Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2002
Identifying the Dependent Variables of IT Personnel Transition Karin M. Darais, The University of Utah,
[email protected] Kay M. Nelson, The Ohio State University,
[email protected] Blaize Horner Reich, Simon Frasier University,
[email protected] Abstract This paper reports the initial findings from a National Science Foundation supported study of IT personnel transition. We used the revealed causal mapping method [1] to elicit barriers, enablers, and examples of IT personnel transition. This paper reveals new knowledge and insight into the dependent variables of transition. The data is presented in the form of respondent quotes and interpretation of revealed causal maps from 83 respondents.
1. Introduction Information technology (IT) organizations within companies are experiencing a great deal of change. In-house IT organizations are transitioning from legacy system technology to distributed and advanced technology. Work practices that were ad hoc are being redefined with software engineering discipline. IT professionals who once produced products and services that were "thrown over the fence" to inhouse customers are now expected to be full business partners. All of these organizational changes require individual IT professionals to make significant personal transitions. Since IT personnel are key components in implementing new technology, it is imperative that they value change and choose to actively participate in the transition [2]. This paper is part of a National Science Foundation sponsored study of IT personnel transition, and reports the dependent variables, revealed through the causal mapping process [1], of IT personnel transition.
2. Theory and method
IT personnel transition is a phenomenon not well understood, and not well studied in the IT literature. A high proportion of the literature on general personnel transition deals with the individual transition from worker to manager [3] [4]. However, several studies have shown that IT personnel do not always hold management as a career goal [5] [6]. As the IT field continues to evolve, the need for non-management personnel to transition to new roles will be strong [6]. IT personnel hold a great deal of business domain knowledge about their organizations, and this knowledge must transition with them as the IT role evolves. As organizations change and grow, learning occurs that results in new needs and new types of jobs [7]. This phenomenon can be greatly accelerated in the IT area, due to new technologies constantly being introduced and new work methods, such as rapid application development and software engineering, being utilized to maximize these technologies. No theories exist that address IT personnel transition, but some general theories of personnel transition can be used to understand the phenomenon [7]. However, these general theories have been applied to limited contexts [8] [9] and do not address the role of skill acquisition that is central to IT personnel transitions [10]. In addition, several constructs proposed by theory are only partially conceptualized, making it difficult to develop valid measures in the IT domain [2]. Therefore, we used revealed causal mapping (RCM) to build mid-range theory of personnel transition in the IT field. This was accomplished by using frameworks and theories from the general transition literature to guide the qualitative elicitation of IT specific constructs, concepts, and linkages [1]. The interview questions were open-ended probes, and did not specifically mention transition at all. The goal was to lead the respondents to a discussion of transition issues [11]. The data elicited in the interviews was then iteratively
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validated by going back to the respondents and by consulting existing theory for guidance and interpretation. (The details of the RCM method are described in Nelson et al., 2000 [12].) Eighty-three IT analysts from eight organizations were interviewed for this study. Respondent demographics are shown in Table 1. The point of redundancy, where the respondents revealed no new constructs, was calculated to be thirty, demonstrating a more than adequate sample size. Table 1 Descriptive statistics of respondents Mean (n SD = 80) 1. Experience with 5.80 6.10 current project (years) 2. Tenure with 10.77 8.61 company (years) 3. Age (years) 41.25 9.16 4. Gender Female n = 36 Male n = 48 4. Education: High School (%) 15.00% Associates 16.25% degree Undergraduate degree 46.25% Graduate degree 16.25% Post Graduate degree 2.50% Not reported 3.75% Through the RCM validation process, six major constructs emerged from analysis of the causal statements. Table 2 summarizes the major constructs and the categories included within each construct. Each category is then made up of individual concepts that were elicited from respondents. Table 2 Concepts and constructs of IT personnel transition CONSTRUCT CATEGORIES I. Personal Competencies Cognitive Abilities General IS Related Abilities Technical Competencies Business Competencies Social Competencies
II. Environment
III. IS Support/Direction
IV. Motivation V. Outcomes
VI. Attitude
Knowledge Acquisition/Learning Technical Environmental Factors Business Environmental Factors General Environmental Factors IT Field Environment Job Environment People Environment Individual Environmental Factors Personnel Policies Management Support Corp Support/Direction Motivators Technical Performance of The IS Group Personal Outcomes Organizational Outcomes Attitudes
In addition to identifying major constructs relating to IT personnel transition, each causal statement was identified as a barrier, enabler, an actual transition, an organizational contribution, or “other.” Both barriers and enablers to change were identified since past research has identified these as separate issues [13]. The antecedents of transition, referred to as the barriers and enablers of change that lead to actual transitions, have been analyzed in a prior study [14]. The current study extends previous analysis by focusing on the outcomes of transitions rather than the antecedents of IT personnel transitions. This paper reports the findings of the causal mapping process that describes actual IT personnel transitions and their outcomes. We identified 582 statements that mentioned a transition and an outcome from over 4,900 causal statements elicited by the interviews. The causal map below (Figure 1) shows the most frequently mentioned linkages between a transition and an outcome. Only relationships that were elicited 15 or more times are shown on the causal map. The numbers on the maps represent frequencies, since this is a qualitative method. The numbers in the center of the lines represent the frequency two concepts were linked together in a single causal statement. Numbers on the ends of lines represent how many times a concept was linked to itself, through multiple sub-concepts. This paper presents the interpretation of the outcomes of IT personnel transition as revealed in the causal map.
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Nicholson [10] posits that work-role transitions, and the manner in which individuals adapt to those transitions, can have a profound impact on the future development of individuals and their organizations. The manner in which employees adjust to changes can be described as a continuous, multidirectional interaction between the person and the situation [15] where persons and situations are joint determinants of attitude and behavior. The results of our study show attitude and personal outcomes strongly emerging as central constructs that describe the outcomes of transition (Tables 3 and 4).
The most frequently mentioned outcomes of IT personnel transition are personal outcomes and attitude, with attitude mentioned more frequently for all types of transition. These two constructs emerge as the central constructs that describe the outcomes of transition. Interviewees most often mention dependent variables relating to attitude and personal outcomes when describing environmental transitions originating both outside the organization (IT field environment) and inside the organization (general environment and technical environment). Organizational outcomes are also mentioned as an outcome related to transitions, but only in the context of the technical environment inside the organization. The personal outcomes construct has a unique role as both a type of transition and a dependent variable of transition. Personal outcome transitions are linked to attitude on the map, suggesting that environmental changes may not only have direct affects on attitude, but also indirect effects through personal outcomes that IT employees experience as a result of broader environmental changes. Two constructs, IT field environment and personal outcomes, reveal recursive relationships in which multiple sub-concepts within the construct relate to each other as both cause and effect. For example, in the personal outcomes category, transitions at the personal level lead to other personal outcomes or further transitions. The following sections of the paper will discuss the dependent and independent variables of IT personnel transition as revealed from the causal map and provide interpretive conclusions based on the analysis.
Table 3 Attitude: Identified concepts and definitions Concept Respondents’ Perception of Concept Acceptance of The extent to which the employee Change accepts change as part of their job. Attitude toward The extent to which the employee change seeks out change and imagines the benefits of change. Frustration The extent to which the employee feels powerless or vulnerable in the face of change. Table 4 Personal outcomes: Identified concepts and definitions Concept Respondents’ Perception of Concept Job Satisfaction Employee’s indication of overall satisfaction with job function and job requirements Job Transition Transition to a new job role or responsibilities New Technical Acquisition of new technical skills Skills This relationship between the individual and the situation may also explain why we see a recursive relationship with personal outcomes. For example, as seen on the transition map, a change in the worker’s environment leads to a change at the personal level (job transition, new technical skills, or transition to a management role), which then leads to other personal outcomes (mainly job satisfaction) and these personal outcomes ultimately affect attitude.
3.1 Attitude
3. Dependent variables of IT personnel transition
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IT personnel respond to changes in the environment in a number of ways. Some seek out and embrace change; others resist change and experience frustration and anxiety. Their response in the face of change is influenced by their attitude, and pre-change attitudes may be adjusted after experiencing a change. Zanna and Rempel [16] identify three general classes of information on which attitudes may be formed: information concerning past behavior, affective information, and cognitive information. It is reasonable to assume that prior to experiencing a change, beliefs are formed primarily based on indirect experience (affect or cognition) with change. On the other hand, attitudes after experiencing change are more likely to be based on past experience [17]. Attitudes toward change can be studied at two points in time – before the change and after experiencing a change. Table 5 summarizes the most common attitudes expressed as a result of experiencing a transition. Those who were more accepting of change were more likely to have past experience with adapting to change and saw change as stimulating and exciting: “I enjoy change. I think I would get bored doing the same thing, day in and day out and I think anyone in this field that doesn't like change, would be a very sad person because it's all the time.” On the other hand, anxiety and frustration are also identified as accompanying role transition [10]. Some employees know that change is part of the job, but ironically, may still find dealing with change to be a challenge: “[Change] freaks me out! You know, in my mind I think it's a good thing. But physically, I always get pretty anxious about major changes. I like it when things start out smooth. But I do like to stay interested and change is one way to make that happen and it's always good in the end but sometimes I am resistant to it.” Others would just a soon not have to deal with change at all: “Change? I hate it! Because it's hard - It’s hard to relearn things and it's more comfortable to do the same thing, over and over again. I don't need the challenge.”
3.2 Personal outcomes In addition to changes in attitude, IT personnel experience personal level outcomes as a result of transition. While past research has focused on personal outcomes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment [10] [2], our data reveals additional Personal Outcomes that are also relevant to IT personnel.
Respondents also mention transitions to new job roles and the acquisition of new technical skills. Respondents overwhelmingly mention job satisfaction or dissatisfaction as an outcome of experiencing a transition. The feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction are often experienced simultaneously with other personal outcomes such as moving to a new job, taking on new responsibilities, or learning new technical skills. Those who liked change and were excited about the expanding capabilities of new technology expressed increased job satisfaction from transitioning to new job roles and learning new technical skills: “I went from what I was doing before to a totally different environment. I was in a Lotus Note shop. We did a lot of Lotus script, heavy-duty document kind of stuff, and that was great because I never had done that before. I did a lot with graphics and then I came here. We’re doing Visual Basic and that’s really neat because I had not done that before. I know, probably after a year, you could come back and say, “Are you still happy doing what you’re doing”? Maybe I’ll need another challenge.” Individuals often experience changes in their job along several dimensions as a result of environmental changes: “[The Company] is in a change and some of the things about our job positions and what we’re doing is changing. And sometimes we don’t know what’s going on until it’s finished. Some of it’s pay, some of it’s outside of my area of control.” Organizational Outcomes. Respondents identified organizational outcomes as well as personal outcomes when discussing transitions. Table 5 summarizes the organizational outcomes identified by the interviewees. Table 5 Organizational outcomes: Identified concepts and definitions Concept Respondents’ Perception of Concept Organizational Organizational performance in Performance terms of operational outcomes Outcomes such as quality, cost savings, and productivity Organizational Overall perception of the Success organization’s long term probability of success Organizational The extent to which the employee contribution feels able to contribute something of value to the organization These employees view technical change and adoption of new technology as enhancing overall organizational
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performance and improving the long run viability of the organization. “Well, most of the things that we have coming at us, project wise are all related to moving up towards these new skill sets…. towards the web application. All that technology is pretty new and if we get the projects on line faster, then they become productive faster, and the company benefits faster.” Employees involved with implementing new technology see themselves as contributing a valuable service to the organization and see a connection between their actions and the overall success of the organization: “There's been such a change in the environment over the past three years that I have not been able to get a good feel for the I T area and actually develop programming skills, whereas if I feel like I ever get a chance to I'd really be a big asset to the company with my experience and knowledge of the [business]. I feel like I have the skills to be a good programmer. It is just a matter of getting the proper training and being able to focus on it.” As evidenced by the previous comment, this study also revealed that many IT professionals described themselves only in terms of their technical skills. They identified their corporate contributions as their expertise with a specific system, or with a particular programming language. In general, they appear to discount their transferable skills, such as project management, problem solving, teamwork, and business domain knowledge. These skills and abilities are usually accumulated over time, working on a variety of projects, often with different groups of people.
4. Independent variables of IT transition The causal map shown in Figure 1 illustrates the idea that IT personnel are sensitive to changes in their environment. IT personnel respond to these environmental changes by undergoing transitions of their own. The causal mapping process shows three general types of environmental transitions that lead to outcomes for IT personnel: general environmental transitions, technical transitions within their organization, and transitions within the overall IT field environment outside of the organizational boundaries.
4.1 General environmental transitions IT workers experience changes within their working environment as the organization changes in response to internal and external forces [18]. The most common outcomes resulting from changes in the general work
environment are attitude and personal outcomes. Table 6 lists the most frequently mentioned concepts related to general environment transitions. Table 6 General environment transitions: Identified concepts and definitions Concept Respondents’ Perception of Concept General Change in organizational environment change ownership, structure, or culture Pace of change The employee’s perception of the rapid pace of change in the general organizational environment Amount of change The employee’s perception of the magnitude of change in the general organizational environment Respondents identified several types of changes that affect the organization as a whole, and are not unique to IT personnel. These transitions include changes in ownership, organizational structure, or culture. Several companies participating in the study were currently involved in or had recently undergone changes in ownership such as a merger or acquisition. Changes in organizational structure are often a response to internal or external forces. Not only does an ownership change often cause a realignment of the organizational structure [19], technical change can lead management to redefine job roles and deploy personnel in new ways [20]. General organizational changes are related to feelings of anxiety, fear, and frustration. One respondent summarized her experience with reorganizations this way: “I was at [one company] for, almost three years. We went through three organizations. [Companies] are always having to re-look at how the technology has changed. We’re totally doing things different than before. They have to ask, “How can we best organize for this?” …. It’s good to have new challenges but constant reorganizing is tough. It really is. It’s hard, hard to be productive.” Another example of a structural change is the movement to a team-based structure with fewer levels of management. Culture change also accompanies these other changes. For example, the transition to virtual teams changes the culture of the local workers when their manager is no longer co-located at their site and fellow team members are also in remote locations.
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“Trying to manage people that are in different geographic locations is stressful. In fact, that's something new to me. It was several months back when the new structure was put in place. I had five people, four people here and a contractor. Three of my people I lost to other areas, because someone in management said we didn't need the two people to support their function, but yet, we still have the same workload, but we didn't need the two people. So then, that has been a tremendous challenge and you start farming out things that you used to do, to the appropriate areas. There's an operations and engineering group that does the materials management function, so when we get requests for those things, we just have to shuffle them to their area because they got to hire people. We lost people. So, it's just kind of a realignment of the support function. Then, I got the three people in [a different city], just a couple of months ago and they're real nice people. I've only gotten to go out there one time, last week, to meet them and it worries me that here I am, their team lead and I'm not there for them. We keep in touch with email and with phone and things like that but, I'm not out there for them just to come in and sit down and tell me what's on their mind and I'm not monitoring their work on a daily basis. These things are really stressful and hard to get used to.” In addition to the types of changes experienced by the interviewees, they frequently mentioned their concern for the pace of change and the amount of change they were required to deal with. Both the pace of change and the amount of change in the environment are related to the employee’s attitude toward change and their willingness to accept change. One analyst expressed this feeling toward the amount of change in general: “I don’t mind change…but if you have too much then it gets overwhelming.” IT personnel have the added burden of not only needing to adapt to the continual nature of change in the IT field, but, in addition, being required to adapt to general changes in the organizational environment. Interviewees expressed concern over increased workload and not having enough time. This interviewee describes his experience: “They merged the two companies together and that was right in the middle of several projects going on and so, it was just a lot of work happening in a short period of time. It seems like there’s not a time to sit down and take a breath.”
4.2 IT field environment transitions
IT field environment transitions, or changes in the general IT discipline outside of the organization, like general environment transitions, are also related to the personal outcomes and attitude of IT personnel. Table 7 summarizes the most frequently mentioned concepts describing the changing IT field environment. Table 7 IT field environment transitions: Identified concepts and definitions Concept Respondents’ Perception of Concept IT environment Change in the IT environment change outside the organization Pace of change The employee’s perception of the rapid pace of change in the external IT environment Amount of change The employee’s perception of the magnitude of change in the external IT environment Continual change The employee’s perception of the continual nature of change in the external IT environment Technical change Technical change occurring in the external IT environment including the complexity and variety of emerging technologies. Frequently mentioned concepts relating to IT Field Environment transitions were general IT environment changes, the pace of change, the amount of change, continual change, and the complexity and variety of emerging technologies: “The IT field in general is changing very rapidly. Five years ago, everything I did, I no longer do; or anything I did five years ago is virtually dead right now. I have got a few systems that are hanging on by the skin of their teeth and they are already targets for replacement and the languages and just the style you know, mainframe type stuff is gone.” Some workers identified the Internet as a primary contributor to the amount of change and the necessity of acquiring new technical skills. In one of the organizations, several independent systems were being integrated into a centralized Internet structure, creating a radical transition for the organization. One respondent from this organization said, “Technology is changing quite a bit faster. Cheaper always constitutes change in our organization. Where new computers were coming out every 18 months or two years, now faster processors, higher memory, and larger hard drives are coming out months apart.”
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IT professionals also believe that the rate of change within the IT field sets it apart from other professions: “You don’t see new things coming about in accounting and some of these other areas. If you’re an accountant, you’re an accountant. You learn to use a new tool from a user perspective and don’t worry about it. But, if you’re out there developing and stuff like that then, the change is just unbelievable the things that are coming about. So, that’s what I think is peculiar to IT.” Because IT changes jobs and organizations by enabling new capabilities, it could be assumed that most IT workers would view themselves as change agents, and would have a high tolerance for a faster pace of change. However, prior research shows that technology changes can make some IT employees feel vulnerable, fearing that they may look incompetent if they don’t immediately understand the new technology [21]. This insecurity could explain why many of our respondents expressed negative attitudes and frustration in response to changes in the IT field environment: “When you change to a new system, whether it be hardware or software or whatever, before you even get used to that one and know how to work on that one, they've got something else and it's too quick.” Another respondent said: “Technology is just changing so fast and it's overwhelming to some people.” Changes in the IT field environment are often linked to the personal outcome of job satisfaction. Many IT personnel experience positive job satisfaction and look forward to the next, new and exciting technology: “I'm in a profession where it changes every three or four months so, I think I'm in the right field for me.” Others experienced negative job satisfaction and felt frustrated by the pace and amount of change occurring in their environment: “The worst thing about my current work environment is that we’re getting an awful lot of changes coming. We're upgrading one system to the next version and when that finishes, we're upgrading to the next version again because support stops after a certain period of time if you get too far behind. Federal regulations are coming down …with a bunch of changes that we have to set up. And now I have, this just came in the mail today, a new version of our purchasing and our accounting package. We were going to upgrade the purchasing package until we found out it only works with the newest version of the accounting package and so now I have to start the whole process with accounting for testing any problems that we're going to have. So, probably the worst thing about it is, I don't have enough time to do everything that I would like to do and in the manner I'd like to do it.”
4.3 Technical environment transitions Respondents characterize transitions in the organizational technical environment as involving a change to new technology, platforms or methods (Table 8). Table 8 Technical environment transitions: Identified concepts and definitions Concept Respondents’ Perception of Concept New technology Change in the internal IT environment environment from old technology to new technology New technology Capabilities of new technology in capabilities terms of improved organizational performance and the ability of technology to add value to the organization. The map shows that technical environment transitions are similar to other environment transitions by being related to personal outcomes and attitude. However, interviewees related organizational-level outcomes to technical transitions in addition to the personal-level constructs of attitude and personal outcomes. Examples of technical environment changes are transitioning from mainframe to client server technology, upgrading to new operating systems or applications, utilizing new object-oriented programming languages, and movement to a web-based environment. These technical transitions are related to a mixture of individual attitudes such as feeling excited about the changes and the capabilities of the new technology as well as feeling uncertain about the future: “[The company] is going to replace these old mainframe systems and move to a new client-server, so we feel like a little uncertain because we are in an old environment, and we worry about the future.” As organizations change in response to the assimilation of new technologies, technical transitions become related to personal outcomes such as new job roles and acquisition of new skills. Organizational level outcomes related to technical change are organizational performance improvements and overall organizational success. Employees view technical change and adoption of new technology as enhancing overall organizational performance and improving the long run viability of the organization:
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“I feel our system is pretty good and we’ve gone through several iterations and augmentation and it benefits the quality of the [product].”
4.4 Personal outcome transitions Transitions at the individual level most often involve changes in job roles, acquisition of new technical skills, or transition from a technical job role to a management job role (Table 9). Table 9 Personal outcome transitions: Identified concepts and definitions Concept Respondents’ Perception of Concept Job transition Transition to a new job role or responsibilities New technical skills Acquisition of new technical skills Transition to Transition from a technical job management role to a manager job role These transitions reflect the changes in the organizational environment as the organization responds to its external environment. Organizations respond to external pressures by redefining job roles and moving to new technology that requires personnel to learn new technical skills. Moving personnel to new job roles is common when organizations reorganize in an effort to utilize new technical capabilities and phase out old technology. Sometimes, those new job roles have yet to be defined, as illustrated by this quote: “Since the group that I support is now shrinking, by the end of September of this year, all those changes will be gone. Certain people will have just left the company or moved to other jobs. That whole department will be shrunk down and so, here we are.... two people supporting this group and so, you know, I just have no outlook. So five years, who knows what I’ll be doing – I haven no clue. A year from now, I couldn’t tell you. Anyway, that’s hard to deal with.” This analyst describes her experience with keeping up with new technologies: “Everything's different. The application's different. The technology is different and it's not that there was one new technology, there's several. I had to learn Unix. I had to learn Power Builder. I had to learn Stream Builder, plus some other utilities that I don't even know what they are now. But, I did them.” Moving to a management position is another transition mentioned in the interviews. Although several studies exist that show IT personnel do not always hold
management as a career goal [5] [6], many of the analysts interviewed did hold a management position as a career goal: “I think management is what I have been striving for for a number of years and it's probably where I'll still try to aim.” The category of personal outcomes shows a recursive relationship on the map, which means that transitions at the personal level lead to other personal outcomes. For example, an IT employee may experience a change in their job role because of new technology that has been adopted, and as a result, will acquire new technical skills to support their new job role. The opposite can also occur – an employee may learn a new skill in anticipation of a job change and then move to the new job role when the new skill is in demand.
5. Conclusions The causal map presented in this paper represents transitions that affect IT personnel and the outcomes of those transitions. While IT personnel transition is an individual level phenomenon, this study reveals that transitions in the environment at the organizational and IT field levels affect IT personnel in the areas of attitude and personal outcomes. In addition, numerous IT domain specific concepts have been identified that identify IT personnel transition outcomes, beyond those found in the general transition literature. The data from this study will allow for a more precise definition of previously theorized concepts and the development of appropriate and valid measures of old and new concepts. It is the first step in building a domain specific theory of IT personnel transition. The next phase of this study takes the revealed causal maps of IT personnel transition and develops a survey instrument to further validate the constructs discussed in this paper using confirmatory factor analysis. From a managerial perspective, this study suggests that organizations pay attention to and attempt to manage the pace of change in organizational transitions. This can include making sure that IT personnel receive accurate communication about upcoming changes and that their attitudes toward change are monitored and respected. This paper suggests that organizations should also be very sensitive to changes in the overall IT field and work with their existing IT personnel to understand their concerns about these changes and to facilitate opportunities that result from these changes.
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6. References
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[7]Miner, A.S. and Robinson, D.R. "Organizational and Populations Level Learning as Engines for Career Transitions", Journal of Organizational Behaviour, (15:4) 1994, pp. 345364. [8] West, M.A., Nicholson, N., Reese, A. “Transitions into Newly Created Jobs,” Journal of Occupational Psychology (60:2) June 1987, pp. 97-114. [9] West, M. and Rushton, R. “Mismatches in the Work-Role Transitions,” Journal of Occupational Psychology (62:4) December 1989, pp. 271-287. [10] Nicholson, N., “A Theory of Work Role Transitions,” Administrative Science Quarterly (29:2) June 1984, pp. 172191. [11] Rossi, P., Wright, J., and Anderson, A., Handbook of Research Methods, Academic Press Inc., Orlando FL, 1983 [12] Nelson, K. M., Nadkarni, S., Narayanan, V.K., and Ghods, M. "Understanding Software Operations Support Expertise: A Causal Mapping Approach," MIS Quarterly, September 2000 [13] Beer, M., Eisenstat, R.A., and Spector, B. “Why Change Programs Don’t Produce Change,” Harvard Business Review (68:6) Nov/Dec 1990, 158-167. [14] Nelson, K.M., Darais, K.M., Buche, M., Rice, S. “Identifying The Enablers And Barriers Of It Personnel Transition,” University of Utah, working paper, April 2001. [15] Terborg, J.R., “Interactional Psychology and Research on Human Behavior in Organizations,” Academy of Management Review (6:4), 1981, pp. 569-576. [16] Zanna, M. P., and Rempel, J. K. "Attitudes: A New Look at an Old Concept," in The Social Psychology of Knowledge, D.
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