International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy Human resource strategy: the Ten Commandments perspective Abbas J. Ali Manton Gibbs Robert C. Camp
Article information: To cite this document: Abbas J. Ali Manton Gibbs Robert C. Camp, (2000),"Human resource strategy: the Ten Commandments perspective", International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, Vol. 20 Iss 5/6 pp. 114 - 132 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01443330010789205 Downloaded on: 17 December 2014, At: 05:42 (PT) References: this document contains references to 0 other documents. To copy this document:
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Human Resource Strategy: The Ten Commandments Perspective
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by Abbas J. Ali, Manton Gibbs and Robert C. Camp, Eberly College of Business & Information Technology, Indiana, University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA 15705, USA Pennar (1999) asserts that in the 21st century nothing will likely weaken the tidal pull that religion holds for most humans. Similarly, Simpson (1991) argues that religion is a major ingredient that must be taken into account in order to understand the evolution of the contemporary global situation. He indicates that the oneness of the world is embedded in the story frameworks of religions. Simultaneously, these religions reflect the thematic disunity of the world. In the era of globalisation information technology eases and economises communications, thereby making information available to a wide range of the population in almost every corner of the world. In a connective and interdependent world, therefore, religious principles may be transmitted and conveyed to adherents consistently and effectively. In addition, published materials related to spirituality in life and the workplace have flourished in recent years. In the United States, for example, publication of religious and spiritual books has increased dramatically. Publishers, in fact, have termed the 1990s “the decade of soul” (Rosin, 2000). Spirituality and soul searching are not new phenomena. Over centuries, many groups within and across cultures had experienced religious awakening. The current search for spirituality is different, however, from past religious revivals. It is intense and personal, and spread across civilization, geography, and ethnicity. The current religious revival, therefore, is becoming a global event and is mostly family centred rather than organised religious movement. This trend highlights the centrality of the individual and the family in the revival and continuity of faith. It also focuses attention on general principles that give direction and meaning to life. One of the most influential and guiding principles is the Ten Commandments (TCs). Christians, Jews, and Muslims each have their respective commandments. These commandments have influence on the outlook and behaviour of
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individuals and groups. Scholars acknowledge the impact of the TCs in the workplace especially on ethical conduct and decision making in the management and business fields. The influence of the TCs, however, has seldom been addressed directly. This is especially true in the area of human resource management. The purpose of this article is to highlight the centrality of human resources in the TCs and provide perspective regarding their application for business organisations. The focus of the article is on the TCs in the Abrahamic religions. Centrality of Human Resources Human resource strategy has come to play a vital role in enhancing a firm’s competitive advantage. Traditionally, companies did not grasp the fact that development and support of effective human resources were crucial for success (Gannon, Flood, and Paauwe, 1999). Today, however, this is not the case for most organisations. Companies like Microsoft, Ford, Siemens, and Nestle realise the importance of human resource strategies in the marketplace. This realisation is the direct result of fervent competition; economic globalisation, and the transformation of most of the industrial countries to knowledge based societies. These forces accelerated change and accentuated the necessity of speed, and alertness in the market. Consequently, competitiveness is not sustained through access to natural resources, but through careful cultivation of human skills and attracting, and retaining of skilled workers. In fact, the industries of the future are all based on brainpower (Thurow, 1999). New sources of wealth for business organisations are the brains and skills of employees and workers. The only hope for future survival of any company lies in the brains of its people (Handy, 1999). Firms and nations, alike, have come to realise this fact. For example, Andersen Consulting has recently designed a strategy to retain highly skilled younger employees in the face of fierce competition for talent from high tech companies. The strategy invalues the doubling of the number of partnerships and shortens the time needed to achieve partners status. The firm plans to invest $500 million over the next five years and gives investment awards ranging up to $20,000 to its talented staff according to performance. Papademetriou (2000) indicated that Germany,
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Canada, Britain, and Australia have recently designed programmes to attract high tech workers from all parts of the world to challenge US dominance in information technology. In the era of globalisation, knowledge workers are the real assets; the real creators of wealth. Organisations traditionally owned controlled capital and property. In the 21st century, however, organisations do not own intelligence; the owners are the people who work for the organisation. This poses a real challenge to the “traditional” organisations’ ways of conducting their affairs. In today’s business environment, organisations’ primary human resource strategy is to train and educate workers; nurturing intelligence. Furthermore, organisations recognise that knowledge workers need their freedom, or space to think and act with less interference from management hierarchies. In fact, for knowledge workers, making choices and self-expression take priority. Furthermore, unlike past centures, in the 21st century personal networking is not limited to a specific profession, industry, geography, ethnicity, or belief. Rather, knowledge workers consider the globe as their arena for networking (Ali, 2000). The TCs and Human Resource Strategies Back in 1908, Rudolf Steiner argued that the TCs are more extensive and general than the laws of any modern state, and have validity independent of their time and place. He further suggested that the TCs are held to be universal and people are conscious of them as having the same effect as any modern legislature. Adherents to the three religions in this study: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are committed to the TCs as moral and ethical guidelines. Individual commitment stems from a belief in the power of the TCs message and in submission to God. That is, their commitment is personal and is neither required nor codified by any law. In these three religions, the TCs are stated in general terms. More importantly, the focus of their instructions is on both the individual and the group. They recognise the necessity of group cohesiveness without discounting the desire of the individual to foster his/her existence.
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Steiner (1908), indicated that, in the context of Christianity, and Judaism, the TCs intend to strengthen the power of the individual ego. An understanding of socio-political environment which prevailed during the birth of the three religions, not only sheds light on their spiritual foundations but also helps clarify the human resource dimensions of the TCs. In the early years of Judaism, Jews were divided into tribes and were mostly Bedouins (Steiner, 1908; Visotzky, 1996). When they settled in Palestine they became essentially an agricultural dependent race: peasants, settlers, cattle breeders, and traders (Fallon, 1989). Years later when they were exiled to Babylon (modern Iraq) “the occupations of merchant, trader, financier and banker were introduced to [the] Jewry” (Rajwan, quoted in Fallon, 1989, p.9). The Bedouin background may explain the spiritual intent of the TCs. The Bedouin normally enjoy unrestrained freedom and value individuality but within the context of primary group interests. For Moses, there was a need to emphasise order and a system for life. These were necessary steps for settling in the Promised Land. Therefore, the TCs in Judaism emphasise the power of the almighty and moral conduct without threatening the individuality which is characteristic of the Bedouin people. Christianity emerged in a settled and socially well-developed community. The community was governed by the Romans. The Roman power was based on military and centralised authority. The Romans established strict rules and regulations. Non-Romans were subject to enslavement and harsh treatment. In such an environment survival and continuity were a priority. Therefore, the TCs, though stated in general and universal terms, aimed at highlighting the importance of moral conduct and obedience to authority; conformity and submission were considered virtues. In addition, the avoidance of conflict was reaffirmed more than once. The birth of Islam was in Mecca; a flourishing trade centre in the midst of a huge desert. The major tribe in Mecca was Quarish. There was a rivalry between Quarish and other tribes in the region. The Quarish tribe, however, was powerful; many of its leaders controlled
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trade and attracted followers via various inducements. These leaders were simultaneously merchants and warriors. The rivalry among these leaders was intense. Most of them were corrupt and abused the people around them. Alliances among tribes were common but fluid. In addition, followers’ loyalty was dynamic, it was mostly determined by the financial and physical protection, provided by leaders to their followers, and their perception of the leader’s relative strength. Since most of the Arabs at that time were Bedouins, tribal loyalty was the major factor in influencing loyalty and networking. Furthermore, the Bedouins of Arabia detested authority but respected and accepted power that was based on justice and generosity. Mohamad understood social, and economic conditions of Arabia. Therefore, he asserted certain qualities that enhance loyalty and equity. The human resource aspects of the TCs among the three religions, therefore, centre on loyalty, networking and the minimisation of conflict to ensure survival and continuity. The emphasis, however, varies for each religion. This was shaped by the social, political, and economic circumstances during the birth of each religion. Likewise, the universal orientations differ across each; though the universal message is strong in the case of Christianity and Islam (Long, 1991). Implications for Organisations Religious foundations of human resource strategies are important but are rarely highlighted in the literature. Human beings are, uniformly the focus of all existing religions. The specifications of right and wrong; reward and punishment; work and spirituality; and relations to others and God address directly and indirectly human resource issues. In fact, on a daily basis, people at work refer to certain religious sayings to justify, affirm, and encourage specific behaviour and action. Since most of the TCs have a universal message and since today’s individual’s commitment to work and organisation is broad and flexible certain implications stand out. These implications are discussed below for each religion in terms of recruitment, motivation and retention.
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Table 1: The TCs in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam* Christianity
Judaism
Islam
1. Ye have heard that it was
1. Thou shalt have no other
1. Do not consider anything
said by them of old time,
gods before me.
equal to God.
2. Ye have heard that it was
2. Thou shalt not make unto
2. Be kind to your parents.
said by them of old time,
thee any graven image, or
Thou shalt not commit
any likeness of anything that
adultery: But I say unto you,
is in heaven above, or that is
That whosoever looketh on a
in the water under the earth.
Thou shalt not kill; and whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgement:
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But say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be
in
danger
of
the
judgement.
woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart. said,
3. Thou shalt not take the
3. Do not murder your
Whosoever shall put away
name of the Lord thy God in
children out of fear of
his wife, let him give her a
vain; for the Lord will not
poverty.
writing of divorcement: But I
hold him guiltless that taketh
say
his name in vain.
3.
It
hath
unto
been
you,
That
whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit
adultery:
and
whosoever shall marry her that is divorced committeth adultery. 4. Swear not at all; neither by
4. Remember the Sabbath
4. Do not even approach
heaven; for it is Gods
day, to keep it holy. Six days
indecency either in public or
throne.
shalt thou labour, and do all
in private.
thy work; But the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter; thy manservant,
nor
thy
maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is one work thy gates.
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Table 1: The TCs in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam* (continued) Christianity
Judaism
Islam
5. Ye have heard that it hath
5. Honour thy father and thy
5. Do not murder for no
been said, an eye for an eye,
mother.
reason, anyone whom God
and a tooth for a tooth: But I
has considered respectable.
say unto you, That ye resist
Thus, your Lord guides you
not evil: but whosoever shall
so that you may think.
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smite thee on thy right cheek turn to him the other also. 6. Ye have heard that it hath
6. Thou shalt not kill.
6. Do not handle the property
been said; Thou shalt love
of the orphans except with a
thy neighbour, and hate thine
good reason until they
enemy. But I say unto you,
become mature and strong.
Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray
for
them
which
despitefully use you, and persecute you. 7. That ye may be the
7. Thou shalt not commit
7. Maintain equality in your
children of your Father
adultery.
dealings by the means of measurement and balance.
which is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and send the rain on the just and on the unjust. 8. For if ye love them which
8. Thou shalt not steal.
8. Be just in your words even
love you, what reward have
if the party involved is one of
ye?
your relatives.
Do
not
even
the
publicans the same? 9. And if ye salute your
9. Thou shalt not bear false
9. Keep your promise with
brethren only, what do ye
witness
God. Does your Lord guide
more than others? Do not
neighbour.
against
thy
you so that you may take heed.
even the publicans so? 10. Be ye therefore perfect,
10. Thou shalt not covet thy
10. This is My path and it is
even as your Father which is
neighbours wife, nor his
straight. Follow it and not
in heaven is perfect.
manservant,
his
other paths which will lead
maidservant, nor his ox, nor
you far away from the path of
his ass, nor anything that is
God.
nor
thy neighbours. * Sources: Holy Bible (Mathew 5:21-48); Exodus (20:2-17); Holy Quran (6:152-155).
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Judaism Sagy, Orr, and Bar-on (1999) argue that the Jewish religion is a major component of the Jewish Culture. Similarly, Neusner (1986) asserts that the Jewish people for the entire history of the West, for example, continued to conduct life in accord with the way of life of the Torah as explained by the rabbis. These qualities underscore two significant aspects of Judaism: successful survival and continuity of cultural norms across time and geography, and the centrality of rabbis’ authority in Jewish life. In fact, Neusner (1986) simply defined Judaism as the religion of the “one whole Torah of Moses, our rabbi.” In addition, Judaism sanctions obedience to authority. The Babylonian Talmud states “Pray for the peace of the rulers, because if it were not for the few of them, each would devour the other alive.” Long (1991) argues that Judaism is grounded in a very particularistic principle. The main underlying concept for this principle is “chosen people.” The belief in being “chosen” has a powerful, yet unexplored motivational influence. It strengthens cohesiveness and loyalty. In fact, the feeling of being destined for a special purpose stimulates individuals to broaden their in-group relationship and induces them to be involved in activities that enhance one’s positions and creativity. This, in turn, intensivies loyalty and enlarges networking. Ramo (1999), for example, notes that in the US the “three marketeers” - Alan Greenspan, Chairman of Federal Reserve Bank; Robert Rubin, Treasury Secretary, and Larry Summers, Deputy Treasury Secretary were fascinated by the creation of a 21st century financial system and over six years the three of them had merged into a kind of brotherhood. He quoted Greenspan in saying that, “In Washington usually you come to the table, and everyone meets, and no one changes their mind. But with us, you have something else.” Therefore, there are powerful implications for the TCs in the context of human resources that are significant for today’s organisations (Table 2). These are: centrality of leaders in motivating employees and enhancing the cohesiveness of the group; employees should be proud of their work and be loyal to authority; reward those who observe instructions, flexible work schedules; group retreat,
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spiritual renewal and commitment; leisure activities are crucial for motivation; employees should honour their organisational contracts; employees should not resort to violence to enforce their demands; management and employees should not disturb work group norms and established procedures; management and employees should not abuse organisational resources; employees should not provide false information that might hurt their organisation’s; management should not lay off employees just for the sake of it, and neither management nor employees should pursue desires that may weaken organisational cohesiveness. Christianity The TCs in Christianity were not directed at specific groups, nor at any specific time, or specific place. They do not condemn but tolerate the aggression and misuse of power. Jesus preached the message of peace and love but most importantly he understood what it would take to ensure survival under severe conditions. The Romans were powerful and confronting them could lead to devastating consequences. Therefore, the TCs placed priority on tolerance and submission. In contrast, the TCs in Judaism emphasise loyalty and cohesiveness while advocating obedience to authority. Conflicts and violence, therefore in the Christian TCs, are not considered virtues. This message was clear, “Do violence to no man, neither accuse any falsely; and be content with your wages.” (St. Luke, 3:14). The TCs have several implications for human resource management (Table 3). Chief among them are: management should create an environment conducive for harmonious relationships; due process enhances confidence and trust; management and employees should observe the spirit and framework of their contracts; management should not be motivated by mere cost reduction in conducting its human resource strategies; employees should trust management and should tolerate authoritarian style; resentments at the workplace could lead to severe consequences; management should treat employees equally and reward them accordingly; there should be
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Table 2: The TCs in Judaism: Human Resource Implications TCs
Implications for Organisations
1. Thou shalt have no other gods before me.
Centrality of authority and leadership in organisational life, leaders play a vital role in motivating employees and in enhancing the cohesiveness of the group.
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2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven Employees should be proud of their work and image, or any likeness of anything that is in be loyal to authority; rewards are for those who heaven above, or that is in the water under the obey and observe instructions. earth. 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy Employees should be respectful of their leaders God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him and be loyal to them. guiltless that taketh his name in vain. 4. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Flexible work schedule enhances commitment; Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work. group retreats are vital for spiritual renewal and But the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord commitment; leisure activities should be thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, encouraged as they provide renewal and nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy motivation. manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates. 5. Honour thy father and thy mother.
Employees should respect management and be loyal to their organisations; employees should honour their organisational contracts.
6. Thou shalt not kill.
Employees should not resort to violence to enforce their demands.
7. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
Management and employees should honour their contracts; both should not disturb work group norms and established procedures.
8. Thou shalt not steal.
Management and employees should not abuse organisational resources; sincerity to work groups reduces turnover and enhances productivity.
9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy E m p l o y e e s neighbour.
should
not
provide
false
information that might hurt their organisations; management and employees should negotiate in good faith.
10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbours wife, Management should not lay off employees just nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his for the sake of it; neither management nor ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is thy employees should pursue any desire that would neighbours.
weaken organisational cohesiveness.
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Table 3: The TCs in Christianity: Human Resource Implications TCs
Implications for Organisations
1. Ye have heard that it was said by them of
Management should create an environmental
old time, Thou shalt not kill; and whosoever
conducive to harmonious relationships;
shall kill shall be in danger of the judgement:
conflicts are a threat to group survival; due
But say unto you, That whosoever is angry
process enhances confidence and trust.
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with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgement. 2. Ye have heard that it was said by them of
Management and employees should observe
old time, Thou shalt not commit adultery:
the spirit and framework of their contract;
But I say unto you, That whosoever looketh
sincere and honest relations are vital for a
on a woman to lust after her hath committed
spirit of teamwork.
adultery with her already in his heart. 3. It hath been said, Whosoever shall put
Management should treat employees with
away his wife, let him give her a writing of
fairness; management should not be
divorcement: But I say unto you, That
motivated by mere short term cost reduction
whosoever shall put away his wife, saving
in conducting its human resource strategies.
for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery: and whosoever shall marry her that is doverced committeth adultery. 4. Swear not at all; neither by heaven; for it is
Employees should trust management and not
Gods throne.
resent its instructions.
5. Ye have heard that it hath been said, an eye
Employees should tolerate management
for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: But I say
even when affairs are carried out in an
unto you, That ye resist not evil: but
authoritarian style; employees should avoid
whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek
conflicts among themselves and with
turn to him the other also.
management.
6. Ye have heard that it hath been said; Thou
Tolerance for some abuse of power is vital
shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine
for group and organisational survival;
enemy. But I say unto you, Love your
resentment in the workplace may lead to
enemies, bless them that curse you, do good
severe consequences.
to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you. 7. That ye may be the children of your Father
Management should treat employees equally
which is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to
and reward them accordingly; due process is
rise on the evil and on the good, and send the
essential for building trust.
rain on the just and on the unjust.
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Table 3: The TCs in Christianity: Human Resource Implications (continued) TCs
Implications for Organisations
8. For if ye love them which love you, what
Management should reward employees who
reward have ye? Do not even the publicans
are loyal and productive; fairness in conduct
the same?
and tolerance for diversity strengthen the
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organisational culture. 9. And if ye salute your brethren only, what
There should be no discrimination in the
do ye more than others? Do not even the
workplace; employees should be motivated
publicans so?
to do their best as a team and provide an example for new recruits to follow.
10. Be ye therefore perfect, even as your
Management should be the model that
Father which is in heaven is perfect.
inspires employees to achieve perfection in their work.
no discrimination in the workplace; and management should be the model that inspires employees to achieve perfection in their work. Islam The TCs in Islam display spiritual, social, and business instructions. This differentiates them from the TCs in Judaism and Christianity. The Islamic TCs place unique emphasis on business conduct and on the pragmatic aspects of life. These, however, are grounded in kindness and compassion, as reflected in “The noblest of you in the sight of God is the best of you in conduct” (Quran, 49:13), and “May God have mercy on the man who is generous when he buys and when he sells and when he demands” (Prophet Mohamad, quoted in Ali, 1977). In addition, the Islamic TCs unlike the TCs in Judaism and Christianity, do not directly condone obedience to these who abuse power and resort to brutality. This is clearly stated in the sayings of the Prophet Mohammed, “Obedience is due only in that which is good,” and “the most preferred jihad is the uttering of truth in the presence of an unjust ruler.” Imam Ali, the fourth successor of Prophet Mohamad, states, “Nothing is more conducive to the reversal of God’s bounties and the
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acceleration of his retribution than persistence in injustice. God hears the prayers of the oppressed and is alert to the oppressor” (p.307). Certainly, the implications of the Islamic TCs are relevant for today’s organisations. This is especially true as the spiritual dimensions are carefully interwoven with social and business instructions. Table 4 presents some implications for human resource management from the perspective of the Islamic TCs. The most important implications are: priority in hiring should be given to qualified individuals; disagreement with superiors should be voiced politely; employee layoffs and downsizing should be considered as a last resort to maintain business survival; management should establish a due process in dealing with the employees grievances and performance should be the main criteria for evaluation; employees pension funds should be handled with utmost care; employees should do their best to meet their commitment to their organisations; management should avoid favouritism and nepotism; and employees should observe the spirit and the framework of agreements with their organisations. General Implications Certainly, the core objectives of the TCs in the three Abrahamic faiths are relevant to today’s organisations. In fact, the emphasis on cohesiveness and loyalty that is manifested in Judaism has a powerful message to any organisation. Organisations do not need to be led by an observant of the TCs to appreciate the essence of loyalty and its significance for organisational succession in the market place. Similarly, in a highly competitive world, the core objectives of the Christian TCs (tolerance and avoidance of immoral conduct) take on an added value for both large and small organisations. The Islamic TCs with their stress upon kindness, diversity, and obligations complement the messages of the TCs in Judaism and Christianity. That is, taken together, the TCs instructions are vital instruments for motivation and retention. Since the TCs are general guidelines for moral conduct, people tend to be selective in applying or in adhering to them. Selectivity,
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Table 4: The TCs in Islam: Human Resource Implications TCs
Implications for Organisations
1. Do not consider anything equal to God.
Respect for competent leadership; priority in hiring should be given to qualified individuals.
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2. Be kind to your parents.
Disagreement with superiors should be voiced politely; employees should observe instructions by their superiors.
3. Do not murder your children out of fear of
Management should consider employee
poverty.
layoffs and downsizing as a last resort to maintain business survival.
4. Do not even approach indecency either in
Employees should be honest in dealing with
public or in private.
management and should not sabotage property; management should show the utmost consideration for social norms and values and the rights of employees.
5. Do not murder for no reason, anyone whom
Management should establish a due process
God has considered respectable. Thus, your
for dealing with employee grievances and
Lord guides you so that you may think.
should show justice and equity; performance should be the main criteria for evaluation.
6. Do not handle the property of the orphans
Management should not abuse the rights of
except with a good reason until they become
employees; employee pension funds should
mature and strong.
be handled with the utmost care.
7. Maintain equality in your dealings by the
Management should be fair and just in
means of measurement and balance.
recruiting, compensation, and in treatment of employees; management should offer a balanced programme to motivate and retain employees; employees should do their best to meet
their
commitments
to
their
organisations. 8. Be just in your words even if the party
Management should avoid favouritism and
involved is one of your relatives.
nepotism; there should be no discrimination in the workplace; superiors should avoid misleading their subordinates; maintaining the dignity of employees is a virtue; diversity is essential for organisational growth.
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Table 4: The TCs in Islam: Human Resource Implications (continued) TCs
Implications for Organisations
9. Keep your promise with God. Does your
Employees should observe both the letter and
Lord guide you so that you may take heed.
the spirit of their agreements with their organisations; and should not rush to
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conclusions that may hurt their companies. 10. This is My path and it is straight. Follow it
Management should devise plans that
and not other paths, which will lead you far
motivate employees to be productive and
away from the path of God.
loyal to their organisations; frankness in dealing with subordinates is a virtue.
however, does not mean that people ignore moral principles. Rather, it reflects the nature of human beings and the influence of various social, economic, political and personal forces on them. It also means that moral principles are difficult to codify in today’s environment and are best left for individuals to decide their utility and usefulness in different settings. Nevertheless, once the TCs principles are internalised, they become powerful instruments that influence and dictate personal and organisational conduct. Furthermore, in the workplace, organisations can capitalise on the spiritual power of the TCs by recognising and appreciating diversity in thinking without overlooking the moral aspects of conducting business. The spiritual dimensions of the TCs are universal. Organisations and their leaders may find the spiritual dimensions important for achieving a competitive position. There are various indications that in the global market place and in knowledge based societies, employees have relatively more freedom than ever before to move across the globe. This new reality, coupled with the declining role of organised religion worldwide, increases the need for a spiritual message in the life of the individual. That is, in a rapidly changing environment, wealth and personal achievement may not be enough to fulfil certain aspects in life. The TCs instructions, therefore, may be vital in minimising fear and anxiety associated with personal uncertainty and loneliness.
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In terms of recruitments and motivation, the TCs provide interesting insights. For example, the TCs in Judaism were originally directed at the twelve Jewish tribes. The social organisation, at that time, had specific and well-defined boundaries. Therefore, there was no need to broaden the faith beyond these special groups. This is still true even in today’s world, as Jews do not organise missions to purposefully convert others. In contrast, in Christianity and Islam the spiritual message was oriented to all people. That is, both the setting and the social organisations are borderless. Both religions, therefore, have expanded dramatically and flourished across countries and cultures through organised missions and other means. Recruitment and motivation have been utilised to convey the message and spread their respective faiths. Diversity in recruiting and motivational efforts are, therefore, considered normal conduct. Business organisations may find it useful to understand the underlying principles for such successful diversity programmes. Organisations that conduct their operations across the globe should show the utmost sensitivity to the TCs. This is not mere intellectual speculation but an urgent issue that companies should take seriously. This is because people are not aware of the direct and indirect influence of the TCs on them. For instance, the TCs in Judaism preach cohesiveness and that one has to be proud of his/her work. This often is translated into practice. Dershowitz (1991) argues, for example, that Jews must be assertive in all aspects of their lives. A case in point is Gerald Levine, the Chief Executive of Time Warner. In the merger of America on Line (AOL) and Time Warner, he insisted that he, rather than Steven Case, the AOL’s CEO, be in charge (Glass, 2000). Individuals from the other two faiths may not be that assertive or persuasive in advancing their causes. Christians may tend to be forgiving. Muslims may call for equity and justice and insist on observing principles. Few examples from the public sector in the US may shed light on this issue. When Madeleine Albright was nominated to be the US representative to the UN she insisted that she would not accept less than a full cabinet status in the Clinton administration. The post, therefore, was alleviated to the cabinet level. During her tenure as
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the US Secretary of State, an American Christian, Joseph Zogby, was ousted just after he was hired by the State Department in 1999 because of possible bias due to his Arabic ancestral origin. Likewise, when Laila Al-Marayati was nominated to serve on the White House’s Commission on International Religious Freedom, she was dismissed immediately after a powerful group objected to her Muslim affiliation and a possible bias in her views (see Birnbaum, 1999; Issues, 1999). In both cases the two individuals accepted the verdict, though the latter cried lack of fairness and justice. In conclusion, the TCs are general moral principles that reflect the general orientations and directions of their respective religion. Nevertheless, these TCs may have a tremendous influence on people’s behaviour. Individuals may not be fully conscious of their direct influence on their personal and business conduct. Companies therefore, should give attention to the universal aspects of the TCs and their peculiar qualities.
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