved!in!running!businesses.!She! describes!a!'stable'!upbringing!!with!both!her!father!and!mother!owning!‘family!businesses'! and! her! and! her! sisters! helped! with! the! businesses! from! a! young! age.! ! She! previously!
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started! a! fashion! degree! but! left! and! is! now! studying! a! topNup! degree! that! supports! students! to! start! a! business.! On! graduation! Viola! is! expected! to! take! over! the! family! business!from!her!father!however,!she!does!not!see!this!as!long!term!and!ultimately!wants! to!establish!!her!own!business.! ! Helene's!family!comprises!mother,!father!and!younger!sister.!Her!mother!is!a!nurse!and! both!her!parents!own!a!business!franchise.!She!describes!herself!as!being!the!!'posh'!one! amongst! her! friends,! living! in! a! large! house! in! a! 'rich! town'.! During! the! interview! she! discloses!that!she!is!dyslexic!which!affected!her!time!at!grammar!school!but!she!was!not! diagnosed! until! starting! university! where! she! gets! extra! support! on! her! topNup! degree! in! Business! Management.! She! has! no! current! aspirations! for! business! ownership! but! is! open!to!it!'in!the!future!'! ! Celia's! ! family! comprises! mother,! father! and! four! older! siblings.! Both! her! mother! and! father! went! ! to! university! and! both! parents! are! retired! from! education! careers.! ! She! previously! started! a! course! at! another! university! and! returned! to! education! after! several! years! of! working.! One! sister! has! owned! her! own! business! and! another! sister! is! in! the! process! of! developing! ideas! for! a! business.! Her! brother! (who! was! the! only! sibling! to! be! privately!educated)!also!runs!his!own!business.!She!is!doing!a!finalNyear!topNup!to!a!HND! on! an! business! and! events! management! course! and! describes! herself! as! a! 'mature! student'.!She!has!aspirations!for!business!ownership.!
4.1!The!Positioning!of!!Entrepreneurship!and!Entrepreneurs! Viola,!Celia!and!Helene!are!all!taking!!business!focused!modules,!with!Viola!on!a!course! specifically!aimed!at!supporting!student!business!startNup!(with!Viola!also!attending!extraN curricular! seminars! through! Northfield's! Enterprise! Institute).! ! All! three! suggested! that! there! was! an! explicit! focus! on! business! start! up! and! entrepreneurship! on! their! courses,! with! Helene! involved! in! a! series! of! group! projects! working! with! businesses! and! also! creating!business!plans!and!virtual!companies.!!Celia!talks!of!working!on!group!projects! with!small!businesses!too,!while!the!ultimate!outcome!of!Viola's!course!is!a!newly!created! business!that!students!will!graduate!'into'.!All!of!these!students!have!close!family!who!run! their! own! businesses! with! Helene! and! Viola! talking! about! their! parents! when! asked! to! think!about!and!draw!ideas!linked!with!entrepreneurship:! ! Lots! of! hard! work...obviously! you’ve! got! money! and! you’ve! got! family!
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and! the! future! because...it! will! affect! your! family! because! you’ll! be! stressed! and! that! stress! usually! passes! on.! My! dad’s! got! his! own! business.!(Helene)! ! I! see! my! dad! as! an! entrepreneur! because! he's! got! his! own! business! doing! Chinese! cookers! and! he's! got! property! in! Birmingham! and! he's! done! other! kinds! of! businesses! in! the! past,! a! Chinese! restaurant,! a! Chinese! supermarket! and! ! a! Chinese! Take! away...my! mum! had! a! Chinese! video! shop.! she! just! kind! of! did! that! like! a! bit! on! the! side...! I! helped! him! doing! all! the! paperwork! because! he! can't! write! English! or! read! English! at! all,! so! I! used! to! do! his! invoices! when! I! was! at! school.! (Viola)! ! Both!Viola!and!Helene!do!mention!their!mothers!as!being!part!of!the!family!businesses:! for! Viola's! mother! ! it! is! a! 'bit! on! the! side'! and,! although! Helene! talks! of! both! her! mother! and! father! buying! the! ! franchise! she! only! mentions! her! father! in! relation! to! running! the! business!–!although!she!does!say!that!both!her!and!her!mother!'!do!all!the!finances,!we! do!all!the!paperwork'.!!In!common!with!Diana!and!Bianca!from!Health,!Viola!and!Helene! 'help!out'!the!businesses!but!play!down!their!roles!as!'helpers'!or!doing!something!smallN scale! while! emphasising! their! fathers! as! entrepreneurs.! ! They! also! suggest! that! their! ideas! about! entrepreneurship! ! have! come! from! observing! their! fathers! rather! than! from! the!course!and!this!has!shaped!their!views!of!business!ownership,!with!Viola!discussing!a! business! bankruptcy! when! she! was! younger! and! Helene! describing! the! effects! of! business! ownership! on! her! father! (and! on! the! family).! Indeed,! contrary! to! the! literature! which! suggests! that! having! a! family! member! as! a! business! owner! is! a! precursor! to! business!ownership,!Helene!suggests!that!observing!her!father!has!had!a!negative!effect! on!her!views:! ! I! would! do! something! small! and! less! stressful...he’s! really! stressed! which!is!always!a!pain,!he!always!comes!home!going!‘It’s!going!to!be!a! depression’!only!this!year!he!was!right!(laughs).!!He’s!being!saying!that! since!I!was!in!middle!school.!(Helene)! ! Celia! –! who! has! a! brother! and! a! sister! who! own! businesses! –! suggests! that! for! her!! entrepreneurship!means!being:! ! Confident,!creative,!business!minded,!resilient,!problem!solver,!definitely! about! selfNbelief! and! confidence,! risk! taker…wealth! and! that! the! company!that!they’ve!set!up!is!doing!well!or!it’s!grown,!they’ve!moved!on! and!set!up!another!company!or!they’re!not!standing!still,!they’re!keeping! on!doing!new!things,!inventive.!(Celia)! However,! unlike! Viola! and! Helene,! Celia! suggests! that! these! ideas! have! come! from! the! media! and! 'specific! figures! like! Richard! Branson! and! the! people! out! of! ! Dragons'! Den.!
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They’re! always! shown! as! being! entrepreneurial! and! successful'.! ! She! links! entrepreneurship! with! success! and! money! in! a! way! that! Helen! and! Viola! don't! –! indeed! Viola!and!Helene!stress!the!'lack'!of!money!rather!than!wealth!and!talk!about!businesses! that! go! bankrupt! or! that! are! hard! work! and! have! the! real! potential! to! fail,! rather! than! emphasising! success.! When! Celia! starts! to! talk! about! her! siblings! she! describes! her! brother!as!a!successful!!entrepreneur!whilst!framing!her!sister!as!having!to!work!hard!at! her!business!(suggesting!that!entrepreneurship!came!more!easily!to!her!brother):! ! ! My! brother! is! financially! successful,! ! he’s! done! really! well! with! his! company...And! my! sister,! she’s! put! a! lot! of! effort! into! her! company,! it! takes!up!a!lot!of!time....it’s!on!the!side!now...my!brother’s!in!finance!and! that!kind!of!world’s!sort!of...but!when!he!has!been!really!going!well!N!he! gets!loads!of!time!off!‘cos!he’s!got!to!the!point!where!he!doesn’t!have!to! be!in!the!office.!He!can!make!the!most!of!his!time.!(Celia)! ! So,! business! ownership! has! provided! a! freedom! for! her! brother! that! her! sister! hasn't! experienced! and! he! is! positioned! as! being! a! financial! success,! with! control! of! his! time.! She! also! talks! of! her! sister's! business! as! being! 'on! the! side'! in! much! the! same! way! as! Viola!describes!her!mother's!business.!These!students!therefore!position!the!experience! of! male! and! female! business! owners! differently! (in! common! with! the! Health! students! supporting! their! partners)! with! suggestions! that! males! are! entrepreneurs! and! that! they! display! entrepreneurial! characteristics! and! that! female! business! owners! find! it! more! difficult!or!that!they!don't!take!it!as!seriously,!or!that!they!act!in!administrative!roles!rather! than! leadership! roles.! !These! students! therefore! have! some! knowledge,! experience! and! skills! in! this! area,! which! one! would! assume! would! make! the! courses! more! relevant! and! assessments!easier!to!complete.!!However,!both!Helene!and!Viola!talk!about!not!enjoying! modules!and!questioning!the!relevance!or!applicability!of!the!curriculum:! (The!module)!was!stupid.!!It!was!a!computer!package!that!you!had!to!do! N! we! did! a! shop! ! and! that! was! just! a! waste! of! time...the! computer! package!kept!on!messing!up!N!!it!was!just!stressful.!!(Helene)!! There! was! one! lesson! on! entrepreneurship,! the! definitions! of! it,! what! it! meant...! ! we! had! one! speaker! in! that! was! an! entrepreneur! and! ..! ! I! thought!it!went!into!extreme!details!more!like!an!academic!kind!of!thing! about!what!entrepreneurship!meant!but...I'm!not!very!academic!!(laughs)!! so! I! just! found! I! was! getting! bored! sometimes! because...! I! don't! understand!how!it's!going!to!help!me!in!the!future!and!how!to!set!up!my! own!business!but!I!suppose!it's!academic...it's!!just!a!bit!pointless!but!I! suppose!you've!just!got!to!do!it!if!it's!part!of!uni.!(Viola)! ! !
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Viola!says!she!does!not!understand!why!they!are!being!taught!what!they!are!and!!this!is! linked! to! the! lack! of! fit! between! her! experiences! of! working! and! running! her! family! businesses.! Viola! also! highlights! the! struggle! in! balancing! the! academic! and! the! vocational! within! courses,! suggesting! that! there! is! an! emphasis! on! theory! and! the! academic!side!of!business!ownership!but!that!she!is!not!'very!academic'!and!so!does!not! understand!how!to!apply!this!to!her!own!business.!She!actively!suggests!that!the!fact!that! she! has! worked! in! businesses! means! she! has! practical! knowledge! which! makes! her! course!more!difficult!to!understand:! ! I'm! really! confused! about! all! the! theory! and! academic! stuff! about! business.! ! I! don't! really! understand! it! because! I! have! worked! in! a! business! before! so! I! just! don't! understand! how! I'm! going! to! use! that! in! the! future! –! business! strategy! models! and! theories! and! concepts! they! just! go! straight! over! my! head! I'm! just! like...! I! don't! really! understand.! (Viola)!! ! For! this! reason! she! sees! the! extraNcurricular! business! startNup! workshops! as! more! relevant! as! they! emphasise! ! practice! rather! than! theory.! Her! emphasis! on! practical! support! is! also! evident! in! her! use! of! other! support! offered! by! Northfield! such! as! their! incubation!facilities!and!she!suggests!she!is!gathering!the!practical!information!there!that! she!will!need!to!set!up!her!business,!rather!than!from!the!academic!focus!of!her!course.! The! idea! of! whether! or! not! the! course! is! academic! is! also! discussed! by! Celia! who! suggests!that!her!course!N!being!based!around!sports!hospitality!and!events!management! N!!is!viewed!as!not!being!academic:! ! I!was!a!bit!embarrassed!that!I!was!doing!an!events!course!when!I!first! signed! up! for! it...! it! didn’t! seem! as! if! it! was! very! valuable...I! feel! it’s! valuable!but!at!the!time!it!felt!like!a!bit!of!a!mickey!mouse!course.!Like! when! people’d! ask! me! I’d! play! it! down! and! go! ‘Oh,! it’s! just! a! mickey! mouse! course’! or! ‘It’s! dead! vocational’! whereas! now! I’m! doing! it! the! work!we!have!to!produce!is!pretty!academic.!(Celia)! ! Linked!to!these!tensions!between!academic!and!practical!knowledge,!and!in!common!with! most! of! the! students! interviewed! Viola,! Celia! and! Helene! suggest! that! entrepreneurship! can!not!be!taught.! ! I!don't!think!you!can!be!taught!to!be!an!entrepreneur...!I!think!you!have! to! have! some! personal! skills! or! traits! that! help! you! to! be! an! entrepreneur.(Viola)! ! I!think!you’ve!got!to!have!it!in!you.!I!think!you’ve!also!got!to!have!certain! qualities! to! set! up! your! own! business...! you’ve! got! to! be! really! passionate!about!what!you!do!because!if!you’re!not!passionate!then!no!
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one!else!is!going!to!get!passionate!about!it.!(Helene)! ! I! think! it! can! be! encouraged! and! developed! but! I! think! it’s! got! to! be! within!you!to!begin!with.!(Celia)! ! There!is!an!emphasis!here!on!'natural'!abilities!which!these!students!suggest!are!already! within!a!person!before!they!enter!HE!and!this!might!explain!Viola's!lack!of!understanding! with!regards!the!academic!and!theoretical!elements!of!the!course.!However,!in!privileging! certain!forms!of!'true'!entrepreneurship!and!in!their!concept!of!'what'!entrepreneurship!is! these!students!also!suggest!(through!a!concentration!on!their!fathers!and!male!siblings)! that! these! high! status,! riskNtaking,! wealth! accumulating! entrepreneurs! are! more! likely! to! be!male!than!female!and,!by!implication,!that!this!is!only!'natural'!and!that!no!amount!of! education!or!knowledge!will!ultimately!change!this.! ! 4.2!!Do!People!Like!You!Become!Entrepreneurs?! ! Viola,! Helen! and! Celia's! understandings! of! what! entrepreneurship! is! and! who! entrepreneurs!are!ultimately!appears!to!!inform!their!thoughts!on!their!own!entrepreneurial! potential:! ! I!don’t!think!so!(she!laughs)...because!you’ve!got!to!be!quite!motivated! to! follow! through! on! ideas! and! have! the! selfNbelief! and! confidence! to! make!them!happen!and!hard!work!to!stick!with!them...!I!don’t!think!that! I’m!that!hardNworking!or!committed.!(Celia)! ! Helene! suggests! that! people! like! her! don't! become! entrepreneurs! ! because! she! 'personally!wouldn’t!be!up!for!all!the!pain!and!heartache'!and!this!is!something!that!she! has!picked!up!from!observing!her!father.!However,!she!is!confident!that!she!could!set! up!and!run!a!business:! ! I!could!definitely!(set!up!my!own!business)!but!I!don’t!know!what!I!want! to!do...I!probably!would!know!how!to!do!a!business!plan,!I’d!probably!be! fine!on!running!the!business!by!myself.!(Helene)! ! Viola! is! the! only! one! who! suggests! that! people! like! her! do! become! entrepreneurs! ! and! interestingly,!like!Olivia!(who!also!suggests!that!she!could!become!an!entrepreneur)!she! is!also!!in!the!position!of!taking!over!the!family's!business:! ! Well! I! hope! so! (laughs)! I! think! I! need! to! get! some! more! experience! because! I've! got! a! few! different! business! ideas! and! I'm! hoping! to! get! some! work! experience! and! different! kinds! of! jobs! to! help! me! do! that.! (Viola)! !
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Celia,! although! suggesting! that! she! wouldn't! be! an! entrepreneur! does,! like! Helene,! suggest!that!she!does!have!skills!that!will!help!her!run!a!business!rather!than!being!an! entrepreneur!and!that!her!time!at!university!has!helped!to!develop!these:! ! I! think! I! can! be! creative! and! resourceful...doing! the! module! at! Uni! instilled!confidence!in!me!and!my!own!ability!to!get!things!done...you!can! own! your! own! business! and...! what’s! the! difference?...! entrepreneur! to! me!implies!that!you’re!successful,!that!you’ve!made!it!happen,!!whereas! you! could! have! your! own! business! and! not! be! an! entrepreneur.! I! think! (setting!up!a!business)!can!be!done!quite!easily.!(Celia)! ! Helene! also! talks! of! the! process! of! business! ownership! as! being! straight! forward! suggesting! ! a! confidence! in! her! abilities! to! establish! and! run! a! business! herself.! Viola! feels!that!she!wants!to!set!up!her!own!business,!that!she!has!ideas!for!business!and!that! she!would!succeed!at!a!business!and!suggests!she!really!wants!to!start!her!own!business! in!the!future.!So!these!three!students!are!confident!in!their!abilities!and!feel!that!setting!up! and! running! a! business! would! be! relatively! easy! and! straight! forward! for! them! –! a! view! which! is! in! contrast! to! their! thoughts! on! entrepreneurship,! suggesting! that! this! would! be! more!difficult!for!them!and!is!an!identity!that!is!not!as!accessible!or!desirable!to!them!as!! business!ownership.!!!
5.!!Some!Common!Themes! !! Whilst! only! providing! a! ‘snapNshot’! of! student! responses,! these! extracts! do! highlight! a! number!of!issues!linked!to!entrepreneurship!and!conceptualisations!of!the!entrepreneurial! mindset! which! are! apparent! between! students! and! between! disciplines.! These! themes! centre!on!the!positioning!of!respondents!as!students!and!the!apparent!gendering!of!both! entrepreneurship!and!their!disciplines.!! ! 5.1!Students!as!Knowers! ! Botham!and!Mason!(2007,!p.86)!suggest!that!empathy!with!the!entrepreneurial!lifeNworld! is! ‘about! understanding,! appreciating! and! being! able! to! cope! with! the! lifestyle! often! associated! with! setting! up! and! running! new! business! ventures.’! and! that! it! may! ‘be! an! outcome! from! activities! in! which! students! meet! and! are! exposed! to! ‘real! world’! entrepreneurs.’! However,! many! of! these! students,! although! positioned! in! the! wider! literature! and! institutionally! as! 'notNknowing',! ! do! have! knowledge! of! people! whom! they!
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describe!as!entrepreneurs,!with!some!also!having!run!a!business,!supporting!a!partner!to! establish! a! business! and/or! ! preparing! to! ! take! over! a! family! business.! !These! students! already! have! an! insight! into! the! 'entrepreneurial! lifeNworld'! ! but! this! does! not! necessarily! encourage! them! to! view! themselves! as! potential! entrepreneurs! or! to! locate! themselves! within! these! entrepreneurial! discourses.! This! may! be! a! response! to! their! acceptance! of! their! position! as! ! ‘not! knowing'! and! might! explain! the! confusion! which! some! of! the! students! express! about! course! content.! Given! the! experiences! of! this! small! sample! ! I! would! suggest! that! these! students! are! 'knowers'! and! would! ask! ‘whose! knowledge! is! privileged! in! entrepreneurship! education! and! how! does! this! negate,! acknowledge! or! enhance! student! knowledge! and! experience! and! inform! curriculum! development?’.! Students! bring! their! own! sense! of! habitus! and! an! understanding! of! the! entrepreneurial! habitus! into! HE! along! with! the! cultural! capital! accrued! through! engaging! with! family! and! friends!who!run!their!own!businesses!and!who!they!describe!as!entrepreneurs.!!However,! repeated! mentions! of! Dragons’! Den,! The! Apprentice,! Alan! Sugar! and! Richard! Branson! highlight!that!these!students!are!exposed!to!notions!of!entrepreneurship!outside!HE,!with! mainstream! media! representations! having! a! particularly! strong! influence.! This! further! suggests! a! need! to! contextualize,! acknowledge! and! explore! collective! cultural! and! societal! ideas! around! entrepreneurship! as! well! as! a! focus! on! individual! entrepreneurs,! mindsets! and! lifeNworldsW! allowing! for! the! influence! of! habitus,! capital! and! field! and! the! interplay!of!agency!and!structure!in!entrepreneurial!endeavour.!! ! ! 5.2!! Male! 'Entrepreneurs'! and! Female! 'Dabblers':! The! Subjective! Expectation! of! Objective!Probability'!and!the!‘Double!Deficit’!Discourse! Student! knowledge! and! understandings! of! business! ownership! do! not! necessarily! translate! into! a! sense! of! themselves! as! entrepreneurs.! Understandings! of! entrepreneurship! have! not! only! come! from! their! experiences! of! learning! about! entrepreneurship! at! university! but! also! collective,! media! informed! notions! and! from! their! experiences!of!family!members!and!friends!running!their!own!businesses!(and!who!they! identify! as! entrepreneurs)! and! their! subsequent! understanding! of! the! ‘mindset’! and! ‘lifeN world’! involved.! In! addition,! four! students! already! have! prior! experience! of! running! a! business!(one!was!selfNemployed,!one!owned!a!pub,!one!does!property!development!with! her! partner! and! the! other! helps! to! run! the! family! business).! It! seems! they! can! imagine! themselves! as! business! owners! but! not! entrepreneurs! and! I! suggest! that! current! mainstream!conceptualisations!of!entrepreneurship,!in!wider!UK!culture!as!well!as!in!the!
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entrepreneurship! education! classroom! may! combine! to! suggest! an! entrepreneurial! ‘mindset’,! ‘lifeNworld’! or! ‘habitus’! that! is! unattainable,! unattractive! or! which! clashes! with! their!‘subjective!expectation!of!objective!probability’!(Jenkins,!1992).!These!collective!and! individual!influences!combine!to!create!a!view!of!entrepreneurship!which!students!suggest! can!not!be!taught,!is!something!that!people!‘have’!or!do!not!‘have’!and!is!linked!with!risk,! selfNconfidence!and!a!focus!on!money,!success!and!status.!! ! Students! are! also! more! likely! to! assign! the! label! entrepreneur! to! male! family! members! (fathers! and! siblings)! who! run! what! they! describe! as! ‘successful! businesses’,! describing! women! who! run! their! own! businesses! (including! themselves)! as! ‘dabbling’! (Diana),! ‘playing!it!safe’!(Elinor),!owning!or!wanting!to!own!a!‘little!business’!(Viola!and!Cordelia)!or! as!!’something!on!the!side’!for!female!business!owners!(Viola!and!Elinor).!They!appear!to! have! embodied! the! suggested! entrepreneurial! behaviours! (or! lack! of! them)! positioning! them,!not!as!reflecting!arbitrary!or!socially!constructed!ideas!around!entrepreneurship!and! entrepreneurial!activities!but!as!!‘within’!people!or!‘part!of’!an!individual’s!personality.!!That! they!themselves!do!not!possess!or!aspire!to!these!collectively!sanctioned!ideas!suggests! to! them! that! they! do! not! have! the! potential! to! be! entrepreneurs.! That! they! suggest! that! these! notions! cannot! be! learned! and! they! are! ‘within’! people! (you! either! ‘have! it! or! you! don’t’)! also! suggests! that! these! students! perceive! entrepreneurship! as! something! which! comes! ‘naturally’! to! certain! ‘types’! of! people.! ! If! we! consider! the! masculinised! nature! of! entrepreneurship! discussed! earlier,! which! students! do! acknowledge! in! their! conceptualisations!of!entrepreneurship,!it!seems!that!there!is!an!understanding!that!those! who! are! successful! entrepreneurs! are! those! who! display! these! typically! masculinised! behaviours! and! attitudes.! ! This! may! explain,! as! Ahl! (2004)! suggests,! the! lack! of! ‘fit’! between! these! culturally! accepted! (and! 'takenNforNgranted')! ‘norms’! around! the! ‘dispositions’!and!discourses!of!entrepreneurship!and!their!own!aspirations!and!identity.!!
The! idea! of! female! deficit! is! highlighted! through! the! gendering! of! disciplines! and! female! dominated!courses!being!described!as!'fluffy',!'not!boyNey'!and!'mickey!mouse'!indicating!a! lack! of! capital! accruing! to! both! female! students! and! those! disciplines! considered! 'feminine'.! ! This! gendering! is! also! evident! in! the! curriculum! which! positions! students! in! feminised!courses!such!as!Health!as!hostile!to!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise,!where!it! is! hidden,! or! as! passive! observers! rather! than! active! agents! of! entrepreneurship! in! the! Hospitality! course.! Viola! and! Helene,! both! studying! maleNdominated,! business! focused! courses,! experience! a! different! curriculum,! one! that! assumes! a! disposition! to! business!
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ownership,! with! assessments! and! teaching! aimed! at! developing! the! suggested!! knowledge!and!abilities!to!do!this.! ! 5.3!
An!Othering!of!Entrepreneurship!
! It! would! be! difficult! for! me! to! sustain! any! mental! prototype! of! the! ‘entrepreneur’!that!does!not!include!‘me’.!(Krueger,!Jr,!2009,!p.42)! ! A!major!theme!identified!during!this!phase!of!research!was!that,!although!the!majority!of! students! do! aspire! to! business! ownership,! they! suggest! they! are! not! potential!! entrepreneurs.! This! suggests! that! the! terms! entrepreneur! and! entrepreneurship! signify! something! different! to! these! students! than! owning! a! business! and! that,! in! contrast! to! Krueger’s!comments,!their!mental!prototype!of!the!‘entrepreneur’!does!not!include!them.! Although! they! do! not! explicitly! mention! gender,! they! do! suggest! that! the! current! imaginings! of! the! entrepreneurs! and! entrepreneurship! presented! in! both! their! entrepreneurship!education!and!the!wider!culture!do!not!fit!with!their!sense!of!themselves! and! the! habitus! and! capital! ! on! which! they! can! draw.! They! do,! however,! acknowledge! many! behaviours! which! have! previously! been! identified! as! ! masculinised! in! their! responses!to!the!‘people!like!you’!questionW!indicating!they!aspire!to!business!ownership!! but!they!would!be!wary!of!risk,!or!they!don’t!have!the!staying!power!or!ambition!to!be!an! entrepreneur.! They! are! also! quick! to! position! males! as! entrepreneurs! (whether! they! are! 'celebrities'!or!family!members)!and!females!(including!themselves)!as!business!owners!or! selfNemployed! people! who! are! 'playing! at! it'! or! doing! something! 'on! the! side'.! It! appears! that! their! conceptualisation! and! engagement! with! culturally! arbitrated! notions! of! the! entrepreneur! does! not! fit! with! the! habitus! and! capital! that! they! bring! to! the! field! of! entrepreneurship!as!it!presented!in!both!the!classroom!and!in!wider!society.!!We!should! not! view! this! as! a! deficiency! in! students! but! a! deficiency! in! current! approaches! that! emphasise! certain! behaviours! or! skill! sets! as! being! entrepreneurial.! This! attitude! is! evident! across! disciplines! –! suggesting! that! these! are! pervasive! and! uncritically! reproduced!(or!at!least!not!challenged!or!problematised)!in!the!curriculum.!! ! Student!othering!of!entrepreneurship!is,!of!course!a!form!of!agency,!and!choosing!not!to! do!something!(i.e.!pursue!entrepreneurship)!or!to!do!‘something!else’!(i.e!pursue!business! ownership)! is! a! form! of! agency.! ! I! would! argue,! however,! that! it! is! the! combination! of! habitus,! capital! and! field! which! delineates! and! constrains! the! choices! available! to! those! students! who! reject! the! label! entrepreneur.! This! ! is! reminiscent! of! the! positioning! of!
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female!entrepreneurs!in!the!Hospitality!lecture,!described!by!Cordelia!and!Jessica,!where! it!is!suggested!that!female!entrepreneurs!are!indeed!not!positioned!as!entrepreneurs!but! as!business!owners!!suggesting!both!a!wider!position!giving!(i.e.!as!business!owners!and! not! entrepreneurs)! but! also! an! acceptance! of! this! position! by! the! majority! of! these! students.!! ! 6.!Summary!! ! Where! female! entrepreneurship! is! implicitly! ascribed! with! a! lower! legitimacy! compared! with! male! entrepreneurship,! the! selfNperceptions! and!individual!attitudes!of!potential!female!entrepreneurs!will!be!affected.! (Baughn!et!al!2006!p.689)!
This! chapter! presented! some! experiences! and! perceptions! of! female! finalNyear! students! on!several!courses!at!Northfield!University.!Although!these!students!come!from!a!variety! of! disciplines! they! suggest! certain! ideas! around! entrepreneurship! and! issues! linked! to! gender,! habitus! and! capital! ! which,! for! the! majority,! are! based! around! theirs! and! others'! experiences! of! business! ownership! and! of! supporting! and! observing! family! members! in! their!entrepreneurial!endeavours.!!These!students!!have!similar!views!on!the!positioning! of!entrepreneurship!as!a!male!activity!in!their!identification!of!males!as!entrepreneurs!!and! of! females! (including! themselves)! as! 'playing! at! it'! or! 'dabblling'! and! avoiding! risk! and/or! growth.! ! This! positioning! of! entrepreneurship! also! apparently! influences! their! views! on! their! own! chances! of! success! as! entrepreneurs! and! they! reject! the! potential! for! entrepreneurship!whilst!being!confident!in!their!abilities!and!their!aspirations!for!business! ownership.!!This!suggests!that,!for!these!students,!entrepreneurship!is!gendered!and!their! courses!appear!to!provide!little!challenge!to!this.!The!data!presented!in!part!two!highlight! a!number!of!positions,!choices!and!struggles!in!the!wider!field,!within!HEIs!and!for!female! undergraduate! ! students,! that! combine! to! create! a! complex! set! of! interactions! between! the!individual!and!the!collective,!between!the!wider!field!and!the!curriculum!and!between! notions!of!the!'true'!entrepreneur!and!the!positioning!of!female!students!within!this.!!These! issues! combine! to! create! symbolic! repercussions,! positioning! entrepreneurs,! HE! disciplines! and! female! students! in! particular! gendered! ways,! which! are! invisible! and! unchallenged!in!current!policy!and!practice.!
The!!next!section!of!!this!thesis!(part!three)!draws!together!ideas!and!themes!suggested!in! the! three! research! phases! and! explores! the! implications! of! the! ! positions,! choices! and!
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struggles! highlighted.! ! It! ! explores! what! this! has! to! tell! us! about! the! capital! at! stake! within! entrepreneurship! education! and! at! play! within! HE! and! links! this! to! the! analytical! ! tools! suggested!by!Bourdieu!to!discuss!!the!gendering!of!entrepreneurship!at!Northfield!University!! and!the!implications!of!this!for!HE!generally.!
The!!next!section!of!!this!thesis!(part!three)!draws!together!ideas!and!themes!suggested!in! the! three! research! phases! and! explores! the! implications! of! the! ! positions,! choices! and! struggles! highlighted.! ! It! ! explores! what! this! has! to! tell! us! about! the! capital! at! stake! within! entrepreneurship! education! and! at! play! within! HE! and! links! this! to! the! analytical! ! tools! suggested!by!Bourdieu!to!discuss!!the!gendering!of!entrepreneurship!at!Northfield!University!! and!the!implications!of!this!for!HE!generally.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
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PART!THREE! Chapter!Eight! Positions,!Choices!and!Struggles!within!HE!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise! Education! 1.!
Introduction! ! Realist! explanations! go! beyond! or! behind! associations,! to! the! social! structures! and! practices! that! generate! them...social! realists! have! a! stronger!idea!of!social!structures,!and!emphasise!their!preNexistence!(as! rules,!but!also!as!networks!of!positions...).!(Carter!and!New,!2004!p.!11)!!
! This! chapter! discusses! the! issues! raised! through! engagement! with! Bourdieu's! theory! of! practice! and! the! wider! body! of! knowledge! as! outlined! in! Chapters! Two! and! Three! and! explores!the!implications!for!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!as!a!subject! area!and!for!staff!and!students!engaged!with!teaching!and!learning!in!this!area.!My!data! chapters! identified! positions,! choices! and! struggles! linked! with! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE,! related! to! the! wider! field! of! entrepreneurship,! institutional! approaches!and!to!staff!and!student!responses!and!positions!in!light!of!this!and!how!they! play!out!in!practice.!In!line!with!a!social!!realist!ontology,!my!analysis!assumes!an!open! system!of!influences,!where!at!certain!times!and!in!certain!spaces!elements!of!the!wider! field!of!influence!will!have!a!lesser!or!greater!affect,!leading!to!opportunities!for!challenge! and!change!as!well!as!stasis!and!reproduction!of!socially!and!culturally!gendered!‘norms’!! that!
have!
crystallised!
around!
entrepreneurship!
and!
subsequently,!
around!
entrepreneurship! education.! The! ! positions,! choices! and! struggles! identified! are! viewed! through!a!Bourdieuian!lens,!with!positions!linked!to!capital,!choices!linked!to!habitus!and! struggle!linked!to!the!struggles!of!the!social!space!that!occur!in!practice.!The!interplay!of! these! ! positions! and! choices! within! the! field! of! HE! and! their! suggested! influence! on! gendered!agency!and!gendered!structures!is!also!discussed.!This!highlights!the!interplay! of! agency! and! structure! and! of! collective! and! individual! notions! and! constraints! and! acknowledges! the! complexity,! 'openness'! ! and! stratification! ! of! social! reality! and! how! institutional,!collective!and!individual!actions!(or!practices)!might!emerge!from!this.!!I!also! draw! on! ! debates! and! issues! highlighted! in! the! ! literature! review! (Chapter! Two)! and! discuss!how!!they!are!supported!!or!challenged!by!this!thesis.!! 2.!
Positions,!Choices,!!and!Struggles!in!HE!Entrepreneurship!and!Enterprise!
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Education! Humans!are!structured!beings,!in!whom!reasons,!beliefs!and!intentions! bring!about!actions...!to!'bring!about'!is!to!cause.!(Carter!and!New,!2004! p.!3)! ! My!analysis!identified!the!broad!themes!of!position,!choice!and!struggle!as!they!relate!to! the!hierarchical!and!stratified!collective!and!individual!interrelationship!and!interplay!of!the! wider!field,!HEIs!and!institutional!actors.!Although!I!was!able!to!reduce!my!themes!I!still! take!a! stratified! approach!based!upon! an!'open!system'! of!causal! influences! and!effects! with! the! understanding! that! these! are! stratified! and! emergent! and,! as! New! (2004,! p.3)! suggests,! 'coNpresent! and! interpenetrating...leading! to! openness! and! complexity'.! ! This! also! reflects! Bourdieu's! ideas! on! the! ! interrelated! nature! of! habitus,! capital,! field! and! practice! as! situated! and! encompasses! the! macroN,! mesoN! and! microNlevels! of! positions,!! choices! and! struggles! as! they! play! out! within! a! particular! setting! and! within! particular! disciplines! and! modules! and! I! have! conceptualised! the! stratification! of! these! positions,! choices!and!struggles!in!Figures!8.1,!8.2!and!8.3!below.!In!these!figures!there!is!a!clear! boundary!around!the!wider!field!of!influence!as!this!is!the!reference!point!for!all!levels!of! this! stratified! account! but! I! have! placed! broken! lines! between! the! wider! field,! institution,! staff! and! students! to! indicate! the! permeability! of! this! stratification! and! that! students,! for! example,! can! be! influenced! by! the! wider! field! (particularly! through! the! media).!! Responses! at! all! levels! of! stratification! are! conceptualised! as! emergent! and! in! complex! combination,! dependent! upon! the! interplay! of! habitus,! capital! and! field! in! the! particular! setting! of! Northfield! University. Like!Ahl! (2006)! I! argue! that! the! discourses! which! inform! these! ! positions,! choices! and! struggles! ! perpetuate! 'takenNforNgranted',! symbolically! violent! and! dualistic! notions! around! entrepreneurship! and! gender! that! mask! women's! structural!subordination!within!this!field,!presenting!'barriers!to!legitimacy'!(Elam,!2008!p.! 49)! ! 2.1!
Positions!! While! the! different! kinds! of! capital! tend! to! be! closely! related! for! men,! they!are!less!so!for!women,!!for!whom!patriarchal!constraints!can!easily! prevent! them! converting! their! cultural! and! educational! capital! into! economic!capital.!!Thus!the!new!generation!of!women!graduates!has!not! had!the!same!success!in!developing!careers!as!male!graduates!(Sayer,! 2005!pp.!77!N78)!
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Deleted:'a
! The!being!of!the!student!is!achieved!through!a!process!of!becoming!the! student.!(Barnett,!1996!p.!72)! ! This!discussion!links!the!various!positions!highlighted!!in!the!data!to!!forms!of!capital!that! are!collectively!and!individually!accrued!to!the!HEI,!staff!and!students!in!this!study.!!This! is! ! allied! to! ! ideas! around! the! convertibility! of! forms! of! capital! and,! as! Sayer! (2005)! suggests!above,!this!is!gendered!and!accounts!for!differences!in!female!graduate!abilities! to!convert!the!cultural!capital!of!education!into!the!economic!and!symbolic!capital!allied!to! certain!career!paths.!!In!Northfield!this!is!linked!to!the!gendering!of!disciplines,!whereby! more! 'feminised'! disciplines! have! less! cultural! or! symbolic! capital! and! are! positioned! as! 'fluffy',! 'mickey! mouse'! or! 'not! academic',! with! masculinised! subjects! such! as! science,! technology!and!engineering!positioned!as!'harder'!and!more!likely!to!result!in!innovative! and! highNgrowth! businesses! favoured! by! policy! makers.! ! However,! this! is! also! linked! to! the! convertibility! of! the! symbolic! capital! inherent! in! 'masculinity'! with! its! suggested! symbolic!status.!!This!'primacy!of!masculinity'!!is!highlighted!by!Bourdieu!(1998,!p.!62):! ! The!particularity!of!the!dominant!is!that!they!are!in!a!position!to!ensure! that! their! particular! way! of! being! is! recognized! as! universal.! ! The! definition! of! excellence! is! in! any! case! charged! with! masculine! implications!that!have!the!particularity!of!not!appearing!as!such.! ! Elam!(2008)!describes!this!as!'convertibility!to!legitimacy'!!and!it!seems,!given!that!male! graduates! are! four! times! more! likely! than! their! female! counterparts! to! pursue! entrepreneurship! (Martinez! et! al,! 2007),! male! graduates! have! more! opportunities! to! convert! the! symbolic! capital! of! both! their! course! and! their! masculine! status! and! are! positioned! as! embodying! 'natural'! entrepreneurial! excellence.! ! This! also! seems! to! affect! both!staff!and!student!conceptualisations!of!male!and!female!students!and!entrepreneurs.!! Although!some!staff!are!very!open!in!suggesting!that!men!are!'naturally'!more!inclined!to! entrepreneurial! success,! others! N! ! in! their! supposed! genderNneutral! approach! –! privilege!! agency!which,!as!outlined!by!Elam!and!Sayer,!ignores!suggestions!that!it!might!be!more! difficult! for! female! graduates! to! convert! the! cultural! capital! of! their! education! given! the! patriarchal! structuring! of! society.! Female! students! acknowledge! this,! highlighting! ! 'glass! ceiling'!discourses!and!!their!own!recognition!that!males!are!often!in!high!status!positions,! even! in! femaleNdominated! sectors! like! Health! and! Hospitality.! That! this! sense! of! excellence! and! success! should! also! accrue! to! males! as! entrepreneurs! seems! to! be! an! extension!of!the!privileging!of!the!male!experience!and!the!'downplaying'!of!females!who! 'dabble'! or! 'play! at'! being! business! owners! and! are! therefore! not! credible! as!
204
entrepreneurs.! ! In! the! stratification! of! positions! below,! female! students! not! only! take! positions! which! are! related! to! their! perceptions! of! the! social! reality! of! both! HE! and! entrepreneurship,! but! they! are! also! given! positions! by! the! wider! field! and! by! staff.! ! The! extent! to! which! they! accept! or! reject! these! positions! is! highlighted! in! the! choices! made! about! the! practical! logic! of! pursuing! entrepreneurship! or! business! ownership.! ! These! positions! are! also! evident! in! the! wider! field! and! ! within! HE! at! institutional! level! N! with! mechanisms!impacting!on!the!positioning!of!entrepreneurship!as!gendered,!of!disciplines! as! gendered,! the! academic! and! vocational! positioning! of! entrepreneurship! and! also! the! position! of! entrepreneurship! education! as! a! generic! Bernsteinian! 'region'! rather! than! a! discrete,! bounded! discipline.! ! This! sense! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! being! generic!also!highlights!its!supposed!neutrality!and!that!the!masculinised!ideas!upon!which! it!is!based!are!accepted!as!'natural'!and!unquestionable!within!HE.! ! Wider!Field!!(Policy,! Research!&!Media)!! Staff as invisible and 'disinterested experts' Students as 'not-knowing'
Students, women and ethnic minorities as deficient
Institution! Staff as 'all-knowing' Pedagogic authority
Re-positioning of entrepreneurship
Gendering of disciplines Enterprise and entrepreneurship as generic and for all
External drivers and stakeholders Academic discipline
Staff as Pracademics
Staff! Entrepreneurship as a region not a discipline
Positioning of students, discipline and module
Role within HE (academic and practitioner)
Student! Practice privileged
Course as academic – nonacademic Course as gendered Men as entrepreneurs, women as business owners or ‘dabblers’
! Figure!8.1.!The!Stratification!of!Position!
!
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The! wider! field! privileges! the! knowledge! of! visible! and! successful! entrepreneurs! over! students,! staff! and! institutions! and! promotes! the! importance! of! the! inculcation! of! this! knowledge!as!the!main!aim!of!entrepreneurship!education!(Gibbs,!2005W!Hermann,!2008W! Volkmann! et! al,! 2009).! ! Given! that! visible! and! successful! male! entrepreneurs! are! positioned! by! some! staff! as! uninterested! in! education! or! uneducated! this! positions! their! 'practical'! knowledge! as! important.! The! idea! of! males! undervaluing! education! or! being! able! to! succeed! without! education! also! informs! gendered! ideas! and! onNgoing! debates! about! the! educational! underNperformance! of! boys! nationally! and! internationally! (Lucey! and!Walkerdine,!2000W!Jha!and!Kelleher,!2006).!!Current!arguments!crystallise!around!the! feminisation! of! education! and,! I! would! argue,! also! feed! into! wider! debates! about! the! uneducated! entrepreneur! and! the! masculinised! rejection! of! education! as! a! precursor! for! entrepreneurial!success.!!! ! In!light!of!these!prevalent!!discourses!it!seems!logical!to!position!those!who!are!educated! as! 'not! knowing'! ! or! as! not! having! the! traits! and! behaviours! of! the! 'true'! entrepreneur! because! education! is! important! to! those! in! HE.! This! polarises! education! and! entrepreneurship! ! and! is! echoed! in! comments! about! educating! the! enterprise! 'out! of'! students!and!of!an!academic!career!as!being!'the!opposite'!of!pursuing!entrepreneurship.! These!ideas!arguably!inform!HE,!given!that!it!is!becoming!a!more!feminised!environment! and!!suggestions!that!this!feminisation!is!'dumbing!down'!academia!(RaymoNGlazer,!2008W! Leathwood!and!Read,!2009)!placing!women!in!!the!contradictory!position!of!having!higher! academic!aspirations!but!lower!academic!abilities!than!their!male!counterparts!and!being! the!'wrong!kind!of!knower'!(Maton,!2004b).!!In!a!dualistic!and!gender!segregated!society!it! seems! that! if! women! homogeneously! value! education! then! it! must! be! homogeneously! unvalued! by! men! and,! as! the! 'typical'! entrepreneur! does! not! value! education,! entrepreneurship!is!positioned!as!more!accessible!to!males.!This!highlights!the!enduring! lack! of! symbolic! capital! accruing! to! females! in! the! wider! field,! ! as! HE! students! and!! potential! entrepreneurs,! making! it! more! difficult! for! them! to! convert! their! gender! capital! into! the! entrepreneurial! capital! required! to! be! successful! as! this! capital! is! linked! to! the! possession!of!a!masculinised!habitus!and!the!traditional!masculine!traits!and!behaviours! historically!and!culturally!associated!with!entrepreneurship.!!
Women!are!positioned!as!requiring!help!to!become!entrepreneurial!in!the!wider!literature! because! of! their! deficiencies! –! such! as! lack! of! confidence! and! other! issues! ! related! to! 'feminine'! behaviours! (BERR! 2008,! Volkmann! et! al,! 2009! ).! Women! are! also! passive! in!
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many! ! policy! documents! with! things! being! 'done'! to! them! in! order! to! 'make'! them! more! entrepreneurial! ! ! N! echoing! Fairclough's! ideas! about! women's! representation! not! as! 'agents! of! action'! but! as! 'goals! of! action'! (Fairclough,! 1993! p.! 181),! effectively! rendering! them! as! deficient! objects! of! observation.! In! this! way! we! might! extend! Barnett's! quote! above! and! argue! that! ! 'the! female! student! is! achieved! through! the! process! of! becoming! the!female!student'!–!i.e.!becoming!that!which!they!are!already!positioned!as!being!in!the! wider!field.!!The!emphasis!in!research!and!policy!on!helping!and!encouraging!students!to! appreciate! the! lifeNworld! of! entrepreneurs! ! further! emphasises! the! 'deficient! student',! highlighting! the! ! lack! of! importance! afforded! the! student! lifeNworld,! with! Grenfell! (2004,! p.78)!arguing!that!'What!is!left!out!of!the!pedagogic!act!can!be!the!way!that!the!pupil!sees! the!world!and!the!problem!presented!to!them'.!
Bourdieu! and! Bernstein! have! both! been! described! as! stressing! the! importance! of! 'structuralist!inquiry'!!and!the!'critical!study!of...knowledge!and!its!transmission'!(Sadovnik,! 1991! p.! 48).! Bernstein's! work! connects! 'macroNpower! and! class! relations! to! the! micro! educational! processes'! of! education! (Sadovnik,! p.! 50)! and! is! linked! to! boundary! maintenance!within!disciplinesW!the!insulation!or!boundaries!between!curricular!categories.!! It! can! be! seen! in! this! case! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! has! weak! boundaries! and! a! curriculum! that! is! integrated! into! other! disciplines! and! the! boundaries! between! subjects! are! fragile! (Katz,! 2003).! This! gives! scope! for! policy! makers,! funders,! institutions! and! educators! to! introduce! elements! into! the! curriculum! that! reflect! their! values! and! beliefs! and! to! influence! and! develop! the! curriculum! based! on! their! own! conceptualisations!of!the!capital!accruing!to!the!subject!!and!what!is!'valued'!in!this!area.!!! It!is!suggested!in!the!literature!that!external!businesses!and!entrepreneurs!are!involved!in! curriculum!development,!further!highlighting!the!weak!boundaries!of!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!education!as!a!curriculum!or!as!a!discipline.!Bernstein!is!also!concerned!with! pedagogic! discourse! and! the! 'production,! distribution! and! reproduction! of! official! knowledge! and! how! this! knowledge! is! related! to! structurally! determined! power! relations'! (Sadovnik,!1991!p.!52)!between!and!within!the!different!stratified!levels!of!society!as!they! play! out! within! education.! ! In! this! context! official! knowledge! is! linked! to! agency! with! suggestions! that! it! is! up! to! the! individual! to! be! successful! –! or! as! a! Sport! lecturer!! suggests,!if!students!have!the!‘desire,!the!will,!the!wish,!the!finance!and!the!knowledge’!.! This! takes! no! account! of! the! interplay! of! agency! and! structure! (or! habitus,! capital! and! field)! or! ideas! around! gendered! capital! and! ! that! the! possession! of! an! entrepreneurial! habitus! alone! and! the! necessary! economic! and! cultural! capital! are! all! one! needs! to!
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succeed.!!
These! are! complex! issues,! influenced! by! many! agendas,! and! it! is! understandable! that! HEIs!should!take!a!view!that!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!are!important!both!from!an! employability!and!from!a!market!differentiation!perspective!and!should!seek!to!make!HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! a! major! part! of! their! teaching! and! learning! focus.! This! has! arguably! led! to! a! feel! for! the! game! that! positions! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! as! something! that! is! generic! and! not! necessarily! rooted! within! one! discipline!area!and!which!all!students!need!to!be!exposed!to.!!However,!!the!suggestion! that! entrepreneurship! is! open! to! all! is! in! tension! with! aspects! of! the! curriculum! and! the! wider! field! which! position! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! 'special'! or! linked! with! particular! traits! and! abilities! which! entrepreneurs! 'naturally'! have.! The! emphasis! on! the! role!of!HE!in!preparing!graduates!for!supporting!economic!growth!and!social!cohesion!has! also! been! viewed! as! a! cynical! attempt! by! HEIs! to! ensure! future! funding! streams! by! asserting! their! importance! in! today’s! economically! and! market! driven! society! and! has! resulted!in!the!push!for!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!to!be!included!in!the!general!HE! curriculum! (Armstrong,! 2005a! and! 2005b)! and! this! can! ultimately! inform! the! positioning! and! legitimisation! of! ! both! staff! and! students.! Of! course,! the! relative! importance! or! influence!of!government!policy!and!the!research!and!practice!communities!will!also!vary! from! institution! to! institution! based! on! their! conceptualisation! of! their! own! institutional! habitus!and!capital!and!whether!they!feel!they!are!driving!the!agenda!or!responding!to!it.!!! The! relative! status! of! research! or! practice,! of! enterprise! as! a! recognised! academic! discipline!and!of!those!teaching!in!entrepreneurship!education!as!having!academic!status! will! also! impact! on! how! entrepreneurship! education! sits! within! institutional! agendas.!! Therefore!it!is!likely!that!!a!‘new’!or!postN92!university!might!be!more!heavily!influenced!in! its!approach!to!entrepreneurship!education!by!regional!and!government!policy,!especially! where! that! is! directly! linked! to! external! funding! for! such! activities! to! encourage! entrepreneurship! within! its! student! body.!A! Russell! Group! or! ‘traditional’! university! might! be!more!influenced!by!research!agendas!than!practice!given!the!capital!and!habitus!they! have!invested!in!being!part!of!an!elite!researchNfocused!HEI!grouping.!
With!reference!to!educators'!power!to!influence!and!alter!discourses,!Bourdieu!suggests! (1991,!p.71)!that!'The!capacity!to!manipulate!is!greater!the!more!capital!one!possesses'.!! In!the!HE!classroom!lecturers!are!positioned!as!having!the!most!power!and!capital:!they!! set! the! agenda,! deciding! what! to! include! in! the! session! and! what! to! omit! and! which!
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examples! and! exercises! best! reflect! their! own! knowledge! and! experience! within! the! subject! area.!An! understanding! and! acceptance! of! the! suggested! 'rules! of! the! game'! or! the! 'terms! that! are! at! stake'! (Ashwin,! 2009)! within! the! wider! field! and! within! the! institutional! setting! informs! pracademic! identities! and! approaches! to! entrepreneurship! education! (Ehrensal,! 2001W! Bennett,! 2006)! and! this! also! impacts! on! the! sense! of! pedagogic! authority! and! forms! of! capital! accruing! to! educators! working! within! these! institutions!and!the!pedagogic!actions!employed!(Ehrensal,!1998).!Indeed,!Bennett!(2006! p.6)!suggests!that!there!are!'substantial!connections'!between!a!lecturer's!'interpretation!of! the!nature!of!entrepreneurship!and!how!best!to!teach!the!subject'.!Bourdieu!and!Passeron! (1994! p.! 16)! outline! the! power! and! positions! at! play! between! educator! and! student! arguing:! It!is!unquestionably!pathological!!that!a!teacher!should!expect!his!(sic)! words!to!be!understood!precisely!as!he!understands!them!and!that!the! language!of!the!students!should!merely!echo!his!own.!Such!an!expectation! is!inherently!contradictory!and!dualistic.!In!fact,!academics!display!two! complementary!and!contradictory!attitudes.!They!address!themselves!to! fictive!subjects,!avoiding!the!risk!of!putting!their!practice!on!trial.!!! ! ! They! outline! the! concept! of! the! 'fictive! student',! the! student! to! which! the! curriculum! is! addressedW!the!'studentNinNtheNhead'!of!the!educator!and,!given!that!the!wider!field!and!the! formal! teaching! staff! present! a! masculine! image! of! the! entrepreneur! to! their! students,! (regardless! of! the! gender! balance! of! the! student! cohort)! I! would! suggest! that! the! fictive! student!!these!modules!addresses!is!white!and!male!–!the!fictive!student!also!being!the! homogeneous,! genderNneutral! student.! This! might! also! explain! why! the! informal,! crossN! campus!provision!is!more!open!to!debate!and!discussion!because!there!are!no!particular! expectations!around!who!might!attend!and!which!disciplines!they!might!come!from.!This!is! also! allied! to,! what! ! Kenway! and! Modra! (1992,! p.141)! call! ‘intended! and! unintended! learnings’.!! ! The!apparent!!intention!of!!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!is!to!teach!the!skills! and! knowledge! associated! with! successful! entrepreneurship! and! yet! an! unintended! consequence! (or! learning)! may! be! N! given! that! these! skills! and! knowledge! are! based! on! the! privileging! of! the! male! experience! N! ! that! female! experiences! and! skills! and! the! knowledge! associated! with! femininity,! are! presented! as! deficient.! ! However,! the! 'fictive'! student! ! is! also! positioned! as! 'notNknowing',! suggesting! a! double! deficit! for! female! students!and!a!potential!triple!deficit!for!ethnic!minority,!female!students,!despite!research!
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suggesting!that!young!black!women!have!greater!entrepreneurial!potential!and!aspirations! than!their!white!counterparts!(Wilson!et!al,!2004W!Athyde,!2009).!Bourdieu!and!Passeron! (1994,!p.17)!suggest!that!'(Academics)!are!able!to!justify!their!disdain!for!the!real!student! since! only! the! fictive! student! deserves! their! respect,! and! a! handful! of! 'gifted! students'...prove!the!fiction!exists'!!and!this!is!allied!to!the!idea!of!the!!'fictive!entrepreneur'! –! the! 'ideal'! which! is! presented! in! the! classroom! and! which! only! the! handful! of! 'fictive'! students,!who!have!this!'unteachable'!attitude!or!mindset,!are!able!to!'become'.!There!are! also! elements! here! of! the! 'fictive'! female! and! male! student! and! collective! notions! about! what! each! will! find! encouraging,! inspirational! or! threatening.! This! is! ultimately! driven! by! the! privileging! of! agency! and! personal! responsibility! to! manage! one's! own! career! and!in! turn!one's!own!destiny!which!has!become!a!cultural!arbitrary:!! ! The! general! neoNliberal! vision! is! that! every! human! being! is! an! entrepreneur! managing! their! own! life,! and! should! act! as! such.! Moral! philosophers!call!this!a!virtue!ethic,!where!human!beings!compare!their! actions! to! the! way! an! ideal! type! might! act! –! in! this! case! the! ideal! entrepreneur.!!(Treanor!2002,!online)! ! This! neoNliberal! approach! actively! supports! discourses! around! entrepreneurship! and! the! privileging! of! agency! whilst! also! perpetuating! ideas! of! the! 'fictive'! entrepreneur! and! the! 'fictive'! student! who! is! best! placed! to! take! advantage! of! this.! ! In! allying! oneself! with! a! particular! approach! to! entrepreneurship,! without! a! critical! engagement! with! the! potential! instability! of! debates! in! this! field,! educators! become! complicit! in! a! form! of! 'invisible! pedagogy'! (Bourdieu! and! Passeron! 1990,! p.18)W! positioning! entrepreneurship! in! a! particular,! unspoken! way,! which! emphasises! certain! aspects! of! entrepreneurial! theory! whilst! 'closing! down'! other! areas! of! debate! or! dissent.! This! is! particularly! at! odds! with! suggestions!that!pursuing!entrepreneurship!is!now!no!different!from!pursuing!employment,! given! the! changes! in! the! work! environment! which! have! led! to! uncertainty! and! instability! and!where!a!'job!for!life'!is!no!longer!an!option!for!most!employees!(Carter!et!al,!2003).!! ! There! is! also! an! assertion! of! certainty! around! the! skills! and! ! knowledge! required! to! be! enterprising! which! ignores! the! wider! theoretical! debates! around! the! instability! and! still! developing! nature! of! definitions! and! approaches! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! and! its!teaching!and!learning.!Through!a!combination!of!educator!knowledge,!experiences!and! attitudes! (or! habitus! and! cultural! and! social! capital)W! the! pedagogic! authority! invested! in! them! (symbolic! capital)! and! their! pedagogic! actions! (teaching! methods! and! materials)! educators! working! in! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! effectively! delineate!
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the! objective! possibilities! available! to! their! students,! which! in! turn! informs! students'! subjective!expectations!of!success!(also!shaped!by!the!habitus!and!capital!that!they!bring! to! HE).! TeachingNlearning! interactions! effectively! frame! the! ‘rules’! of! the! game! i.e.! what! forms!of!capital!and!habitus!are!valued,!supported!and!can!be!exchanged!by!whom!within! HE!and!the!wider!field!of!entrepreneurship!and!business!ownership.!Likewise,!the!!wider! field! is! also! driven! by! the! 'fictive',! homogeneous! student! ! (and! women! and! ethnic! minorities)! as! 'notNknowing'W! contradicting! and! masking! the! 'lifeNworld'! of! the! students! interviewed! for! this! research! and! privileging! the! 'fictive'! entrepreneur! over! the! real! and! knowledgeable!(rather!than!the!'fictive')!student.!This!highlights!a!need!for!!a!less!dualistic! approach! to! teaching! in! this! area! and! to! base! policy! and! research! on! a! both/and! basis! rather! than! an! either/or! approach! which! effectively! confines! those! who! do! not! already! 'have'!N!!or!fail!to!develop!N!this!mindset!to!entrepreneurial!failure!or!to!'lesser'!modes!N!in! an! economic! and! symbolic! sense! N! ! of! entrepreneurship! such! as! social! or! 'lifestyle'! entrepreneurship.!!
Staff! in! Sports! and! Hospitality! suggest! they! take! a! genderNneutral! position! to! their! teaching!and!to!their!students,!to!the!extent!that!they!claim!not!to!notice!the!gender!split! within! student! cohorts,! not! 'seeing'! female! students! or! taking! account! of! how! their! experiences! or! attitudes! might! impact! on! the! 'reception'! of! classroom! teaching.! GenderN! neutrality!has!been!argued!as!masking!gender!bias!and!androcentric!practices!generally! (Lewis,! 2006W! Beuchler,! 2008)! and! within! entrepreneurship! education,! as! I! have! argued! elsewhere! (Jones,! 2009a)! and! offers! little! opportunity! for! students! or! staff! to! engage! in! constructive! debate! around! contestation! in! this! area.! ! However! –! emphasising! the! complexities! ! of! practice! N! the! active! acknowledgement! of! gender! can! also! lead! to! the! privileging! of! masculinity! or! of! dualistic! and! damaging! ! 'battle! of! the! sexes! discourses'! (Sunderland,! 2004).!This! is! illustrated! by! Hospitality! educators! in! their! reasoning! around! males!as!preNeminent!entrepreneurs!and!also!in!the!supposed!masculinised!'drive'!for!HE! study.! ! Actively! acknowledging! gender! can! also! lead! to! the! reproduction! of! other! potentially!damaging!gendered!discourses!such!as!'the!glass!ceiling'!discourse!mentioned!! by! Hospitality! students! and! ! problematised! by! one! of! the! Health! lecturersW! discourses! which!effectively!put!female!students!'in!their!place'.!Entrepreneurship!theory!and!related! education!is!not!valueNfree!or!neutral!and!can!perpetuate!the!symbolic!violence!of!genderN role! stereotypes.! Its! inclusion! within! a! course! or! module! therefore! has! symbolic! repercussions! and! I! would! argue! that! these! are! particularly! influential! for! students! in! disciplines! positioned! as! masculine! or! feminineW! being! linked! with! assumed! 'natural'!
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abilities!and!dispositions!of!a!collectively!imagined!gendered!habitus!and!accruing!forms! of!capital!related!to!the!social!reality!of!this!positioning.!!Whilst!it!is!acknowledged!in!the! wider!field!that!it!is!imperative!for!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!to!be!embedded!within! disciplines! 'outside'! traditional! business! schools! (EC,! 2008)! and! it! is! accepted! that! there! may! be! varying! degrees! of! cultural! hostility! allied! to! this! which! may! be! linked! to! the! subject!area!(Volkmann!et!al,!2009),!the!impact!of!embedding!ideas,!that!have!developed! from! exclusively! masculine! discursive! spaces,! within! disciplines! which! are! positioned! as! feminine!discursive!spaces!(e,g,!Health!and!Hospitably)!is!ignored.!!I!would!argue!that!the! gendering! of! disciplines! and! their! fit! with! the! 'nature'! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! influences! staff! approaches! to! the! curriculum.!This! can! inform! how! visible! or! how! active! student! involvement! might! be,! based! upon! their! suggested! fit! with! the! ! 'fictive'! entrepreneur!and!the!suggested!entrepreneurial!mindset.!!!!
The! concept! of! entrepreneurship! and! the! agreed! 'rules! of! the! game'! are! therefore! delineated!by!institutions!and!their!staff!and!the!negotiation!of!this!varies!according!to!staff! member! and! discipline.! In! the! entrepreneurship! education! classroom! lecturers! are! legitimised! by! institutionally! bestowed! pedagogic! authority,! effectively! setting! the! agenda! for! student! learningW! deciding! what! to! include! and! which! pedagogic! actions! best! reflect! their!own!understanding!of!the!subject,!their!own!knowledge!and!attitudes.!Given!that!the! lecturer! is! positioned! as! having! the! most! pedagogic! authority! ! and! where! masculineN informed! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! are! privileged,! female! students! have! the! least! capital! (particularly! gendered! symbolic! capital)! and! therefore! fewer! opportunities! for! resistance!and!challenge!because!it!is!‘common!knowledge’!that!there!are!more!male!than! female!entrepreneurs!and!that!men!are!more!'successful'!than!women.!!This!is!important! when! we! consider! Edwards! and! Westgate's! comment! ! that! ! '! much! of! the! talk! between! (teachers!and!students)!constitutes!the!workingNout!of!a!power!relationship'!(1987,!p.102).! The! different! ‘takes’! that! educators! express! on! entrepreneurship! delineate! the! field! for! students,!who!are!presumed!to!have!little!or!no!formal!knowledge,!and!are!in!the!position! of!having!to!‘accept’!educator!attitudes!as!representing!the!‘truth’!about!entrepreneurship! and!the!‘reality’!of!being!an!entrepreneur,!particularly!where!a!narrow!range!of!research!N! which!supports!a!particular!view!of!entrepreneurship!N!!is!drawn!upon!and!referred!to.!! ! For!female!students!a!lack!of!fit!between!certain!aspirations!and!'objective!probability'!is! suggested! by! talk! of! the! 'glass! ceiling'! and! staff! and! student! recognition! of! the! higher! status! accorded! to! males! in! femaleNdominated! sectors! such! as! Health! and! Hospitality,!!
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with! ! females! positioned! as! business! owners! and! 'not'! entrepreneurs! by! some! lecturers! and! in! the! privileging! of! entrepreneurship! as! a! 'special'! form! of! activity! done! by! 'special'! and! innately! talented! individuals.! ! The! sense! of! femininity! as! being! 'other'! than! entrepreneurs! and! of! females! as! ! 'notNknowing'! and! ! 'notNacademic',! studying! 'fluffy'! feminised! courses,! is! also! linked! to! ideas! that! they! 'should! not! be! present! '! in! the! academic! environment! (Bourdieu! and! Passeron,! 1994)! where! their! presence! results! in! 'dumbing!down'!(GlazerNRaymo,!2008W!Leathwood!and!Read,!2009).!This!lack!of!female! gender!capital!!is!also!linked!with!the!gendering!of!disciplines,!which!Skeggs!(2004,!p.22)! highlights:! ! The!transference!of!femininity!from!the!student!to!the!subject!and!back! again! to! the! student! exemplifies! the! dialectic! of! objectification! and! embodiment,! formed! by! an! ‘elective! affinity’! shaping! the! habitus...For! girls!it!can!only!offer!a!limited!form!of!capital!if!they!conform!to!gender! normalcy.! ! For! boys! it! offers! masculine! power,! institutionalized! in! the! school! as! a! form! of! symbolic! capital! that…! represents! accumulated! privilege!in!other!fields.!! ! Here! the! gendering! of! HE! disciplines! could! be! argued! as! accumulating! ! the! masculine! privilege! (or! symbolic! capital)! ! linked! to! 'takenNforNgranted'! and! historically! arbitrary! notions! of! the! entrepreneur.! ! This! is! also! supported! by! recent! research! by! Gupta! et! al! (2009! p.409)! who! found! that! 'gender! identification! with! males...is! related! to! entrepreneurial!intentions'!in!a!way!that!gender!identification!with!females!is!not.!!This!is! alarming! given! that! students! in! large! female! cohorts! on! feminised! courses! such! as! Hospitality!and!Health!may!struggle!to!align!their!gendered!identity,!being!!invested!in!a! traditionally! 'feminine'! discipline! and! given! the! arguments! that! migration! across! gender! and!class!identities!is!limited!in!HE!and!may!even!be!perpetuated!by!it!(Leathwood!and! Read,!2009W!Naidoo,!2004W!Reay!et!al,!2005).!The!fact!that!entrepreneurship!is!rejected! as! an! option! by! 12! of! the! 14! ! students! interviewed! for! this! research,! and! yet! the! apparently!'ungendered'!business!ownership!is!identified!as!an!option,!seems!to!support! the!idea!that!entrepreneurship!is!masculinised!in!a!way!that!business!ownership!is!not.!!!
The! extent! to! which! female! students! have! accepted! a! link! between! masculinity! and! entrepreneurship! is! evident! in! the! way! that! they! talk! about! entrepreneurs! and! entrepreneurship! and! particularly! in! the! way! that! they! identify! and! talk! about! males! as! entrepreneurs.! This! is! apparent! in! the! positioning! of! their! male! partners,! siblings! and! fathers!as!entrepreneurs!!and!the!linking!of!!'typical'!(and!masculinised)!behaviours!and! abilities!with!their!perceived!approaches!to!setting!up!and!running!!their!businesses.!!This!!
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contrasts!with!how!students!describe!their!own!and!other!females'!attitudes,!abilities!and! experiences,!as!'dabbling',!being!!'!a!bit!on!the!side'!or!'playing!at!it'!and!!is!resonant!of! Elam's! (2008)! ideas! on! the! ‘convertibility! of! capital’! from! one! form! to! another! and! the! ease! with! which! the! symbolic! capital! of! masculinity! can! be! converted! into! an! unproblematised,! mainstream! cultural! acceptance! that! males! or! those! who! display,! embody! and! can! draw! upon! masculinised! forms! of! habitus! and! capital,! have! more! chance! of! success! as! entrepreneurs.! That! these! particular! students! do! not! possess! or! aspire!to!these!collectively!sanctioned!ideas!seems!to!suggest!to!them!that!they!do!not! have!the!individual!potential!to!be!entrepreneurs.!If!we!consider!the!masculinised!nature! of! entrepreneurship! discussed! previously,! which! students! do! acknowledge! in! their! conceptualisations! of! entrepreneurship,! it! seems! that! there! is! an! understanding! that! those! who! are! successful! entrepreneurs! are! those! who! display! these! typically! masculinised! behaviours! and! attitudes.! ! This! may! explain,! as!Ahl! (2004)! suggests,! the! lack!of!‘fit’!between!these!culturally!accepted!(and!'takenNforNgranted')!‘norms’!around!the! ‘dispositions’! and! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! and! student! aspirations! and! identity.!A! genderNneutral! approach! to! entrepreneurship! education! effectively! stifles! debate! for! students,!!encouraging!them!to!position!themselves!as!‘other’!than!entrepreneurs.!!
McNay!(1999,!p.103)!suggests!that!'gender!as!a!primary!symbolic!distinction!is!used!to! play!out!other!social!tensions'!and!that!Bourdieu's!'understanding!of!gender!relations!as!a! fundamental! form! of! symbolic! domination! guards! against! a! completely! fragmented! view! of! the! way! in! which! gender! identity! is! constituted.'! ! Students! appear! to! view! business! ownership! differently! and! can! find! a! position! within! this! which! is! not! available! to! them! within! mainstream! conceptualisations! of! entrepreneurship.! Bourdieu! and! Passeron! (1990,! p.! 157)! suggest! that! this! is! due! to! internalisation! of! the! rules! of! the! game! that! 'reinforce! the! acceptance! of! exclusion! ('that's! not! for! the! likes! of! us')'.! ! Indeed! the! very! status,! high! worth! and! nonNnegotiability! accorded! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! in! the!wider!field!of!influence!may!be!because!'it'!is!positioned!as!'not'!successfully!pursued! by!females!and!therefore!as!being!masculine!(informed!by!'takenNforNgranted'!notions!of! the! homogeneous! entrepreneur! and! dualistic! ideas! about! male! and! female! traits).!! Bourdieu! ! and! Passeron! (1990,! p.183)! also! acknowledge,! along! with! feminist! theorists! such! as! Skeggs! (2004)! and! Leathwood! and! Read! (2009),! that! 'the! 'value'! of! an! occupation...steadily!diminishes!as!it!is!feminized'.!!! ! It!could!be!argued!that!in!attempting!to!raise!the!status!of!entrepreneurship,!while!at!the!
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same! time! encouraging! female! entrepreneurship,! ! government! and! education! policy! is! contradictory!–!because!once!an!occupation!!or!career!is!perceived!as!open!to!females! then!it!loses!its!symbolic!capital.!!However,!this!may!explain!the!tendency,!as!illustrated!in! the!Hospitality!lecture,!to!position!women!as!business!owners!and!men!as!entrepreneurs! thereby! 'ringNfencing'! entrepreneurship! as! a! masculinised! and! maleNdominated! activity! while!positioning!business!ownership!as!a!somewhat!'lesser'!but!more!accessible!option! for! women.! ! Indeed,! it! seems! that! the! female! students,! in! their! rejection! of! the! label! 'entrepreneur'!also!acknowledge!this!and!the!supposed!lack!of!fit!between!femininity!and! entrepreneurship! and! also! choose! to! position! themselves! as! business! owners.! This! is! therefore! a! position! that!is!given!to!these!female!students!but! also! one!that! is!taken!by! them.!Bourdieu!(1998,!p.83)!!suggests!that!certain!fields!can!constrain!or!enable!choices! of! the! habitus,! creating! environments! that! '…lead! women! to! contribute! to! their! own! exclusion!from!the!places!which!they!are!in!any!case!excluded.'!and!it!could!be!argued! that!in!rejecting!entrepreneurship!these!female!students!are!indeed!doing!this.! 2.2!
Choices! Habitus!is!a!way!of!looking!at!data!which!renders!the!'takenNforNgranted'! problematic.! It! suggests! a! whole! range! of! questions! not! necessarily! addressed! in! empirical! researchW! how! well! adapted! ! is! the! individual! to! the!context!they!find!themselves!in?...!What!subjective!vocations!do!they! bring!to!the!present!and!how!are!they!manifested?!Are!structural!effects! visible!within!smallNscale!interactions?!(Reay,!1995!p.369)!
! Bourdieu!suggest!that!we!are!all!'products!of!our!pasts'!and!this!shapes!our!dispositions! and!the!choices!that!we!make!in!different!environments.!!!In!this!section!I!discuss!!aspects! of! the! collective! and! individual! ! habitus! that! have! emerged! from! the! data! and! their! stratification! at! field,! institutional! and! individual! levels.! I! have! conceptualized! choice! as! based!around!habitus!following!Bourdieu's!arguments!around!how!habitus!shapes!action,! informing!!'choices!of!the!habitus'!and!this!stratification!of!choice!is!outlined!in!Figure!8.2! below.! Bourdieu! also! suggests! that! habitus! is! stratified,! structured! and! ! informed! by! collective!and!individual!notions:! ! In!so!far!as!he!or!she!is!endowed!with!a!habitus,!the!social!agent!is!a! collective!individual!or!a!collective!individuated!by!the!fact!of!embodying! objective! structures.! The! habitus! is! socialized! subjectivity,! a! historic! transcendental,! whose! schemes! of! perception! and! appreciation...! are! the!product!of!collective!and!individual!history.!(Bourdieu,!2005!!p.!211)! !
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Wider!Field!!(Policy,! Research!&!Media)!! No choice for institutions and students BUT to ‘be’ entrepreneurial
No choice for HE but to offer EE Entrepreneurship as rational choice
Institution!
TINA
Non-negotiable imperative to embed EE Which courses? Which staff? Formal/informal?
Choice to link institutional habitus, EE and employability
Staff! ‘For’, ‘about’ or ‘hidden’ How to frame curriculum entrepreneurship (pedagogic actions)
Student!
Framing of student choice (rational, gender neutral)
Choice of university and degree Business ownership NOT entrepreneurship
! ! Figure!8.2:!The!Stratification!of!Choice!
A! dominant! discourse! in! the! wider! field! is! that! there! is! no! choice! but! to! pursue! entrepreneurship!for!nations,!HEIs!and!individuals!and!that!'there!is!no!alternative'!to!the! development!of!entrepreneurial!mindsets!for!HEIs!and!individuals!seeking!success!!in!a! globalised,! insecure! and! uncertain! employment! market.! This! reflects! postNmodern! individualism,!supporting!Giddens'!argument!that,!as!part!of!the!postNmodern!project,!‘we! have!no!choice!but!to!choose.’!(1991,!p.81).!This!is!also!apparent!in!the!push!to!embed! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!across!all!disciplines!in!HE.!Although!research! suggests!that!entrepreneurship!should!not!be!considered!as!'special'!or!as!an!activity!that! only! a! talented! few! can! pursue! (Carter! et! al,! 2003W! Hytti,! 2005)! in! an! apparent! effort! to! make! entrepreneurship! more! attractive! to! the! general! population,! ! the! wider! field! also! projects! entrepreneurship! as! a! high! status,! high! energy,! high! risk! activity! through! engagement! with! male! role! models! who! are! highly! visible! and! who! have! come! to!
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represent!the!'true'!entrepreneur!in!the!popular!imagination.!!These!individuals!are!drawn! upon! in! policy! and! research,! effectively! enhancing! and! giving! credibility! to! this! view! of! 'true'! or! 'real'! entrepreneurs! as! people! who! exhibit! certain! 'risky''! 'special'! or! 'eccentric'! behaviours! and! dispositions! –! who! are! misfits! and! mavericks! and,! on! the! whole,! are! projected!as!being!uneducated!and!'selfNmade'.!This!creates!tensions!for!undergraduates! who! seemingly! do! value! education! and! makes! the! suggested! dualistic! 'choice'! between! entrepreneurship!or!education!more!complex.!However,!the!idea!of!'choosing'!to!become! an! entrepreneur! is! also! positioned! as! a! 'rational'! choice! within! the! wider! literature.! It! is! suggested!that!once!students!have!been!'given'!the!necessary!skills!and!developed!the! 'right'! behaviours! to! pursue! entrepreneurship! they! will! inevitably! make! the! ‘right’! choice! and!follow!this!path.!! ! The!emphasis!on!agency!and!of!inculcation!of!the!accepted!dispositions!required!for!the! 'entrepreneurial!habitus'!also!suggests!a!certainty!of!success!!for!those!who!are!deemed! to!'own'!these!traits,!behaviours!and!abilities.!!The!!idea!of!an!entrepreneurial!habitus!is! also! tied! up! with! 'takenNforNgranted'! notions! which! are! evident! in! the! media! and! which! inform!institutional,!staff!and!student!approaches!and!the!delineation!of!the!entrepreneur,! enterprise!and!entrepreneurship.!!This!is!also!linked!to!Bourdieu's!suggested!delineation! of! the! economic! habitus! (Bourdieu,! 2005,! p.209)! where! the:! ! 'economic! approach! provides!a!framework!applicable!to!all!human!behaviour'–!to!all!types!of!decisions!and!to! persons! from! all! walks! of! life! and! this! pervasiveness! of! economic! models! means! that:! 'nothing!now!escapes!explanation!in!terms!of!the!maximizing!agent'!within!the!'mode!of! universal! explanation'! which! suggests! that! 'individual! preferences! are! exogenous,! ordered! and! stable! and! hence! without! contingent! genesis! or! evolution'.! ! ! Bourdieu! also! links!this!with!'takenNforNgranted'!notions!about!'market!forces'!and!suggestions!that!there! is!no!alternative!to!this!model!in!a!modern,!globalised!and!networked!economy.!!
This!research!was!conducted!at!Northfield!University,!!a!postN1992!institution!historically! informed! by! the! polytechnic! movement,! with! its! traditional! focus! on! teaching! and! instructional! or! vocational/professional! education! and! therefore! grounded! in! links! with! employment!and!employers.!!HEIs!develop!a!sense!of!institutional!habitus!which!is!based! upon! their! historical! development! within! the! sector! and! the! enduring! influence! of! collective! institutional! approaches! and! how! these! are! positioned! within! the! wider! HE! sector! and! this! in! turn! influences! the! suggested! importance! of! issues! such! as! employability! and/or! enterprise! (Ashwin,! 2009).! These! different! institutional! approaches!
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reflect!institutional!habitus!(!Naidoo,!2004!and!Reay!et!al,!2005)!or!a!‘set!of!dispositions! (that)!are!capable!of!generating!behaviours’!(Bourdieu,!2005,!p.8).!!Ashwin!(2009,!p.112)! suggests!that!institutional!habitus:! ! is!developed!in!relation!to!each!institution’s!position!in!the!field!of!higher! education.! ! Thus! the! sorts! of! capital! that! different! institutions! are! attempting!to!maintain!or!develop!will!inform!institutional!notions!of!what! is!‘reasonable.’! ! Reay!et!al!(2005,!p.35)!define!institutional!habitus!as!'an!intervening!variable,!providing!a! semiNautonomous! means! by! which! classed,! raced! and! gendered! processes! are! played! out!in!the!lives!of!students!and!their!Higher!Education!choices'.!Institutional!habitus!also! informs!the!impact!of!!'a!cultural!group!or!social!class!on!an!individual's!behaviour!as!it!is! mediated! through! an! organisation.'! Reay! et! al! ! (2001,! online)! ! further! suggest! ! that! institutional! habitus! has! a! collective! and! individual! effect! on! both! institutions! and! individuals,! particularly! where! they! are! positioned! as! belonging! to! a! particular! group,! representing! 'a! complex! amalgam! of! agency! and! structure'.! ! Naidoo! (2004,! p.9)! also! acknowledges!this,!saying:!! ! Higher!education!establishes!a!close!correspondence!between!the!social! classification!at!entry!and!the!social!classification!at!exit!without!explicitly! recognizing! and! in! most! cases! denying,! the! link! between! social! properties!dependent!on!social!origin...!! Margolis! et! al! (2001,! p.! l8)! argue! that! education! systems! perpetuate! 'an! uneven! distribution! of! cultural! as! well! as! economic! capital.! In! the! process,! they! endorse! and! normalize!particular!types!of!knowledge,!ways!of!speaking,!styles,!meanings,!dispositions! and!worldviews'.!The!organisational!approaches!of!different!institutional!groupings!within! a!culturally!defined!hierarchy!of!UK!HEIs!(e.g.!!Russell!Group,!Million+,!1994!Group,!etc.)! will! have! a! certain! focus! or! approach! that! informs! staff! roles! and! teaching/research! foci! and! will! also! impact! on! which! students! are! able! to! or! want! to! attend! them.! ! This! also! impacts!on!the!sense!of!pedagogic!authority!and!forms!of!capital!accruing!to!educators! working!within!these!institutions!and!the!pedagogic!actions!employed,!given!the!symbolic! capital! associated! with! membership! of! these! HEI! subgroups.! This! means! that! government!driven!HE!policy!(such!as!that!related!to!graduate!entrepreneurship)!will!be! responded! to! differently! in! different! institutional! groupings! as! it! is! ‘refracted! and! retranslated!into!the!terms!that!are!at!stake!in!that!field’!(Ashwin,!2009,!p.107).!Northfield! University! positions! entrepreneurship! education! as! part! of! the! learning! process,!
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embedded! across! all! activities,! effectively! positioning! itself! as! an! entrepreneurial! university! which! develops! entrepreneurial! students.! Given! the! discourse! of! entrepreneurship!in!the!wider!field!and!in!society!generally,!this!sends!out!positive!signals! regarding! student! employability! prospects! if! they! attend! Northfield,! suggesting! that! not! only! will! choosing! Northfield! and! doing! 'any'! course! make! them! more! employable! than! attending!another!university!but!that!they!will!also!gain!the!skills!and!knowledge!needed! to! set! up! their! own! businesses! after! graduation! and! that! this! is! as! a! direct! result! of! learning! about! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! and! developing! the! skills! and! abilities! needed!to!be!a!successful!entrepreneur.!!In!this!way,!the!vocational!'history'!and!habitus! of!Northfield!as!a!postN1992!institution!has!been!harnessed!and!linked!to!the!increasing! emphasis!on!entrepreneurialism!as!a!driver!for!employment!and!economic!growth!around! which! university! agendas! are! increasingly! crystallising! (Armstrong,! 2005aW! Volkmann! et! al,!2009).!
The! institutional! habitus,! or! ‘forgotten! history’! (Bourdieu,1990a)! is! durable! and! shapes! responsesW!being!embedded!in!future!conceptions!of!how!‘organisations!like!us’!function! within! the! wider,! hierarchical! field! of! HE! and! influencing! the! capital! that! can! be! accrued! and!transferred!by!staff!and!students!alike.!Northfield!is!positioned!in!its!marketing!and!in! its!promotion!of!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!to!all!students!across!its!schools!as!an! entrepreneurial!and!enterprising!university,!something!which!allows!it!to!present!itself!as! a!particular!'type'!of!institution!providing!a!particular!'type'!of!educational!experience!to!a! particular! 'type'! of! student.! Its! apparent! focus! on! employability! and! on! the! future! economic!capital!to!be!gained!through!taking!a!degree!course!reflects!a!perceived!need! that!is!articulated,!not!by!students!themselves!(who!are!presumably!attending!university! to! gain! a! degree! in! a! particular! area! of! interest,! albeit! perhaps! a! more! professional/vocational! one! not! offered! by! Russell! Group! or! research! intensive! universities),! but! by! external! stakeholders! such! as! government! departments,! regional! development! agencies! and! local! authorities,! to! stimulate! the! economy.! Indeed,! when! asked!about!the!reasons!for!choosing!their!particular!course!at!Northfield!most!students! talked! about! an! interest! in! the! subject! and! that! the! course! was! not! available! at! other! universities.! ! They! were! concerned! about! the! relative! status! of! the! course! within! their! particular! sector,! but! only! one! student! suggested! that! she! chose! to! do! a! degree! specifically!to!help!her!set!up!a!business!in!the!future.!
The!wider!field!suggests!that,!not!only!do!institutions!and!students!have!no!choice!but!to!
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teach! and! learn! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! related! skills! and! abilities,! but! once! these! skills! have! been! 'transferred'! from! the! wider! field! via! the! ! institutional! and! staff! context! and! to! the! student! it! is! only! rational! that! those! students! who! have! successfully! internalised!this!entrepreneurial!habitus!will!be!successfulW!!purely!by!dint!of!being!'selfN efficacious'!or!'confident'!or!willing!to!take!risks.!!However,!this!does!not!account!for!the! impact!of!structural!constraints!or!that!those!students!who!have!accrued!certain!forms!of! capital! prior! to! HE! (in! the! form! of! economic,! cultural! or! social! capital)! may! be! better! placed! to! be! active! agents! and! therefore! considered! to! be! entrepreneurial.! ! There! are! also!suggestions!that!these!choices!are!genderNneutral!and!linked!to!the!learning!of!ways! of! behaving! which,! as! I! have! argued! elsewhere! (Jones,! 2009a,! 2009b,! 2008)! are! 'entrepreneurial! dispositions'! only! available! and! rational! to! those! who! either! have! the! traits!'naturally'!or!who!find!it!easier!to!fit!this!suggested!'entrepreneurial!habitus'!to!their! own!sense!of!habitus.!!Indeed,!these!dispositions!are!gendered!and!'raced'!in!the!wider! field! by! assertions! around! the! lack! of! female! entrepreneurs! and! that! women! and! ethnic! minorities! generally! find! entrepreneurship! a! more! problematic! choice! than! white! males.! The!privileging!of!agency!!presents!this!as!a!'problem'!linked!with!the!gendered!or!'raced'! habitus,!highlighting!this!lack!of!fit!and!placing!the!‘responsibility’!firmly!on!individuals!who! make! the! ‘wrong’! choices! (McRobbie,! 2009).! Rather! than! ! identifying! ! how! collective! or! structural!!issues!might!change,!the!solution!is!to!'change'!the!dispositions!of!women!and! ethnic! minorities! to! make! them! 'fit'! better! with! ! those! of! the! masculinised,! westernised! concept! of! the! ! 'true'! entrepreneur! –! with! its! overtones! of! the! warrior! fighting! for! high! status! and! the! aggressive! assertion! of! authority! N! ! both! suggested! by! Schumpeter! (Sawyer,!1952W!Gomez!and!Korine,!2008)!N!discourses!which!'confer!significance!on!the! “worldNmaking”!actions!of!men!alone'!(Fowler,!2005!p.5).!! ! There! is! also! an! underlying! sense! of! certainty! regarding! 'what'! entrepreneurship! is,! in! suggestions!of!entrepreneurship!as!a!rational!choice!available!to!certain!'types'!of!people!! which,! ! while! contested! by! a! growing! body! of! recent! feminist! and! gender! focused! research! (Ahl,! 2007W! ! Elam,! 2008W! McAdam! and! Marlow,! 2009W! Marlow! et! al,! 2009W! Sappleton,!2009W!McRobbie,!2009)!!is!ignored!in!mainstream!policy,!research!and!media! informed! ! accounts! of! entrepreneurship! and! entrepreneurship! education.! This! presents! 'takenNforNgranted'! and! masculinised! ideas! that! have! been! developed! over! many! hundreds! of! years! within! an! exclusively! male! discursive! space,! supported! by! patriarchy! and!dualistic,!arbitrary!notions!about!inherent!differences!between!men!and!women!and! resulting! in! the! symbolically! violent! misrecognition! of! entrepreneurship! as! ! being! an!
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unproblematic,! genderNneutral! and! valueNfree! choice! for! those! who! have! the! 'right'! mindset!and!determination!to!succeed.!
Weber!et!al!(2009!p.!31!)!suggest!that!'students!enter!entrepreneurship!courses!with!prior! beliefs! about! their! own! ”type”,! but! update! their! beliefs! in! the! course! of! entrepreneurship! training'! and! one! could! argue! that! what! is! taught! and! how! it! is! taught! ! impacts! on! this! 'updating'!of!what!'people!like!me'!do.!The!lack!of!feminist!or!gender!informed!mainstream! accounts! of! entrepreneurship! in! the! wider! field! impacts! on! the! pedagogic! approaches! taken,! including! which! texts! are! signalled! as! being! worthy! of! attention! for! students,! with! much!of!the!suggested!reading!on!the!courses!analysed!being!five!years!old!or!more!and! with!new!journals!such!as!the!International!Journal!for!Gender!and!Entrepreneurship!not! featuring!on!reading!lists.!This!gives!the!impression!that,!although!there!is!a!growing!body! of! knowledge! around! gender! and! entrepreneurship! and! the! impact! of! women's! experiences,! this! remains! a! masculinised! discursive! space! which! is! not! open! to! negotiation! by! students! or! to! challenge! from! a! growing! ! body! of! feminist! and! gender! informed! research.! As! Weber! suggests,! students! bring! their! own! understandings! of! the! entrepreneurial! habitus! into! HE! along! with! the! cultural! capital! accrued! through! engaging! with! family! and! friends! who! run! their! own! businesses! and! who! they! describe! as! entrepreneurs.! ! However,! repeated! mentions! of! Dragons’! Den,! The! Apprentice,! Alan! Sugar! and! Richard! Branson! highlight! that! these! students! are! exposed! to! notions! of! entrepreneurship!outside!HE,!with!mainstream!media!representations!having!a!particularly! strong!influence.!! ! There!is!a!need!to!contextualise,!acknowledge!and!explore!collective!cultural!and!societal! ideas! around! entrepreneurship! as! well! as! a! focus! on! individual! entrepreneurs,! mindsets! and!lifeNworldsW!allowing!for!the!influence!of!habitus,!capital!and!field!and!the!interplay!of! agency! and! structure! in! entrepreneurial! endeavour.! ! This! experience! and! knowledge! means! that! the! students! interviewed! can! also! claim! to! be! ‘knowers’! and! we! should! not! underestimate! the! influence! that! this! ‘knowing’! may! have! on! their! perceptions! and! attitudes! around! entrepreneurship.! In! combination! with! the! presentation! of! entrepreneurship!in!HE!this!has!the!potential!to!reinforce!or!challenge!both!negative!and! positive!experiences!and!attitudes,!particularly!around!the!gendering!of!entrepreneurship.! The! traditionally! masculinised! entrepreneurial! habitus! (and! its! related! gender! capital)! ! is! available! to! female! students! if! they! can! effectively! ! inculcate! ! these! masculinised! dispositions! i.e.! if! they! become! an! 'honorary'! male! (Marlow,! 2002).! However,! given!
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dualistic! notions! of! gender! based! upon! the! doxa! of! 'natural'! and! biologically! driven! sex! differences,! women! may! find! collectively! gendered! notions! difficult! to! transcend! being! collectively!positioned!as!'different'!!within!HE!with!regards!the!disciplines!they!take,!their! trajectory!as!students!and!in!their!ability!to!be!active!knowledge!agents!in!the!negotiation! of! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! in! the! classroom! because! they! do! not! 'know'! about! entrepreneurship! (as! students)! and! they! will! be! less! successful! entrepreneurs! (being! women).!
An!interesting!manifestation!of!the!'choices!of!the!habitus'!is!evident!in!student!rejection!of! the! label! entrepreneur! and! the! identification! of! business! ownership! (rather! than! entrepreneurship)! as! a! future! option! for! people! like! them.!The! students! appear! to! 'other'! entrepreneurship!at!the!same!time!as!they,!as!female!students,!are!'othered'!by!the!wider! field! and! institutional! approaches.! !This! suggests! that,! for! them,! ! the! terms! entrepreneur! and!entrepreneurship!signify!something!different!to!owning!a!business.!Krueger!(2009,!p.! 42)! suggests! that! 'It! would! be! difficult! for! me! to! sustain! any! mental! prototype! of! the! ‘entrepreneur’!that!does!not!include!‘me’!and!yet!it!does!seem!that!the!mental!prototype!of! the!‘entrepreneur’!does!not!include!them.!Although!they!do!not!explicitly!mention!gender,! they! do! suggest! that! the! current! imaginings! of! the! entrepreneur! and! entrepreneurship! presented! in! both! entrepreneurship! education! and! the! wider! culture! do! not! fit! with! their! sense!of!themselves.!They!do!however!acknowledge!many!behaviours!which!have!been! previously! identified! as! masculinised! in! their! responses! to! my! ‘people! like! you’! questionW! indicating! they! aspire! to! business! ownership! ! but! they! would! be! wary! of! risk,! or! they! do! not!have!the!staying!power,!ambition!or!need!to!accumulate!wealth!that!is!required!to!'be'! an!entrepreneur.!In!many!cases!even!students!who!have!been!exposed!to!somebody!that! they! describe! as! an! entrepreneur! ! do! not! describe! themselves! as! entrepreneurs! or! suggest! that! they! can! become! entrepreneurs! –! which! is! contrary! to! suggestions! in! the! literature! that! those! who! know! an! entrepreneur! are! more! likely! to! aspire! to! entrepreneurship!(Martinez!et!al,!2007).!However,!this!does!not!stop!them!from!imagining! themselves! as! business! owners! and! this! may! seem! contradictory! and! confusing! but! further!highlights!the!complexity!of!gendered!practices!in!HE,!as!Letherby!points!out:! ! higher! education! can! be...! confusing! for! women! as! it! prepares! them! for! highNstatus!jobs!while!not!always!challenging!expected!'feminine'!roles!and! behaviour.!(Letherby,!2003!p.!38)! Fournier! (2002,! p.69),! argues! ! that! engagement! with! 'otherness'! can! provide! ways! to!
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develop! more! nuanced! and! heterogeneous! accounts! of! entrepreneurship! ! and! that! 'The! Other...(should! be)! celebrated! for! the! contribution! its/his/her! difference! can! make'! and! is! not!always!consistent!with!victimhood!and!requires!active!participation!on!the!part!of!the! 'Other'.!! ! Student! conceptualisations! and! engagement! with! culturally! arbitrated! notions! of! the! entrepreneur!do!not!fit!with!their!own!habitus!and!the!capital!that!they!bring!to!the!field!of! entrepreneurship! as! presented! in! both! the! classroom! and! in! wider! society.! ! However,! should!not!view!this!as!a!deficiency!in!students!but!as!a!deficiency!in!current!approaches! that! emphasise! certain! behaviours! or! skill! sets! as! being! entrepreneurial.! !This! is! evident! across!disciplines,!suggesting!that!these!are!pervasive!and!uncritically!reproduced!(or!at! least! not! challenged! or! problematised)! in! the! curriculum.! The! student! othering! of! entrepreneurship! is,! of! course,! a! form! of! agency! and! choosing! not! to! do! something! (i.e.! pursue! entrepreneurship)! or! to! do! ‘something! else’! (i.e! pursue! business! ownership)! is! a! form! of! agency.! ! It! is! the! combination! of! habitus,! capital! and! field! which! delineates! and! constrains!the!choices!available!to!those!students!(both!male!and!female)!who!reject!the! label!entrepreneur.!Leathwood!and!Read!(2009,!p.112)!suggest!that!there!are!‘limitations! in! the! extent! to! which! mobility! across! gender! identities! is! possible’! and! an! uncritical! approach! to! the! masculineNframed! foundations! of! entrepreneurship! theory! does! little! to! address.!!! ! Masculine!gender!capital!and!a!‘masculinised’!form!of!habitus!are!more!easily!converted! into! the! symbolic! capital! associated! with! entrepreneurship! given! that,! in! the! words! of! a! Hospitality! lecturer:! 'entrepreneurs! just! fit! in! the! same! category'! as! other! high! status,! traditionally! masculine! jobs! such! as! 'managing! directors! and! judges'.! A! masculinised! habitus! is! therefore! suggested! as! being! the! most! suitable! for! entrepreneurship! whilst! a! feminised!habitus!is!suggested!by!policy,!by!staff!and,!seemingly,!!by!students!as!different! or! lacking.! ! ! However,! their! choice! of! business! ! ownership! shows! that! it! is! not! entrepreneurial! activities! per! se! which! they! reject! and! they! are! confident! in! their! abilities! and!potential!for!success!in!the!business!arena.!!I!would!argue!that!it!is!the!terminology! and! the! socially! accepted! and! 'takenNforNgranted'! notions! of! entrepreneurship! N!! symbolically! and! culturally! linked! with! masculinity! and! 'true'! entrepreneurship! N! ! that! students! are! rejecting.! ! This! supports! Fournier's! claim! that! 'otherness! is! unpredictable'! (2002,! p.83)! and! suggestions! by! Maton! that! actors! incline! towards! conservative! or! subversive! strategies! 'depending! on! whether! they! occupy! dominant! or! dominated!
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positions,!and!the!form!of!positionNtakings!adopted!is!contingent!on!what!has!traditionally! been! associated! with! these! positions”! (Maton,! 2004a! p.! 41).! ! In! this! respect! student! 'othering'!of!entrepreneurship!could!be!seen!as!subversive!–!in!that!in!rejecting!this!as!a! desirable! career! option! they! are! also! rejecting! the! very! basis! upon! which! 'true'! entrepreneurship! is! predicated! –! by! their! own! conceptualisations! this! encompasses! the! masculine!informed!behaviors,!skills!and!abilities!suggested!in!by!institutions!and!in!their! observations!of!identified!male!entrepreneurs.!!This!exclusion!and!rejection!is!however,!an! active! and! agential! choice! which! positively! asserts! their! selfNconfidence,! knowledge! and! skills!rather!than!denigrating!them.!Indeed,!it!may,!as!Marlow!et!al!(2003)!suggest,!reflect! a! level! of! selfNawareness! and! realistic! expectations! amongst! female! students! that! ! male! students! N! emboldened! by! the! traditional! discursive! link! between! masculinity! and! entrepreneurship! N! may! ignore! or! overlook! in! their! expectations! of! successW! potentially! impacting! on! their! sense! of! symbolic! male! 'entitlement'! within! the! wider! field! and! their! 'class!unconscious!(rather)!than!class!consciousness'!(Bourdieu,!1985,!p.!201).!! Ultimately!this!may!lead!one!to!ask!‘What!does!it!matter!if!students!do!not!see!themselves! as! entrepreneurs! as! long! as! they! see! themselves! as! business! owners?’.! However,! a! concentration! on! ‘entrepreneurship’! privileges! a! particular,! socially! constructed! and! masculinised! form! of! highly! visible,! high! status! business! ownership,! one! which! these! students!find!alienating!and!which!could!potentially!dissuade!students,!with!an!interest!in! business! ownership,! from! pursuing! modules! and! activities! explicitly! marketed! to! attract! potential!‘entrepreneurs’!as!these!particular!students!do!see!them!as!requiring!a!different! disposition!!N!or!habitus!–!to!their!own.!This!suggests!that!the!language!we!use!in!HE!is! important!and!that!these!students!view!the!terms!entrepreneur!and!entrepreneurship!not! as! objective! and! neutral! but! as! valueNladen! and! exclusive! and! not! representative! of! ‘people! like! them’,! echoing! Sunderland's! ‘real! world! consequences’! of! language! and! discourse! –! which! can! be! internalised! and! ‘played! out’! in! the! form! of! material! disadvantage! (Sunderland,! 2004! p.197).! These! students! appear! to! view! ! business! ownership! differently! and! can! find! a! position! within! this! which! is! not! available! to! them! within!mainstream!conceptualisations!of!entrepreneurship.!The!apparent!change!in!focus! from! 'business'! to! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship,! as! identified! by! staff,! is! therefore!! problematic,!given!that!all!the!students!interviewed!see!business!ownership!as!achievable! and!desirable!in!a!way!that!they!do!not!see!entrepreneurship.!!!This!could!be!viewed!as! confirming! commonNsense! notions! about! females'! lack! of! entrepreneurial! aspirations! or! not! having! the! confidence! to! pursue! entrepreneurship! when! the! social! reality! is! more! complex! and! granular,! suggesting! that! they! reject! a! certain! 'type'! of! entrepreneurship! –!
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albeit!one!that!is!currently!valorised!and!afforded!high!status!in!western!society!(Gomez! and!Korine,!2008).!
2.3!Struggles! In! terms! of! analysing! how! disciplinary! knowledge! practices! are! situated! in! teachingNlearning! interactions! in! higher! education,! (it! is)! a! site! of! struggle! over! what! can! be! legitimately! taught! in! universities,! who! may! legitimately!take!on!the!role!of!a!‘teacher’!and!the!conditions!under!which! those!learning!processes!take!place.!(Ashwin,!2009,!p.91)! ! Bourdieu! suggests! that! the! struggles! of! the! social! space! are! linked! to! the! struggle! for! legitimacy!within!particular!fields!for!the!capital!related!to!that!field!and!this!is!also!linked! to! the! ! 'fit'! between! the! habitus! and! capital! valued! within! that! field! by! the! structural! and! generative!mechanisms!and!actors!in!those!fields,!resulting!in!a!'multiNdimensional!space! of! relationships'! (Bourdieu,! 1985,! p.! 198)! from! which! practices! and! behaviours! emerge.! These! emergent! ! struggles! occur! for! staff! and! students! in! their! responses! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! as! presented! in! the! wider! field! and! also! as! framed! within! Northfield! University! (and! their! related! positions! and! choices).! Some! of! these! struggles! work! across! the! stratified! but! permeable! boundaries! –! such! as! those! linked! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! 'teachable'W! whether! entrepreneurship! is! accessible! to! all! or! exclusive! and! 'special'W! ! issues! around! cultural! hostility! towards! entrepreneurship! within! HEW! and! the! impact! of! policy! and! 'business'! agendas! which! can! frame! ! entrepreneurship! education! as! a! 'region'! rather! than! a! discipline,! being! outward! looking! and! influenced! by! external! stakeholders! (Ashwin,! 2009).! ! These! struggles! are! evident! in! the! complexity! and! contradictions! highlighted! in! the! practices! and! responses! outlined!in!Figure!8.3!below:! !
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Wider!Field!!(Policy,! Research!&!Media)!!
Struggle to ‘make’ universities entrepreneurial
Struggle to Cultural hostility of HE ‘make’ students entrepreneurial
Entrepreneurship and enterprise as special or for all?
Institution! Discipline as practice, discipline as curriculum or discipline as generic
Entrepreneurship and enterprise as special or for all?
Staff! Entrepreneurship can not be taught – suspension of disbelief Private ambivalence, public certainty
Balance between theory and practice
Student! Entrepreneurship can not be taught - suspension of disbelief Confusion and lack of understanding Acknowledgement of gender in HE, entrepreneurship and work place
! ! Figure!8.3!The!Stratification!of!Struggle!
! The! dominant! struggle! suggested! in! the! wider! field! is! that! of! 'making'! the! general! population,! and! in! particular! women! and! ethnic! minorities,! more! entrepreneurial.! It! is! suggested! that! women! and! ethnic! minorities! need! to! be! encouraged! to! change! their! habitus!from!one!that!is!apparently!!linked!to!their!gender!or!their!race!into!the!apparently! gender! and! racially! neutral! 'entrepreneurial! habitus'! as! outlined! in! earlier! discussion.! However,! this! apparently! valueNfree! and! neutral! concentration! on! agency,! through! individual! change,! skills! development! ! and! selfNefficacy,! effectively! masks! the! societal! constraints!of!collectively!'naturalised'!templates!of!the!true!entrepreneur.!It!also!suggests! entrepreneurship! and! its! pursuance! is! a! rational! and! straight! forward,! 'closed'! and! linear! process.!This! also! highlights! struggles! between! an! apparent! settlement! within! the! policy! and! researchW! one! that! emerges! in! open! and! complex! institutional! practices! as! contradictory! and! unstable.! This! instability! is! arguably! linked! to! the! ! privileging! of! a!
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practice! driven! curriculum! (or! education! 'for'! entrepreneurship)! which! is! suggested! as! most! appropriate! for! successful! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! HE! (Gibb,! 2005)! and! which! ultimately! supports! the! development! of! an! entrepreneurial! mindset,! aimed! at! increasing! both! graduate! entrepreneurship! (NCGE,! 2010)! and! graduate! employability! (Moreland,! 2006).! ! However,! this! can! mean! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!in!HE!is!conceptualised!as!a!generic!skill!set!or!a!‘weak’!discipline,! emphasising! the! ‘trainability! of! students’! (Ashwin,! 2009)! and! rewarding! those! students! who!are!designated!as!fitting!the!required!template!(Erhensal,!2001W!Weber,!2009)!either! before! or! after! they! encounter! formal! entrepreneurship! education.! ! This! can! lead! to! symbolic! violence! whereby! cultural! arbitraries! related! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! are! imposed,! ! reproduced! and! unchallenged! because,! through! historical! and! political! repetition,!they!appear!valueNfree,!neutral!and!'commonNsense'.!!
The!wider!field!acknowledges!this!struggle!to!'train'!students!but!contradictorily!bases!this! training! upon! the! apparently! 'natural'! traits! and! abilities! of! the! true! entrepreneur,! suggesting! that! students! can! be! trained! and! can! learn! to! be! entrepreneurs! but! that! the! demotic! entrepreneur! does! not! needed! this! training! because! they! 'naturally'! possess! these!skills!and!abilities!and,!in!some!cases,!have!actively!eschewed!education.!!This!also! highlights!an!area!of!struggle!in!the!wider!field!between!suggestions!that!everyone!can!be! an!entrepreneur!–!seemingly!encouraging!diversity!and!embracing!different!backgrounds,! abilities!and!business!models!N!!while!at!the!same!time!emphasising!the!homogeneity!of! entrepreneurship!and!the!entrepreneur,!given!that!'it'!is!based!upon!a!clearly!defined!set! of! skills! and! abilities! which! all! entrepreneurs! 'have'! and! which! students! must! develop! in! order!to!be!successful.!!
In! the! struggle! to! make! everyone! entrepreneurial,! the! wider! field! also! acknowledges! the! difficulty! of! transferring! forms! of! capital! into! legitimacy! between! fields,! suggesting! ! that! there!is!cultural!resistance!in!HE!to!the!field!of!business!and/or!entrepreneurship!and!its! impact! upon! education! that! result! in! it! being! seen! as! 'turning! students! into! businessmen! (sic)'!(EC,!2008).!This!cultural!hostility!is!evident!in!the!suggested!lack!of!fit!between!the! different! agendas! at! playW! government,! business,! entrepreneurs,! institutions,! staff! and! students.! Maton! (2005)! suggests! that! the! key! to! fields! is! 'autonomy'! and! this! may! be! where! the! wider! struggle! ultimately! lies! given! that,! with! regards! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education,!the!field!of!HE!does!not!necessarily!have!autonomy!given!the!!nonN negotiability! of! embedding! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! the! curriculum,! or!
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around!the!delineation!of!'what'!entrepreneurship!education!is!and!its!aims!and!objectives,! as!these!are!driven!by!groups!and!individuals!external!to!HE!and!by!the!suggested!needs! of! the! field! of! business.! ! In! this! respect! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! attempts! to! bring! into! alignment! ! the! ! fields! of! business/entrepreneurship,! education! and! government!resulting!in!the!potential!for!struggle!as!each!seeks!to!demarcate!its!field!and! position! itself! as! legitimate,! valued! and! valid.! As! well! as! the! hostility! of! education! generally,! disciplineNrelated! hostility! is! also! evident,! based! on! the! apparent! 'ethos'! of! courses! such! as! those! in! the! arts,! education! or! health! as! having! less! 'fit'! with! the! suggested! aims! of! entrepreneurship! education! than! disciplines! such! as! science,! engineering,!maths!or!technology!(Universities!UK,!2002W!Hermann,!2008).!The!gendering! of!these!particular!disciplines!is!not!acknowledged!in!debates!around!cultural!hostility!but!I! would! argue! that! this! highlights! the! struggle! of! embedding! businessNfocused! theory! and! practice!–!which!is!suggested!as!traditionally!masculinised!(Green!and!Greer,!2003W!Muir! and! Edwards,! 2006)! N! into! disciplines! that! are! traditionally! feminised,! creating! gender! tension!and!struggle!for!both!staff!and!students.! ! The! ! HE! sector! itself! is! a! field! of! social! struggle,! with! different! ‘types’! of! university! competing! for! the! available! capital! (economic,! cultural,! social! and! symbolic)! within! the! sector!and!staff!refer!to!this!in!their!interviews,!with!talk!of!Northfield!as!an!‘enterprising’!or! ‘entrepreneurial’! university.! ! This! is! also! suggested! by! Northfield! University's! marketing! literature,! its! approach! to! the! embedding! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! across! the! HE! curriculum,! its! provision! of! extraNcurricular! actives! and! in! its! suggestion! ! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! is! open! to! all! regardless! of! background! or! academic! subject!but!with!the!caveat!that!this!is!only!possible!for!!students!who!successfully!learn! particular! skills! and! behaviours.! These! skills! and! behaviours! are! positioned! as! generic! and! transferable,! further! highlighting! the! struggle! of! positioning! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! as! a! discrete! discipline.! Pedagogic! authority! and! actions! are! based! around! skills!and!practical!outcomes,!with!an!emphasis!on!'doing'!and!'being'!rather!than!thinking! and! questioning.! Struggles! are! further! brought! into! focus! by! attempts! to! embed! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!within!disciplines!which!have!not!traditionally!included!a! formal! emphasis! on! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! such! as! Sport,! Health! and! Hospitality.!!!
All! of! the! staff! respondents! are! aware! of! their! roles! in! negotiating! these! external! and! internal!agendas,!acting!as!a!bridge!between!practice!or!the!'real!world'!and!academia,!a!
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role!described!as!'pracademic'!(Posner,!2009)!and,!as!staff!who!also!take!on!consultancy! work!and!other!external!roles!they!do,!as!Posner!suggests,!'straddle!both!worlds',!having!! knowledge!of!the!'real!world'!outside!academia!that!'career'!academics!do!not!have.!The! sense! of! staff! as! agents,! actively! struggling! to! position! themselves! within! an! institutional! context! is! further! highlighted! in! their! descriptions! of! themselves! as! educators.! Only! one! staff!member!described!themselves!as!an!academic!–!and!she!was!not!actually!involved! in!the!day!to!day!teaching!of!the!subject!within!a!school.!All!of!the!other!staff!interviewed! identified! themselves! as! practitioners! first! and! academics! second.! ! Some! seemed! very! uncomfortable! with! the! term! 'academic'! and! were! keen! to! highlight! their! practical! experience! of! the! subject! before! coming! to! teach! in! HE.!The! emphasis! on! their! roles! as! practitioners!suggests!a!perceived!!lack!of!fit!between!the!practitioner!(or!pracademic)!role! and!its!related!forms!of!capital!and!the!lecturer!(or!academic)!role!and!how!these!may!be! valued! differently! across! institutions! and! disciplines.! However,! an! emphasis! on! pracademic! knowledge! provides! opportunities! to! base! ! pedagogic! actions! on! personal! experience!rather!than!the!wider!body!of!knowledge,!as!practitioners!are!positioned!as!the! 'experts'! in! the! more! valuable! ! 'real! world',! rather! than! in! the! 'academic! approach'.! This! can!lead!some!staff!to!place!more!emphasis!on!their!own!'practical'!!knowledge!(linked!to! habitus! and! 'feel! for! the! game')! ! rather! than! 'academic'! knowledge! and! approaches.!! Inherent!in!the!concept!of!the!pracademic!is!the!!idea!of!!'crossing!fields'!i.e.!applying!!the! 'rules! of! the! game'! of! one! field! in! negotiating! the! links! between! the! rules! of! the! industry/business!and!!academia.!!
Given! the! emphasis! on! the! employability! of! students! in! current! HE! entrepreneurship! education! ! policy! (Davies,! 2002W! EC,! 2004W! Moreland,! 2006W! EC,! 2008)! ! this! further!! legitimatises!staff!!roles!as!experts!and!emphasises!their!role!in!converting!knowledge!into! economic!capital.!In!this!way!the!HE!classroom!can!be!seen!as!a!social!space!of!struggle! –! where! individuals! compete! for! status! and! the! useful! accrual! and! deployment! of! the! capital!related!to!that!field!and!with!the!cultural!and!symbolic!capital!that!students!can!gain! being! linked! to! the! knowledge! and! the! skills! ‘needed’! to! become! a! successful! entrepreneur.! ! It! is! suggested! that! this! is! available! to! students! if! they! follow! the! ‘rules! of! the! game’! and! successfully! complete! the! related! academic! tasks! and! reach! the! required! standard! to! pass! the! assessment! criteria.! Therefore,! the! lecturer! is! legitimised! through! pedagogic! authorityW! institutionally! legitimised! to! set! the! agenda! and! choose! which! pedagogic! actions! best! reflect! their! own! knowledge! and! experience! within! the! subject! area.! ! However,! there! is! also! a! tension! between! how! staff! talk! about! entrepreneurship!
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inside!and!outside!the!classroom.!Outside!the!classroom!they!voice!ethical!struggles!and! ambivalence!towards!'business'!and!ideas!linked!with!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!as! a! 'fad'! and! how! students! may! respond! to! values! suggested! by! a! curriculum! that! emphasises!'entrepreneurship'!and!'enterprise'.!Staff!recognise!that!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!teaching!!was!traditionally!part!of!'Business'!and!is!now!applied!across!a!range! of! disciplines! where! it! is! still! to! be! academically! and! pedagogically! embedded.! ! This! potentially! alienates! those! who! are! suspicious! or! ambivalent! about! the! promotion! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! on! courses! traditionally! unrelated! to! 'business'.! ! Some! describe!how!hard!and!'risky'!entrepreneurship!is,!some!highlight!the!'corrupting'!influence! of!business!on!their!disciplines,!whilst!others!position!social!entrepreneurship!as!a!threat! to!their!students!and!their!disciplines.!!!
This! is! not! a! neutral,! objective! area! and! staff! are! not! disinterested! purveyors! of! 'facts'.!! Indeed,! although! they! all! expressed! concerns! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education!is!a!'fashion'!or!a!'fad',!in!the!Hospitality!and!Sports!classrooms,!staff!suggest!a! certainty! about! entrepreneurship! and! its! importance.! ! In! Health,! where! students! are! suggested! as! being! threatened! by! these! concepts,! the! ambivalence! is! not! openly! acknowledged,! ! with! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! effectively! 'hidden'! and! ! therefore!! unavailable!to!challenge,!deconstruct!or!negotiate!in!much!the!same!way!as!it!is!within!the! Sports!or!Hospitality!classrooms.!!The!Health!staff!in!particular!struggle!around!whether!to! hide!or!make!visible!the!suggested!enterprise!focus!of!their!!module!and!also!whether!to! acknowledge!feminist!debates!around!the!glass!ceiling!which!bring!the!gendered!nature!of! the! workplace! into! focus.! However,! only! the! Health! staff! acknowledge! and! struggle! with! their! role! as! arbitrators! of! the! curriculum,! causing! them! to! acknowledge! themselves! as! agents! who! can! actively! choose! between! different! courses! of! action! which! may! result! in! different! student! experiences! of! the! subject! area.! Health! staff! are! also! open! to! students! negotiating!and!guiding!conceptualisations!of!'leadership'!and!this!is!seemingly!influenced! by! both! staff! ! and! students'! positioning! as! knowing! peer! practitioners! not! teacher! and! student.! This! contrasts! with! the! Hospitality! and! Sports! classroom! where! students! are! positioned! as! 'notNknowing'! and! staff! have! ultimate! pedagogic! authority! to! delineate! and! reproduce!the!certainty!of!the!'fictive!entrepreneur'.!!
A!particularly!contradictory!area!is!evident!around!staff!suggestions!that!entrepreneurship! cannot! be! taught! –! an! attitude! which! challenges! the! academic! literature,! where! this! is! considered!as!settled!because!it!is!proven!that!entrepreneurship!can!be!taught!(Kuratko,!
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2005W!Henry!et!al,!2005).!!The!closing!down!of!this!area!as!worthy!of!exploration!masks! the! reality! of! the! HE! context,! where! both! staff! and! students! may! not! be! fully! conversant! with! wider! debates! in! the! literature! and! where! the! beliefs! and! values! of! individual! 'pracademic'!staff!do!influence!the!curriculum.!This!underlines!the!fact!that,!although!the! literature! presumes! areas! of! settlement! in! theory,! in! practice! these! are! still! areas! of! struggle!for!those!involved!in!entrepreneurship!education!–!institutions,!!staff!and!students! –! and! are! still! being! played! out! in! the! curriculum! and! in! institutional! and! teacher! approaches.! ! Given! that! students! also! suggest! that! entrepreneurship! can! not! be! taught! this!is!an!example!of!the!implications!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!as!an! 'externally'!focused!region!within!HE!rather!than!an!academicallyNinformed!disciplineW!one! which! is! driven! by! forces,! ideas! and! notions! outside! the! academy! –! drawing! on,! and! potentially! privileging,! external! and! socially! constructed! demotic! notions! about!! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise.! These! collective! and! individual! influences! combine! to! create! a! view! of! entrepreneurship! which! staff! (and! indeed! students)! suggest! can! not! be! taught,!being!something!that!people!‘have’!or!do!not!‘have’!and!!linked!with!ideas!around! risk,! selfNconfidence! and! a! focus! on! money,! success! and! status.! This! highlights! the! suspension! of! disbelief! needed! for! both! staff! and! students! in! modules! which! are! suggested!as!teaching!'for'!entrepreneurship!
Students! apparently! struggle! to! negotiate,! question! and! bring! their! own! lifeNworld! and! experiences! to! a! 'settled'! area! which! does! not! expect! them! to! be! 'knowers'.! They! have! little!scope!to!negotiate!suggested!!'ideals'!or!to!actively!!include!!their!own!imagining!of! what!'it'!is!based!upon!their!knowledge!and!experiences!of!their!own!business!ownership! or! that! of! others! that! they! know.!This! supposed! lack! of! fit! between! the! student! lifeNworld! and! the! suggested! competencies! required! for! entrepreneurship! can! lead! to! a! perceived! lack!of!fit!for!students,!leading!to!confusion!and!a!sense! of!not!understanding!what!they! are!being!taught!and!why!they!are!being!taught!'it'.!This!echoes!Letherby's!(2003)!earlier! comments! about! HE! being! 'confusing! for! women'! in! supposedly! preparing! them! for! high! status!roles!whilst!not!challenging!traditional!notions!around!the!gendered!segregation!of! roles!and!careers!–!again!highlighting!gender!tension.!!Students!suggest!that!they!do!not! understand!what!is!being!said!N!!either!about!the!learning!outcomes!of!their!courses!or!in! relation! to! how! they! are! positioned! as! female! students! in! HE! and! as! potential! entrepreneurs! N! perhaps! because! the! views! in! the! classroom! (and! in! the! wider! field)! suggest! a! lack! of! fit! between! the! habitus! and! capital! that! female! students! bring! to! entrepreneurship!that!is!difficult!to!overcome.!This!is!understandably!affecting!for!them!as!
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the! majority! express! a! desire! in! the! interviews! to! establish! their! own! businesses! in! the! future.! Students! on! the! Hospitality! course! mention! the! glass! ceiling! and! how! women's! limitations! in! the! work! place! are! highlighted! throughout! their! courses,! not! just! within! the! entrepreneurship! module,! emphasising! ! a! suggestion! of! women's! lack! of! agency! in! their! career!choice!and!progression.!Elam!(2008,!p.35)!suggests!that!this!has!a!direct!relation! to!the!choices!women!make!regarding!traditionally!maleNlinked!roles!when!she!says:! !
In! terms! of! a! discriminatory! outcome,! women! may! face! strict! penalties! of! legitimacy! in! the! competition! for! maleNlinked! occupational! positions,! particularly! in! the! case! of! worldviews,! and! ultimately! practices,! that! contradict!dominant!views.!!In!terms!of!social!action,!the!conditions!of!fit! between! gendered! habitus! and! prevailing! field! definitions! may! well! influence! perceptions! of! opportunities! and! selfNassessments! relative! to! those!perceptions.! !
Also,! like! the! staff,! the! students! interviewed! have! suspended! their! disbelief! around! the! teaching! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise,! with! all! of! the! students! suggesting! that! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! can! not! be! taught.!This! is! while! participating! in! courses! which! aim! ! –! either! through! teaching! for,! about! ! or! around! ! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!N!!to!teach!students!how!to!become!more!enterprising!or!entrepreneurial.!!Even! the!Health!students,!where!this!aim!is!couched!in!terms!of!social!entrepreneurship!and!in! the! form! of! leading! and! managing! within! organisations,! suggest! ! that! leadership! can! not! be! taught.! ! ! The! apparent! lack! of! understanding! ! and! confusion! linked! to! some! of! the! activities!and!learning!on!these!courses!may!be!a!result!of!this!suspension!of!disbelief!and! a!manifestation!of!the!struggle!to!engage!with!the!contradictions!and!instabilities!!inherent! in! a! subject! area! that! is! widely! positioned! as! settled,! certain! and! able! to! be! taught! and! learned.! ! One! aspect! of! struggle! that! impacts! on! all! levels! of! stratification,! N! from! the! wider! field! through! the! institution! and! staff! to! the! ! students! N! is! the! struggle! to! embed! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise,! something! which! has! yet! to! find! its! place! as! a! recognised!discipline!taught!by!academics!who!have!potential!low!status!within!academia! (where!it!is!seen!as!a!vocational!or!practical!rather!than!an!academic!subject).!!Although! students,!staff,!institutions!and!the!wider!field!do!not!acknowledge!it!I!would!argue!that!this! struggle!revolves!around!the!embedding!of!a!!body!of!knowledge!and!historically!informed! theory! of! entrepreneurship! N! ! that! ! has! emerged! from! a! ! traditionally! masculinised! discursive! space! N! into! the! traditionally! feminised! discursive! space! of! some! disciplines! outside! business! schools.! ! It! has! been! suggested! that! business! schools! privilege! a!
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particularly! masculine! approach! to! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! (Greene! and! Greer,! 2003)! and! this! could! be! seen! as! problematic! when! trying! to! embed! these! within! female! dominated!courses!such!as!Health!and!Hospitality.!!Whilst!I!do!not!necessarily!agree!with! the! dualism! inherent! in! suggestions! of! a! masculine/feminine! divide! and! difference! I! suggest,!after!Bourdieu,!!that!the!wider!societal!mechanisms!and!stratification!of!the!social! space!are!predicated!on!this!dualism!and!set!up!a!masculine/feminine!divide!which!results! in! certain! characteristics,! behaviours,! disciplines! and! career! paths! being! identified! as! masculine! or! feminine.!These! ideas! are! evident! in! my! data! and! make! the! embedding! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! across! all! disciplines! in! HE! more! problematic! and! complex! than! the! simple! 'process'! of! valueNfree! and! nonNnegotiable! approaches! suggested! in! the! wider! literature.! This! also! affects! the! approaches! that! staff! take! to! the! teaching! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! in! relation! to! both! the! discipline! and! their! students! and,! in! this! case,! results! in! three! distinct! approaches! to! the! 'embedding'! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! within! ! these! subject! areas:! with! staff! on! the! maleN dominated! Sports! course! teaching! 'for'! entrepreneurship,! suggesting! an! expectation! that! their! students! will! go! on! to! 'become'! entrepreneurs.! This! contrasts! with! those! staff! teaching! on! the! traditionally! feminised! courses! of! Health! and! Hospitality! where! entrepreneurship!and!!enterprise!is!either!'hidden'!(because!it!is!perceived!as!a!'threat'!to! students!and!within!the!discipline)!or!N!as!in!Hospitality!–!where!the!largely!female!cohort! is!taught!how!to!measure!entrepreneurial!!ability!in!others,!with!no!explicit!expectation!that! they!may!become!entrepreneurs!themselves,!only!that!they!might!passively!observe!and! measure!'it'!in!other!companies!and!individuals.! ! 3.!Summary! ! The! relationship! between! cause! and! effect! is! not! ‘mechanical’! in! the! ! sense!!of! predictable! and! automatic,! since! in! an! open! world! many! ! things!!are!always!happening!at!once.!(New,!2004!p.!6)! ! ! I! have! argued! in! this! chapter! that! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! this! particular! university! setting! crystallises! around! stratified! positions,! choices! and! struggles! which!in!turn!crystallise!around!the!privileging!of!different!forms!of!knowledge,!whether!that! be!commonNsense!and/or!academic!knowledge,!the!knowledge!of!teachers!and/or!students! and! wider! issues! around! how! to! ! bring! in! the! knowledge! and! agendas! of! external! actors! such!as!entrepreneurs,!small!businesses!and!government!departments.!!Currently,!!female! students! who! engage! with! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! risk! becoming! a!
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marginalised!group!in!a!marginalised!subject!area!within!HE,!!positioned!as!the!'other'!both! with! respects! to! socially! constructed! collective! notions! of! students! as! 'notNknowing'! about! entrepreneurship! but! also! given! their! constructed! identity! as! 'other'! than! the! male! entrepreneur! –! currently! used! as! the! benchmark! to! measure! business! ownership! and! entrepreneurship!'success'!against.!!Educators!have!an!important!part!to!play!in!reproducing! or!challenging!the!'subjective!expectation!of!objective!probability'!that!female!students!may! develop!around!entrepreneurship!and!their!perceived!chances!of!success!and!yet!this!role!is! often!ignored!in!policy!and!research.!They!are!the!arbiters!and!delineators!of!ideas!around! who!is!legitimised!to!be!entrepreneurial!and!what!that!'means'!in!a!HE!environment!that!does! not!appear!to!encourage!or!inspire!nascent!female!entrepreneurs.!The!more!this!becomes!a! nonNnegotiable!economic!imperative!the!more!the!!'ahistorical!discourse!of!futurology’!(Brine,! 2006)! will! ignore! or! silence! dissenting! voices! and! those! who! seek! to! critique,! deconstruct! and!analyse!this!from!different!perspectives.!Therefore,!I!would!suggest!that!if!HE!educators! do!not!encourage!critical!engagement!in!their!gendered!accounts!of!entrepreneurship!they! could!be!seen!as!perpetuating!the!potential!social!disadvantage,!or!lack!of!capital,!of!female! undergraduates,! given! the! ! masculineNframed! foundations! of! both! HE! and! entrepreneurship/enterprise! theory.! ! However,! I! recognise! that! this! is! only! one! way! of! reading! the! data! and! there! is! more! than! one! way! to! ‘slice! the! cake’! (Denzin,1994).! My! analysis! and! discussion! is! partial! and! incomplete! but! it! offers! important! observations,! insights! and! findings! which! provide! a! starting! point! for! further! exploration! and! analysis! of! other! institutional! settings! to! explore! the! 'missing! middle'! of! educator! impact! on! the! curriculum!and!research!into!other!views!from!'above'!and!from!'below'.!I!will!now!move!on!to! the! concluding! chapter! of! this! thesis,! which! returns! to! my! original! research! questions! and! how! this! thesis! has! supported! their! exploration.! This! concluding! chapter! also! outlines! the! implications! of! the! issues! and! themes! identified! and! discussed,! its! related! strengths! and! weaknesses!and!suggestions!for!future!research!based!upon!my!findings.! !
!
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Chapter!Nine! Returning!to!the!Research!Questions!and!Drawing!Conclusions! 1.!Introduction! The! application! of! social! realism! to! areas! of! social! research.! ..has! dissolved! some! questions,! provided! provisional! answers! to! others! and! thrown!up!a!host!of!new!ones.!And!since!social!realism!lays!no!claim!to! final!answers,!this!is!as!it!should!be.!(Carter!and!New,!2004!p.!18)! This!thesis!has!explored!the!field!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE,!with! particular!emphasis!on!using!Bourdieu's!'thinking!tools'!to!explore!the!suggested!'rules!of! the!game'!of!the!wider!field!and!the!associated!forms!of!capital!and!habitus!evident!in!the! practice! of! staff! and! students! in! a! range! of! nonNbusiness! courses.!The! findings! highlight! gendered! implications! of! ! teachingNlearning! experiences! within! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise!education!that!are!often!ignored!in!the!wider!literature.!!Whilst!I!do!not!profess! to! have! 'all'! of! the! answers! or! definitive! and! generalisable! data,! my! data,! analysis! and! discussion! have! enabled! me! to! usefully! engage! with! and! explore! (if! not! definitively! answer)!my!research!questions!and!to!draw!some!conclusions.!As!Carter!and!New!point! out! above! –! these! are! 'provisional! answers'! which! have! 'thrown! up! a! host! of! new! ones'! and,! as! a! realist,! I! lay! no! claim! to! these! being! the! 'only'! answers! or! the! 'right'! answers,! only! that! they! represent! 'answers'! as! they! have! emerged! in! this! particular! environment! and! with! these! particular! participants! and! using! this! particular! theoretical! and! analytical! framework.!However,!this!is!not!to!say!that!these!answers!have!no!bearing!on!the!wider! body! of! knowledge! because,! in! highlighting! new! questions! and! in! providing! even! partial! answers!to!questions!that!have!not!been!asked!before,!my!research!extends!and!adds!to! the!body!of!knowledge!in!this!area,!particularly!around!the!role!of!staff!as!arbitrators!and! delineators! of! the! entrepreneurship! and! education! curriculum! and! the! gendered! implications! of! the! current! policy! drive! to! embed! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education!within!disciplines!outside!traditional!Business!faculties.!! 2.!Returning!to!the!Research!Questions! I! now! return! to! my! questions! and! outline! my! responses! in! light! of! my! data! collection,! analysis! and! discussion.! These! are! tentative! answers! and! are! arguably! difficult! to! generalise!given!that!they!are!highly!situated.!However,!they!offer!important!insights!into!
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some! of! ! the! positions,! choices! and! struggles! involved! in! embedding! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! within! HEIs! and! the! suggested! social! reality! of! teaching! and! learning!practices!which!are!currently!missing!in!mainstream!research.! 2.1!Is!HE!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!masculinist?! I! engaged! with! the! wider! literature! and! arguments! around! the! masculinisation! of! entrepreneurship!and!with!Bourdieu's!theories!as!they!relate!to!gender!and!the!potential!to! privilege! the! masculine! experience! and! applied! them! to! a! particular! HE! setting.! ! My! findings! do! suggest! that,! within! the! research! and! policy! and! in! the! context! of! Northfield! University,! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! is! based! on! a! masculinised! perspective.!This!is!evident!in!the!wider!gendered!subject!positionings!of!female!students! and! female! entrepreneurs! and! in! staff! approaches! to! teaching! in! this! area! and! student! responses!to!this.!The!masculinisation!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!in!HE! appears!to!be!an!extension!of!the!wider!masculinisation!of!entrepreneurship!identified!in! the!!mainstream!research!and!education!policies!which!form!the!basis!of!entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! UK! HE! and,! which! I! have! shown,! is! currently! masked! by! 'takenNforNgranted'! notions! around! the! inculcation! of! an! 'entrepreneurial! mindset'! predicated!on!this.!! ! 2.2!How!are!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!presented!in!HE!and!is!this!discipline! dependent?! I! analysed! how! entrepreneurship! education! is! presented! in! the! wider! field! (a! view! from! above),! how! a! particular! HEI! and! staff! members! respond! to! this! in! their! framing! of! this! subject!area!in!curriculum!design!and!classroom!interactions!(a!view!from!the!middle)!and! how!this!informs!student!conceptualisations!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!their! positioning! within! the! various! discourses! and! positions! at! play.! !The! ! wider! field! ! uses! a! masculinised!benchmark!for!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!which!is!often!!hidden!within! genderN! neutrality! and! this! extends! into! many! areas! of! teaching! within! Northfield.!! Likewise,!approaches!to!entrepreneurship!education!are!discipline!dependent!!–!with!staff! in! Health! 'hiding'! entrepreneurship,! staff! in! Hospitality! presenting! 'it'! as! something! that! students! should! 'observe! and! measure'! in! others! and! staff! in! Sport! suggesting! that! entrepreneurship!is!'something'!which!students!are!expected!to!'do'.!This!also!appears!to! be! linked! to! the! gendering! of! disciplines! within! the! general! HE! environment,! with! the! traditionally!
feminised!
Health!
and!
Hospitality!
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courses!
presenting!
different!
conceptualisations!of!entrepreneurship!!to!those!in!the!traditionally!masculinised!discipline! of! Sport! and! these! in! turn! differ! to! the! approach! taken! within! extraNcurricular! provision.!! The!!gendered!discipline!dependence!of!the!entrepreneurship!education!context!has!not! been! fully! explored! within! the! wider! literature! and! there! is! little! current! comparison! between! disciplines! or! between! majority! male! or! female! student! cohorts! and! scant! attention!paid!to!the!wider!gendered!context!of!HE.! ! 2.3!What!role!do!HE!staff!and!students!have!in!the!gendered!construction!and! negotiation!of!entrepreneurship,!enterprise!and!the!entrepreneur?! Although! the! wider! field! positions! HE! entrepreneurship! educators! as! neutral! conduits,!! staff!do!play!an!active!role!in!the!construction!!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!and!the! delineation!of!the!'rules!of!the!game'.!There!is!!little!scope!for!students!to!challenge!this!or! to! bring! their! own! lifeNworld! into! the! curriculum! other! than! in! exercises! where! they! measure! themselves! and/or! others! against! the! suggested! entrepreneurial! mindset.! The! only! avenue! for! active! negotiation! of! the! positioning! of! the! entrepreneur,! and! the! related! entrepreneurial! habitus! and! capital! linked! to! this,! was! within! extraNcurricular! courses! outside! formal! teaching! and! assessment! structures,! where! educators! could! not! know! in! advance!which!students!from!which!disciplines!would!attend!their!sessions!and!therefore! had!a!less!rigid!view!of!the!'fictive'!and!'notNknowing'!student.!In!their!uncritical!acceptance! and! reproduction! of! takenNforNgranted! ideas! around! entrepreneurship! some! staff! perpetuate!a!masculinised!focus!–!emphasising!traits!and!abilities!which!are!contested!the! wider!gender!and!entrepreneurship!literature!as!based!on!a!masculine!norm.!!The!use!of! suggested!role!models!in!the!classroom!further!emphasise!the!masculinised!norm!of!the! white! male! entrepreneur! and! there! is! little! scope! for! students! to! challenge! this! given! the! institutionalised! authority! invested! in! entrepreneurship! educators.! This! authority! and! power! is! further! emphasised! by! decisions! to! develop! curricula! that! are! 'about'! or! 'for'! entrepreneurship!or!in!the!case!of!the!Health!lecturers!N!with!a!majority!female!cohort!N!to! design! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! as! a! 'hidden! curriculum’,! because! of! concerns! about! how! entrepreneurship! will! be! received! by! their! students.! ! This! has! the! potential! to! create! gender! tension! in! both! the! classroom! and! curriculum! as! female! students! struggle! to! position! themselves! within! the! gendered! discourses! at! play! N! particularly! when! they! bring! to! HE! their! own! experiences! and! understandings! of! entrepreneurship! N! ! as! they! try! to! negotiate! symbolic! representations! of! the! fictive! entrepreneur!and!the!fictive!student!N!!who!benefits!from!entrepreneurship!education!and!
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ultimately!succeeds!as!an!entrepreneur.! ! 2.4!How!do!female!students!from!a!range!of!social!backgrounds!respond!to!and! experience!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!education!in!HE?! There! were! many! differences! in! student! knowledge! and! experience,! influenced! by!! attitudes! and! beliefs! developed! outside! the! classroom! as! well! as! within! it,! ! and! also! mediated! by! age,! marital! status,! discipline! studied,! previous! work! experience,! etc.! However,! despite! this! heterogeneity,! this! thesis! highlights! some! similarities! amongst! student! respondents.! These! include! a! consensus! that! enterprise! and! entrepreneurship! can!not!be!taught!–!emphasising!students'!suspension!of!disbelief!in!the!classroom!–!and! suggesting!an!acceptance!of!personality!and!traitNbased!approaches!to!entrepreneurship! which!are!contested!in!the!wider!literature.!!The!majority!of!students!also!suggest!a!lack!of! fit!between!'people!like!them'!and!entrepreneurs!in!their!rejection!of!entrepreneurship!and! their!acceptance!of!business!ownership!as!a!potential!future!career!option.!Some!reflect! on! how! representations! within! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! can! actively! reinforce!potentially!negative!gendered!discourses!in!other!modules!studied!e.g.!the!glass! ceiling!discourse!and!the!suggested!social!reality!of!the!wider!working!environments!that! these! students! are! being! prepared! for,! where! men! have! better! and! faster! promotion! prospects,!even!within!femaleNdominated!sectors!such!as!Health!and!Hospitality.! ! 2.5!!What!influence!(if!any)!do!institutional!and!teacher!approaches!to! entrepreneurship!and!entrepreneurship!have!on!female!students!and!their! perceptions!of!their!chances!of!success!as!entrepreneurs?! HE! is! a! complex! and! stratified! field! and! it! is! therefore! difficult! to! unpick! and! separate! institutional! and! teaching! approaches! from! the! influence! of! the! wider! field! and! students'! prior! experiences! in! analysing! their! responses.! ! However,! a! clear! response! to! entrepreneurship! is! indicated! by! the! overwhelming! ! rejection! of! ! 'people! like! me'! as! potential! entrepreneurs! whilst! accepting! business! ownership! as! a! future! possibility! and! one! in! which! the! majority! feel! they! have! the! confidence,! skills! and! abilities! to! be! successful.! In! this! respect! it! ! these! female! students! have! linked! notions! of! the! individual! with! the! entrepreneur! and! do! not! position! themselves! as! possessing! the! individualised!! traits!or!behaviours!required!for!entrepreneurial!success.!!The!fact!that!these!behaviours! can! not! be! taught,! and! that! they! are! perceived! as! being! 'within'! certain! 'types'! of! people!
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who! fit! a! masculine! template,! further! highlights! this! 'lack! of! fit'.! This! suggests! a! general! closing! down! of! ! possibilities! with! regards! perceptions! and! presentations! of! entrepreneurship! and! the! sense! of! female! students'! 'subjective! expectation! of! objective! probability',! expectations! which! current! teaching! provision! does! little! to! challenge.! However,!interestingly,!and!contrary!to!suggestions!in!!the!wider!literature,!the!majority!of! the! female! students! interviewed! ! do! identify! business! ownership! as! a! potential! option! postNgraduation.! ! 3.!!Research!Implications! ! With! an! increasingly! female! student! population,! approaches! to! the! embedding! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! in! traditionally! nonNbusiness! subject! areas! should!be!reviewed!and!an!acknowledgement!made!that!enterprise!!and!entrepreneurship! are! still! unstable! terms! that! are! developing! and! changing! along! with! changes! in! society,! culture! and! policy.!To! ignore! this! is! to! risk! reflecting! back! a! system! that! female! students! cannot! recognise! themselves! within! and! cannot! find! a! place! within.! This! requires! close! attention! to! the! language! used! both! in! descriptions! of! modules! and! extraNcurricula! activities! and! also! within! course! handouts! and! the! classroom.! ! This! also! suggests! the! need! for! reform! of! the! curriculum! and! teaching! practices! and! a! rigorous! review! and! reconceptualisation! of! practice! to! interrogate! the! knowledge! base! and! how! it! is! drawn! upon! within! the! curriculum! and! in! the! classroom.! ! This! would! also! make! staff! visible! as! arbiters! of! the! curriculum! and! highlight! the! differences! in! approach! which! may! be! influenced! by! both! educator! attitude! and! experience! and! by! the! institutional! habitus! of! particular! HEIs.! ! An! acknowledgement! and! interrogation! of! the! different! forms! of! institutional! habitus! at! play! within! the! HE! sector! and! how! this! informs! current! teaching! practices! and! curriculum! development! would! also! support! this! review.! Given! that! the! female!students!interviewed!had!a!different!response!to!entrepreneurship!than!to!business! ownership! (with! the! latter! being! presented! as! more! inclusive! and! valueNfree)! an! interrogation!of!current!'models'!and!'mindsets'!is!needed!with!the!opportunity!for!students! to! help! negotiate! these! within! the! classroom,! acknowledging! the! instability! and! contestabilty!of!these!ideas!and!encouraging!female!students!from!traditionally!feminised! courses!to!find!positive!and!active!positions!within!the!discourses!at!play.!!
As!Bourdieu!has!identified,!masculine!domination!is!so!firmly!entrenched!that!it!is!difficult! to! question! –! but! as! lecturers,! business! support! professionals! and! researchers! question!
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we! must! because,! as! outlined! in! my! discourse! analysis,! ! the! primacy! of! masculinity! is! deeply!rooted!in!the!language!that!we!use!to!describe!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship,!as! well! as! in! the! history! of! the! development! of! HE! and! the! institutions! in! which! women! are! prepared! for! entrepreneurship.! In! line! with! an! emphasis! on! the! interplay! of! structure! and! agency!we!should!not,!however,!privilege!agency!but!should!offer!students!opportunities!to! explore! cultural! and! societal! impacts! on! entrepreneurship! in! a! way! that! acknowledges! difference!and!brings!in!experiences!of!!a!diverse!range!of!students!and!role!models.!This! is! especially! important! if! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! is! positioned! as! a! career! option! open! to! all! and! not! 'special'.! To! do! otherwise! is! to! risk! a! disproportionate! number!of!female!students!counting!themselves!out!from!positive!educational!experiences! on!the!basis!of!a!perceived!lack!of!fit!between!themselves!and!the!'fictive'!student!to!which! entrepreneurship! modules! are! apparently! aimed,! particularly! as! they! do! not! seem! to! identify! with! entrepreneurship! themselves! and! make! links! between! entrepreneurship! and! masculinity! –! something! that! was! not! challenged! on! the! courses! studied! (but! was! challenged!within!extraNcurricular!activities).!!
This! also! emphasises! the! need! for! a! more! reflexive! approach! to! the! embedding! of! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!across!the!HE!curriculum!and!for!engagement! with!sociologically!informed!ideas,!stressing!that!this!is!not!a!settled!area!!but!one!which!is! driven! by! external! factors,! having! elements! of! ideological! and! political! values! which! may! not! only! 'clash'! with! the! perceived! culture! of! HE! institutions! but! also! with! teaching! and! learning! cultures! allied! to! certain! disciplines! and! the! related! expectations! of! staff! and! students! about! what! is! 'important'! or! 'relevant! '.! ! The! differing! approaches! to! teaching! identified! in! a! single! institution–! i.e.! 'for',! 'about'! or! 'hidden'! –! suggests! that! staff! do! influence! the! ideas! and! messages! that! students! are! exposed! to! and! offers! opportunities! for! staff! to! encourage! critical! engagement,! contestation! and! negotiation.! Whilst! the! reasons!given!by!Health!staff!for!'hiding'!the!enterprise!element!of!the!module!does!show! a! certain! reflexivity! and! understanding! of! the! student! situation,! the! danger! of! a! hidden! curriculum! is! that! it! does! not! equip! students! with! the! language! needed! to! position!! themselves! within! developing! discourses! around! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise,! which! are!increasingly!extending!into!the!public!sector.!! ! Ultimately,! there! is! more! than! one! 'it'! within! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! educationW! being!recognised!as!a!contested!area!in!both!the!wider!literature!and!by!staff!themselves! in!their!privately!expressed!ambivalence!to!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education.!!!
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However,! by! encouraging! ! a! sense! of! 'certainty'! or! 'settlement'! around! a! prescribed! entrepreneurial! habitus,! classroom! presentations! of! entrepreneurship! (and! indeed! the! mainstream! literature)! do! suggest! that! there! is! one! 'it'! and! that! that! is! the! 'true'! entrepreneur!with!the!'right'!entrepreneurial!mindset!to!be!successful,!thereby!delineating! the!‘rules!of!the!game’!and!the!‘chances!of!success’!of!particular!students.!The!visibility!of! ‘people! like! me’! is! linked! to! perceptions! of! social! trajectory! and! life! chances! and! as! educators! we! need! to! hunt! out! new! and! up! to! date! examples! and! experiences! of! entrepreneurship!but!we!also!need!to!look!to!our!student!cohorts!and!see!things!from!their! perspective,!bringing!in!their!lifeNworld,!positioning!them!as!'knowing'!subjects!and!allowing! space! for! critical! engagement! and! challenge.! There! is! a! need! to! resist! the! labeling! of! certain!'types'!of!people!as!entrepreneurial!'others'W!challenging!homogeneity!and!the!idea! that!there!is!one!‘true’!form!of!entrepreneurship!against!which!certain!groups!of!people!or! business!models!are!judged!as!'wanting'.!!!
The! implication! of! this! thesis! is! that! change! would! ultimately! need! to! be! led! by! policy! which!recognises!that!entrepreneurship!is!not!genderNneutral!and!educators!are!not!mere! conduits.! The! current! positioning! of! students! as! rational! individuals! exercising! agential! choice! in! pursuing! entrepreneurship! masks! the! complexities! of! choice,! position! and! struggle!as!they!play!out!in!the!classroom!and!the!curriculum.!The!interplay!of!individual! and!collective!forms!of!habitus!and!capital!!constrains!or!enables!certain!students.!!New! policy!directions!would!require!a!critical!theoretical!reNevaluation!across!all!HE!disciplines! about! the! settlement! on! what! entrepreneurship! 'is'! and! who! will! benefit! from! entrepreneurship!education.! ! 4.!Limitations!of!this!Research! ! The! strengths! of! this! thesis! could! also! be! viewed! as! its! weaknesses! because! the! depth! and! richness! of! the! 'thick! description'! available! through! qualitative! and! socially! situated! research!N!whilst!providing!compelling!and!informative!insights!into!the!lived!experience!of! those!within!that!situation!N!can!be!difficult!to!generalise!to!the!wider!population.!!My!thesis! is! based! on! a! small! sample! of! analysed! documents! and! ! interviewees,! but,! as! Marshall! (1996,!p.523)!reminds!us!!'An!appropriate!sample!size!for!a!qualitative!study!is!one!that! adequately!answers!the!research!question'!and!in!this!respect!I!suggest!that!the!samples! that! I! have! used! in! each! of! the! phases!have! been! large! enough! to! support! engagement!
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with,! and! form! responses! to,! my! research! questions.! This! situated! approach! suits! a! qualitative! methodology! and! a! wider! study! might! take! some! of! the! themes! and! implications! raised! and! take! a! more! quantitative! approach! with! a! broader! group! of! randomly! selected! staff! and! students! from! a! broader! range! of! institutions.! ! The! examination! of! a! broader! range! of! disciplines! might! have! offered! insights! into! creative! subjects,! such! as! drama! or! media! –! whose! ! graduates! often! go! into! freelancing! or! selfN employment!due!to!the!nature!of!employment!in!these!sectors.!! ! Although! the! qualitative! research! community! have! still! not! agreed! upon! the! meaning! of! 'validity'! and! 'reliability'! as! they! relate! to! qualitative! research! (Kelle! and! Laurie,! 1995)! there! are! some! obvious! drawbacks! of! interview! data! if! we! seek! insights! that! can! be! generalised! to! a! wider! population! due! to! their! 'situatedness'.! Some! feminist! theorists! believe! that! interview! methods! simply! uphold! the! 'malestream'! paradigm! of! treating! research! participants! as! objects! (Fontana! and! Frey,! 2003)! and! there! is! also! the! difficult! aspect!of!studying!people!for!the!researcher's!own!ends,!and!not!treating!respondents!as! human!beings!with!feelings.!However,!due!to!the!framing!of!my!research!and!its!focus!on!! issues!of!interest!to!me!as!a!researcher!and!that!have!arisen!out!of!my!prior!experience! in! the! field,! the! 'goal! [is]! not! the! elimination! of! bias! but! the! recognition! of! it'! (Anastas,! 2004,! p.! 60).! ! Far! from! being! concerned! with! objectivity,! Strauss! (2004)! argues! that! concerns! about! bias! posited! by! positivist! research! actually! force! us! to! ignore! ! 'valuable! experiential! data.! '! Perhaps! if! qualitative! research! cannot! be! made! 'researcher! proof'! (Sparkes,1992)! we! should! acknowledge! this! and! embrace! the! possibilities! that! this! recognition!offers?!I!am,!therefore!mindful!that,!in!presenting!!primary!data!produced!in!a! single! institution,! I! could! be! accused! of! being! 'too'! situated! and! contextual! but! ! I! would! argue! that! this! thesis! provides! a! useful! insight! into! how! traditional,! masculinist!! entrepreneurship! discourses! identified! by! authors! such! as! Ahl! (2004,! 2007)! are! responded! to! in! a! particular! HE! environment! and! illustrates! how! Bourdieu's! notion! of! symbolic!violence!can!play!out!'practically'!in!!HE.! ! Ultimately,!Scott!and!Morrison!(2007,!p.!134)!suggest!that!semiNstructured!interviews!with! purposive! samples! ‘deNemphasise’! generalisability! rather! than! rejecting! it! out! right! and! Mason! (1996! p.! 6)! suggests! that! generalisations! drawn! from! research! such! as! mine!! might!be!in!the!form!of!a!‘wider!resonance’!and!I!would!argue!that!the!choices,!positions! and! struggles! outlined! in! this! thesis! have! the! potential! to! resonate! with! those! in! similar! situations!!(i.e.!HEIs!where!staff!and!students!engage!in!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!
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education!in!nonNbusiness!courses)!and!provide!a!practical!!'instance'!of!the!!theoretical! concerns! expressed! by! ! Bourdieu's! theory! of! practice.! Therefore,! although! based! on! a! small,!situated!sample!I!suggest!that!the!data!produced!has!been!analysed!in!a!way!that! provides! ! 'resonance'! with! the! wider! HE! sector! and! therefore! adequately! addresses! my! research!questions!as!well!as!opening!up!avenues!for!future!research.!The!!opportunities! for! bricolage! and! the! bringing! together! of! different! ! perspectives,! methods,! data! and! viewpoints! is! a! positive! potential! of! qualitative! research! that! is! becoming! increasingly! acknowledged!within!the!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!research!community!(de!Bruin!et! al,! 2007W! Cherry! et! al,! 2008W! Gartner,! 2009)! and! one! which! I! intend! to! develop! and! draw! upon!in!my!future!research.! ! 5.!Theoretical!Contribution! ! This!thesis!adds!to!and!extends!the!current!body!of!knowledge!and!contributes!to!recent! developments! in! the! literature! around! entrepreneurship! as! a! gendered! profession! (Ahl,! 2004W! Marlow! and! Patton,! 2005W! Lewis,! 2006W! Brush! et! al,! 2009W! Gupta! et! al,! 2009).! It! brings! these! debates! into! HE! and! into! courses! outside! the! traditional! arena! of! the! business! school.! Entrepreneurship! is! generally! under! theorised! (Pittaway! and! Cope,! 2006W! Carter! and! Marlow,! 2007)! and! there! is! a! need! for! qualitative! ! research! offering! different! perspectives! on! entrepreneurship! (Bruni! et! al,! 2005W!Ahl,! 2006W! De! Bruin! et! al,! 2007W!Gartner,!2009).!This!thesis!answers!calls!to!expand!the!research!object!and!for!an! epistemological! shift! (Brush! et! al! 2009W!Ahl,! 2006)! so! that! women! are! not! positioned! as! secondary!or!deficient.!It!highlights!'the!ways!in!which!cultural,!social!and!material!factors! combine! to! create! patterns! of! entrepreneurship'! (Elam,! 2008! p.93).!Although! Bourdieu's! work!is!drawn!upon!within!the!wider!field!there!is!little!current!emphasis!on!how!gendered! habitus! and! gendered! capital! are! shaped! and! informed! by! the! language! and! discourses! used! in! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education.! This! thesis! therefore! extends! the! theorising! of! gender! and! entrepreneurship! by! combining! theoretical! perspectives! and! bodies! of! knowledge! which! have! not! previously! been! employed! in! HE! entrepreneurship! education!research.!!This!provides!the!theoretically!driven!explanations!so!badly!needed! in!the!developing!field!of!gender!and!entrepreneurship!education.!This!thesis!also!extends! the! use! of! Bourdieu's! theory! of! practice! by! providing! an! example! of! the! practical! application! of! his! 'thinking! tools'! as! a! driver! for! empirical! research! to! develop! a! more! robust! theoretical! underpinning! for! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! research.!! As! multiNdisciplinary,! qualitative! research! this! thesis! also! provides! rich! data! sets! that!
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actively!challenge!the!current!positioning!of!!the!HE!student!as!an!'empty!vessel'.!! ! Very! little! research! currently! takes! account! of! gender! and! entrepreneurship! and/or! entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education!at!the!mesoNlevel,!concentrating!either!on!the! wider!field,!and!related!national!and!international!policy,!discourses!and!data!(Carter!and! Anderson,! 2001W! Ahl,! 2004W! Wilson! et! al,! 2004W! ! Armstrong,! 2005aW! Baugh! et! al,! 2006W! Pttaway! and! Cope,! 2006)! or! at! the! microNlevel,! concentrating! on! students! and! their! aspirations! and! responses! to! the! curriculum! (Chowdhury! and! Endres,! 2005W! Binks! et! al,! 2006W!Beckman,!2007W!Vij!and!Ball,!2010).!!There!is!also!scant!attention!paid!to!the!role!of! HEIs! and! their! positioning! within! the! wider! HE! sector! or! educators! and! how! they! may! delineate! and! arbitrate! the! 'rules! of! the! game'! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise.! This! challenges!the!assumptions!about!how!policy!is!translated!and!refracted!through!HEIs.!It! shows!that!staff!are!not!neutral!conduits!of!valueNfree!information!but!are!socially!situated! actors!who!play!a!major!role!in!the!shaping!and!negotiating!of!policy!and!wider!discourses! of!entrepreneurship.! ! My! analysis! suggests! that! the! ! push! to! expand! small! firms! ! and! for! individuals! to! create! businesses! and! to! 'become'! entrepreneurs! is! based! on! the! inculcation! of! an! entrepreneurial! mindset! where! the! individual! is! responsible! for! their! success! or! failure!! based! on! their! ability! to! 'fit'! this! set! of! suggested! ‘traits’! and! ‘abilities’.! This! leads! to! a! deficiency! discourse.! ! The! individualisation! of! risk! makes! it! seem! 'riskier'! for! women! to! pursue!entrepreneurship!as!they!do!not!'easily'!fit!the!template!of!the!fictive!entrepreneur! as! suggested! in! policy! and! in! the! curriculum.! Female! students! are! being! set! up! to! fail! –! echoing!Bauman's!argument!that!individualization!is!a!fate!not!a!choice!(2001,!p.xvi)!and! Giddens'!(1991:!81)!suggestion!that!‘we!have!no!choice!but!to!choose.’!In!contemporary! society! the! 'individual! is! compelled! to! be! the! kind! of! subject! that! can! make! the! right! choices'! (! McRobbie! 2009,! p.19).! ! In! the! discourse! of! entrepreneurship! women! are! positioned!as!making!the!'wrong'!choices.!Entrepreneurship!education!is!therefore,!based! upon! masculinised! discourses,! policy! and! practices! which! further! embed! institutional! gender!subordination.! ! I!utilised!Bourdieu's!work!as!a!conceptual!bridge!between!theoretical!debates,!policy!and! practices!and!have!developed!the!concept!of!symbolic!capital!and!highlighted!how!it!can! be! employed! as! an! explanatory! framework! to! explore! the! relationship! between! gender! and! entrepreneurship! and! emphasise! the! social! embeddedness! of! HE! entrepreneurship!
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education.! ! My! findings! extend! the! notion! of! symbolic! capital! and! offer! evidence! for! ! the! enduring! strength! and! relevance! of! preNmodern! ideas! and! the! importance! of! acknowledging!not!only!individual!agency!but!also!the!context!of!!the!!social!spaces!which! enable! or! constrain! individuals! through! the! accrual! and! transferability! of! gendered!! symbolic! capital.! In! choosing! to! pursue! business! ownership! and! not! entrepreneurship,! female! students! articulate! the! lack! of! fit! between! their! collectively! constructed! gendered! habitus!and!the!field!of!entrepreneurship.!! ! McRobbie! (2009! p.! 16)! has! argued! that! individualization! and! the! 'new! meritocracy'! has! been! at! the! expense! of! feminist! politics! and! I! have! highlighted! where! the! ! Bourdieuian! theory! drawn! on! in! this! thesis! is! powerful.! ! It! extends! our! knowledge! of! the! highly! individualised!!HE!subject!by!!bringing!the!‘collective’!and!social!categorisation!'back!in'!to! highlight! gender! as! a! classed! positionW! actively! challenging! individualistic! ! notions! of!! meritocracy!and!rational!choice.!!The!individualistic!notions!of!the!entrepreneurial!mindset! are! currently! firmly! fixed! in! the! powerfully! symbolic! realm! of! the! masculinised,! fictive! entrepreneur!against!whom!the!fictive!female!student!is!found!wanting.!There!is!a!paradox! here,!which!is!currently!unacknowledged!because!entrepreneurial!education!is!presented! as!an!uncontested!way!of!!'freeing'!individuals!from!structural!constraint,!!but!as!my!thesis! shows! it! is! thoroughly! embedded! within! institutional! constraints.! Ultimately,! my! thesis! establishes! entrepreneurship! education! in! HE! as! an! important! site! for! interrogating! the! gendered!practices!underpinning!the!seemingly!neutral,!individualised!neoN!liberal!subject.! ! ! 6.!Areas!for!Further!Research!! ! My! findings! and! conclusions! are! provisional! and! partialW! suggesting! areas! for! further! research,!posing!new!questions!and!highlighting!areas!for!corroboration!and!comparison! and!having!huge!implications!for!policy!and!practice.!They!highlight!the!need!for!!analysis! of! the! policy! and! research! in! this! area! (after!Ahl,! 2004)! ! to! further! explore,! support! and! delineate! discourses! identified! within! this! thesis.! !This! would! be! with! a! view! to! informing! future! HE! policy! and! curriculum! development! which! takes! account! of! the! potential! masculinisation! of! entrepreneurship! given! that! HE! is! an! increasingly! feminised! environment.! ! Research! that! brings! the! gendering! of! disciplines! into! focus,! across!! international! and! national! settings,! would! clarify! whether! discipline! studied! is! an! intervening!variable!for!male!and!female!students!and!it!would!be!particularly!useful!to!do!
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comparative! research! with! staff! and! students! teaching! and! learning! on! traditionally! masculinised! and! feminised! courses! N! such! as! Engineering,! Technology,! Health! ! and!! Languages! N! ! to! explore! how! the! stratification! of! the! field! and! the! gendering! of! entrepreneurship!might!play!out!in!these!particular!areas.!!
A!major!silence!in!the!literature!is!around!staff!as!arbiters!of!entrepreneurship!discourses! and!so!research!with!staff!who!teach!on!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!related!modules,! both!formally!and!informally,!and!across!a!range!of!disciplines!would!raise!their!visibility!as! shapers! of! the! curriculum! whilst! also! giving! them! a! voice! and! highlighting! ! some! of! the! concerns! and! struggles! expressed! by! staff! in! this! study,! particularly! around! the! idea! of! 'teachability'! which,! although! settled! in! the! literature,! is! still! a! site! of! struggle! within! practice.!!The!inclusion!and!comparison!of!staff!from!a!variety!of!HEIs,!including!UK!postN 1992! and! Russell! Group! universities! for! example,! would! also! support! the! analysis! of! institutional! habitus! and! its! potential! to! inform! the! positioning! of! entrepreneurship! education! and! educators! within! particular! institutional! contexts.! This! would! also! support! analysis! of! how! the! positioning! of! staff! as! 'pracademics'! within! different! institutional! settings! might! inform! the! curriculum! and! its! development! as! a! theoretically! and/or! practically! driven! area! that! takes! account! of! both! internal! and! external! agendas.! This! would!also!provide!a!means!of!'taking!stock',!given!the!rapid!expansion!and!proliferation! of! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! related! provision! in! HE! internationally! with! a! view! to! informing!policyW!an!area!suggested!by!Pittaway!and!Cope,!(2006)!as!not!currently!based! upon!a!robust!knowledge!or!evidence!base!and!which!also,!as!I!have!argued!elsewhere! (Jones,!2009a!)!does!not!currently!!acknowledge!HE's!increasingly!female!undergraduate! intake.!
Finally,! as! most! of! the! students! interviewed! came! from! majority! female! cohorts,! it! would! be!useful!to!interview!and!compare!female!students!from!traditionally!feminised!disciplines! with!female!students!studying!!traditionally!masculinised!subjects!such!as!engineering!!as! they! may! have! different! conceptualisations! of! the! gendering! of! both! their! discipline! and! their!position!within!it!which!may!influence!their!attitudes!towards!their!chances!of!success! as! entrepreneurs.! !This! would! be! an! interesting! point! of! comparison! given! that! Science,! Technology,! Engineering! and! Maths! focused! subjects! are! suggested! as! being! the! most! likely! to! generate! the! high! growth! ‘gazelles’! that! current! policy! wishes! to! promote! and! nurture!within!the!HE!environment.!Although!I!am!wary!of!involving!both!male!and!female! respondents!(due!to!the!potential!for!dualistic,!'male!as!benchmark'!approaches)!it!would!
246
be! useful,! in! a! larger! student! respondent! group,! to! explore! their! positioning! within! the! gendered! discourses! of! entrepreneurship! and! whether! male! students! are! indeed! encouraged!by!the!way!that!enterprise!and!entrepreneurship!is!currently!presented!within! HE!or!whether!this!presents!a!certain!form!of!masculinity!that!some!male!students!might! also! find! difficult! to! access! given! their! respective! habitus! and! capital! accrued! prior! to! university.! This! more! nuanced,! heterogeneous! approach! to! the! positioning! of! undergraduate!students!would!also!be!supported!by!a!larger,!more!representative!sample! to! analyse! how! gender! might! intersect! with! ethnicity! and! class! with! regards! entrepreneurial! aspirations,! choice! of! HEI! and! discipline! studied! and! the! resources! and! dispositions!that!a!more!diverse!range!of!students!might!bring!to!HE!entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!education!both!nationally!and!internationally.! 7.!Closing!thoughts! ! The!importance!of!challenging!structures!and!their!exclusionary!impetus! can!only!be!articulated!through!critical!feminist!debate!which!challenges! masculine! dominance! and! consistently! presents! women! as! outsiders! to! the!norm.!(McAdam!and!Marlow,!2009!p,!14)! ! This!thesis!highlights!the!complexity!and!onNgoing!development!of!HE!entrepreneurship! education! and! brings! socially! constructed! ideas! around! gender! and! entrepreneurship! firmly! into! focus! in! a! way! that! is! currently! lacking! in! mainstream,! genderNneutral! educational! and! political! approaches.! Ultimately,! the! choices,! positions! and,! particularly,!! the! ! struggles! identified! provide! much! scope! for! future! research! because! contradictions! and! areas! of! struggle! indicate! where! discourse! is! unstable! (Ashwin,! 2009),! offering! opportunities!for!challenge,!negotiation!and!change.!There!are!many!contradictory!ideas! within! HE! entrepreneurship! and! enterprise! education! and! ongoing! debates! around! the! psychological,! economic! and! sociological! models! used! to! make! sense! of! this! and! we! should!expose!students!to!these,!to!engage!them!in!this!'slipperiness'!and!to!develop!a! critical!approach!to!the!subject.!I!do!not!suggest!!that!there!is!necessarily!a!direct!causal! link! between! a! more! critical! approach! and! entrepreneurial! aspirations! but! that,! as! Bourdieu!suggests,!we!should!be!mindful!of!how!the!choices!of!the!habitus!are!based!on! the!'subjective!expectation!of!objective!probability'!and!that!these!are!not!identical!for!all! students!(Bourdieu,!2000!p.216).!In!this!way!we!can!begin!to!make!women's!experiences! and! successes! more! visible! in! the! classroom! and! question! the! use! of! the! male! experience!to!define!the!human!experience!(Muir!and!Edwards,!2006).!!
If!HE!does!not!present!a!diverse!and!balanced!image!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!
247
it!could!be!seen!as!perpetuating,!rather!than!alleviating,!the!social!disadvantage,!or!lack! of!capital,!of!female!students.!The!idea!of!using!positive!female!role!models!is!an!often! stated!approach!to!encouraging!more!women!into!business!but,!if!we!return!to!Bourdieu’s! concept!of!the!choices!of!the!habitus,!then!this!makes!acknowledgement!of!the!variety!of! entrepreneurship! and! entrepreneurs! (and,! indeed! the! diversity! of! motives! for! business! ownership! and! different! measures! of! success)! even! more! important.! ! Given! these! elements! perhaps! it! is! understandable! that! fewer! women! undergraduates! choose! to! identify!as!potential!entrepreneurs.!!What!messages!are!they!receiving!about!‘people!like! me’!–!how!is!a!typical!entrepreneur!being!presented!–!how!do!they!fit!into!the!business! world! or! field! –! how! does! the! concept! of! enterprise! and! being! an! entrepreneur! fit! with! their!sense!of!self!–!with!their!own!habitus!and!the!capital!that!they!have!accumulated!up! to! that! stage?! These! are! worthwhile! questions! given! the! rise! in! female! students! throughout! HE! and! the! potential! for! curriculum! development! and! the! 'reNfocusing'! of! entrepreneurship! education! on! particular! student! cohorts! and! disciplines! and! the! knowledge! that! different! actors! –! staff! and! students! –! can! bring! to! this! endeavour.!!! Although!a!gendered!approach!to!analysis!necessarily!brings!certain!struggles!into!focus! whilst!masking!other!areas!of!potential!struggle,!viewing!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise! education!through!a!gendered!lens,!and!drawing!upon!Bourdieu's!theory!of!practice,!has! much! to! tell! us! about! the! implications! of! the! current! drive! to! embed! entrepreneurship! education! across! an! increasingly! feminised! UK! HE! sector.! This! is! an! important! project! given! the! masculinised! foundations! of! this! complex! social,! economic! and! political! phenomenon.
248
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278
Appendices!
279
Appendix(1.(Research(Questions(and(Methods(Outline(Table( Research Question
Sources of data and methods of capture
Rationale
Practical Issues (access, skills and resources)
Ethical Issues
1. Is mainstream HE Sources: Enterprise Education Literature review, policy masculinist? documents, module outlines, reading lists, classroom observations, interviews with staff and students Capture method: Discourse analysis of policy and research documents, field notes made during curriculum analysis and in classroom
To analyse the knowledge base that underpins HE enterprise education. To explore how enterprise is presented in the classroom. To explore the gendered implications of different approaches to enterprise education across and within disciplines.
Need to build relationships with staff in order to identify and gain access to relevant courses, materials and student groups. Need to establish an efficient protocol for collecting, preparing and analysing materials, including storage of field notes, documents and related papers/books used in literature.
Need to reassure staff that I am critiquing and analysing the field HE and entrepreneurship and enterprise education and not their particular teaching methods. Need to ensure that student informants comments can not be identified by their respective teachers. Need to ensure that the HE institutional context of Northfield is suitably describe and delineated but in a way that ensures anonymity. Need to be clear about research focus and purpose (but in a way that does not influence or bias participant responses).
2. How are entrepreneurship and enterprise presented in mainstream HE and is this discipline dependent?
Data Sources: Module outlines, reading lists, teaching resources used in the classroom, literature review, staff participants, classroom observations Capture method: Field notes made during document analysis and in classroom. Semi-structured interviews with staff and students
To provide an overview of current provision and approach to enterprise education across and within disciplines. To analyse the knowledge base that underpins HE enterprise education. To explore how entrepreneurship enterprise is presented in a variety of classroom settings.
Need to build relationships with staff in order to identify and gain access to relevant courses, materials and student groups. Need to establish a protocol for analysing materials, including storage of field notes, documents and related issues from literature review (computer based).
Need to be sensitive to those who have developed these materials and modules. Need to be clear about research focus and purpose (but in a way that does not influence or bias participant responses) to ensure informed consent. Need to emphasise confidentiality of discussions with staff and students around how enterprise is taught within particular disciplines/faculties.
3. What role do staff Data Sources: and students have in the Literature review, policy construction and and research documents, negotiation of module outlines, reading entrepreneurship, lists, teaching resources enterprise and the used in the classroom,
To provide an overview of how staff are positioned within the wider field. To analyse the negotiation and presentation of entrepreneurship and education within different formal and informal classroom settings.
Need to build relationships with staff in order to identify and gain access to relevant courses, materials and student groups. Issues about accessing audio equipment to record interviews and
Need to be sensitive to those who have developed these materials and modules. Need to be clear about research focus and purpose (but in a way that does not influence or bias participant responses) to ensure informed consent.
280
entrepreneur?
staff participant interviews, classroom observations. Capture method: Field notes made during document analysis and in classroom. Semi-structured interviews with staff and students.
To explore the attitudes, perceptions and positioning of educators and non-teaching staff involved in entrepreneurship and enterprise provision in HE .
observations – I might need technical support with this. Need to establish a protocol for analysing materials, including storage of field notes, documents and related issues from literature review (computer based). Need to attend training sessions around qualitative sampling, interviewing skills and computer aided data analysis using Nvivo).
Need to emphasise confidentiality of discussions with staff and students around how enterprise is taught within particular disciplines/faculties.
4. How do female students from a range of social backgrounds respond to and experience enterprise and entrepreneurship education in HE?
Sources: Female students from a range of disciplines who are taking enterprise related modules and/or accessing informal enterprise sessions Classroom observations Staff involved in entrepreneurship and enterprise activities both formally and informally Capture method: Semi-structured interviews with enterprise educators Semi-structured interviews with students Classroom observations
To aid exploration of student habitus and capital. Linking individual life histories and responses to entrepreneurial attitudes and motivations.
Need to carefully manage my own time and that of student participants as in final-year. Time and resource implications - I will transcribe the interviews and classroom recordings these provide an insight into the experience of the curriculum and will be analysed using Nvivo. Need to update my skills of computer aided analysis (NVivo). Issue of the time needed to prepare code and analyse the transcripts.
Need to be clear about research focus and purpose (but in a way that does not influence or bias participant responses).
5. What influence (if any) do institutional and teacher approaches to entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship affect female students and their perceptions of their chances of success as entrepreneurs?! !
Source: Semi-structured interviews with students informed by previous data production and analysis Capture method: semi-structured interviews with students and staff
To aid exploration of student habitus and capital. Linking individual life histories and responses to entrepreneurial attitudes and motivations. Analysis of individual life histories and responses to the curriculum to explore how an individual’s habitus and capital might inform their response to the curriculum. Recorded for ease of transcription and analysis and to support validity.
Need to update my skills of computer aided analysis. Issue of the time needed to prepare code and analyse the transcripts. Need long-term access to audio equipment.
Need to ensure confidentiality and anonymity is sustained in outlining any findings. Need to offer participants the opportunity to clarify or withdraw previous comments or responses in interview sessions.
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Need to ensure that this does not place undue stress on students in their finalyear and that I make the process as clear, manageable and enjoyable as possible for them.
Appendix(2.(Overview(of(Phase(One(Document(Analysis( ! Document/* Author/Data* Production* Volkmann,!C.,!K.E.! Wilson,!!Mariotti,! S.,!!!Rabuzzi,!D.,! Vyakarnam,!S.,! Sepulveda,!A.! (2009)!Educating! the!Next!Wave!of! Entrepreneurs:! Unlocking! entrepreneurial! capabilities!to!meet! the!global! challenges!of!the! 21st!Century!World! Economic!Forum! (WEF).!184!pages! ! Author/Data* Production* A!report!of!the! Global!Education! Initiative!with!six! authors!identified.! The!report!is!the! result!of!‘bringing! together! stakeholders!from! the!public!and! private!sectors,!as! well!as! practitioners,! experts!and! members!of! academia!and!civil! society,!to!share! existing!knowledge! and!good!practices’!
Definitions*and*Suggested* Audiences*and* Stakeholders* Definitions* “...we!use!a!broad!definition!of! entrepreneurship!to!include! the!pursuit!of!opportunities,! whether!they!involve!startXups,! spinXouts,!entrepreneurial! activities!in!larger! organizations!(private!or! public),!or!social!ventures.”!(p.! 13). for!the!purposes!of!the! report,!entrepreneurship!is! defined!as:“The!pursuit!of! opportunity!beyond!the! resources!you!currently! control.”!(Stevenson,!1983,! 1985\!Stevenson!and!Jarillo,! 1991)!(P.14)! !
EC!(2007)!The!Oslo! Agenda!for! Entrepreneurship! education!in! Europe.!4!pages! ! Author/Data* Production*
Definitions* No!definitions!provided!
Audiences/Stakeholders* Aimed!at!'highXlevel!policyX makers!and!leaders!from!the! private!and!academic!sectors.'! !
Audiences/Stakeholders* ‘stakeholders!(e.g.!national,! regional!and!local! governments,!business! associations!and!
Metaphor/Imagery*
Subjects*Identified*&*10*most* common*words*
Themes/Positions*and*subject*positioning*identified*
Workstreams!with!global!and!farXreaching! scalable!implications/!The!role!that! education!plays!igniting!entrepreneurship/! Transformational!innovation!in!global! governance/Global!effort/!Different! segments!of!the!educational!lifespan/! People!who!can!“think!out!of!the!box”/! People!in!all!sectors!and!at!all!ages/! Entrepreneurship!education!can!be!a! societal!change!agent,!a!great!enabler!in!all! sectors/Facilitating!the!development!of! effective!ecosystems!that!encourage!and! support!the!creation!of!innovative!new! ventures/!“rebooting”!of!the!educational! process/buyXin!for!action/!“waves”!in! entrepreneurship!education/!The!next!wave! of!entrepreneurs/!Take!efforts!to!the!next! level/!!Bias!for!action!and!build!concrete! next!steps!for!implementation/!a!landscape! of!entrepreneurship!education!practices/! mainstreaming!entrepreneurship!in! education/highXimpact!solutions/!multiX stakeholder!partnerships/!The! multidimensional!benefits!entrepreneurship! provides!to!society!need!to!be!illuminated/! The!'inner!entrepreneur'/!A!menu!of!action! items/!a!revolutionary,!not!an!evolutionary,! approach/!We!need!to!leverage!the!power! of!innovation!and!creativity!to!guide!our! way!to!a!healthy!and!prosperous!future/! 21st!century!methods!and!tools/!barriers!to! academic!collaboration!with!business!need! to!be!broken!down/businesses!with!an! entrepreneurial!culture/!filling!market!gaps! the!entrepreneurial!ecosystem/!Measuring! intangible!outcomes/!entrepreneurial! mindsets/!Gazelles!(high!growth! businesses)! Entrepreneurial!driving!licence/! entrepreneurial!mindsets/!relevant!actors/! concrete!actions/!entrepreneurial!career! paths/!embed!as!a!horizontal!element!in!all! fields!of!study!(entrepreneurial!mindset)! and!as!a!subject!in!its!own!right! (entrepreneurial!skills)/!concrete!cases/! spreading!entrepreneurship!across!different!
Students!(304)\!Entrepreneurs!(187),! Women!(84)\!Educators!(61)\! Teachers!(58),!Leaders!(50)\!Young! people!(38),!PolicyXmakers!(32),! Professors!(30),!Graduates!(26),! Researchers!(21),!Mentors!(14),! Practitioners!(10),!Academics!(9\)! Coaches!(5),Lecturers!(3),!!Men!(3),! Female!students!(1),!!Disadvantaged! Youth!(1),!The!very!poor!(2),! Minorities!(5),!The!disabled!(3),! Venture!capitalists!(3),!The! disadvantaged!(1),!Female! entrepreneurs!(2)!Black!males!(1),! Males!(1)!Male!entrepreneurs!(1,! Women!in!many!contexts!!(1),! ! ! 10*most*common*words:* Entrepreneurship!(1210)\! University/ies!(611)\!Education!(920)\! Business!(470)\!Entrepreneurial! (404),!Entrepreneurship!education! (372)\!Development!(286)! New!(241)\!Need!(234)! Innovation/ative!(218)\!Technology! (213)! ! !
Themes/Positions* An!urgent!and!nonXnegotiable!imperative!for!all!(need,!must,! should)/!Globalisation!discourse!X!‘A!Global!issue!requiring!global! effort’/Entrepreneurship!as!a!form!of!human!capital!evident!in! ‘entrepreneurial!ways!of!thinking!and!behaving’!and!! ‘entrepreneurial!mindsets’!!(Entrepreneurial!habitus?)/Need!for! persuasion!and!to!‘change’!mindsets/A!focus!on!the!!future!–! st
Students!(16),!Teachers!(16),! Entrepreneurs!(8),!Educators!(5),! Young!people!(4),!Researchers!(2),! Businessmen!(1),!Graduates!(1),! Parents!(1)\!Pupils!(1)\!Young! entrepreneurs!(1)! * 10*most*common*words:*
Themes/Positions:* For!young!people/!Focus!on!schools!not!HE/!Focus!on!support! (difficult!task?)/Entrepreneurship!education!not!enterprise! education/!Entrepreneurship!education!should!develop! entrepreneurial!mindsets/Embed!within!all!subjects/!Student!and! teachers!equally!represented/!Businessmen!mentioned!–!only! time!gender!is!referred!to!–!“not!about!turning!children!into! ‘businessmen’”!–!androcentric!and!linking!masculinity!to!business!
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newness,!change!an!innovation,!21 !century!methods/Cultural! hostility!to!entrepreneurship/!Entrepreneurship!as!economic!driver! and!economic!imperatives/Focus!on!the!role!of!education!and! universities!but!not!on!educators/!Students!more!visible!than! staff/ Entrepreneurs!more!visible!than!staff/!Students!and! entrepreneurs!both!positioned!as!homogeneous!and!gender! neutral!groups/!Students!positioned!as!not!knowing!about! entrepreneurship!and!business!creation/!Students!as! deficient/Women!linked!with!social!entrepreneurship!and! exclusion!–!less!visible!in!HE!chapter/!Armstrong! ‘entrepreneurship!as!a!policy’!this!is!reflected!by!the!higher! occurrence!of!policyXmakers!as!subjects!above!researchers,! professors,!etc.)/!There!are!many!stakeholders!involved/Males! and!females!mentioned!–!not!gender!neutral!
An!EC!document! with!no!named! authors.!An! outcome!of!the! Conference!on! "Entrepreneurship! Education!in! Europe’!held!in! Norway!in!2007.! Made!up!of!ideas! advanced!by! stakeholders!at!that! conference! EC!(2006)! Implementing!the! Community!Lisbon! Programme:! Fostering!! entrepreneurial! mindsets!through! education!and! learning.!12!pages! ! Author/Data* Production* An!EC!document! with!no!named! authors.!It!is!based! on!evidence! acquired!under!the! Community!MAP! programme! described!as!a! ‘multiannual! programme!for! enterprise!and! entrepreneurship!,! and!in!particular!! SMEs’! EC!(2004)Action! Plan:!The!European! agenda!for! entrepreneurship.! 20!pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Based!on!the!public!
entrepreneurs,!promoters!of! programmes,!school!teachers,! academics!and!students)! …stakeholders!can!pick!actions! at!the!appropriate!level,!and! adapt!them!to!the!local! situation’!(p.1)! !
fields/!Build!common!European!and! national!platforms/create!a!"critical!mass"! of!future!teachers!
Entrepreneurship!(50)\!Education! (45)!\!School/s!(29)!Entrepreneurship! Education!(23)\!!Support/ed/ing!(17)! Students!(16)\Teachers!(16)\! Business!(16)!\!Entrepreneurial!(16)!\! Educational!(9)\!Enterprise!(9)\! Initiative/s!(9)! !
ownership?/Students!as!homogeneous/Conceive,!develop!and! promote!a!label!for!"entrepreneurial!schools"!and"entrepreneurial! universities"/Not!just!about!business!startXup/Gender!neutral!–! only!mention!of!gender!=!Businessmen/Colour!blind/Homogeneity! of!groups!(compare!2004!documents)/!gender!and!ethnicity! invisible!in!2006!and!2007!
!
Definitions* “Entrepreneurship!refers!to!an! individual’s!ability!to!turn!ideas! into!action.!It!includes! creativity,!innovation!and!risk! taking,!as!well!as!the!ability!to! plan!and!manage!projects!in! order!to!achieve!objectives.! This!supports!everyone!in!dayX toXday!life!at!home!and!in! society,!makes!employees! more!aware!of!the!context!of! their!work!and!better!able!to! seize!opportunities,!and! provides!a!foundation!for! entrepreneurs!establishing!a! social!or!commercial!activity”! (p.4).!.No!definition!of!the! ’entrepreneurial!mindset’.!
balancing!the!stock!of!enterprises/! unlocking!the!entrepreneurial!potential!of! women/!changing!the!mindset/!critical! mass!of!entrepreneurship!teachers/!active! learning/!external!actors/!promoting!a! more!open!mindset!towards! entrepreneurship/!Entrepreneurial! mindsets/!entrepreneurial!attitudes/! management!of!one’s!own!life! ‘responsible!entrepreneurship’!will!make!it! more!attractive/!spreading!the! entrepreneurial!spirit/!partnerships!with!the! business!world/!learning!in!practice/! knowledge!transfer/!Academic!spinXoffs/!an! entrepreneurial!path/!a!range!of!different! instruments/!innovative!pedagogy/!mobility! of!educators!across!Europe/entrepreneurial! behaviour/!building!an!entrepreneurial! spirit./!!
Teachers!(19)\!Students!(18)\!! Pupils!(4)\!Young!people!(4)\! Children/s!(3)\!Individuals!(1)\! Mentors!(1)\!Youngsters!(1)\!Women! (1)! ! ! ! ! ! ! 10*most*common*words:* Entrepreneurship!(95)\! Education!(71)\!School/s!(43)\! Entrepreneurial!(22)\! Learning!(21)\!Support/ing!(21)\! Teacher/s!(20)\!Students!!(20)\! Training!(19)\!Secondary!education! (18)!!
Themes/Positions* Entrepreneurship!as!economic!driver!for!growth!and!employment! up/!Entrepreneurship!as!key!competence!for!‘growth,!employment! and!personal!fulfilment’!not!just!about!business!ownership!or! startXup!but!generic!attributes!and!skills/!Entrepreneurship!as! panacea!for!society!and!the!economy!‘necessary!for!personal! fulfilment,!social!inclusion,!active!citizenship!and!employability.’!P.4! and!as!an!‘objective!of!education’\!(p.11)/!Education!systems!are! recognised!as!influential!in!shaping!‘attitudes!and!cultural! references’!p.4/! Learning!(21)!rather!than!teaching!!(8)/!Training!(19)!rather!than! teaching!but!no!indication!as!to!how!this!learning!might!be! checked!or!manifest!itself!other!than!in!setting!up!a!business!or! ‘being’!entrepreneurial/Teachers!need!to!move!between!business! and!education!(pracademic!discourse?)/Persuasion!discourse!–! overcoming!cultural!hostilities?!AcademicX!vocational!divide?/! Students!and!staff!equally!represented!as!subjects/! Entrepreneurship!education!not!enterprise!education!(f0r!not! about)/Schools!rather!than!HE/!Students!=!Gender!neutral!and! homogeneous/Role!models!for!young!people/Ethnicity!not! mentioned/!A!focus!on!!'responsible!entrepreneurship’!will!make!it! more!attractive/!Entrepreneurship!is!a!key!competence!for!all/! Skills!more!important!than!knowledge/!Younger!people!rather! than!older!people/Women!as!economic!resource!to!be!exploited!
SME!friendly/!entrepreneurship!is!a!vehicle! for!personal!development/!tailorXmade! support!for!women!and!ethnic!minorities/! the!entrepreneurial!gap/Clusters!could! provide!an!impetus!to!growth/encourage! spinXoffs/!Europe’s!entrepreneurial! challenge/!Improving!the!flow!of! finance/entrepreneurial!challenges/the! business!community/!Portraits!of! failure/obstacles!in!the!tax!and!legal! environment/!Balance!of!risk!and!rewards/!
Entrepreneurs!(54)\!Ethnic! minority/ies!(7)\!External!experts!(4)\! Women!and!ethnic!minorities!(2)\! Pupils!(2)\!Student/s!(2)\!! Policymakers!(1)\!!Women!(1)\! Teachers!(1)\!
Themes/Positions* Focus!on!the!business!community!/an!ageing!population! ‘aggravates’!the!entrepreneurial!gap!in!the!EU/!Entrepreneurs! defined!as!a!group/!USA!is!a!benchmark!Europeans!less!inclined! to!entrepreneurship!–!deficiency!discourses/! Entrepreneurship!as!a!career/!Lots!of!support!needed!(difficult! task?)/!Ethic!minorities!–!7!mentions,!women!3!(2!linked!to!ethnic! minorities)!–!men!mentioned!0!times!(‘othering’!of!all!but!men)/! Positive!link!between!entrepreneurship!and!economic!growth/! Skills!more!important!than!knowledge/! Entrepreneurship!is!a!major!driver!of!innovation,!competitiveness!
Audiences/Stakeholders* This!communication!serves!as! a!reference!for!reviewing! progress!in!policy! developments!for!!use!by! public!authorities!in!the! member!states!! Definitions! No!definition!offered!but! suggests!that:! “Entrepreneurship!is!a!major! driver!of!innovation,! competitiveness!and!growth”.! ‘Entrepreneurial!mindset’!is! mentioned!but!not!defined.! Audiences/Stakeholders*
10*most*common*words:* SMEs!(74)!\!Business!(74)\!Action/s! (70)\!Entrepreneurship!(64)\!
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consultation!that! followed!the! publication!of!the! Green!Paper! ‘Entrepreneurship! in!Europe’!(2003)! and!dialogue!with! dialogue!with!‘SMEs! and!their! representatives’!
No!audience!defined!but! stakeholders!include!!‘national,! regional!and!local!public! authorities,!entrepreneurs,! business!organisations,! support!providers,!universities! and!think!tanks’!and!there!is! mention!of!the!‘audience!of! stakeholders’!
BERR!(2008)! Enterprise:! unlocking!the!UK’s! talent!HM!Treasury.! 102!pages! ! Author/Data* Production* No!named!author!–! collaboration! between!HM! Treasury,! Department!of! Business,! Enterprise!and! Regulatory!Reform! and!‘Unlocking! Talent’!–!positioned! as!an!organisation! of!some!sort.!This! report!is!the!result! of!‘listening!to!over!! 600!small! businesses!and! entrepreneurs!from! all!sections!of!the! community’! working!with!them! and!drawing!on! international! evident!this! document!outlines!
Definitions* Enterprise!or!entrepreneurship! not!defined!by!identified!as! ‘one!of!the!five!drivers!of! productivity’.!The!five!enablers! of!enterprise!are:!culture\! access!to!finance\!knowledge! and!skills\!regulatory! framework\!and!business! innovation’!!with!!and!linked! with!‘the!ambition!to!start,! grow!and!innovate! within!business’!(p.5)! * Audiences/Stakeholders* Audience!not!specified!but! suggestion!that!the!aims!and! objectives!in!the!documents! are!aimed!at!empowering! ‘regional!and!local! government’!to!tailor! measures!and!policy!to!specific! regional!needs.! !
promoting!entrepreneurial!values!and! addressing!the!fear!of!riskXtaking/! Failed!entrepreneurs!are!confronted!with! the!stigma!of!failure/marketplaces!for! buyers!and!sellers!of!businesses/! audience!of!stakeholders!boosting! entrepreneurship/!there!is!no!silver!bullet! for!creating!a!more!entrepreneurial!Europe/! Europe’s!untapped!potential/a!complex!set! of!mutually!interacting!framework! conditions,!attitudes!and!skills/! Internationalisation/‘value’!innovations/! foster!networks,!partnership!events!and! clusters/market!failures/fastXgrowing! enterprises,!or!gazelles/cluster!policies/! forging!strategic!links!among!clusters/give! SMEs!a!stronger!voice/crossXborder! activities/!businessXfriendly/More! entrepreneurial!mindsets/A!better!business! climate! Enterprise!vision/A!culture!of! enterprise/Enterprise!economy/! Enterprising!spirit/womenXfriendly/The! globalised!economy/!Globalisation/Global! competition/The!international!language!of! business!international!reach/!The! international!flow!of!ideas/!Enterprising! economy/enterprise!economy/!unlocking! talent/closing!the!gap!enterprise!vision/! enablers!of!enterprise/drivers!of!! enterprise/!spark!an!idea!(aimed!at! women)/!seamless!enterprise!education/! mezzanine!finance/!mezzanine!products/! mezzanine!proposals/!business!angels/! innovation!vouchers/!the!narrowing!of!the! productivity!gap/!‘born!global’!companies/! releasing!the!energy!and!innovative! capacity!of!firms!competing!in!free!and!fair! markets/!Enterprise!'champions'/Personal! bankruptcy!and!business!liquidation!'casts!a! long!shadow'!in!the!UK/!shaping!aspirations! and!motivation/enterprise!inequalities/! female!friendly!information/!unleashing! young!peoples’!entrepreneurial!talent/!skills! deficiencies/shortage!of!skills/!the!beating! heart!of!a!new!entrepreneuriallyXminded! nation/!bringing!the!boardroom!into!the! classroom/!A!simple!customer!journey! key!building!blocks!of!a!successful! economy/“Stellar”!businesses!and!“nonX stellar”!businesses/ female!friendly! information/KnowledgeXintensive!services/!
Entrepreneurs!(54)\!Policy/ies!(50)\! Support/ing/ive!(40)\! Entrepreneurial!(38)\!!Enterprises! (31)\!Social!(23) ! ! !
! !
! !
Women!(102)\!Entrepreneurs!(58)\! Young!people!(35)\!!Employers!(24)\! Students!(18)\!Women!entrepreneurs! (13)\!!Individuals!(18)\!Men!(11)\! Staff\!(9)\!Users!(7)\!Pupils!(6)! Mentors!(6)\!Role!models!(6)\!Young! entrepreneurs!(5)!Ethnic!minority! businesses!(5)\!Female!entrepreneurs! (4)\!Younger!people!(4)\!ethnic! groups!(3)\!ethnic!minority! communities\!!Workers!(3)\!Teachers! (3)\!Ethnic!minority!communities!(3)\! Older!people!(3)\!Ambassadors!(2)\!! Citizens!(2)\Enterprising!individuals! (2)\!Male!and!female!mentors! (2)\OwnerXmanagers!(2)\!SelfX employed!women!(2)\!White! groups(2)\!PostXgraduates!(2)\!Girls! (1)!Enterprise!champions!(1)\! Pakistani!and!Bangladeshi!women! (1)\!Girls!(1)\!Graduates(1)NonX ethnic!minority!businesses!(1)!Skilled! workers!(1)\STEM!graduates!(1)! UnderXgraduates!(1)\!Vulnerable! workers!(1)\!selfXemployed!men!(1)\!! Lecturers!(1)\!School!pupils!(1)\! Secondary!school!pupils!(1)\!!Primary! school!pupils\!the!over!50s!(1)\! University!students!(1)\!ethnic! minority!ambassadors!(1)\!!Diploma! students!(1)\!MBA!students!(1)\! Social!entrepreneurs!(1)\!Black!
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and!growth!Also,!personal!development!and!social!cohesion!–!it’s! the!answer!to!all!our!problems/!Europe!needs!more!entrepreneurs! to!strengthen!its!economic!position/!Currently!failing!to!encourage! enough!people!to!become!an!entrepreneur/!The!opportunity!to! own!one’s!business!should!be!offered!to!everyone,!regardless!of! background!or!location/!Comparisons!with!the!US/!The!two! fundamental!issues!for!Europe!are!how!to!produce!more! entrepreneurs?!And!how!to!get!more!firms!to!grow?/!Allow! everyone!to!seize!opportunities!by!presenting!different!ways!of! being!an!entrepreneur!(e.g!expansionXdriven,!craft,!partXtime!or! coXoperative!entrepreneur)/! Entrepreneurship!education!in!universities!should!be!available!for! students!and!researchers!from!all!fields,!notably!technical! universities/!entrepreneurship!education!for!all!pupils!throughout! the!EU/!wide!agreement!that!risk!is!intrinsically!linked!to! entrepreneurship!
Themes/Positions* Enterprise!culture!–!enterprise!economy/!Globalisation/!!Skills! rather!than!knowledge/!Enterprise!is!a!talent/!Driver!for!economic! growth!/!US!is!a!benchmark!for!women’s!enterprise!(women!in! the!UK!lag!behind!both!men!and!women!in!the!US)/!Focus!on! younger!people/!Unlocking!the!UK's!talent!(people’s!talent! 'belongs'!to!the!UK!–!UK!PLC)/!The!UK!positioned!as!an!objective! ‘thing’!X!Talent!suggests!traits?!'natural'!ability?/!Lots!of!groups! mentioned!–!this!is!important!for!everyone!'giving!everyone!the! opportunity!to!be!entrepreneurial'!–!those!in!work!and!those!in! education!(tension!between!using!term!talent!and!encouraging! everyone?)/!STEM!graduates!the!only!disciplineXrelated!ones! identified!–!innovation!closely!linked!to!technology./!Targeting! young!people!through!football!(gendered?)/!women!score! consistently!lower!than!men!(deficit!model)!–!need!to!focus!media! campaign!on!women/!Entrepreneurial!success!not!valued!by! society/Universities!as!a!focus!for!innovation/!Students!and! graduates!deserve!high!quality!enterprise!education/!Everyone! who!isn't!a!white!male!is!in!need!of!help!–!white!males!=! benchmark!for!everyone!else!–!they!are!the!'best'!and!should!be! aspired!to/!Social!enterprise!linked!with!deprived!areas!and!ethnic! minority!groups/!Ethic!minority!groups!and!women!!closely! linked/Unlocking!talent!–!freeing!it!from!constraints/!Deficiency! discourses/!Training,!and!!skills!emphasised!(not!teaching!or! learning)/!Refers!to!entrepreneurs!as!a!specific!group!/! Homogeneous!group.!!Economic!drivers!of!enterprise/!Women! main!group!identified!but!sense!of!homogeneity/!women!or! female!students,!graduates!or!undergraduates!not!mentioned.! Women!as!a!group!singled!out!as!in!need!of!support!/All!mention! of!men!!in!comparison!to!women!(men!used!as!benchmark! against!which!to!judge!women!–!deficit!model?)./Women!lack! financial!skills!and!knowledge/Families!and!children!are!!women's!
a!framework!of!! ‘five!enablers’!of!! enterprise.!
open!and!networked!approaches/! fostering!productive!clusters!and!networks! across!universities/!Hidden!Innovation!
!
Herrmann,!K! (2008)!Developing! Entrepreneurial! Graduates:! Putting! entrepreneurship!at! the!centre!of!higher! education..!68! pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Result!of!a!project! coordinated!by! Keith!Herrmann! and!written!by!him! on!behalf!of!the! project!team.! Draws!on!an!expert! panel!comprising!Dr! Elizabeth! Gatewood,!Dr!Tony! Mendes,!Prof.!Allan! Gibb,!Uffe!Elbaek,! Prof.!Daniel!Hjorth,! David!Clews!and! Ian!Ritchie!
Moreland,!N.! (2006)! Entrepreneurship! and!higher! education:!an! employability!
Definitions* ‘Entrepreneurship is!not!solely! about!business!skills!or! starting!new!ventures\!it!is!a! way!of!thinking!and!behaving! relevant!to!all!parts!of!society! and!the!economy.’!(p.12)! ! “Entrepreneurship!education!is! a!process!which!develops! individuals’!mindsets,! behaviours,!skills!and! capabilities!and!can!be!applied! to!create!value!in!a!range!of! contexts!and!environments! from!the!public!sector,! charities,!universities!and! social!enterprises!to!corporate! organisations!and!new!venture! startXups.!Entrepreneurial!and! enterprising!graduates! should!be!equipped!to!fulfil! their!potential!and!to!create! their!own!futures.”(!p.12)! Audiences/Stakeholders* Universities! internal!and!external! stakeholders!X!national,! regional!and!local! government,!funders!and! employers,!as!well!as!those! within!HEIs.!entrepreneurs! and!university!leaders,! lecturers!and!tutors! Definitions* ‘entrepreneurship!initially!may! be!defined!as,!‘the!process!of! uncovering!and!developing!an! opportunity!to!create!value! through!innovation’!(NCGE!
A!globe!is!used!on!the!cover!–!signifying!a! global!marketplace/!a!world!wide!job! market)/Entrepreneurial!mindsets*/!The! ‘entrepreneurial!lifeXworld’!*/! Entrepreneurial!economies*/! Entrepreneurial!and!innovative!mindsets*/! Entrepreneurial!teaching!and! Learning*/!Creating!an!entrepreneurial! culture*/!The!entrepreneurial!university*! Entrepreneurial!capacity*/!Enabling! environments!/!Entrepreneurial!outcomes*! WholeXcampus!approach/CuriosityXdriven! research/Symbolic!importance!of!strong! visible!leadership/!The!future!world/! Diverse!voices/Global!awareness/!About! weaving!a!seamless!interface!between! theory!(academic!curriculum)!and!practice/! (entrepreneurial!action*)./!The! entrepreneurial!learning!opportunity*/! (developing)!a!language!for! entrepreneurship!in!HE!/!The!spillovers! from!the!coXcreation!of!new!knowledge!and! practices/!The!‘next!generation’!of! entrepreneurship!educators/!Aiming!for!an! Optimum!Fully!Integrated!Model!for!HEee! *!Tendency!to!use!entrepreneurial!as!a! suffix!as!if!there!are!no!debates!around!! what!entrepreneurial!!IS!or!MEANS! ! !
KnowledgeXdriven!economy! Entrepreneurial!cast!of!mind! Change!orientation! ‘quality!signals’! culture!of!enterprise!and!Enterprise!culture! Employability!plus! !
Africans!(1)\!Bangladeshis!(1)\! Pakistani!people!(1)\Chinese!people! (1)\!Indian!people!(1)!!! ! 10*most*common*words:* Enterprise!(490)\!Support/ed/ing! (211)\!Skills!(144)\)\!Growth!(144)\! Women!(102)!Small!business/es! (101)\!Work!(86)\!Policy/ies!(84)\! Opportunity/ies!(80)\!Knowledge! (73)\!Economic!(72)! ! Students!(112)\!Entrepreneurs!(42)! Stakeholders!(35)\!Staff!(24)\! Academics!(21)\!Alumni!(19)\! Educators!(16)!ViceXchancellors!(15)\! Entrepreneurship!educators!(13)\! Role!Models!(6)\!Employers!(5)\! Lecturers!(5)\!Funders!(3)\!Mentors! (3)\!Professors!of!Practice!(3)\! Careers!advisers!(2)\!Experts!(2)\! Policymakers!(1)\!Social! entrepreneurs!(1)\!entrepreneursXinX residence!(2)!!Tutors!(2\)!Young! people!(2)\!Women!business!owners! (1)\!Lecturers!(5)\!Employers!(5)\! Practitioners!(4)\!Business!People! (1)\!Real!entrepreneurs!(1)\!Local! entrepreneurs!(4)\!Creative! entrepreneurs!(1)\!Researchers!(1)\! university!leaders!(1)! ! 10*most*common*words:* Entrepreneurship!(240)\! Entrepreneurial!(205)\!Student/s! (149)\!Develop/ment!(145)\! University/ies!(131)\! Learn/learning!(129)\!!Business/es! (115)\!Experience/s/d/ial!(75)\! Entrepreneurship!Education!(71)\! Graduate/s!(64)!
concern!and!responsibility/!A!lot!of!support!is!needed!(it!is!a! difficult!!to!'make'!women!enterprising?!–!deficiency!discourse/! Students!and!young!people!positioned!as!homogeneous!groups!
Students!(37)\!graduates!(25)\! Individuals!(8)\!Entrepreneur!(6)!staff! (1)!Single!person!enterprises!(1)\! Single!Entrepreneur!(1)\!Sole!Trader! (1)\!Social!entrepreneurs!(1)\! minority!ethnic!entrepreneurs!(1)\!
Themes/Positions* Enterprise!culture/!Globalisation/!Learning!rather!than! teaching/Students!rather!than!staff/Practical!rather!than! academic/!Skills!rather!than!knowledge/!Supporting!graduates! and!students!into!selfXemployment/!Students!learning!skills!for! entrepreneurship/!Entrepreneurship!=!a!special!form!of!
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Themes/Positions* Cultural!hostility!to!‘business’!in!!academia!–!need!for!cultural! change/!NonXnegotiable!imperative!X!NESTA,!NCGE!and!CIHE! understand!that!it!is!imperative!for!our!students!to!develop!their! entrepreneurial!abilities,!X!“essential!to!our!future!success”/Sense! of!urgency!–!through!use!of!the!words!need!(52),!should!(24),! must!(7)!–‘call!for!action’/!Globalisation/!globalised!economy/!The! ideology!of!certainty?!!Needs!a!pedagogy!of!certainty?/! Entrepreneurship!and!entrepreneurial!skills!as!a!panacea!for!the! globalised!world?/!Not!just!for!business!–!everyone!should!be! entrepreneurial/!!Public!and!voluntary!sectors!can!also!benefit/! Moving!towards!the!entrepreneurial!university!(intertextuality)/! About!developing!entrepreneurial!mindsets!(cf.!inculcating!an! entrepreneurial!habitus!and!accruing!entrepreneurial!capital?)/! entrepreneurship!education!has!low!status!–!needs!to!be!raised,! also!status!of!staff!working!in!it/Focus!on!the!future!–! futurology?/!Entrepreneurship!education!needs!to!be!embedded! within!every!subject/!Learning!not!teaching,!students!not!staff/! Students,!entrepreneurs!and!stakeholders!more!important!than! educators,!HE!staff!and!academics?/!Hard!and!soft!skills/!Gender! neutral!–!!women!mentioned!once!but!not!in!main!text!–!as!part! of!a!biography!of!one!of!the!expert!panel!members/!Need!to! change!form!learning!about!to!learning!for/!Business! entrepreneurs!are!different!from!social!entrepreneurs/!!Rather! than!separating!entrepreneurship!from!the!individual!it!places!it! firmly!within!them/!Research!of!relatively!little!interest?! researchers!mentioned!once!
perspective*.!24! pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Named!author.! Report!produced! for!the!HE! Academy.!Based!on! secondary!rather! than!primary!data.! Howard!Davies! (2002)!A!Review!of! Enterprise!and!the! Economy!in! Education.!!68! pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Named!author.! Based!around! findings!of!a!review! team!that!consulted! 'organisations,! business!and! individuals'.!Data! production! methods:!A!survey! of!previous! government! initiatives!since! 1986\!public! consultation!with! business,!schools! and!colleges\!focus! groups!with!key! stakeholders\!MORI! commissioned!to!do! primary!data! production!and! focus!groups!with! 600!young! people,l(5!X!!18! years!old)\!1500! business!surveyed\! 17!school!visits!
2003).’!(Moreland,!2006!p.4)! ! Audiences/Stakeholders* staff!in!higher!education! institutions!who!are! considering!the!enhancement! of!student!employability’!!!
!
!
!
Definitions:* Enterprise*capability:*the! capability!to!handle! uncertainty!and!respond! positively!to!change,!to!create! and!implement!new!ideas!and! new!ways!of!doing!things,!to! make!reasonable!risk/reward! assessments!and!act!upon! them!in!one’s!personal!and! working!life.!This!depends!on! the!development!of:! •!Knowledge!and! understanding!of!concepts!X! organisation,!innovation,!risk,! change\! •!Skills!X!decisionXmaking! (particularly!under!conditions! of!uncertainty),!personal!and! social,!leadership,!risk! management,!presentational\! •!Attitudes!X!selfXreliance,! openXmindedness,!respect!for! evidence,!pragmatism,! commitment!to!making!a! difference\! •!Qualities!X!adaptability,! perseverance,!determination,! flexibility,!creativeness,! improvisation,!confidence,! initiative,!selfXconfidence,! autonomy,!action!orientation! ! Audiences/Stakeholders* ‘The!government’!is!suggested! as!the!main!audience!for!this! report!–!which!makes! recommendations!for!the! embedding!of!enterprise! throughout!the!primary,! secondary!and!tertiary!
The!world!of!work!is!changing!fast/!the! essential!toolkit!of!the!effective! entrepreneur//!a!more!dynamic!economy/! a!more!enterprising!workforce/!hardXedged! evaluation!of!the!outcomes/!school! career/'elbowing!out'!other!essential! elements!of!the!curriculum.! building!enterprise!capability/Quality! signals/build!a!picture!of!current!provision! overarching!outcome/Financial!literacy/! strands!of!activity/!education!for!work! education!through!work/!work!shadowing/! “miniXenterprise”!/!link!organisations/!fastX moving!economic!and!political! environment/!delivery!mechanism!for! enterprise!learning/!agenda!of!change/! educationXbusiness!link!activity/gap!in! provision/mix!of!activity!studentXowned/! TeacherXfocused!activity,!deliver!effective! outcomes/“antiXbusiness”!culture/quality! and!access!are!patchy/!effective!supporting! mechanisms/!systematic!national! monitoring!and!evaluation!of!enterprise! capability/!a!benchmark!level!of!provision/! ‘Enterprise!Experience’/!standXalone!high! quality!enterprise!activity/!!meaningful! levels!of!enterprise!elements/!a!single! optimal!route/!capacityXbuilding!in!the! broker!sector/!manXdays/!a!mutual! development!resource!for!schools!and! business!support/!enterpriseXrich!work! experience!placements/!Enterprise!week! SchoolXfacing!advisory!Enterprise!Officers! essential!foundation!for!sustained! partnership/!the!catalyst!for!longer!term! partnerships/!A!national!benchmark!of! young!people’s!enterprise!capability/! This!picture!points!to!a!clear!need!for! better!evaluation!
female!entrepreneurs!(1)\!ecoX entrepreneurs!(1)! ! 10*most*common*words:* Education!(149)\!Employability!(117)\! Entrepreneurship!(104)\!Learning! (54)\!Skill/s!(47)\!SelfXemployed/SelfX employment!(39)\!Graduate/s!(38)\! Student/s!(37)\!Enterprise!(35)\! Support/ed/ing!(22)!
employability/!Female!and!minority!ethnic!as!entrepreneurs!but! not!white!or!male!mentioned!(unspoken!white,!maleXnormative! assumption?)!/students!presented!as!homogeneous.!
Young!people!(157)\!Teachers!(85)\! Pupils!(54)\!Students!(34)\!Brokers! (28)\!Employers!(11)\!Staff!(12)! Business!people!(14)\!Employees!(3)\! Entrepreneurs!(7)\!Headteachers!(7)\! Individuals!(5)\!!Managers!(5)\!!! Changemakers!(4)\!School!leaders! (4)\!Role!models!(2)\!Stakeholders! (2)\!Adults!(2)\!Facilitators!(2)\! Business!partners!(1)\!!!BudgetX holders!(1)\!Enterprise!officers!(1)\!! Learning!mentors!(1)\! ! 10*most*common*words:* Enterprise! (346)\!!School/s!(275)\! Education(214)\!Learning!(163)\! Young!people!(157)\!!Work!(143)\!! Teacher/s!(104)\!Support/ed/ing! (90)\!Curriculum!(85)\!Pupil/s!(64)! !
Themes/Positions* Gender!neutral!–!pupils,!not!boys!or!girls,!gender!not!mentioned.! Focus!on!schools!rather!than!HE!–!but!no!suggestion!about!how! to!develop!these!ideas!at!a!higher!level!(i.e.!in!HE)!or!how!these! ideas!link!with!HEee/!Schools!‘positively!hostile!to! entrepreneurship’/!Benefits!need!to!be!measured!and! benchmarked!–!the!attributes!of!an!enterprising!workforce!!can! be!measured/!About!creating!the!employees!and!workforce!of!the! future/!Brokers!are!needed!to!procure,!design!and!deliver! 'enterprise!learning!packages'!–!teachers!aren't!competent! enough!to!do!this/!Education!has!a!responsibility!to!prepare! students!for!world!of!work!–!but!this!world!has!changed!–!need! enterprise!skills!to!cope!with!this/!Enterprise!is!a!set!of!'skills,! attitudes!and!capabilities'!(Capital!and!Habitus?)/!Need!to!provide! for!their!own!futures!(shift!of!support!from!state!to!individual?)/! About!making!choices!and!managing!risk/!Main!outcome!is! employability/!A!form!of!work!experience/!Needs!monitoring!and! evaluating/!Need!to!engage!business!in!the!education! system/Teachers!don’t!understand!the!world!of!work!outside! education!–!need!training!and!support/!A!new!area!for!schools.!
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education!systems! Botham,!R.!&!! Mason,!C.!(2007)! Good!Practice!in! Enterprise! Development!in!UK! Higher!Education*.* 105!pages! ! Author/Data* Production* A!joint!report!from! The!Higher! Education!Academy! (HEA),!The!Council! for!Industry!and! Higher!Education! (CIHE),!Make!Your! Mark!Campaign!and!! The!Small!Business! Service!(SBS).!An! NCGE!research! report!working! paper! A!survey!and! overview!of!formal! and!informal! provision!of! entrepreneurship! and!enterprise! education!with!UK! HEIs!as!a!result!of! a!survey!of!127! HEIs!with!a! selection!of!case! studies!of!within!UK! HEIs!deemed!to! meet!their! framework!of! outcomes!and!also! draws!on!over! twenty!experts!in! the!field!and!from! NCGE!mapping! experiences!in!this! area.! ! NCGE!(2007)! Enterprise!and!
Definitions* Acknowledges!the!debates! around!definitions!but!suggest! that!enterprising!individuals! and!entrepreneurs!can!be! distinguished!–!with! entrepreneurs!primarily!linked! with!setting!up!and!running!a! business.! * Audiences/Stakeholders* As!the!aim!is!to!‘guide!the! development!of!HEI!activities’! audience!is!those!involved!in! that\!staff,!institutions,!policyX makers!and!funders!
The!‘entrepreneurial!lifeX!world’/!creative! destruction/!An!entrepreneurial!mindset!/! the!knowledge!economy/!‘central’!delivery! mechanisms/!‘embed’!enterprise!education/! commercial!exploitation/!enabling!and! supporting!spinouts/knowledge!transfer! business!birth!rate!and!graduate!retention/! ‘third!stream’!funding/!scaling!up!activity/a! ‘spare!time’!activity/!the!enterprise! challenge/!exploiting!synergies/!academicX industry!links/!entrepreneurs!and!students! can!be!readily!‘networked’/!a!resource!of! business!people(collective!noun?)/!a!pool! of!business!mentors/opportunity! recognition!for!wealth!creation/!grow!a! business!a!‘ladder!of!learning’!–!from! lecture!(at!the!bottom)!to!experience!at!the! top/!Real!World!Practical!Courses/! interactive!lectures/!an!explicit!celebration! of!success/!employability’!module/!the! ‘external’!entrepreneurial!community!/! bringing!discipline!‘cultures’!together/! University!hatcheries!and!incubators/!‘Boot! Camp’/!to!develop!a!fitness!for!business!life! through!selected!learning!apparatus!or!kit! (sport!and!army!metaphors?)!/‘fitness! routines’/a!webXbased!‘enterprise!thinking! tool’,/an!entrepreneurship!‘hard!sell’/! Student!Performance/!enterprise! everywhere!and!entrepreneurship! nowhere/!creating!a!more!entrepreneurial! culture! !
Students!(314)\!Staff!(131)\! Entrepreneurs!(76)\!individuals!(40)\! Graduates!(38)!!)\!mentors!(22)\! 'would!be'!entrepreneurs!(20)\!! Customer/s!(18)\!clients!(13)\! Employer/s!(11)\!Employee/s!(11)! Stakeholders!(10)\!Manager/s!(9)\! Academics!(7)\!Creative!industry/ies! entrepreneurs!(4)\!Practitioners!(4)\!! Venture!capitalists!(4)\!Aspiring! entrepreneurs!(3)\!Bankers!(3)\! Business!owners!(2)\!committed! individuals!(2)\!!Educators!(2)!Local! entrepreneurs!(2)\!NonXgraduate!(2)\!! 'Real'!entrepreneurs!(2)!Trainers!(2)\! Alumni!entrepreneurs!(1)\!business! people!(1)\!Existing!entrepreneurs! (1)\!!Females!(1)\!High!tech! entrepreneurs!(1)\!lecturers!(1)\! Males!(1)\!Managers!(1)\!Real!world! entrepreneurs!(1)\!Successful! entrepreneurs!(1)\!TV!entrepreneurs! (1)\!! ! 10*most*common*words:* Business/es!(668)\!Enterprise!(547)\! Student/s!(456)\!Entrepreneurship! (389)\!Develop/ment/ing/ed!(291)\! Education!(273)\!Graduate/s!(193)\! Science/s/ific!(173)\!Outcome/s! (160)\!Technology/ies/ists!(149)!
Themes/Positions* Gender!neutral!–!students!seen!as!homogeneous?!Only!distinction! by!course!level!!and!discipline/!Although!about!education!staff! and!students!mentioned!352!times!and!staff!mentioned!131! times,!teaching!(60)!learning!(53)/Science!and!technology!focus/! Target!driven!X!measuring!(outcomes/!‘Real’!entrepreneurs!as! opposed!to!other!types!like!aspiring,!would!be,!etc/!Lots!of!'types'! of!entrepreneurs!–!although!‘real!ones’!mentioned/!Being! enterprising!is!an!individual!thing/!entrepreneurs!are!linked! closely!with!setting!up!and!running!a!business/!Distinguish! between!‘education!about’!and!‘education!for’!entrepreneurship/! Enterprise!is!currently!an!in!vogue!marketing!word!–!fashion,!fad! or!novelty?/!third!stream!funding!–!not!core,!an!addXon!–!fashion,! fad?/New!feature!–!with!lots!of!plans!for!the!future!in!HEIs!(future! focused,!futurology?)/!Activities!are!being!changed!from!year!to! year!(experimentation,!lack!of!stability,!market!demands?)/!About! employability!of!graduates!(responding!to!external!market! forces?)/!enterprising!individuals/!enterprise!education!is! encouraged!because!it!introduces!nonXtraditional!learning! mechanisms/!HEee!as!a!driver!for!pedagogic!change!(nonX traditional!learning!mechanisms)/!Access!to!HEee!can!be!based! on!discipline!(Business,!engineering,!science,!technologyXbased! small!amount!in!creative!industries!–!gendered!implications?)/! ‘real’!entrepreneurs.!–!exist!outside!the!HEI!and!need!to!be! brought!in/!skills!and!practice!focused.!Privileging!of!experience! (Discipline!as!a!region!not!a!discipline?)!the!term!‘real’!is!used!47! times/!About!success!(what!about!the!‘reality’!of! failure?)/Different!disciplines!=!culture!clash/!PhD!students!and! researchers!are!a!difficult!market!to!get!involved!in!enterprise! activities!and!education/! motivating!students!to!an!entrepreneurial!career/! talk!of!importance!of!people!who!reflect!the!sudents!–!role! models!cf.!Bourdieu/!not!business!knowXhow!but!business!‘how!to’! and!‘business!knowXwho’/!enterprise!as!‘market!differentiation’!for! lessXresearch!oriented!HEIs/!cultural!hostility!and!resistance!to! vocationalism!(too!Thatcherite)/!Tensions!between!practitioner! lecturers!and!academics!!
Definitions* Entrepreneurship!and!
enterprising!university!! entrepreneurial!university!
Students!(11)!\!Staff!(7)\!Female!(4)\! Male!(4)\!Overseas!students!(2)\!
Themes/Positions* A!suggestion!of!equal!gender!engagement/!students!–!about!
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Entrepreneurship!! in!Higher! Education.!!8!! pages! * Author/Data* Production* No!named!author.! Results!of!2007! survey!of!Enterprise! and! Entrepreneurship!in! Higher!Education,! conducted!across! 127!universities!in! England!serving!a! student!population! of!1.76!million! Hannon,!P.!(2006)! Defining!a!Research! and!Education! Policy!Framework!.! 23!pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Named!author.!The! result!of!a!one! month!project!with! ISBA!professors! from!the!UK!–! secondary!data!–! review!of!selected! key!works!to! identify!reported! barriers!and!drivers! for!graduate! entrepreneurship! which!are! important!for!policy! makers,!educators! and!practitioners.! Primary!data! collected!through! focus!groups!and! interviews!with! stakeholder! communities!
enterprise!not!defined,! Entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!education!not! defined.!
technology!transfer! !
!
Audiences/Stakeholders* No!audience!identified.!
Definitions* No!definition!but!linked!to! graduate!selfXemployment!and! business!creation.!Outlines! definitions!fro!reviewed! materials!based!around!‘riskX taking’,!‘attitudes!and! behaviours’!and!‘intentions!and! selfXefficacy’! * Audiences/Stakeholders* Commissioned!by!NCGE.! Audience!=!PolicyXmakers,! educators,!academics!and! practitioners!interested!in!the! broad!fields!of!enterprise!and! entrepreneurship!and!in! particular!student!enterprise! and!graduate!startXup!in!UK! Higher!Education!Institutions!
Graduates!(1)\!Stakeholders(!(1)\! Business!people!(1)\!Business!owners! (2)\!Professors!of!practice!(1)!white! (1)!nonXwhite!(1)! 10*most*common*words:* Entrepreneurship!(32)!Enterprise! (28)\!Student/s!(26)\!Funds/ing!(24)! Provision!(22)\!Development!(20)\! Engagement!(15)\!Education!(12)\! Business/es!(11)\!Region/al/ly!(11)\! Support/ed/ing!(9)! !
bringing!the!future!forward!for!nascent! graduate!entrepreneurs/building! institutional!capacity!and!educator! capability/creation!of!opportunities!and! environments!for!entrepreneurship/! Entrepreneur!community/!entrepreneurial! attitudes/!a!senseXmaking!framework/!a! robust!evidence!base/!an!attractive!life! option/!diversity!and!complexity!of!factors/! knowledge!base!is!“broad,!fragmented!and! growing”/!Graduate!Entrepreneurship! Choice!Trajectory/!the!journey!to!graduate! entrepreneurship/!entrepreneurs!as! coaches!and!mentors!not!just!as! storytellers/!‘the!guide!on!the!side!rather! than!the!sage!on!the!stage’/! entrepreneurial!process!model! incorporating!behavioural!and!situational! factors/!entrepreneurial!antecedents! integrative!concept!models/!entrepreneurial! initiation/!new!venture!/!!lack!of!student! ‘propensity!to!act’/!diverse!stakeholder! community/engaging!‘students!in!their! world’/Knowledge!gaps/!A!confused! environment/!Added!value!research/!! University!value!system!is!dominated!by! theoretically!orientated!activity/!PracticeX orientated!experiential!learning/!Bring!the! future!forward/!entrepreneurial!alumni! identity!and!community!/!map!the! transition!process!from!student!to! entrepreneur!/!reduce!time!lags!between! thinkers!and!doers!/!inspire!student! desirability!and!engagement!/!diverse!
Students!(29)\!Entrepreneurs!(19)\! Graduates!(18)\!HEIs!(16)\!! Educators!(13)\!Academics!(4)\!Policy! makers!(4)\!Practitioners!(4)\!Female! entrepreneurs!(3)\!Individuals!(3)\! Coaches!(2)\!Business!owners!(1)\! Ethnic!minority!entrepreneurs!\(1)\! External!experts!(1)\!Mentors!(1)\! Teachers!(1)\!Staff!(1)\!Story!tellers! (1)!Women!(1)! ! 10*most*common*words:* Entrepreneurship!(206)\! Education!(81)\!!Graduate!(72)\! Business!(70)\!Graduate! Entrepreneurship!(59)\!Student/s! (57)\!!Entrepreneurial!(56)\! Experience/s!(38)\! Entrepreneurship!education!(35)\! Small!business!(31)!
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experiences!at!university!(not!graduates)/!Importance!of!funding! for!this!activity.!Training/careers!and!learning!before!teaching!and! pedagogy!issues/!Service!provision!to!students!(customers?)/! About!engagement!not!education!or!learning.!Important!to!the! region/!Students!not!staff/!Professors!of!practice!–! pracademic/Equal!distinguishing!of!male!and!female/! Distinguishes!business!people!from!business!owners.!
Themes/Positions* US!as!a!benchmark/!A!shift!in!the!literature!from!the!80s!and! ‘wellXknown’!concepts!such!as!riskXtaking!and!attitudes!and! behaviours!to!‘intentions!and!selfXefficacy/!Historical!review! intention!integrates!attitude!and!behaviour!theory,!selfXefficacy! and!social!learning!theory/the!challenge!to!the!academic! entrepreneurship!education!community!is!to!develop!a!solid! theoretical!base!upon!which!to!build!pedagogical!models/! Entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!closely!linked!to!careers!but!the! relationship!is!complex/!Entrepreneurship!education!programmes! are!social!experience/!StartXup!founders!are!more!highly!educated! than!those!who!are!not!and!business!owners!are!ore!highly! educated!than!the!general!population!(a!clash!with!the!common! discourse!of!the!‘selfXmade!man?)!/!More!experiential!based! pedagogies!are!needed! Few!attempts!to!measure!the!influence!of!education!! dominance!of!pedagogical!‘content’!driven!approaches,!rather! than!andragogical!‘process’!orientation!is!noted!(Bechard!and! Toulouse!1991)/!Entrepreneurship!can!be!taught!so!need!to!move! on!to!‘what’!is!taught/!A!new!paradigm!is!needed!to!position!! entrepreneurship!education!as!an!‘independent!academic! discipline’!(implying!that!is!isn’t!viewed!as!such!currently)/low! status!needs!raising/!tension!between!theory!and!practical!activity! –!‘about’!and!‘for’!entrepreneurship/! the!pedagogical!challenge!of!creating!uncertain,!unstructured,! ambiguous,!risky!environments/!Teachers!becoming!educators! and!coaches/!generalisations!difficult/there!needs!to!be!a!better! understanding!of!the!processes!of!transition!from!student!to! entrepreneur!in!different!contexts/!There!are!lots!of!barriers!to! graduate!entrepreneurship/!a!lack!of!sufficient!quality! entrepreneurship!educators!and!an!understanding!of!their! development!needs/!A!lack!of!student!‘propensity!to!act’/! Most!successful!role!models!are!‘diagonally’!opposite!to!students! ‘uneducated,!untrained,!unsupported!and!very!rare’/!
learning!preferences!and!needs/!knowledge! enhanced!individuals!effective!opportunity! environments!/Illuminating!the!Graduate! Entrepreneurship!Landscape/!the!Journey! from!Student!to!Entrepreneur! !
Kirby,!D.!(2006)! Creating! Entrepreneurial! Universities:!A! Consideration*.*17! pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Named!author.!No! data!production,! based!on!secondary! data!(policy!and! research)!
Definitions* Acknowledges!that!there!is!no! unified,!agreed!or!standard! definition!of!‘entrepreneurial! culture’!but!‘it!is!assumed!that! at!the!heart!of!any! entrepreneurial!culture,!be!it!in! universities!or!elsewhere,!is! the!ability!to!“innovate,! recognise!and!create! opportunities,!work!in!teams,! take!risks!and!respond!to! challenges….”!(Department!of! Employment,!1989.3)! ! Audiences/Stakeholders* HEI!staff!–!to!support!them!to! with!students!and!to! encourage!a!‘more! entrepreneurial!attitude!within! HEIs!
Mckeown,!J.,! Milman,!C.,!Sursani,! S.R.,!Smith,!K.!&! Martin,!L.!M.!(2006)! UK!Graduate! Entrepreneurship! Education!!in! England!Wales!and! Scotland!.!!24! pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Named!authors.! Pilot!stage! supported!by!‘a! panel!of!experts! acting!as!critical! friends’!Based!on!a! nationwide!survey!
Definitions*
‘enterprise!education!is!seen! as!a!route!to!develop!an! entrepreneurial!culture,!to! promote!enterprise,!to!create! new!ventures!and!to!foster! entrepreneurial!mindsets! through!education!and! learning’! ! Audiences/Stakeholders* HEIs!–!to!help!them!‘deliver! the!policy!agenda!of!increased! sustainable!business!startXup’.!
! The!heart!of!entrepreneurial!culture! /Planning!horizon/Pet!projects/Creative! people!are!a!pain!in!the!neck/‘Enterprise’! provokes!“an!image!of!shady!villainy,!a!fifth! column!gnawing!away!at!the!basic!values! that!define!a!university,!a!wolf! masquerading!as!a!milchXcow”/It!is!not!all! doom,!gloom!and!despondency/!Forces! within!universities/!Growing!a!business/! organic!organisation/!cellular!structure/! growth!as!different!cells!of!an!organisation! /Patient!money/!Freedom!from!turfiness/! Intrapreneurs!will!surface!automatically!/! Hard!and!soft!support/Competitive!and! turbulent!marketplace/ technology!leakage!
Education!as!a!‘key!enabler’/a!growing! global!consensus/!creating!a!more! entrepreneurial!culture/entrepreneurial! mindsets/entrepreneurship!competence/! learning!environments/!entrepreneurship! competence/Entrepreneurial!culture/! culture!of!enterprise/diverse!knowledgeX based!resources/review!by!critical! friends/“action!learning”!and!“experiential! learning”!/technologyXbased!learning/‘New’! versus!‘old’!universities!and!the!‘university! divide’/a!‘snapshot’!approach/new!trends! and!advances/delivery!mechanisms/bold! steps/virtual!learning!environments/online! communities/the!“spirit”!of!education/key! knowledge! ! !
A!complex!area!with!varied!influences!including!class,!social! acceptance!and!perceived!value!(i.e.!it’s!not!a!neutral!term!or! area)/Students!need!‘to!experience’!in!order!to!learn!–!an! assumption!that!they!have!no!experience?/!Need!to!change! perceptions!for!greater!respect/Need!to!expose!more!students!to! enterprise!and!entrepreneurship/!White!male!norm!–!positioned! with!respect!women/female!and!ethnic!minority!entrepreneurs! Entrepreneurs!(16)\!!Individuals!(16)\!! Academics!(12)!Intrapreneurs!(11)\! Managers!(7)\!Students!(8)\! Employees!(3)\!Academic!staff!(2)\! Employers!(1)\!The!CEO!(1)\!The!vice! chancellor!(1)\!The!vice!president! (1)\\!Researchers!(1)\!Teachers!(1)! 10*most*common*words:* University!(43)\!Entrepreneurial!(38)\! Universities!(37)\!Entrepreneurship! (30)!Business!(29)\!Development! (27)\)\!Organisation/s!(28)\!Research! (28)\!(27)\!Corporate!(20)\! Individual/s!(22)\!Support/s/ed/ive! (22)\!New!(20)\!Staff!(20)\! Behaviour/al!(17)\!Enterprise!(17)! Fund/ing!(17)!
Partners!(14)\!Students!(13)!\!! Faculties!(9)\!Participants!(in! research)!(9)\!Staff!(9)\!!Ethnic!(7)\! Female!(6)\!Entrepreneurs!(5)\! Graduates!(5):!Professors!(4)\!Critical! friends!(3)\!Experts!(2)\!External! experts!(2)\!External!partners!(2)! International!partners!(2)\!Advisors! (2)\!!National!partners!(1)\!Overseas! partners!(1)\!US!students!(1)! 10*most*common*words:* Enterprise!(87)\!Entrepreneurship! (82)\!university/ies!(77)\!Business/es! (56)\!Learning!(42)\!Research!(42)\! Technology!(38)\Enterprise!education! (33)\!Graduate!(30)!Innovation!(29)! New/er!(28)!
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Themes/Positions* In!response!to!changing!funding!mechanisms!(!how!structures! can!influence!social!reality)/!good!entrepreneurs!are!not!good! managers!–!wrong!temperament./!New!–!future/!Funding!–!not! core!activity./!Potential!hostility!towards!entrepreneurship!in!HE! (shady!villain)/!Growing!a!business!–!organic,!natural!X!organic! organisation!!X!cellular!structure!–!growth!as!different!cells!of!an! organisation.!Enterprise!culture!and!‘Thatcherism’!!X!ideological! culture!clash!between!public!and!private!sector/!Entrepreneurs!as! corporate!‘misfits’!X!cynics,!rebels,!free!spirits/!Focus!on!science! and!technology/!Enterprising!people!aren't!attracted!to!large! organisations!(therefore!people!who!work!in!large!organisations,! esp!within!the!public!sector,!aren't!enterprising!X!where!do!most! women!work?)/Public!sector!inefficiency./!When!businesses! become!big!they!stop!being!entrepreneurial!(then!why!the!push! for!growth?!More!linked!to!the!individual!rather!than!the!company! in!that!case?).!Large!companies!don't!encourage!team!work/! Suggests!a!form!of!entrepreneurial!habitus!and!the!forms!of! capital!to!be!accrued!through!an!entrepreneurial!approach! (reward!and!compensation)/!HEIs!have!never!had!to!be! entrepreneurial!or!enterprising!–!clashes!with!traditional!role!of! education!and!university/!Academics!are!like! entrepreneurs/Suggestion!of!individualism!linked!to! entrepreneurs.! Themes/Positions* Entrepreneurial!culture/!Enterprise!more!important!than! entrepreneurship/!World!wide!phenomena/!Learning!rather!than! teaching/students!and!partners!more!important!than! staff/graduates!not!students!or!undergraduates/!what!happens! after!rather!than!what!happens!'during'!their!course!(future!–!also! new)/female!and!ethnic!mentioned!but!not!male!(norm!of!white! male!unspoken?)/focus!on!technology/!Involvement!of!those! outside!academia/US!students!as!benchmark/!Lack!of!specific! focus!on!ethnic!entrepreneurship,!female!entrepreneurship!and! social!entrepreneurship/! Notes!history!of!entrepreneurship!and!enterprise!education! development!over!50!years!and!the!increased!importance!over!20! years!
102!HEI! respondents.! Followed!up!by! telephone! conversations!and! institutional!visits! Statistical!analysis! Pittaway!L.!&!Cope,! J.!(2006)! Entrepreneurship! Education:!A! systematic!Review! of!the!evidence.!33! pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Named!authors.! Data!produced!by! Systematic! Literature!Review! (SLR).!Based!on! analysis!of!185! academic!papers! from!1970X2004!in! Nvivo.!
Definitions* NONE!USED!because!of! ‘definitional!and!conceptual! uncertainty’!and!an! acknowledgement!that!we! don’t!know!what!it!is!and!what! its!purpose!is!because!there!is! so!much!varied!and!diffuse! work!happening!across!HEIs! meaning!that!’we!do!not!really! know!what!‘entrepreneurship! education’!actually!‘is’! ! Audiences/Stakeholders* Policy!makers!and!policy! groups!such!as!NCGE,!and!the! Kaufman!Foundation!
!
Gibb,!A.!(2005)! Towards!the! Entrepreneurial! University:! Entrepreneurship! education!as!a! lever!for!change.!
Definitions* Entrepreneurial!universities! defined!on!p.!3!An! entrepreneurial!is!person! suggested!as!having!!‘a!sense! of!ownership,!control,! independence,!responsibility,!
A!globe!is!used!on!the!cover!–!signifying!a! global!marketplace?!The!need!for!flexibility! in!a!world!wide!job!market?!The! importance!of!international!knowledge!for! business!success?a!‘vibrant’!cultural! shift/pedagogic!contradictions/a!strong! base!of!graduate!entrepreneurial!capability/! a!vibrant!landscape!with!increasing! resources!flowing!into!HEIs/key! stakeholders/vibrancy!and! diversity/investigate!the!research! base/evidence!base!is!‘fragmented!and! emergent’/!The!‘entrepreneurial!lifeX!world’! /!a!requirement!to!move!from!a!period!of! growth!into!a!period!of!reflection/map!out! the!field!of!entrepreneurship! education/‘impact!criteria!/!education’!is! turned!into!‘practice’/a!holistic! understanding/!policy!climate/!lack!of! clarity/the!‘university!enterprise!context’! /the!‘interface’!between!institution!and! other!organisations/‘AngloXSaxon’! perspective/inputs!and!outputs! transforming!universities!into! ‘entrepreneurial!institutions’/crossX fertilization!of!methodologies/‘realXlife’! opportunities!to!learn/an!entrepreneurial! career/supply!side!issues/crossXfertilization! of!knowledge/!The!evidence!is! fragmented/areas!of!critical!mass/the! enterprising!university/little!‘piggyXbacking’! of!studies/universityXbusiness! interface/entrepreneurial! institutions/culture!shift/technology! transfer/crossXfertilization!of! methodologies/mapping!of! supply/‘programme!centred’!view/venture! creation/critical!mass! ‘entrepreneurial!lifeX!world’/entrepreneurial! university/!an!entrepreneurial!response/! the!fabric/of!the!institution/!a!revealed! preference!analysis/!lever!for! change/institutional!capacity!building/the! essences!of!the!entrepreneurial!culture/! university!activityXbased!relationships/!
Students!(36)\!Graduates!(32)\!! Entrepreneurs!(23)\!Employers!(2)\!! Business!owners!(2)\!Mentors!(2)\! Practitioners!(2)\!!Trainers!(2)\! Women!Entrepreneurs!(1)\!Women! MBA!Entrepreneurs!(1)\!Married! women!(1)\!Men!entrepreneurs!with! dependent!children!(1)\!Men!MBA! entrepreneurs!(1)\!Female!MBA! entrepreneurs!(1)\!Male!MBA! entrepreneurs!(1)\Male!students!(1)\! Male!entrepreneurs!(1)\!Younger! students!(1)\!managers!(5)\! Business!people!!(1)!Educators!(1)\! Male!and!female!MBA!students! (1)Staff!(1)\!!key!Stakeholders!(1)\!!!
Themes/Positions* Link!made!‘back!to!the!80s’/!Emphasis!on!graduates!not!students! –!what!they!do!after!their!course!not!on!course/!! Invisibility!of!staff/!Policy!driven/!Benefit!is!hard!to!quantify!and! measure/!Need!to!move!from!growth!to!reflection/!Entrepreneurs! X!a!group!,!homogeneous/!an!unspoken!assumption!of!whiteness! in!literature!reviewed?/Gender!is!mentioned!within!the!documents! analysed!but!does!not!feature!in!the!main!discussion!other!than! the!mentions!of!research!suggesting!that!male!an!younger! students!with!family!experience!of!business!appear!to!have! greater!intentionality/! Marriage!and!children!linked!to!women's!'barriers'!!not!to!men's/! Trainers!and!mentors!not!teachers!and!educators/!employers!are! important/!Science!Enterprise!Programme!(SEC)!was!considered! to!have!made!a!major!contribution!to!the!promotion!of!enterprise! education!in!HEIs/development!driven!by!a!focus!on!STEM!
10*most*common*words:* Entrepreneurship!(226)\!Research! (130)\!Business/es!(123)\! Entrepreneurship!education!(116)\! graduate/s!(108)\!Student/s!(86)\! Develop/ment/s/ing!(66)\!Enterprise! (57)\!Evidence!(58)\!Policy/ies!(57)! !
Stakeholders!(20)\!Students!(21)\! Staff!(16)!!Graduates!(3)\!! Entrepreneurs!(4)\!Individuals!(4)\! overseas!students!(3)\Change! agents\!Entrepreneurial!staff!(1)\! Entrepreneurial!leaders!(1)\!(1)\!Role! models!(1)\!Practitioners!(1)\!
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Themes/Positions* Gender!neutral!and!colour!blind/!homogeneity!of!students/! lack!of!fit!between!business!models!and!HE!sector!culture!(culture! clash?)/!Importance!of!external!stakeholders! Learning!not!teaching/!Students!not!staff/linked!with!promotion!of! science!parks,!incubators, technology!transfer!offices!and!patent! protection/!stakeholder!relationships/!Importance!of!funding/!
14!pages! ! Author/Data* Production* Named!author!on! behalf!of!NCGE! (Gibb!is!their! academic!adviser)! and!presents!‘the! NCGE!Template!for! Entrepreneurship! Learning!Outcomes’! (although!the!NCGE! distances!itself!from! the! recommendations).! No!data!production! outlined!although! ‘observation!of! what!is!taught’!is! mentioned.!This!is! an!‘opinion’!piece! by!a!recognised! expert!in!the!field!–! emphasised!by!the! NCGE!disclaimer.!
autonomy!of!action!and! commitment!to!see!things! through!while!living,!day!by! day,!with!uncertainty!and! complexity’.!Entrepreneurial! behaviours!suggested!as! ‘Opportunity!seeking!and! grasping,!networking,!taking! initiatives,!persuading!others! and!taking!intuitive!decisions’! ! Audiences/Stakeholders* HEIs!and!staff.!Key! stakeholders!are: relevant! government!departments,!the! Learning!and!Skills!Council,! the!Regional!Development! Agencies,!the!Enterprise! Insight!Consortium,!senior! University!representatives,!the! Higher!Education!Funding! Council,!NESTA,!the!Centres!of! Excellence!for!Teaching!and! Learning!in!Enterprise,!!the! Higher!Education!Academy! and!NCGE!
entrepreneurial!staff/entrepreneurial! leaders/entrepreneurial!learning!is!‘how!to’! and!‘need!to!know’/entrepreneurial! ingredients/!entrepreneurship!as! community!of!!practice/the!world!of!the! entrepreneur/!Life!world!of!the! entrepreneur/!to!‘feel’!what!it!is!like!to!be! entrepreneurial/!‘feeling’!world!of!the! entrepreneur/‘selling!out’!traditional! academic!values/creating!space!for! learning!by!doing!and!reXdoing/relationship! learning/the!dynamics!of!change/! opportunity!seeking/!opportunity!grasping/! beyond!the!market/!Entrepreneurial!mind! set/!Harvesting!departmental!staff/!reX orientation!of!the!contract!with!the! student/the!business!and!wider!stakeholder! community/the!‘idea’!of!a!university/a! growing!body!of!experience/university!as! ‘hub’!for!local!and!regional!development/a! world!of!uncertainty/The!‘buying!of!one’s! own!autonomy’!as!a!HEI/pressure!for! change/the!scholarship!of!relevance!and! integration!of!knowledge/!the! entrepreneurship!challenge/Collective! actions/the!life!world!of!entrepreneurship/a! coordinating!mechanism/entrepreneurship! career/entrepreneurial!‘heroes!as!friends’! acquaintances/images!of!entrepreneurial! people!‘just!like!them’!
Business!people!(1)\!Professors!of! Practice!(1)\! PVCs!(1)! 10*most*common*words:* Entrepreneurship!(32)\! Enterprise!(28)\!learning!(27)!! Student/s!(26)\!funds/ing!(24)\! Provision!(22)\!Development!(20)\! Staff!(16)!Engagement!(15)\! Teaching!(13)\!Education!(12)\! Business/es!(11)\!Region/al/ly!(11)\! Support/ed/ing!(9)! ! ! ! !
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Challenges!traditional!business!school!model!as!aiming!for!high! growth!and!as!difficult/presenting’!the!heroic!view!of!the! entrepreneur’!and!emphasis!on!business!plans!and!new!venture! creation/!training,careers!and!learning!before!teaching!and! pedagogy!issues.!cf.!pracademic!debate!and!the!logic!of!practice/! emphasis!on!practice!and!practitioners!(entrepreneurs)!rather! than!teaching/educators!of!theory!(researchers)/Creating! opportunities!for!participants!(students)!to!explore!meanings!for! their!own!personal!and!career!development/!students!as! knowers?!reXorientation!of!the!contract!with!the!student/students! as!knowers!of!their!particular!subject!and!of!their!career! prospects!but!not!of!the!‘entrepreneurial!lifeXworld’/! Entrepreneurship!as!‘career’!
( Appendix(3.((Brine’s(ThreeEStage(Approach(to(Policy(Analysis((2008)( 1.(PreEtext(stages:( ! ! 1)!Understanding!the!general!context!! !! ! What!is!known!before!reading!the!text?!! ! 2)!Identifying!the!text/s! ! 3)!Locating!the!text/s! ! 2.(5Estep(approach(to(reading(the(text:( ! ! 4)!Initial!impression! ! ! What,!and!how!much,!is!in!the!text?! ! 5)!!Content!analysis! !! ! Identify!and!count!key!words/phrases! ! 6)!Metaphor!and!imagery! ! ! ! Identify,!categorize,!question! ! 7)!Subjects! ! ! Identify!subjects!and!their!activities! ! ! Identify!and!consider!relations!between!them!! ! ! What!does!this!begin!to!tell!you?! ! 8)!Discourse! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!Identify!relationship/s!between!subjects! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!What!argument!is!constructed!about!the!subjects?! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!What!view!of!the!world,!or!social!structure!is! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!constructed!through!the!text?! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!Who!benefits!or!loses!through!this!construction?! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!How!does!this!analysis!relate!to!your!analysis!of!other! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!texts?!! 3.(PostEtext(stages:( !
292
! ! !
9)!!Moving!beyond!the!text!! ! Thinking!more!about!the!discourse! 10)!!Theorising!(including!drawing!on!existing!knowledge/literatures)!
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Appendix(4.(Staff(Interview(Schedule(
•! •! •! •!
•! •!
heck completed and signed consent paperwork hould last an hour different areas of questions related to your role here are no right or wrong answers – am interested in your personal and professional experiences – free to say whatever you want – ask me to clarify nonymous – can withdraw at any time an I now turn on the tape?
Topic 1 – Role Can you tell me about your role/s at Northfield? Follow up/Prompt: •! How did you come to be involved with entrepreneurship at Northfield? •! How do you feel this role builds on your previous experience? •! How much of ‘yourself’ do you bring to this role? Experience, knowledge, values, beliefs? Topic 2 - Context When did you first become aware of enterprise/entrepreneurship as a concept/idea/theory? Follow up/Prompt: 294
•! •! •! •! •!
Do you think of EE as an academic discipline? Who do you think benefits from EE? What are its aims? What policies or strategies re. enterprise are you aware of at Northfield? What are staff expected to do to support these? Can you give me an example of how this has influenced your teaching methods/style or course design?
Topic 3 – Subject area Can you talk me through how you go about preparing a lesson or module based around entrepreneurship? Follow-up; •! hat sort of learning outcomes do you anticipate? •! ow are these assessed? Formally and informally? Topic 4 – Entrepreneurship Can you give me any examples of people you might think of / use in the class room to support your teaching around entrepreneurship? Follow up: •! What is it about these people that make them useful examples for you as a teacher? •! What is it about these examples that make them useful to your students? •! How would you describe an entrepreneur to someone who hadn’t heard the term before? Topic 5 – Teaching Approach Can you give me an example of a particularly positive classroom/lesson experience that you’ve had? How about a less successful lesson? 295
What’s the gender split on the modules/courses that you teach on? Does this influence how you teach or the resources that you use? Follow-up: •! Do you think that students can be taught to be entrepreneurs? •! Do you have a feel beforehand for who might be the more entrepreneurial students? What makes you think this? •! Given that, how would you describe your approach to teaching in this area? Topic 6 – Student responses Can you give me any examples of individual student responses that have surprised or encouraged you? Have any students responded negatively? How did you react to this? Have you noticed any gendered responses? Follow up: •! Do you use any sort of measures or self assessment models for students to gauge their own entrepreneurial potential? i.e. Myers-Briggs. How do the students respond to these? •! How many students go on to put this into practice (i.e. by starting a business?) Conclusion Is there anything else that you would like to add? Any questions that you were expecting me to ask which I didn’t? Follow up: •! Would you be willing to be interviewed again at a later stage? •! Would you like a transcript of this interview?
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Appendix(5.(Student(Interview(Schedule:(
•! •! •! •!
•! •!
heck completed and signed consent paperwork hould last an hour different areas of questions here are no right or wrong answers – am interested in your personal and professional experiences – free to say whatever you want – ask me to clarify nonymous – can withdraw at any time an I now turn on the tape?
Before we begin the formal interview I’d like you to quickly sketch out your the ideas or images that come to mind when you hear the word ‘entrepreneur’. Topic 1 – Family Background Can you tell me a little about your background – for example, what was it like growing up in your neighbourhood? Follow up/Prompt: •! Was your family different from other families in your neighbourhood? •! What beliefs or ideals do you think your parents tried to teach you? •! What clubs, groups, or organisations did you join as a child? Topic 2 – Educational Background 297
What are your best memories of school? And your worst? Follow up/Prompt: •! Any favourite subjects or ones that you felt you were good at? What about least favourite? •! What did you learn about yourself at school? •! What’s your view of the role of education in a person’s life? Topic 3 – University and Course Choice What made you choose to come to Northfield University and study this particular course? Follow-up/prompt; •! How does this build on your subject choices at school? •! Have any others in your family gone to university? •! How did your family feel about your decision to go to university? Topic 4 – Ideas of Enterprise and Entrepreneurship Can you tell me about your experience of entrepreneurship and enterprise at Northfield University? Follow up/Prompt: •! What was the best and worst thing about this module or session? •! What was the most important thing that you learnt? •! Do you think that you can be taught to be an entrepreneur? Topic 5 – Entrepreneurship How would you describe an entrepreneur to someone who hadn’t heard the term before? Follow-up/Prompt: •! What sort of a person becomes an entrepreneur? Can you think of any examples of individuals or businesses that were used in the classroom? •! What did you think of these examples – inspiring, boring, confusing? •! What examples would you choose? 298
Topic 6 – Entrepreneurial intent Do people like you become entrepreneurs? (if no, explore why not) If yes, follow up: •! What entrepreneurial skills or attitudes do you have? •! Where do you think these have come from? Topic 7 – Gender Are there mainly men or women or your course or is it fairly equal? Follow up/prompt: •! Why do you think that this course appeals more to men than women/women than men? •! Do you think it’s perceived as a ‘male’ or ‘female’ subject? Why? •! Do you think this affects what happened in the classroom? If so how, if not why not? •! Have you ever been aware of gender affecting how your teachers responded to you or others in your class? Talk through - Entrepreneurial traits Before we finish could I ask you to work through this questionnaire? Have you seen it or anything like it before? I’m interested in your thought processes as you work through it so it’s not about your ‘score’ more about what thoughts and feelings the questions might stir in you. Are you happy to do this? If yes give them a copy of the questionnaire and listen while they work though If no, move on to concluding comments
it.
Conclusion Is there anything else that you would like to add? Any questions that you were expecting me to ask which I didn’t? Follow up: 299
•! Would you be willing to be interviewed again? •! Would you like a copy of the transcript of this interview?
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Appendix(6.(Entrepreneurship(SelfEAssessment(Exercise(
Yes 1. Do you work hard at things that interest you? 2. Are you a self-starter, somebody who does not need pushing? 3. Are you the sort of person who frequently has new ideas? 4. Do these ideas usually get implemented? 5. Do you try to do things differently? 6. Are you willing to put in the extra hours to get things done? 7. Are you willing to do without holidays for the sake of your business? 8. Have you a supportive family that does not object to you putting in those extra hours? 9. Do you usually do your own thing rather than follow the crowd? 10. Do you set yourself goals and gain satisfaction from achieving them? 11. When things go wrong do you press on regardless if you believe in what you are doing? 12. Can you work alone, if you need to? 13. Do you like money? 14. Are you fairly stable – not too many ups and downs? 15. When you don’t get your own way, do you shrug it off, not bear a grudge and just get on with life? 16. Can you motivate others to work with you? 17. Are you willing to take measured risks? 18. Can you live with uncertainty about the future? 19. Are you willing to try your hand at most things? 20. Do others consider you a fairly good all rounder? 21. Do you really feel that you can succeed with your own business? 22.Do you frequently have good ideas for business? 23. Did you do things to make money when you were a child? 24. Do you always want to succeed at what you do? 25. Do you really, really want to start your own business? Adapted!from:!Burns,!P.!(2007,!p.!508!Z!509)!2nd!Edition!Entrepreneurship!and!Small!Business!Palgrave!McMillan:!Basingstoke,!New!York! !
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No
Appendix(7.(Staff(and(Student(Consent(Forms(
Exploring responses to HE enterprise education Research Team: Researcher: Sally Jones Supervisors: (Details cut for anonymity) Staff Consent Form •! I have read the Information Sheet relating to the research that I have been asked to participate in and I understand what I am being asked to do. Yes / No •! I consent to take part in an interview for this study. •! I consent to the interview being audio recorded.
Yes / No Yes / No
•! I consent to the contents of the interview being transcribed.
Yes / No
•! I consent to notes being taken during the interview.
Yes / No
•! I understand that the contents of the interview will be confidential to the research team.
Yes / No
•! I consent to my words being quoted anonymously in any presentations, reports or publications arising from the research unless I specifically agree otherwise. Yes / No •! I understand that all data collected from and about me will be kept safely and securely. Yes / No •! I understand that I have the right to withdraw from the interview at any
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time and that all information collected about and from me will be destroyed at that point. •! I understand that data will not be kept longer than is necessary to complete a full analysis. It will then be reviewed and securely archived.
Yes / No Yes / No
Participant’s name (BLOCK CAPITALS) Participant’s signature:
Date:
Researcher’s name (BLOCK CAPITALS) Researcher’s signature:
Date:
( ( Exploring(Responses(to(Enterprise(and(Entrepreneurship(Education(in(Universities( Research(Team:(( Researcher:!Sally!Jones! Supervisors:!(Details!cut!for!anonymity)! Student(Participant(Consent(Form((( ! •! !I!have!read!the!Information!Sheet!relating!to!the!research!and!! I!understand!what!I!am!being!asked!to!do.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No!! •! !I!consent!to!take!part!in!an!interview!for!this!study.!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! ! •! !!consent!to!the!interview!being!audio!recorded.!!!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!
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•! ! ! •! ! !
!!consent!to!the!contents!of!the!interview!being!transcribed.! ! !!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! !!consent!to!notes!being!taken!during!the!interview.!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! ! !!!!!!! !!!!!
•!
!understand!that!the!contents!of!the!interview!will!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! be!confidential!to!the!research!team! ! •! !!consent!to!my!words!being!quoted!anonymously!in!any!! presentations,!reports!or!publications!arising!from!the!research!! unless!I!specifically!agree!otherwise.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! ! •! !!understand!that!all!data!collected!from!and!about!me!will!! be!kept!safely!and!securely.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! ! •! !!understand!that!I!have!the!right!to!withdraw!from!the!! interview!at!any!time!and!that!all!information!collected!about!! and!from!me!will!be!destroyed!at!that!point.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! ! •! !understand!that!data!will!not!be!kept!longer!than!is!! necessary!to!complete!a!full!analysis.!It!will!then!be!reviewed!! and!securely!archived.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Yes!/!No! ! ! Participant’s!name!(BLOCK!CAPITALS)!! !! ! ! ! Participant’s!signature:! ! ! ! ! ! !
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Date:! !
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! Researcher’s!name!(BLOCK!CAPITALS)! ! Researcher’s!signature:!! ! !
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Date:!
(
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Appendix(8.(Staff(and(Student(Information(Forms(
Exploring responses to HE enterprise education Researcher: Sally Jones Supervisors: (Details cut for anonymity) Information Sheet for Staff This research is being undertaken by a PhD student. The aim of the research is to explore enterprise education and how it might be developed to benefit students. The objectives of this research project are to: •! •! •! •!
xamine current trends in HE level enterprise education xplore issues related to the teaching of enterprise education and student and staff responses to it ighlight and acknowledge the experiences of students and staff from a range of backgrounds upport curriculum development
The research will involve analysing course documentation and classroom observations. Interviews will also be completed with 15 final-year students and members of staff will be interviewed. I am inviting you to take part in an interview which will last about one hour at a convenient location. The interview will explore your experiences of teaching about enterprise and entrepreneurship and your views on student engagement with the curriculum. Participation in this research study is voluntary and you are not obliged to take part. If you do decide to participate in an interview, you will be free to withdraw at any time without the need to give any reason or explanation and you can request to have any data or information relating to you destroyed. The interview will be audio recorded and transcribed and I may make notes during the interview. These recordings, transcripts and any notes taken will be given a code and your name will not appear anywhere within the data, which will be stored on a password protected computer. The contents of all interviews will be kept confidential to the research team and data will be anonymised in all publications, reports and 306
presentations based on it unless you specifically request otherwise. Findings will be presented in a doctoral thesis but it is anticipated that findings will also appear in papers and articles written for academic and professional journals and in presentations at conferences. I hope that this research will not only give you an insight into student responses to the curriculum but will also act as an opportunity for you to reflect on your teaching and look forward to welcoming you as a participant. Sally Jones If you have any queries or concerns about the research, please contact: (Details cut for anonymity) Exploring(Responses(to(Enterprise(and(Entrepreneurship(Education(in(Universities( Researcher:!Sally!Jones! Supervisors:!(Details!cut!for!anonymity)!
( This!research!is!being!undertaken!by!a!PhD!student.!The!aim!of!the!research!is!to!explore!enterprise/entrepreneurship!education!and!how!it! might!be!developed!to!benefit!students.!! The!objectives!of!this!research!project!are!to:! •! Examine!current!trends!in!HE!level!enterprise/entrepreneurship!education!! •! Explore!issues!related!to!the!teaching!of!enterprise/entrepreneurship!and!student!responses!to!it!! •! Highlight!and!acknowledge!the!experiences!of!students!from!a!range!of!backgrounds!and!disciplines! •! Support!curriculum!development!! ! The!research!will!involve!analysing!course!documentation!and!classroom!observations.!!Interviews!will!also!be!completed!with!finalZyear! students!and!members!of!staff.! I!am!inviting!you!to!take!part!in!an!interview!which!will!each!last!about!1!hour!at!a!convenient!location.!!The!interview!will!focus!on! enterprise/entrepreneurship!related!course!content!and!the!value!of!this!for!your!future!career.!!I!will!also!ask!you!about!your!family!and! relevant!experiences!in!education!and!employment!to!date.!You!may!also!be!invited!to!participate!in!a!focus!group!at!a!later!stage!if!you!are!
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available.! Participation!in!this!research!is!voluntary!and!you!are!not!obliged!to!take!part.!!If!you!do!decide!to!participate,!you!will!be!free!to!withdraw!at! any!time!without!the!need!to!give!any!reason!or!explanation!and!you!can!request!to!have!any!data!or!information!relating!to!you!destroyed.! The!interviews!will!be!audio!recorded!and!transcribed!and!I!will!take!notes!during!the!interviews.!!These!recordings,!transcripts!and!any! notes!taken!will!be!given!a!code!and!your!name!will!not!appear!anywhere!within!the!data,!which!will!be!stored!on!a!password!protected! computer.!!The!contents!of!all!interviews!will!be!kept!confidential!to!the!research!team!and!data!will!be!anonymised!in!all!publications,!reports! and!presentations!arising!from!this!research!unless!you!specifically!request!otherwise.! Findings!will!be!presented!in!a!doctoral!thesis!but!it!is!anticipated!that!findings!will!also!appear!in!papers!and!articles!written!for!academic! and!professional!journals!and!in!presentations!at!conferences.!!I!also!intend!to!produce!an!executive!summary!for!research!participants!who! request!it.! I!hope!that!this!research!will!not!only!support!course!development!for!future!students!but!will!also!act!as!an!opportunity!for!you!to!reflect!on! your!course!and!your!postZgraduate!career!and!look!forward!to!welcoming!you!as!a!participant.! Thank!you,! Sally!Jones! ! If!you!have!any!concerns!about!my!research,!please!contact:!(Details!cut!for!anonymity)!
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Appendix(9.(Initial(Coding(Frame( Habitus disposition towards education not academic gendered habitus leadership being bossy masculinity femininity class conceptions posh poor working class entrepreneurial habitus risk money successful proving something institutional habitus academic/vocational pracademic Reflexivity 'subjective expectations of objective probabilities' Feel for the game (should/could) Personal experience reality Facts (in fact/it's a fact) Truth People like me Age related being younger being older Impact of family having a family
Forms of capital Symbolic symbolic violence masculine/feminine education Economic work/employment access to financial support Cultural Business ownership amongst family Attitudes and beliefs of family Support for education Gendered ideas of family Social networks – friends, work etc.
Transferability/exchange of capital Symbolic to economic Cultural to symbolic Social to economic Economic to symbolic Agency and structure Traits Push/pull Media Influences Role models Time of life
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wanting a family not wanting a family making family proud Entrepreneur Tales Personal story story about a family member story about another entrepreneur named well-known entrepreneurs Legitimacy Policy ideas and agendas economic employability age
Experience Emotions/Feelings Linked with entrepreneurship: Passion Fear Loneliness Excitement Fun happiness loss sadness
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Appendix(10.((Second(Coding(Frame(
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Appendix(11.((Final(Coded(Themes( ! !
Staff%
Students%
Institution%
Wider%Field%
Choice%
How!to!use!their! external!roles!and! external!influences! (media,!policy!etc.)! 'Have!to'!embed!and!! choose!the!'best'! approach!as!they! see!it! Choice!between!'for',! 'about'!and!'hidden'! Pedagogic!actions! Conceptualisation!of! student!choices!re.! business!ownership! (rational!choice)! !
Choice!of!HE! Choice!of!university! Choice!of!course! Career!choice! Business!ownership!or! entrepreneurship! Rational!choice! (agency!and!structure)!
Has!to!embed!enterprise! and!entrepreneurship! Part!of!institutional! habitus/marketing! Which!courses! Which!staff! How!
No!choice!but!to!embed! entrepreneurship!education! No!choice!but!to!be! entrepreneurial! Everyone!has!personal!!! responsibility!for!creating!their! own!jobs!
Position% Staff!as!'allIknowing'! Pedagogic!authority! pracademics! The!positioning!of! entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!within!the! module! Hidden!or!invisible! For!or!about?! Course/subject!area! (Sport,!Health!and! Hospitality)!viewed! as!masculine!or! feminine! How!staff!position! students! Can't!teach! entrepreneurship!
Students!as!'notI knowing'! Entrepreneurship!as!as! academic/!nonI academic! 'Can't!teach'! entrepreneurship! Courses!viewed!as! feminine!or!masculine! How!students!position! staff! Rational!choice!of! entrepreneurship!or! business!ownership! Women!students!as! doubly!deficient! !
Northfield!as!an! 'enterprising!university'! Position!of! entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!curriculum!with! HE! Gendering!of!disciplines! ReIpositioning!of! entrepreneurship!and! enterprise!from!within! business!schools!to!all! schools! Staff!as!invisible!and! 'disinterested!experts'!I! neutral! !
Gender!neutral! Staff!as!neutral,!valueIfree! conduits! Students!as!notIknowing! Women!and!ethnic!minorities'! linked! Women!as!deficient!and!in! need!to!extra!help! Students!must!develop!an! entrepreneurial!mind!set!and! must!be!helped!to!do!this!–! students!as!deficient! Homogeneous!student!! Homogeneous!entrepreneur!
Struggle% Private!ambivalence! and!public!certainty! Between!academic! and!vocational! suspension!of! disbelief!Ifas,! novelty,!can't!be! taught! There!is!more!than! one!'it'! For,!about!or!in! entrepreneurship!and! enterprise?! If!can't!be!taught!and! students!'notI knowing'! !
Not!entrepreneurial!but! businessIminded! suspension!of!disbelief! –!canPt!be!taught!yet! they!are!'learning'! about!'it'! position!taking!or! position!giving?!
Discipline!as!practice,! discipline!as!curriculum!or! discipline!as!generic! Cultural!hostility!of!HE! towards!entrepreneurialism! Difficulty!in!finding!a!'place'! Bringing!a!traditionally! masculinised!discursive!! space!(entrepreneurship! )into!disciplines!that!are! gendered!–!clash!of! different!discursive! spaces?!
Definitions!–!contested!but! presented!as!'settled'! Bringing!together!fields!of! Business,!education!and!policy! Cultural!hostility!of!HE!to! 'Business'!
!
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Appendix(12.((Student(Drawing(Examples((x3)( Anne's!Drawing!
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! ! Viola's!Drawing!
315
Bianca's!Drawing!
!
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