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Historical Perspectives The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 Jennifer L. Jolly, PhD
Keywords: gifted history, legislation, talent development, equity
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Hoover to call the army to assist in quelling the disturbance. Douglas MacArthur, Dwight Eisenhower, and George Patton were part of the forces that fired against these veterans. The government did not relent, and the majority returned home (Bristol, 2006; Greenberg, 2008). Entry into World War II had helped to eliminate the deep economic depression of the 1930s and to avoid reversion to prewar depression, a glut of workers entering the workplace, and societal unrest; pressure was applied by the American Legion past Commander Harry W. Colmery on the U.S. Congress to begin addressing needs of eventual returning troops (Greenberg, 2008; The American Legion, n.d.). Colmery drafted the initial provisions of what was to become the GI Bill in December 1943 (The T H E BILL'S BASIC American Legion, n.d.).
early 70 years ago. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, better known as the GI Bill of Rights (GI standing for "Government Issue"), altered the social and economic terrain of American society (Greenberg, 2008). The Bill's basic tenets provided unemployment pay, home loans, and education and training for returning World War II veterans. When the Act was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, few could have known or predicted the legislation's enduring impact. On the day of the signing, June 22nd, the Allied forces were in the midst of Operation Overlord (the Normandy Invasion), which riveted the nation's attention—not the signing of this particular piece of legislation. However, just over a year later, the full effect TENETS of the GI Bill would begin to influence millions The GI Bill's PROVIDED of returning veterans and their families (Bristol, Provisions 2006). UNEMPLOYMENT PAY, The GI Bill's roots lay with World War I. The Bill has been described The impetus for the bill came largely from as "enormously democratic" HOME LOANS, AND the American Legion. The American Legion (Greenberg, 2008, para. 7). was founded in 1919 shortly after the end of EDUCATION AND The criteria for benefits were World War I to advocate for veteran services available to all servicemen TRAINING FOR ar_d rights, and was instrumental in the upon their honorable establishment of the U.S. Veterans Bureau (later discharge from any branch RETURNING W o R L D the Veterans Administration [VA]; American of service and a minimum of Legion, n.d.). 90 days of service. There was W A R I I VETERANS." Veterans of Wodd War I had been promised little paperwork to qualify, financial rewards for their service by the federal and length of service was government. In 1924, Congress issued US$1,000 certificates only used to calculate the term of educational benefits (Bristol, to veterans that would be redeemable in 1945. However, the 2006). tenuous economic situation caused by the Great Depression led The Bill's unemployment readjustment allowance, known vaerans to mobilize and protest, requesting that the money be as the 50-20 Club, provided returning veterans US$20 a week paid immediately (Department of Veterans Affairs, n.d.). This for 52 weeks. However, few actually used the benefit due "Bonus March" of 1932 witnessed 20,000 veterans marching in to the stigma attached to accepting this type of government Washington, D.C., in hopes of moving the federal government assistance. Only 20% of the budgeted amount was ever used to make good on their promise early. Unrest caused President for this part of the program (Greenberg, 2008). The VA also
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DO: 10.1177/1076217513497578. From 'Louisiana State tjniversity, Baton Rouge. Address correspondenoe to: Jennifer L Jolly, PhD, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Louisiana State University, 223 Peabody Hali, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, tJSA; email:
[email protected]. For reprints and permissions queries, piease visit SAGE's Web site at http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermission.nav. Copyright © 2013 The Author(s)
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guaranteed the bulk of a horne loan to banks and set mortgage interest rates at 4%. Education benefits paid by the VA included tuition, fees, and book, plus a monthly stipend for a maximum of 48 months (dependent on length of military service; Bristol, 2006). Postsecondary attendance and homeownership no longer belonged to the privileged few, and "university came to define and ensure the ongoing production of a White middle class, rather than solely a training ground for the moneyed elite" (Herbold, 1994-1995, p. 106). These types of opportunities were now available to first-generation Americans, tninorities. Catholics, and Jews, and those from a large swath of socioeconomic strata (Bound & Turner, 2002; Mettler, 2012). For White servicemen, the GI Bill helped to secure a growing and robust middle class. Researchers have determined that veterans who completed a college degree or some type of vocational training gained US$10,000 to US$15,000 annually when compared with those who had not. The increase in salaries generated tax revenue that paid for the program 8 to 10 times over, often being referred to as "the best investment the U.S. government ever made" (Herbold, 1994-1995, p. 104).
Inequitable Outcomes Despite the universal democratic nature of the Bill, not all veterans benefited equally Black ex-servicemen did not experience the same types of opportunity as their White counterparts, and much of this was due to the poor educational environments they encountered before the war and the poverty they returned to after the war (Herbold, 1994-1995). Tuition remission provided by the government did "little [to help] black[s] who could not enter college either because of overcrowding or inadequate preparation for college-level work" (Herbold, 1994-1995, p. 106). Although predominantly White universities and colleges admitted larger numbers of Black students, historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) provided the lion's share of education to Black students. At the height of enrollment, approximately 20,000 students were turned away from HBCUs due to a lack of classroom space. Coupled with this, "the poverty of most Black families in the South made it problematic for most Blacks to pursue higher education as labor and income were needed back home" (Herbold, 1994-1995, p. 104), and the middle class that so many ex-servicemen were able to transition into became an elusive aspiration for many Black GIs.
Relation to Talent Development Sixteen million military personnel served between 1940 and 1945. Nearly half of all personnel had enrolled in college or some training program on the GI Bill (Bristol, 2006). This large swath of new college and training program attendees included some of the very brightest and talented students who may not have had the means or opportunity to attended college otherwise. Benefactors included gifted education's very own Julian Stanley Having served in the Army's chemical warfare
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division, he eventually earned his EdD from Harvard using GI Bill benefits (Benbow, n.d.). Other notable recipients include Supreme Court Justice William Rehnquist, U.S. Senator Bob Dole, author Joseph Heller (Catch 22), Civil Rights activists Medgar Evers, and actor Paul Newman (Mettler, 2012). Then there were other servicemen like Ted Sherman, who was identified as gifted and skipped second grade. Boarding at a school for fatherless boys, Sherman's trajectory may have been different if not for his service in the Navy and eventual enrollment at the Philadelphia University of the Arts on the GI Bill. He earned his BFA and had a successful career in advertising (Sherman, 2007). There are many stories of men and women who made contributions both large and small. Many of these contributions were possible due to the GI Bill. In 1950, the first wave of GI graduates earned 432,058 bachelors degrees which was more than double the 186,500 bachelors degrees that were conferred in 1940, illustrating the impact the GI Bill had on returning veterans' lives and American society at large (National Center for Education Statistics, 1993). Subsequent versions of the GI Bill have been available to veterans of both the Korean and Vietnam wars, along with the Montgomery GI Bill for present day veteran. Mettler (2012) notes, "members of America's 'greatest generation' saw governrnent make a difference in their lives. Millions used generous, dignified benefits to seize opportunities and becoming more engaged citizens" (para. 8). This type of largescale involvement by the federal governrnent is an excellent example of opportunity intersecting with talent, providing limitless possibilities for both individual growth and that of the nation.
Conflict of Interest The author(s) declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
References American Legion, (n.d.). History. Retrieved from http://www.legion.org/ history Benbow, C. (n.d.). In appreciation, Julian Stanley: A powerful American intellect. Observer Retrieved from http://www.psychologicalscience .org/index.php/uncategorized/in-appreciation-julian-stanley.html Bound, J., & Turner, S. (2002). Going to war and going to college: Did World War II and GI Bill increase educational attainment for returning veterans'Journal of Labor Economics, 20, 784-815. Bristol, M. (2006, January/February). Born of controversy: The GI Bill of Rights. Vanguard, p. 23. Department of Veterans Affairs, (n.d.). VA history in brief. Retrieved from http://www.va.gov/opa/publications/archives/docs/history_in_brief .pdf
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Greenberg, M. (2008). The GI Bill of Rights: Changing the social, economic National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). 120 years of American landscape of the United States. Retrieved from http://www.arnerica education: A statistical portrait. Washington, DC: Author. .gov/st/educ-english/2008/April/20080423213340eaifas0.8454951 Sherman, T (2007). Why gifted children act out. Retrieved from http:// .htinl www.helium.conVitenis/744627-why-gifted-children-act-out Herbold, H. (1994-1995). Never a level playing field: Blacks and the GI Bill. Thejournalof Black in Higher Education, 6, 104-108. Mettler, S. (2012). How the GIBill built the middle class and enhanced democracy. Retrieved from http://www.scholarsstrategynetwork.org/ sites/default/files/ssn_key_findings_mettler_on_gi_bill.pdf
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Bio
fennifer L. folly, PhD, is an associate professor at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, LA.
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