Impact of land use changes on subsidiary occupation ...

Environmental Informatics Archives, Volume 3 (2005), 14 - 23 EIA05-003 ISEIS Publication Series Number P002 © 2005 ISEIS - International Society for Environmental Information Sciences

Impact of land use changes on subsidiary occupation: a case study from Himalayas of India S. Nautiyal∗1, R. Shibasaki1 , K.S. Rajan1 , R.K. Maikhuri2 and K.S. Rao3 1

Centre for Spatial Information Science, University of Tokyo 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-Ku, 153-8505, Tokyo, Japan 2 G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development , Srinagar, 126 174, Garhwal, India 3 CISMHE, University of Delhi, South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110 021, India

Abstract. The use of resources available in various sub-systems of production provides the sustainability to transhumant pastoralism in Indian Himalaya. As the transhumant pastoralists started settling down the conflicts between settled sedentary population and transhumant pastoralists for depleting resources is apparent. This is further aggravated in buffer zone of a Himalayan Biosphere Reserve “Nanda Devi”, India. The policies enforced by the Government created unsustainable land use for the existing transhumant pastoralism. We analyse the impact of land use changes on transhumant pastoralism and its ecological and economic consequences in the region. Keywords: Land use, Resources, Transhumant pastoralism, Polices, Biosphere Reserve, Himalaya, Conservation and management, Remote sensing, GIS 1. Introduction In mountainous region of the world the lifestyle of the many societies revolve around their livestock husbandry. Various studies are carried out on the symbiotic interactions among humans, animals, and plants from the perspectives of geographers, biologists and botanists (Cincotta et al., 1992; Gooch, 1992; Kuznar, 1994; Maikhuri et al., 1996; Anderson, 1952; Ugent, 1970; Harlan, 1975; McCorkle, 1992; Rao and Saxena, 1994; 1996, Nautiyal et al., 2003). The historical records indicate that all societies utilised the various functions from this occupation to their advantage. But of late the variety of reasons imperils the sustainability of animal husbandry occupation in many mountainous regions. The transhumant societies inhabiting the high elevations of Indian Himalayas in the western part exploited the seasonal abundance of grazing resources to their advantage (Nautiyal et al., 2003). The impact of changing land use policies on livestock populations which is subsidiary occupation of the Himalayan societies yet to analyse critically. The present study aims to examine the impact of implementation of land use policies on livestock husbandry in the buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR). 2. Study area The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) is located in the Himalayan highland biogeographical province of India, spread across three administrative districts (Chamoli, Bageshwar and Pithoragarh) of Uttaranchal. The area was declared as a National Park in 1982 and then as a Biosphere Reserve in 1988 with inclusion of buffer zone areas. The area comprises a unique combination of ecosystems including mixed temperate forests, alpine meadows, glaciers and high mountain peaks. It consists a core zone of 624.62 km2, which was surrounded by a buffer zone of 1612.12 km2 area. A total of 17 villages are situated in the buffer zone of NDBR. Tolchha sub community of Bhotiyas residing in 10 villages of Chamoli district of Garhwal region was considered for the present study. The population of the study region was 2253 during the 1991 enumerations (Nautiyal, 1999). Literacy rate in this region is about 37% of the total population (Table 1). The people of these villages send their livestock to the alpine pastures during the summer with grazers (nomedic pastoralists). However, during winter season due to harsh climatic conditions the inhabitants of these villages come ∗

Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]

Environmental Informatics Archives, Volume 3 (2005), 14 - 23

down to lower valleys away from the buffer zone area to graze their livestock. This is their traditional way, migrating to lower valleys during winters and to alpine pasture during the summer. Though some villages are permanently settled in NDBR but their migration with their livestock to lower valleys during winter and alpine pasture during summer is very common. The agriculture is rainfed and used to harvest 3 crops in two years in the villages located below 2800m asl and one crop (during summer) in the villages located above 2800m asl (Table 2). TABLE 1 Socio-economic features of the buffer zone villages (Chamoli part) of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Number of villages Number of households Total population Male Female Children below 15 years of age Sex ratio (females per thousand males) Total literacy (%) Household size (average family members) Land under agriculture (ha) Land under medicinal plants cultivation (ha) Per family average land holding (ha) Total livestock

10 419 2253 782 721 750 919 36.7 5.3 272.6 11.4 0.67 8150

Table 2 Main characteristics features & livestock population of the representative villages of lower and higher elevational region of the NDBR buffer zone. Parameters Altitude Transhumance Cropping patterns Main occupation Subsidiary occupation Number of cultivated agricultural crop Villages

Villages 2800m asl 2800-3600m amsl Practiced 1 crop per year Agriculture Animal husbandry 10 Malari, Dronagiri, Kaga and Garpak

3. Methodology A detailed review of land use policies applicable for the region was done from the historical records and government documents. Based on the review a detailed query response sheet was developed for a complete survey of representative villages to assess the livestock holding systems (numbers of animals in each category), source of fodder, grazing areas available/used, annual livestock management practices (Nautiyal et al., 2003). Data was collected over a period of two years (1994-1996). Government records were analyzed for estimating the livestock population during the last three decades and were verified with the data recorded from the households. Feed requirements were assessed based on the values given by Ranjhan (1977) on the standard food energy requirements of each category of animals in the Indian mountain conditions. The energy values calculated while using standard values given by Gopalan et al., 1978. The amount of feed/fodder collected and used for stall feeding was estimated from the stocks existing in each household, information supplied on the feeding practices and actual field sampling from community lands and agricultural lands (Nautiyal et al., 1998). For economic efficiency estimation, the values were converted to monetary terms using the prevailing wage rates for human and animal labour and price of commodity for manure, feed, meat, etc. For estimating the grazing intensity on alpine grazing lands all animals from the buffer zone villages and those coming from the numbers of villages out side buffer zone were collected from the registration records maintained by the forest check point at the entry points of the Biosphere Reserve. As the grazers graze these animals only in those areas where their grazing rights exists and these areas are identified by a specific name, segregation of data was possible. Grazing rights in each alpine pasture was also verified from the records of villages. Using a formula suggested by Bjonness (1980) the grazing intensity was estimated. We used

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Landsat-7 ETM+ satellite image (path/row, 145/39) to cover the study area. Thereafter got geometric correction to calculate the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and vegetation cover map. The NDVI is calculated from the following formula. NIR-Red NDVI= -------------NIR+Red (Where “NIR” is value of Near-Infrared Radiation from a pixel). For map classification we used decision tree classification and divided the information in six subclasses or subgroups such as water, rock, low density vegetation and high density vegetation in the pasture land, bushes, shrubs. All the information generated here is interpreted with GCPs, field data, field observation, in-depth knowledge of the area and plant communities. 4. Results The population of livestock reared by the inhabitants of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve buffer zone villages showed a drastic decline from the 1970-75 to 1995 onwards. Such decline is due to sharp reductions of sheep and goat population (Figure 1). However, the numbers of other animals, such as, milching cattle, horse and mule, though reduced, did not show any such drastic change. It is noticed that yaks/yak breeds in the area are completely extinct. Analysis of data indicated the number of families’ owning/rearing the bullocks and cows showed marginal increase, while those owning/rearing the sheep and goat showed drastic decline.

Livestock population (in number)

14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 Cattle

Sheep

Goat

1970-75

1980-85

Horse/mule

1995 onwards

Figure 1 Livestock population in NDBR buffer zone at three points of time. Sheep and goat rearing was an important occupation of the people of the region and open grazed throughout the year. They are moved from alpine pasture to lower valleys during the winters and back to the alpine pastures during the summers. Before the area is brought under conservation land use in 1982 all the 15 pastures of the region were available for grazing (Figure 2). The approximate area (ha), duration of grazing and carrying capacity of each pasture to support the herd in days is presented in Table 3. Before implementation of conservation policies about 6188 ha was available to support about 21000 animal units in the area. As the area was declared as a national park and then Biosphere Reserve, only 7 pastures with a total area of 2433 ha is now available for about 14500 animal units. This equal to a stocking density of 6 animal units per ha of pasture land while it used to be about 3 animal units per ha of pasture land before 1982 (Table 4).

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Figure 2 Location of NDBR in Indian Himalaya. Figure showing location of the alpine pasture in NDBR core zone and buffer zone

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Figure 3b Histogram of vegetation index (B1) of NDBR buffer zone pastures.

Figure 3a Land cover map of NDBR buffer zone pastures.

Figure 4b Histogram of vegetation index (B1) of NDBR core zone pastures. Figure 4a Land cover map of NDBR core zone pastures. The classification results of pasture located in NDBR buffer zone and core zone is depicted in Figure 3a and 4a. Based on the classification it is reported that the habitat of the herbaceous vegetation is conserved in buffer zone pastures. However, in core zone the thorny bushes and other species are getting expansion in the area while replacing the herbaceous vegetation. The histogram of vegetation index (band 1) for buffer zone and core zone pastures is depicted in figure 4a and 4b respectively.

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Table 3 The area (ha), duration and days spent for grazing in different pasture lands lying in the core and buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve.

1200+ 150 1800 + 150 1000 + 90 2000 + 180 5500 + 500 1000+ 80 1000 + 80 1500 + 120 2000 + 230 800 + 100 2500 + 300 1200 + 120 3000 + 250 3000 + 250

Duration for grazing (April last week to October first week) mid May to mid June mid May to mid June mid May to June first week mid May to mid June July to mid September April last week to mid May April last week to mid May Mid June to July Mid May to June first week May first week to mid June mid June to July July first to last week August first to last week July to August first week

25 43 35 45 70 55 55 38 24 15 25 22 23 32

4000 + 300

July to mid August

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Name of the pasture

DVS

No. of grazing animals (AU)

Dharansi Dibrugetha Bhitartoli Deudi Sarson patal Seni kharak Lata kharak Ramni Dronagiri Kaga Sirwans Kalakhal Choping Bagni

12 18 25 30 35 10 10 22 5 4 6 5 12 5

Nandi Kund

10

Days spent for grazing

DVS= Distance from the nearest village settlements

Table 4 The grazing intensity on the pasture lands before and after the creation of National Park and Biosphere Reserve. Total No. of livestock units

Total No. of pastures

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Average No. of livestock unit on per pasture for fodder / feed requirements 1400+ 140

Approximate area (ha) available for grazing 6188+ 125.0

Grazing intensity based on livestock unit 0.30ha/livestock unit

Before creation of national park

2,1000

After creation of national park and biosphere reserve

14,500

07

2071+ 190

2433+ 73.0

0.16 ha/livestock unit

The monetary (Rs) and energy (MJ) per/capita/year inputs and outputs from animal husbandry component of villages ecosystem is depicted in Figure 3a and 3b. While the animal husbandry component of the village ecosystem is very much efficient in terms of monetary currencies, but this component is not efficient in terms of energy currency as other components of the Himalayan village ecosystems (Fig. 3b). The animal husbandry system was highly strong during 1970-75 and 1980-85 time periods. However, per capita per year the monetary output/input ratio was similar during different time periods but inputs cost which is free and here calculated to analyse the system, if excluded then the system was highly efficient as monetary point of view before implementation of conservation policies (Figure 3a).

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Input

Output

Human labour for animal rearing (703)

Feed/ fodder (732)

Farmyard manure (556)

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal labour (497) Wool (110) Meat & milk (2297)

Grain from market (50)

a Input

Output


Feed/ fodder (445)


ANIMAL HUSBANDRY



b Input

Output


Feed/ fodder (285)

Farmyard manurhe (120)

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY



c

Figure 3a Monetary (Rs/capita/ year) inputs and outputs from animal husbandry at three points of time (a=1995 onwards b= 1980-85 and c= 1970-75) in NDBR buffer zone. Input

Output


Feed/ fodder (7839)


ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal labour (268) Wool (?) Meat & milk (285)


a Input

Output


Feed/ fodder (20330)


ANIMAL HUSBANDRY



b Input

Output


Feed/ fodder (37910)

Farmyard manurhe (5000)

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY



c

Figure 3b Energy (MJ/capita/ year) inputs and outputs from animal husbandry at three points of time (a=1995 onwards b= 1980-85 and c= 1970-75) in NDBR buffer zone

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5. Discussion Due to land use change policies the transhumant pastoralism in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve buffer zone has undergone changes. The animal husbandry system influenced based on the driving forces and directions of change. Here we identified three points of time (1970-75; 1980-85 and 1995 onwards) to understand the efficiency of animal husbandry subsystem in livelihood of the local people inhabited in buffer zone of Indian Himalayan Biosphere Reserve. The animal husbandry system has become more strong after the year of 1962 as before that period people in those areas were basically traders and their trade relationship was very strong with Tibet (China). But after termination of this relationship they had given their more emphasis for animal husbandry redevelopment but mobility of transhumant was restricted to alpine pastures and lower valleys only. Even in lower valleys the land use change pattern (such as growing influence of production forestry, expansion of agriculture on traditional grazing lands and intensification of agriculture through introduction of winter wheat) is said to be prime reasons for restrictions on accessibility of grazing resources to the transhumant pastoralists of the region. In 1982 the Nanda Devi National Park was created to protect unique ecosystems and wild life. This resulted in further reduction in grazing area, as major alpine pastures are part of protected area. The animal husbandry system which was strong during 1970-75 and contributing more in sustenance of the local people had started declining after implementation of conservation policies. This is a major set back to the economy of the local people. However, the vegetation map developed by us for the pastures of buffer and core zone of the reserves shows that the habitat of bushes/thorny bushes is getting more expansion in core zone in comparison to buffer zone as core zone is strictly prohibited for grazing. This is a threat to the diversity at local level. Many studies indicated that livestock grazing in alpine pastures maintain the diversity of the ecosystems/landscape (Singh and Kaur 1983; Naithani et al., 1992). However, policy makers think that the pastoral practices are responsible for ecosystem degradation (Chakravarty-Kaul, 1998). Therefore, the scientific studies will be very helpful in understanding the complexity of the system and designing and developing the effective conservation program for the conservation and management of alpine pastures (Kala, 2004). The core zone is strictly banned therefore; the tourism industry developed during 1950 to 1980 also suffered due to accessibility restrictions to main tourist attraction points in the region. The changes which include the modernization process itself could be summarized as: improved access and services to previously remote areas; disruption in traditional trans-Himalayan trade network; increase in tourism and alternative employment opportunities for local inhabitants; and general settling down of many transhumant pastoralists with corresponding reduction in the spatial mobility of livestock herds. Similar scenarios are also reported from Tibet (Clarke, 1988; Goldstein and Beall, 1989; Goldstein et al., 1990; Miller, 1995) and elsewhere in the study region (Ahmed, 1999; Hoon, 1996; Nautiyal et al., 2003). The conservation land use in the region (NDNP in 1982 which was extended to settled villages in 1988 under NDBR) created new management problems due to livestock depredation by wildlife (Rao et al., 2002). Such competition between wildlife and traditional pastoralism is also reported from Africa (Prins, 1992; Hough, 1988) and Himalayas (Lehmkuhl et al., 1988, Mishra, 1997). The options of management in the conservation area are not simple. Suggestions include reduction in the numbers of domestic stock (Brown, 1971); improving carrying capacity of the area (Semple, 1971); creation of (even small) inviolate areas and managing livestock stocking density (Mishra et. al., 2001) and exploring alternate livelihood options (Nautiyal, 1999; Maikhuri et al., 2000). Livestock care includes the provision of pastures, protection and veterinarian care. Each task makes special demands on the individual and the community are succession of varied responds to exigencies (Ekvall, 1968). Since herding requires the constant attention throughout the year, the transhumant pastoralists can not leave their flocks/herds even for a few hours. The time and energies and attention in required for managing livestock for migration followed by the winter settlements and least during summer settlements (Hoon, 1996; Maikhuri et al., 1996; Nautiyal et al., 2003). The sub systems within the village ecosystem in Central Himalayan region are: (Production systems: fodder, firewood, crops and livestock (b) Consumer systems: the household and livestock. These subsystems are interlinked. The production systems are energy intensive but little of commercial energy is used in the region. Human energy is important part of the production system. All the energy needed for transport is provided by animals and supplement significant part of human dietary energy requirements. Sheep occupies important role in both energy and monetary flows in the region due to its numbers. The main difference between the transhumant pastoralists and settled villages in that the transhumant pastoralists drew resources from several sub systems over an annual cycle and these sub systems are located in varying altitudinal zones. The sub-system are thus given some rest period for regenerating before they are put to use. In a recent study carried out by Abule et al., (2005) emphasized

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that the carrying capacity of the system is dependent on the stores found within the system and ability to replenish the depletions through consumption and in this direction the perceptions of the pastoralists on the intensity of the conflict varied, but many indicated that the intensity has increased. This is also happening in Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve where grazing intensity has increased 0.30ha/ livestock unit to 0.16ha/ livestock unit respectively before and after implementation of land use policies. High livestock densities in rangelands can result in reduced animal production due to overgrazing or reduced per unit food availability (Mishra 2001) however, literature on the evidence for reduced animal production due to high grazing intensity is limited.But the sedentary settlements though are awake overgrazing problems have little opportunities to reduce their livestock densities which contains mainly cattle. The increasing grazing intensity on rangeland resources could not be checked unless proper interventions are made (World Bank 2001; Mishra et. al., 2001; Abule et al., 2005). As in NDBR the implementation of land use policies hindered animal husbandry system on one hand and contributed to overstocking on the other. Therefore, the appropriate land use policy according to the ecology and socio-economic condition of the local people in Himalayan region of India is needed to be developed. 6. Conclusions The existing land use policies hindered animal husbandry sector of the region which is the subsidiary occupation to sustain the livelihood of the people in fragile Himalayan environment. Therefore, to replenish the loss from animal husbandry pressure on other sectors of the village ecosystem would increase in the circumstances of (i) intensification of agriculture land use in the region and (ii) over-exploitation of the forest resources (NTFPs) for economic gain. But alternate options would not substantiate the long term sustainability and can not be recommended. Therefore, a sound land use policy for the region is urgently needed. In this direction currently we are trying to develop the land use model for the area, with emphasis on land use, land cover change, bio-resources of the Himalayan region of India and socio-economic conditions of the rural people. The data analysis at various spatial scale is currently going on while applying modern tools such as satellite Imagery (remote sensing) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to study and analyze the land use land cover change in the region. This work will be helpful to understand the consequences of the changing scenario on the fragile Himalayan ecosystems. Acknowledgement. SN extend sincere thank to JSPS for award of the JSPS Postdoctoral Fellowship for Foreign Researchers (P-03807). The views expressed here are those of authors only and not necessarily of the organization with which they are affiliated. References Abule, E., Snyman H.A. and Smit, G.N. (2005). Comparisons of pastoralists perceptions about rangeland resource utilisation in the Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Management. 75, 21-35. Ahmed, K. (1999). The millk that ate the grass. Down to Earth, April 15, 24-31 Anderson, E. (1952). Plants, Man and Life. University of California Press, Berkeley. Bjonness, (1980). Animal husbandry and grazing, a conservation and management problem in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal. Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr. 34: 59-76. Brown, L.H. (1971). The biology of pastoral man as a factor in conservation. Biological Conservation. 3: 93-100. Chakravarty-Kaul, M. (1998). Transhumance and customary pastoral rights in Himachal Pradesh: claiming for high pastures for gaddis. Mountain Research and Development, 18, 5-17. Cincotta, R.P., Zhang, Y. and Zhou, Xinghmin. (1992). Transhumant alpine pastoralism in northeastern Quinghai Province: an evaluation of livestock population responsc China’s agrarian economic reform. Nomadic Peoples. 30: 3-26. Clarke, C.E. (1988). China reforms in Tibet and Their Effects on Pastoralism. In Kailash, 14, 63-131. Ekvall, R.B. (1968). Fields on the Hoof. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. Goldstein, M.C. and Beall, C.M. (1989). Nomads of Western Tibet : The survival of a way of life. Berkeley: University of California Press. Goldstein, M.C., Beall, C.M. and Cincotta, R.P. (1990). Indigenous Nomadic Pastoralism and Ecological Conservation on Tibet’s Northern Plateau. National Geographic Research. 6, 139-156. Gooch, P. (1992). Transhumant pastoralism in northern India: The Gujar case. Nomadic Peoples. 30, 84-97. Gopalan, C.B., Ramasastri, V. and Balasubramanian, S.C. (1978). Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad.

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