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FEBRUARY 2003 • GEN 11 • SUMMARY

ENVIRONMENT DESIGN GUIDE 2001 AUSTRALIA STAT E O F T H E ENVIRONMENT – HU M A N S E T T L E M E N T S Dr Peter W Newton SUMMARY OF

ACTIONS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE OUTCOMES Environmental Issues/Principal Impacts The 2001 Australia State of the Environment (SoE) Theme Report on Human Settlements identified several key areas where a combination of the manner in which the built environment has been designed and the level to which residents consume both built and natural resources has raised concern about the sustainability of current patterns of urban development and lifestyle. Key issues have arisen in relation to per capita consumption and waste generation: •

Dwelling space has increased 3% per year for new dwellings (1992-99) despite reductions in average household size.

•

Energy use in the residential sector has increased 60% since 1975 (vs 35% increase in population); commercial sector energy use is forecast to double 1990-2010 under business-as-usual scenarios.

•

Greenhouse gas emissions are 27 tonnes/capita/yr – the world’s highest.

•

Water consumption per capita (1540kl/capita/yr) is also highest in the world (North America 1510; Europe 665; Asia 650; World 670).

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Travel as measured by vehicle kilometres travelled has increased by almost 60% in cities such as Sydney between 1980 and Travel, 2000 – adding significantly to congestion and air pollution.

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Material consumption, at 180 tonnes/person/yr is highest of all developed countries.

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Domestic waste stream is 620 kg/person/yr, second only to USA.

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Construction and demolition waste is 430 kg/person/yr, contributing approximately 40% of all solid waste disposed to landfill.

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Stormwater, outside of a small number of demonstration projects is not being harvested as a resource and domestic wastewater is currently not being recycled and re-used.

Basic Strategies There are key strategies to be developed and implemented by industry, government and community. The clear challenge to building design professionals is to reduce the size of the ecological footprint or environmental signature associated with residential and commercial buildings and urban infrastructure (i.e. strive to achieve significant reduction in the environmental resources used to construct and operate the built asset).

Cutting EDGe Strategies •

Eco-efficient design will become a key driver over the next decade as productivity gains and cost reductions continue to be sought as a basis for international competitiveness, but with an added requirement for a significant improvement in environmental performance. Automated computer-based design tools linked to 3D CAD will support this driver (Tucker et al, 2003).

•

New design criteria and processes for eco-industrial parks will be needed. These will be associated with developments in industrial ecology and the conversion of waste streams into resource streams on which clusters of new green industries will be based, located predominantly on the outskirts of our mega-metropolitan regions (analogous to the high-tech parks of the 1980s and 1990s based on IT).

•

New design paradigms will be required to deliver improved indoor environments – where we spend 95% of our time – based on improved understanding of the links between indoor ecology (facades, thermal and acoustic performance, ventilation and indoor quality and their interactions) and human health and productivity.

Synergies and References Related key concepts are: eco-labelling of building materials; sustainable design of buildings, and sustainable subdivisions (where environmental innovation in housing, for example, needs to be complemented by synergistic innovation in neighbourhood infrastructures and design).

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FEBRUARY 2003 • GEN 11 • PAGE 1

ENVIRONMENT DESIGN GUIDE 2001 AUSTRALIA STAT E O F T H E ENVIRONMENT – HU M A N S E T T L E M E N T S Dr Peter W Newton Australia State of the Environment (SoE) Report 2001 produced by the Australian State of Environment Committee was tabled in Federal parliament by Minister Kemp in March 2002 (www.ea.gov.au/soe). This Note provides a summary of key points contained in Human Settlements (Newton et al, 2001), one of seven theme reports that were prepared as background to the SoE 2001 main report. Related publications with a focus on sustainability and on measuring Australia’s progress respectively are Environment Australia (2002) Are we sustaining Australia? and Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002) Measuring Australia’s progress. This summary has been developed to highlight the key issues and challenges identified in the SoE 2001 Report that Australia’s building design professionals face in relation to planning, design and managing the nation’s built environment. It also identifies some practical strategies to address these issues based on the author’s knowledge of the field.

1.0

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORTING

2.

SoE reporting is now well established at federal and state levels in Australia as well as within local government jurisdictions in states such as NSW (see www.ea.gov.au/soe for links to latest reports). The purpose of SoE reporting is to: •

Provide accurate, timely and accessible information about environmental conditions, and trends for the Australian continent via a range of indicators.

•

Increase public understanding of these issues and the driving forces (pressures) that are at play.

•

Provide an early warning of potential problems.

•

Report on the effectiveness of policies and programs designed to respond to environmental change.

It is in this domain that sustainability has emerged over the past decade as a new and powerful driving force that is engaging government, industry and community in a new way of thinking. It recognises that we are all living on a closed system called earth that would be incapable of supporting the planet’s current population at a level of consumption representative of countries such as Australia and the USA.

SoE reporting can be seen as the forerunner to sustainability reporting, which is to emerging through recently established Sustainability Units in several states (www.act.gov.au/sustainability; www.sustainability. dpc.wa.gov.au; www.planning.nsw. gov.au/sustainability). Increasingly, the design briefs for new as well as redeveloped buildings, facilities, infrastructures, subdivisions and urban regions are attracting a set of performance criteria that relate to triple bottom line (economic, socio-cultural and environmental) and whole of life inter-generational outcomes. These are being framed against the sustainability challenges posed by a growing population and associated pressures of human settlement on the quality of the natural and built environment.

2.0

To advance our efforts in sustainable urban development, we need to progress on at least three fronts. First, we need a better understanding of our natural and built environment systems as complex and inter-connected. Our knowledge base and way of thinking is currently too fragmented. Second, we need to develop new policies and instruments (e.g. ISO 14000 standards, eco-labelling, green building, etc) that will engender change and some re-ordering of consumption and production drivers. Third, we need new technologies (products and processes) that embody eco-efficiency principles. The shift required here is from the currently dominant paradigm of productivity (more output with lower costs, fewer people) to one of eco-efficiency (more output with fewer people and less resource consumption and environmental impact) – the Factor 4 principle articulated by Weizsacker et al, (1998).

A MODEL FRAMEWORK FOR SOE REPORTING The extended urban metabolism model of human settlements (Figure 1) enables a representation and assessment of the built environment in terms of: 1.

resources produced and consumed – whether renewable or non-renewable, and consequent impact on draw-down of stocks and natural endowments (including both human capital as well as natural capital).

urban systems and processes – the ‘engine’ of human settlements which includes as its constituent ‘parts’, governance systems, legal frameworks, organisation practices, technological sophistication, as well as a range of industrial processes and products across all sectors in the economy that vary in their level of efficiency and environmental performance (e.g. inter-modal transport networks; office design; electricity generation and distribution, etc).

3.

environmental quality of the natural resource systems within and adjacent to the urban system in question, including such aspects as catchment management, quality of rivers and receiving waters, biodiversity, air quality, environmental noise and public green space.

The BDP Environment Design Guide is published by The Royal Australian Institute of Architects

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BDP ENVIRONMENT DESIGN GUIDE

human well-being of the resident and visitor populations as measured by a wide range of factors now common in quality of life and social indicator studies; both quantitative, e.g. related to housing, employment, health, income etc; (ABS, Australian Social Trends 2000, Cat No 4102.0) and qualitative (Eckersley, 1998) in nature. waste and emissions and their level of recycling and reuse embodies another paradigm shift in thinking which redefines waste streams as potential resource streams (e.g. stormwater, wastewater, construction and demolition waste, obsolescent appliances, motor vehicles, tyres, etc) as well as the longer established initiatives seeking to minimise the generation of waste across the full spectrum of production and consumption activities. The value of such a model from a building design professional’s viewpoint is that it is normative: it prescribes a desired direction for change – reduced resource use (ecological footprint: see Wackérnagel and Rees, 1996); reduced waste; improved physical environment; enhanced human well-being and quality of life; and more ecoefficient built environment processes and products – that should be a feature of every development project (refer to Figure 1).

3.0

POPULATION AND CONSUMPTION 3.1 Key trends and issues A principal uncertainty for Australia continues to revolve around its future ‘carrying capacity’ – or what would constitute an ‘optimal’ population size for the nation. In Future Dilemmas (Foran and Poldy, 2002), three competing scenarios of low growth (reduced immigration), business-as-usual and high growth (increased immigration) has each been modelled for their impact on the physical environment. With 2050 population forecasts ranging from 20, 25 and 32 million under each of the three scenarios, issues of sustainability have demonstrated a need to examine levels of consumption as well as absolute population numbers (total consumption = population x per capita consumption). The 2001 SoE Human Settlements Theme Report revealed that not only was Australia’s population growth high by OECD standards (over 1.1 percent per year, 1991 – 2001) but also in levels of per capita consumption across a range of headline environmental indicators it exhibited rates among the highest in the world: •

water consumption at 1540kl/person/year (world’s highest); Livability: Human well-being • Housing quality, affordability … • Transport access, congestion • Social and economic well-being, equity … • Environmental health • Culture and heritage Urban environmental quality • Indoor air quality • Noise • Water quality • Ambient air quality Waste and emissions/ recycling and reuse • Solid, liquid and hazardous waste • Wastewater • Stormwater • Air pollution • Greenhouse

Resource inputs Urban systems and processes • Urban governance • Technical sophistication • Urban design and development • Industrial and organisational processes • Energy supply and demand • Water supply and demand • Food supply and demand • Transport supply and demand

• Population and human capital • Land stocks • Housing stocks • Industrial infrastructure • Transport and utility stocks • Material stocks • Energy stocks • Water stocks • Food stocks

Present settlements Resource inputs

Urban systems and processes

Human well-being Urban environmental quality

Future settlements Resource inputs

Urban systems and processes

Waste and emissions

Desired change

• Reduced resource use • Reduced waste and emissions • Greater livability • Improved urban systems and processes • Improved urban environmental quality

Figure 1. Extended urban metabolism of human settlements Source: Newton et al 2001

Human well-being Urban environmental quality Waste and emissions


•

materials extraction of 180 tonnes/ person/year (highest in OECD);

•

energy use and greenhouse gas generation at 27 tonnes/person/year (world’s highest).


density development in outer suburbs and the fringe continues to accommodate the majority of metropolitan household growth. •

3.2 Response As will be the case for many of the issues that follow, responses are required that involve all three groups of urban stakeholders in demand management – government, industry and individual consumers. For example, at government level, there are a range of initiatives directed at informing householders of more environmentally sensitive design and appliance selection (www.greenhouse.gov.au/pubs/gwci/howdohouse.html). At industry level, utilities are providing more information against which households can benchmark their consumption of water, electricity, gas, etc (www.yvw.com.au/corp_index.html, click on ‘saving water’ then ‘calculate your usage’; www.txu.com.au/ rescust/gas/energycalc.asp; www.txu.com.au/rescust/ elec/enviro_energy.asp for greenhouse gas emissions). Advances in information and communications technologies are providing smart houses and smart appliances capable of assisting individuals to lower their consumption patterns. Websites such as www.lead.org/ leadnet/footprint/intro.htm and www.rprogress.org/ programs/sustainability/ef host easy-to-use ‘calculators’ to aid each of us to calculate the size of our ‘ecological footprints’ and compare them to our counterparts in other countries and regions.

4.2 Response State planning agencies in the most populous states have developed policies that are designed to deliver more compact cities (e.g. Melbourne 2030, Department of Urban Affairs and Planning 1999, Sustainable WA). This remains a contentious issue (Troy, P, 1996; Williams et al, 2000) due to a lack of consideration given to principles for design at higher densities in the Australian context:

SETTLEMENT FORM AND FUNCTION 4.1 Key trends and issues A clear set of trends emerged in relation to the distribution of Australia’s population: •

Australia’s cities and regional centres above 80,000 population accommodate three quarters of the nation’s population and continue to grow at more than twice the rate of smaller centres.

•

The principal locus of growth is in the mega-metro regions of Southeast Queensland, the Sydney conurbation (Newcastle-Sydney-Wollongong), the Port Phillip Region (Melbourne-Geelong) and Southwest WA (Yanchep-Perth-Bunbury).

•

Coastal regions continue to be a preferred place to live.

•

Within cities, re-urbanisation (centralisation) and suburbanisation (decentralisation) processes are now operating concurrently. Central city suburbs are gaining population, primarily through higher density residential developments while lower

•

privacy, noise transmission, sympathy with neighbourhood character, and streetscape (Lewis, 1999);

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ignorance of principles for deriving maximum environmental benefit from pattern of street layouts (Pollard, 2002);

•

infrastructure capacities, and a set of principles for sustainable planning that stress the significance of the nexus between house and neighbourhood (Newton, 2002, p39).

Place-based inequities are closely linked to people-based inequalities as mediated through housing markets and must be addressed in public policy related to such key issues as distribution of and access to housing services (Troy, 1999).

For building design professionals, there are major opportunities through eco-efficient design, building materials selection, services and appliances selection and landscaping to deliver environmental benefits.

4.0

Between regions and within cities certain classes of people and places were not found to be sharing equally in the benefits of Australia’s economic prosperity. This was evident in respect of key indicators such as income, personal health, housing and human capital.

5.0

ENERGY, GREENHOUSE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 5.1 Key trends and issues Australia is well-endowed with both renewable and nonrenewable energy resources and has been capitalising on the latter to drive its economic growth (there is a high correlation between GDP growth and energy consumption). The problem for Australia is that its future use of fossil fuels is likely to be constrained to a much greater extent than in the past by the environmental impacts of their extraction, conversion, transmission and consumption. A key challenge is Australia’s position as one of the world’s largest emitters of greenhouse gases which must be addressed, in the short-term, by increased efficiency in end-use energy consumption – in housing, commercial buildings, industrial processes and transport. In the long-term, transition to a society based on high levels of use of renewable energy is required if the full negative effects of global warming and climate change (and variability) are to be avoided.



5.2 Response

scheme will depend on the responsiveness of individual organisations to minimising the energy consumption of the building and locating their operation in a manner that minimises staff and business-related travel. The ultimate level of response is that of the individual in relation to their behaviour as users of energy in the house, the workplace and in the transport they choose to use.

For the building design professional, key actions need to centre on: •

Creating solar suburbs (Boumeester van Ijken, 2000) whereby residences become net exporters of electricity to the grid via use of technologies such as photovoltaics.

•

Designing more thermally efficient buildings (shells) using currently available performance assessment software tools such as NatHERS (Delsante, 2002) for residential buildings and Energy Express (Moller, 2002) for commercial buildings. Emergence of energy performance standards in the Building Code of Australia (Australian Building Codes Board 2002a) in 2003 will be a major stimulus for change.

•

6.0

6.1 Key trends and issues Two-thirds of Australia’s population lives in a coastal strip of Queensland, NSW and Victoria, which collectively has less than one-quarter of the nation’s divertible water resources. Furthermore, within these coastal zones, access to developed divertible water resources varies: for the Brisbane water region, close to 100% of divertible water resources are developed, versus 80% for Adelaide and hinterland, 70% for Melbourne water regions and 60% for Sydney.

Recognising that material selection is a key contributor to life cycle energy performance of buildings, through the contribution that embodied energy makes to total energy use over the life of the structure. Common building materials such as concrete, steel, and aluminium have relatively high levels of embodied energy (Lawson, 1996).

•

Designing for deconstruction or disassembly and reuse of material components (Kibert and Chini 2000), reducing waste to landfill, saving embodied energy and leading to greater dematerialisation of our society.

•

Selection of energy efficient appliances (Sustainable Energy Development Authority [SEDA] website www.seda.nsw.gov.au/athome_ body.asp, Sustainable Energy Authority Victoria [SEAV] website www.seav.vic.gov.au/previous_ website/appliance/).

WATER

Increase in demand for water from growth in urban population and industrial development, competition with demand from irrigated agriculture, environmental sensitivities associated with diverting additional fresh water from rural catchments, and uncertainties of supply linked to climate change, all combine as pressures on a sustainable water supply for Australia’s urban regions into the future. For example, if projected population growth of over 50,000 additional residents in Sydney each year occurs and current per capita water use rates continue, an additional 115GL/pa will be needed to supply Sydney by 2020, placing considerable pressure on available supplies (EPA, 2002).

6.2 Response

More widely, there are schemes that have been employed overseas (e.g. BREEAM; Seo 2002) that ascribe performance ratings to buildings not only on the basis of their embodied and operating energy, but also on the energy use of staff travelling to work and servicing clients during the day. The success of this

Industry, government and community responses are being directed toward reducing demand for water and augmenting supply. On the demand side, many water authorities have set targets for a reduction in per capita water demand. For example, Sydney Water (2001)

550 at ay d / ita ap s/c 002 e r 2 it 2 l ne y 41 Ju da 0 3 t – ta/ ge capi r ta s/ y 05 tre da 20 4 li et – ita/ p 36 targ /ca s 11 re 20 9 lit 2 3

450 400 350

June 2001

June 2000

June 1999

June 1998

June 1997

June 1996

June 1995

June 1994

June 1993

June 1992

June 1991

300

June 2002

Litres per capita per day (lcd)

Water restrictions

500

Figure 2. Daily water demand per person (12-month rolling average, litres per day), June 1990 to June 2002 Source: Sydney Water



has set targets requiring that per capita water supply be reduced by 28% in 2004/05 (to 364 litres/capita/day) and by 35% in 2010/11 (to 329 litres/capita/day) using 1990/91 as the base year (505 litres/capita/day – see Figure 2). In the context of other jurisdictions such targets are achievable; e.g. Hunter Water customers have an average domestic water consumption of 210 litres/capita/day).

The response for building design professionals should be aligned with the objective of minimising the ecological footprint of each structure (which focuses primarily on resource consumption/resource depletion) and utilising materials whose manufacture minimises environmental degradation as well as harm to the human population. An increasing array of environmental assessment tools for residential and commercial buildings are beginning to emerge (Seo, 2002) to enable the environmental signatures of buildings to be identified at design stage in order to minimise negative impacts associated with development of buildings (as products) as well as their subsequent operation (process).

Building design professionals have a key role to play in the context of water sensitive urban design; increasing on-site (e.g. rain tanks) as well as neighbourhood (wetlands, impounding) water retention; ensuring private open space, such as gardens are not a major draw on water – via higher density and courtyard development or drought tolerant landscaping; specification of water smart appliances for bathroom, kitchen and laundry. (See www.savewater.com.au/ default.asp for information on water saving appliances or for more general information about saving water.) There is increasing interest in exploring systems for integrated urban water systems (Mitchell et al. 2002), which involves the reuse of stormwater and wastewater as a means of reducing the demand on ‘imported’ fresh water from surrounding catchments. Key environmental benefits would include significant reduction in nutrient flows (in particular nitrogen) to receiving waters; there are also likely to be economic benefits in respect of providing alternatives to the increasingly costly centralised systems of metropolitan water supply and waste removal and treatment. Several barriers remain, however, related primarily to issues of public health and consumer acceptance.

7.0

MATERIALS CONSUMPTION 7.1 Key trends and issues Australia’s level of per capita material consumption is very high by world standards and continues to grow. Australia generates material flows of almost 180 tonnes/person/year and to date there has been little progress on de-coupling economic growth and materials consumption (termed the de-materialisation of society). Overproduction of materials worldwide has driven the value of materials down, dampening the perceived need to reduce material consumption or recover used materials. A recently published futures (2050) perspective on Australia’s material consumption (Foran and Poldy 2002) revealed that in several key resource areas sustainability of future stocks was uncertain, especially under high growth scenarios.

7.2 Response The issue of resource depletion and the role that the consumption of materials occupies in creating and regenerating built environments and their economic bases is complex. There are uncertainties surrounding future stocks of several key materials (e.g. oil ) as well as implications that are associated with self-sufficiency versus global dependency.

Concepts of closed loop systems have emerged in the manufacturing sector (e.g. cradle-to-cradle management of materials in car manufacturing), but are yet to materialise for construction. To do so, would involve implementation of relatively new concepts such as ‘design for deconstruction or disassembly’, whereby material component specification in design would take into consideration potential for reuse at the end of the building’s life – in addition to the more common considerations such as cost, durability, and buildability.

8.0

AMENITY 8.1 Key trends and issues Residential amenity is a key concept for cities of the 21st Century in their highly competitive attempts to attract investment capital, skilled workers and tourists to their region as well as present a high quality of life for current residents and workers in a post-industrial society (Brotchie et al 1995). A number of SoE indicators are pertinent to the multi-dimensional concept of urban amenity, among them: amount of green space, noise, air quality (indoor and outdoor) and odours. Green space should be a straightforward indicator to obtain in an era of geographic information systems, but it remains elusive to state and federal reports to date. At best, we can gain insights from Green Web surveys such as those undertaken in Sydney, which suggest greenspace ranging from a mediocre 5% of total municipal space in some central city jurisdictions to over 60% in fringe settings. Urban noise also presents a challenge, with most SoE reports relying on complaints of environmental noise to derive their metric. Based on best estimates across multiple sources (EPAs, Councils, Police), data would suggest that environmental noise is increasing as an issue, especially in the larger ‘24-hour’ cities. Air quality, by way of contrast, is more extensively monitored and modelled across Australia’s major urban centres. The 2001 SoE Theme Report on Atmosphere (Manins et al 2001) indicated that there was little evidence of air pollution problems arising from sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead or carbon monoxide in Australia’s cities. Problems do remain, however, with respect to ozone (smog) episodes and fine particle pollution in the larger cities. Recent research (Environment Australia 2000) has indicated that concentrations of indoor air pollutants often reach


much higher levels than outdoor pollutants (through tobacco smoke, and indoor heaters, gas appliances, ingress and entrapment of outdoor pollutants, emissions from building materials, carpets, paints, office equipment, etc).

8.2 Response There are important developments occurring in all facets of urban amenity:

9.0

•

Regarding greenspace: Recent Canadian studies (Pollard, 2002) for example, reveal that some street patterns confer more green space and buildable area – versus space for streets – than others.

•

In relation to noise, the Australian Building Codes Board has undertaken a recent review of standards (Australian Building Codes Board 2002b).

•

In relation to indoor air quality, attempts are being made to eliminate problematic emissions such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at source as well as improve ventilation within buildings (air tightness – a plus for energy conservation in buildings has spawned problems for indoor air pollution).

RESOURCES FROM WASTE 9.1 Key Trends and Issues Australians currently dispose of 620kg/person/year as domestic waste, second only to the USA. When commercial and industrial as well as construction and demolition wastes are added, Australia has a per capita solid waste disposal stream of 1.15 tonnes/person/year. Over 95% of solid waste is currently disposed to landfill, adding to Australians’ consumption of space and demand for virgin materials for commodity production. Landfill also poses major environmental problems for groundwater quality.

9.2 Response Industrial ecology has emerged as a powerful new industrial paradigm, which seeks to link waste streams with technologies for converting solid and liquid materials previously stored or disposed to wastefill, into resources and products of value to society. Opportunities arise for building design professionals in the planning, siting, design and construction of these complexes – the 21st century green industries, which by virtue of their location in outer suburban and fringe areas, will constitute, perhaps, the most promising sustainable development paradigm and spatial organising framework for new manufacturing industry in Australia’s mega-metro regions over the next 20-50 years (Batten, 2002).


10.0 TRANSPORT AND THE CHALLENGE OF CAR DEPENDENCE 10.1 Key trends and issues The rate of car ownership in Australia is high by international standards (at 484 passenger vehicles per thousand population). And for those with access to cars, personal mobility, as measured by vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) is increasing at a faster rate than other transport indicators would foreshadow. For example, in Sydney between 1981 and 1997, population increased 20%, car trips for all purposes increased by 34%, number of registered cars by 47% and VKT by 58%. Increased travel is leading to increased congestion, restricting travel to well below speed limits, especially in inner areas. A Bureau of Transport Economics (2000) study indicated that cost of congestion in Australia’s major cities in 1996 was around $12.8 billion per year. If nothing is done, the total cost of congestion could rise to $30 billion by 2015. From an environmental perspective, congestion is a major contributor to vehicle emissions (CO2 and a range of air pollutants: see Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering [AATSE] 1997), although the introduction of low emission vehicles and hybrid cars will lessen this particular impact of the automobile over time.

10.2 Response A key area for involvement of building design professionals is in the planning and design of liveable and walkable neighbourhoods (see Centre for Alternative and Sustainable Transport, UK; Tolley, 1997; Olszewski, 2002).

11.0 CONCLUSION – TOWARDS IMPROVED URBAN SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES Fundamentally, this is where re-invention of our future cities occurs – via new and improved systems and processes (refer again to Figure 1). For the building design professional, the most significant challenge is incorporating a growing set of sustainability principles into planning and design of the built environment, that will begin to redress a number of the challenges outlined in SoE reporting and summarised in this Note.


12.0 REFERENCES


Development, Royal Australian Institute of Architects. Development

AATSE 1997 Urban Air Pollution in Australia, Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, Melbourne

Lewis, D, 1999, Suburban Backlash: The Battle for the World’s Most Liveable City, The Green Book Company, Melbourne.

Australian Building Codes Board 2002a Energy Efficiency Measures - Regulatory Proposal and Regulatory Assessment - RD/RIS 2002 - 1 Australian Building Codes Board and Australian Greenhouse Office, March 2002, Canberra.

Manins, PC, et al, 2001, Australia State of Environment: Atmosphere, (Theme Report) CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.

Australian Building Codes Board, 2002b, Sound Insulation Regulatory Impact Statement Statement, Proposal to change the Sound Insulation Provisions of the Building Code of Australia (RD 2002/02), February 2002, Canberra.

Melbourne 2030, (www.doi.vic.gov.au or www.the-silo/ melbourne2030) Mitchell, VG, Mein, RG and McMahon, TA, Utilising Stormwater and Wastewater Resources in Urban Areas, ‘Australian Journal of Water Resources’, Vol 6 No 1, 2002 pp31–43.

Australian Bureau of Statistics 2002, Measuring Australia’s Progress, ABS, Canberra, Cat No 1370.0.

Moller, S, 2002, Energy Express, CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Melbourne.

Australian State of the Environment Committee 2001, Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Minister of the Environment and Heritage, CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra.

Newton, PW, 2002, ‘Urban Australia 2001. Review and Prospect’, Australian Planner, 39 (1), 37-45.

Batten, DF, 2002, Converting our Waste into Wealth: The Scope for Eco-industrial Complexes in Australia, CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Melbourne.

Newton, PW, Baum, S, Bhatia, K, Brown, SK, Cameron, AS, Foran, B, Grant, T, Mak, SL, Memmott, PC, Mitchell, VG, Neate, KL, Pears, A, Smith, N, Stimson, RJ, Tucker, SN & Yencken, D, 2001, Human Settlements, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report) CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.

Brotchie, J, et al, 1991, Cities of the 21st Century, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne.

Olszewski, A, 2002, The Impact of Transport on Urban Form, In ‘BDP Environmental Design Guide’.

Boumeester, H & Van Ijken, J, 2000, Building Solar Suburbs: Renewable Energy in a Sustainable City, Aneas Technical Publishers, Best, The Netherlands.

Pollard, D, 2002, International Sustainable Building Conference, Oslo.

BTE, 1996, Transport and Greenhouse — Costs and Options for Reducing Emissions, Report 94 94, Bureau of Transport Economics, AGPS, Canberra. Delsante, A, 2002, NatHERS, CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Melbourne.

Seo, S, 2002, Environmental Weightings: Concepts, Methods and Applications, Report 2001-006-3-04 CRC for Construction Innovation. Sydney Water 2001, Towards Sustainability 2000/02 Report, Sydney. Report

Department of Urban Affairs and Planning (DUAP) 1999, Shaping our Cities, Sydney

Tolley, R, 1997, The Greening of Urban Transport: Planning for Walking and Cycling in Western Cities, John Wiley & Son Ltd; 2 edition.

Eckersley, R (ed), 1998, Measuring Progress. Is Life Getting Better? CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Troy, P (ed), 1999, Serving the City. The Crisis in Australia’s Urban Services, Pluto Press, Sydney.

Environment Australia 2001, Are we Sustaining Australia? A Report Against Headline Sustainability Indicators for Australia, Environment Australia, Canberra.

Troy, P, 1996, The Perils of Urban Consolidation, The Federation Press, Sydney.

Environment Australia 2000, State of Knowledge Report: Air Toxics and Indoor Air Quality in Australia, www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/airtoxics/sok/ index.html#parta

Tucker, SN, et al, 2003, LCA Design: An Integrated Approach to Automatic Eco-Efficiency Assessment of Commercial Buildings, Proceedings, CIBW78, 20th International Conference on Information Technology for Construction, Auckland.

EPA 2002, Framework for Water Demand Management Management, NSW EPA, Sydney.

Wackérnagel, M & Rees, RE, 1996, Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth, New Society Publishers.

Foran B & Poldy F 2002 Future Dilemmas, Report to Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Canberra.

Weizsacker, EV, Lovins, AB & Lovins, LL, 1997, Factor Four: Doubling Wealth – Halving Resource Use, Allen & Unwin, London.

Kibert, CJ and Chini AR (eds), 2000, Overview of Deconstruction in Selected Countries, CIB Report No 256, Rotterdam. Lawson, WR, 1996, Building Materials, Energy and the Environment; Towards Ecologically Sustainable

Williams, K, Burton, E & Jenks, M (eds), 2000, Achieving Sustainable Urban Form, E & FN Spon, London. www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/imquaf/hehosu (indoor air quality).



The views expressed in this Note are the views of the author(s) only and not necessarily those of the Australian Council of Building Design Professions Ltd (BDP), The Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA) or any other person or entity. This Note is published by the RAIA for BDP and provides information regarding the subject matter covered only, without the assumption of a duty of care by BDP, the RAIA or any other person or entity. This Note is not intended to be, nor should be, relied upon as a substitute for specific professional advice. Copyright in this Note is owned by The Royal Australian Institute of Architects.