Impact of psychological capital on occupational

International Journal of Educational Management Impact of psychological capital on occupational burnout and performance of faculty members. Saif ur Rehman CAO Qingren Yasir Latif Pervaiz Iqbal

Article information: To cite this document: Saif ur Rehman CAO Qingren Yasir Latif Pervaiz Iqbal , (2017)," Impact of psychological capital on occupational burnout and performance of faculty members. ", International Journal of Educational Management , Vol. 31 Iss 4 pp. Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-01-2016-0011

Downloaded by Macquarie University At 01:05 12 March 2017 (PT)

Downloaded on: 12 March 2017, At: 01:05 (PT) References: this document contains references to 0 other documents. To copy this document: [email protected] The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 28 times since 2017*

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:191537 []

For Authors If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.

About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download.

Impact of psychological capital on occupational burnout and performance of faculty members.


1. Introduction Technical education is considered to be a highly challenging and demanding job that not just requires divergent knowledge, multifaceted capabilities and experience in professional fields but also a continuous attention, liaison and association with technological advances. An instructor during occupational activities has to connect to students not only physically but emotionally as well which puts him/her into greater physiological and psychological confrontation. Such pressures and challenges can cause many mental conditions like anxiety, depression, stress, fatigue, boredom, and even mental health problems that can result in higher occupational burnout. Industry is a major source of faculty for technical institutions where they have been serving for several years and have excelled in their trade. Trainers are either hired by technical institutions on permanent basis or for a shorter period, depending on the need of the institution and nature of trade of the instructor. This transition from industry to technical institutions involve changes in many aspects of a trainer’s occupation, although relevant to the same trade, teaching in an educational institution can become an immensely challenging job for an instructor. On the other hand the trainees belong to more diverse backgrounds and educational levels (Abbas, 1997; Abdelkarim and Perez, 1996), either they possess no formal education or are college or school dropouts from many reasons including bad performance, misbehavior and financial troubles. The phenomenon of occupational burnout has been widely studied among educators, Dworkin, 1987 defined occupational burnout, being an extreme form of role-specific alienation along-with high degree of depersonalization feelings and emotional exhaustion with low feelings of occupational accomplishment (Maslach and Jackson, 1986) followed by stressors that cause undermining of capability to perform under demanding situations (Golembiewski et al., 1986). Gold and Roth (1993), presented their findings about stress among faculty where the change in working conditions was found to be the biggest cause of stress and anxiety. Researchers have identified various personal strengths like wisdom, knowledge, perspective, persistence, vitality and social intelligence which are responsible for an individual’s struggle to counter the challenges of changing situations at workplace and found psychological capital to be one of the major components which is further based on four resources of hope, efficacy, resilience and optimism. Explanation of psychological resource in Hobfoll’s (2002) theory has been considered basis of understanding psychological capital and its implications into various practical fields. The concept is further supported and developed by Luthans et al., (2007, p.550), psychological capital has the ability to implicitly reflect, “one’s positive appraisal of circumstances and probability for success based on motivated effort and perseverance”. More than a decade of research about psychological capital has declared it as a significant predictor of a wide variety of individual-level organizational outcomes such as multiple measures of performance, attitudes such as satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intentions, and behaviors such as deviance and organizational citizenship (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005; Avey et al., 2011). Previous researchers like Wright (2003); Diener (2000) and Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) have mainly focused on finding reasons of occupational burnout and its impact on an individual’s job attitudes like job retention, commitment, involvement, satisfaction and performance. It has been firmly established in the body of knowledge that occupational burnout is negatively related to job attitudes which further impact the performance of an employee (Avey et al., 2011). While other literature in this regard is mainly focused on the extrinsic factors of occupational burnout; this research is an effort to find out the contributions of an individual’s positive psychological capital towards neutralizing the impact of occupational burnout on his job performance.

2. Literature Review Researchers have been trying to relate the factors that impact the performance of trainers by affecting their psychological health and cause occupational burnout. The following are some of the major reasons of burnout among trainers. • • • • •

Rise in number of trainees per trainer (Johnston, 2010). Empowerment of student unions in technical institutions (Luparell, 2005). Pressure for quality enhancement, to survive in pressing competition (Winefield et al., 2003). Increasing pressure of administrative duties along-with their teaching assignments (Doyle and Hind, 1998). Not being able to catch up to the advances in technology like use of simulations and digital substance (Brewer and McMahon, 2003).

1

• Limited availability of required resources (Lacy and Sheehan, 1997). • Emphasis on quality assurance and strict accountability (Marann et al., 2013). With the passage of time, the above factors are coming more into effect, as there is little one can do to contain these. One solution could be to either find or train the instructors with skills to handle situations listed above in a better way.


2.1 Psychological Capital According to Brent and Bret (2015), psychological capital offers a framework to understand human assets that can be useful in actualizing human potential. Research in the areas of positive psychology, positive organizational behavior and more recently psychological capital may provide pathways to help individuals not only to cope with, but to effectively thrive during and beyond periods of adversity. Psychological capital is emerging as a viable pathway to understand and encourage optimal human performance in the workplace (Luthans et al., 2007). Psychological capital is not psychological “states” (e.g. emotions) that neither changes in momentary situations, nor are they “traits” (e.g. personality traits, intelligence) that are fixed and unchangeable, rather, they are state-like capacities and therefore are relatively malleable. Initial research supports the malleability of the psychological capital and its component parts (self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resiliency) can be enhanced through human resource interventions (Luthans et al., 2007, p.563; Demerouti et al., 2011; Peterson et al., 2011). Luthans et al. (2007, p. 3) provided a comprehensive definition of psychological capital. . . . an individual’s positive psychological state of development characterized by: (1) having conﬁdence (efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success. Psychological capital has emerged as a salient organizational behavior construct and has been related to positive attitudes such as satisfaction (Avey et al., 2011), subjective performance (Choi and Lee, 2014), feelings of empowerment (Avey et al., 2008), self-perceptions of competence and growth (Combs et al., 2012), psychological well-being (Avey et al., 2011), as well as positive behaviors such as objective performance (Avey et al., 2009) and citizenship behaviors (Avey et al., 2011). Psychological capital was negatively related to work attitudes such as cynicism, stress and anxiety (Avey et al., 2011) and intentions to quit (Choi and Lee, 2014). Additionally, psychological capital was inversely related to negative workplace behaviors such as counterproductive work behaviors (Avey et al., 2010) and deviance behaviors (Avey et al., 2011).

Self-efficacy: as defined by Luthans and Youssef (2004, p.153) is “one’s confidence about his/her personal abilities to self-motivate and mobilize the cognitive resources, and chalk-out the courses of action needed to execute a particular task”. Individuals with higher self-efficacy are considered to thrive on tough challenges, persistent in efforts and firm in belief that their abilities will help them succeed. Self-efficacy is believed to be increased with training and experience (Demerouti et al., 2011). Competencies that can be used to enhance self-efficacy include task-mastery, role-modeling, mentoring and feedback (Luthans et al., 2006).

Optimism: as per Luthans and Youssef (2004, p.153), “involves a positive explanatory style that attributes positive events to internal, permanent, and pervasive causes and negative events to external, temporary and situation-specific ones”. Optimism while externalizing the negative events and minimize their impact by relating them to the specific situation can enhance motivation by inducing a belief on the personal abilities. An individual's optimism is significantly related to his/her confidence in his/her abilities, as the confidence rises his/her optimism about future events also increases (Nonis and Wright, 2003) and empirical studies in this regard provide evidence that training and development of staff can increase their optimism (Demerouti et al., 2011; Luthans et al., 2008 and Luthans et al., 2010).

Hope: As per Luthans and Youssef (2004, p.153), “hope is a motivational state based on mutual relationship of factors like goals, agency and pathways which further enables an individual to visualize a different set of solutions to any problematic situation to achieve success”. Snyder (2000), provided guidelines to increase hope by obtaining goal acceptance, determining the specific goals, clarifying the desired goals, developing different alternative pathways, developing the skills required for critical reasoning and conducting virtual situation-rehearsals of upcoming events. Following these steps, individuals can be trained to keep hope and ensured to gain maximum benefit from this increased dimension of the psychological capital.

2

Resiliency: As defined by Luthans (2002, p.702), is “the ability of an individual to bounce back from adversity of most challenging events such as drastic change in job responsibilities”. Resiliency as discussed by previous researchers such as Avey et al., (2010) and Luthans (2002), can be enhanced using a strategy with three major actions, firstly, by focusing on available assets and increasing them to increase chances of success, secondly by minimizing risks mitigating odds and increasing probability of success and thirdly by increasing chances of success by strengthening key processes of one's action-strategy. Body of knowledge is increasing day by day in this regard and the concept is still in development phase (Luthans et al., 2006; Demerouti et al., 2011).

2.2 Occupational Burnout


Maslach (1982) conceptualized burnout as a syndrome in response to stress consisting of three key dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feelings of reduced personal accomplishment. Jacob (1994) in his research on an educational institution described burnout as an important factor influencing productivity, commitment, and intentions to leave a job, which disrupts organizational operation and costs. Consequences of occupational burnout among teachers contain: • Decline in mental and physical health (Barkhuizen et al., 2004). • Weak interpersonal relations (Brown et al., 1996). • Decrease in teaching performance (Dick, 1992; Singh et al., 1998). • Increased absenteeism and intention to leave (Blix et al., 1994; Seiler and Pearson, 1985). • Loss of concentration towards students and organization (Marann et al., 2013). • Reduced personal accomplishment (Byrne 1994) Maslach and Jackson (1986) pointed out three dimensions of occupational burnout from their experiences of interactions with fellow human beings namely psychological exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment. Subsequent researchers like Koustelios, (2009) and Marann et al., (2013) have acknowledged the same by adopting them in a variety of research studies. A brief description of these dimensions is presented below. Psychological Exhaustion--When an individual feels emotionally drained and tired from job related stress. Depersonalization--A feeling of loss of attachment with one's environment. Low personal accomplishment--Feeling of doubt about one's capabilities and fear it won’t help him complete an assignment on the job. Burnout is not a spontaneous process rather happens in phases, the three factors pointed out by the earlier researchers are actually three phases of burnout which follow each other and carry causes and symptoms independently. As per Maslach (1982), the earliest symptom is emotional exhaustion which shows the depletion of one's emotional resources. An individual feels drained by his work, runs short of the energy to keep focus on his/her job. Then there comes depersonalization when an individual disengages him/herself from his/her job and tries to find refuge elsewhere, he/she starts showing lesser care to people around him/her (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). Still he/she continues to undertake his/her job tasks but now in more mechanical way than in a human way. Prolong depersonalization leads to another stage known as feeling of reduced personal accomplishment and he/she loses faith on his/her competence and ability to finish his/her job successfully (Leiter and Maslach, 1988).

2.3 Performance Performance can be defined in many ways but the most precise definition came from Oppler and Sager (1993, p.488), who defined performance as “the goal relevant actions of an employee”. Performance comes from doing what someone is hired to do, it increases when he/she tries and succeeds in doing it sooner, and better than, as per instructions. In this study, job performance is further divided into two types. In-role performance is based on how well a faculty member is able to apply his knowledge and skills to instill knowledge and enhance skills of his/her pupils. It is more of a mechanical rather than a mental activity that includes repetition of tasks until a certain level of mastery is reached. Extra-role performance on the other hand is about outcomes based on discretionary role of the faculty not mentioned explicitly in the job descriptions but considered to be a very important contributor towards efficient and effective functioning of the organization (Rego and Cunha, 2008). In this study where the role of psychological capital is being studied on performance of faculty members, considering both of these aspects of performance (In-role and Extra-role) is important and relevant, as has been largely missed out in previous studies in this field (Bakker and Heuven, 2006; Peterson and Byron, 2008). Further it will be interesting to find the impact of various factors of occupational burnout (psychological exhaustion, depersonalization and low personal accomplishment) and psychological capital (self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resiliency) on each of in-role and

3

extra-role performance measures, opening new doors towards faculty’s performance improvement measures missed out in previous studies in this regard.


3.

Method

Two questionnaires were used for data collection from technical institutions. (1) One part of the questionnaire for the principal to assess performance of each faculty member. (2) Second part was handed over to each faculty member to assess his/her psychological capital and occupational burnout scores. Principal of every institute was requested to collect both parts and keep them together using special coding number to ensure data integrity of both parts. Convenience sampling was employed to collect data from 17 technical institutes across the province. With the permission of respective school principals, a total population of 785 full and part time instructors were included into the study, 595 questionnaires were sent to the principals with every institute receiving 35 sets of questionnaires. 310 filled questionnaires were received back from 14 of the 17 institutes, with a 52% return rate, out of which 282 were included in the final study due to various discrepancies such as missing data. Necessary care was taken to conceal the identities of respondents for various reasons, no personal data or identification variables were obtained from the respondents. Further it was clearly mentioned in the questionnaire that the obtained data was only for research purposes.

4. Measures Maslach Burnout Scale (MBS) Maslach burnout scale is a three dimensional model introduced by Maslach and Jackson in 1981 where they stated that the occupational burnout was a sickness that causes psychological exhaustion, depersonalization and loss of personal attainment. In this research Maslach's Burnout Inventory (MBI) was used to measure burnout among trainers that includes seven items for measurement of emotional exhaustions, four items for depersonalization and the personal accomplishment was measured with three items. The responses to these questions were collected using five-point scales ranging 5, "strongly agree", 1 "strongly disagree. The burnout scale included questions such as "I feel emotionally drained from my work" and "In my work, I deal with emotional problems very calmly".

Job performance was measured with 13-items where 5-items measuring in-role performance developed by Williams and Anderson, 1991 and 8-items measuring extra-role performance taken from the scale developed by Eisenberger et al. 2010. The responses to these statements were collected using five-point scales ranging 5, "strongly agree", 1 "strongly disagree. The questionnaire to measure performance of employee included items such as "This employee adequately completes assigned duties" and "This employee looks for ways to make this organization more successful".

Psychological Capital was measured using the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ), a scale consisting of 24 items, where each of the four components of psychological capital namely Self-efficacy, Optimism, Hope and Resiliency measured by six items. The collective result of all the components represents an individual's overall positive psychological capital. The scale to measure psychological capital included questions such as, "I believe I can analyze long-term problems, and find a solution" and "At work, when faced with uncertainty, I usually look forward to the best results".

5. Results Demographics The mean age of the 282 subjects was 32.9 (SD=4.9) years, and their mean experience on current employment was 5.0 (SD=4.0) years. 84% of respondents were male. 28.9% of the female faculties were having a master’s degree whereas the male percentage in this factor was only 11.3%. As presented in the results, there are no significant differences in age but there are significant differences between respondent’s “experience” and “level of education” among male and female gender groups.

4


Table No. 2 presents mean scores and standard deviations of sub-dimensions of Malsh Burnout Scale, the differences among the means of the respondents from different schools are generally small and so are the differences among the gender groups. Visual inspection indicates that only the mean value of responses from School 3 for psychological exhaustion (Psy-Exh) and lower personal accomplishment (Low-Per-Accom) is greater than any other school, in another instance the mean value for Low-Per-Accom and Depersonalization for School 12 is more than any other school for the same variables. Another significant outcome is about the gender groups, Female mean scores are higher from their male counterparts for all the dimensions of Psy-Exh , Depersonalization and Low-Per-Accom which show that there is a significant difference between male and female job burnout, the results are similar to findings of earlier studies about job burnout among gender group as discussed by Smith, (2010) and Soheila et al., (2011). The scores for sub-dimensions of psychological capital and job performance as shown in the Table No. 3 and Table No. 4 respectively, the mean score measures for the gender group male are higher than their female counterparts.

5

6



Correlation In correlations table no. 5, the value “0.744”, for psychological capital (Psych_Capital) and Job_Performance indicates that there is strong direct relationship between psychological capital and job performance which ensures that if there is more focus on psychological capital adaptability in technical and professional institutions then the job performance of the faculty members will be higher. Similarly, value “-0.310” for Psych_Capital and Occup_Burnout shows that there is negative relationship between psychological capital and occupational burnout, indicating that when psychological capital of a faculty member is higher there will be less chances for him to experience occupational burnout. Another, important aspect also revealed in this study is depicted by the figure “-0.455” between Occup_Burnout and Job_Performance, which means that the relationship between occupational burnout and job performance is indirect and strength of this indirect relationship is moderate in nature explaining that rising occupational burnout can severely affect the “job performance” of faculty members.

Table No. 5 Correlations Occup_Burnout Job_Performance

Psych_Capital -.310 .744

Occup_Burnout -.455

The descriptive statistics and correlation table no. 6 of all constructs is given below. The negative values indicate the indirect relationships while positive values indicate direct relationships.

7


Table no. 7 with model summary is given below where the “R” indicates correlation values and first value “.392” is slightly weak whereas ”.766” is strong. The R-Square indicates the degree of variance explained by the variable, in the first case its value is 0.154 which on multiplication with 100 gives 15.4% variance explained by the model and similarly after taking moderating variable i.e. Psychological Capital in to account, this value is 0.766, now the model is explaining 76.6% variance in the model but it is important to understand that second R-Square value also includes the variables from first block. There is 61.6% more explanation of the variable after inclusion of the Psychological Capital which dictates that Psychological Capital is a strong moderator (Baron and Kenny, 1986; Pallant, 2005).

Table No. 7 Model Summary Model

R

R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 2

.392a b

.154 .586

.766

.151 .583

.48194 .33756

a. Predictors: (Constant), Occup_Burnout b. Predictors: (Constant), Occup_Burnout, Psych_Capital

ANOVA table no. 8 indicates that at the value of F-Test for Occupational Burnout is 50.851 with significance below p < 0.001 indicates that the model is fit and after inclusion of the moderator (psychological capital) the model becomes a better fit. Table No. 8 ANOVAa Model 1

2

Regression Residual Total Regression Residual Total

Sum of Squares df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

11.811 65.034 76.845 45.054 31.791 76.845

11.811 .232

50.851

.000b

22.527 .114

197.703

.000c

1 280 281 2 279 281

a. Dependent Variable: Job_Performance b. Predictors: (Constant), Occup_Burnout c. Predictors: (Constant), Occup_Burnout, Psych_Capital

The Coefficients table no. 9 indicates that value of constant is 5.194 which represent the intercept. Before the effect of the moderator (psychological capital) the indirect relationship between occupational burnout and job performance is “-0.441” but after the impact of the moderator the magnitude of the negative relationship is raised to “-0.139”. It can be explained as, before moderation there is 0.441 unit change in dependent variable in opposite direction by 1 unit change in independent variable and after moderation this change is 0.139 with a relative shift of “0.302” which ensures that psychological capital moderates the relationship between occupational burnout and job performance.

8

Table No. 9 Coefficientsa Model 1 2

Standardized Beta

(Constant) Occup_Burnout (Constant)

Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 5.194 .177 -.441 .062 1.505 .249

Occup_Burnout Psych_Capital

-.139 .735

.047 .043

t

Sig.

-.392

29.302 -7.131 6.040

.000 .000 .000

-.124 .710

-2.974 17.081

.003 .000

a. Dependent Variable: Job_Performance


6. Discussion This study investigated the role of psychological capital of faculty members of technical and professional institutions on the relationship between job burnout and performance. The results provide evidence that the psychological capital (self efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience) can certainly minimize the impact of the sickness of burnout (psychological exhaustion, depersonalization and low personal accomplishment) that may result from a new occupation with different job requirements. There is also a new interpretation of these findings that suggest that the important attribute of personality of an individual like psychological capital can also help minimize performance impact from changing to a new job. It is obvious from the results that the features of psychological capital play a critical role in shaping an individual’s behaviors and attitudes towards any change in his/her physical conditions. The components of psychological capital conceptually being independent (Luthans et al., 2007), when taken as a core construct comprising collective variance of all the four components has been empirically found to predict performance better than any of the individual components (Jensen, 2012). A person’s being high in self efficacy gives rise to his/her deeper interest in challenging tasks and this interest will urge him doing the same to get mastery in it, this in-depth knowledge of things can further help him/her raise his optimism in going for things he/she hasn’t endeavored yet. This optimism directs an individual to aim higher and produces hope for positive outcomes of his/her efforts that give him/her goal-directed outlooks and a tendency to keep faith and keep doing and develop the ability to become resilient to any adversary in the way. These abilities of faith, hope, optimism and resilient energy may further help resolve problems in new job conditions of an individual and instill an ability to perform better than their companions in stressful situations. It is concluded from this study that higher psychological capital of faculty members of technical and professional institutions displayed moderating effects on occupational burnout at both in-role and extra-roles performance instances. If included into the selection criteria, psychological capital can provide better chances of hiring a faculty member who could produce better results with better performance.

7. Recommendations Practical Implications Human resources are among important assets in business and industry, but in technical and professional education in shape of faculty members, it is the most important asset as described by Baron, (2011, p. 31) ...contribution of people to organizational performance is crucial and that their contribution can be managed to a more positive or higher value outcome. Recent focus of governments on technical education using various incentives have increased the enrollment of students (Manley, 2012; Saleem, 2009) and current situation presents these institutions with the challenge of properly appointing the faculty members that are resolutely industry experts in a new role as educators. Consequently these institutes went for hiring professionals from industry with no teaching experience. These faculty members were in a unique position where they must provide academic and occupational instruction while integrating theoretical and hands-on knowledge and preparing students for the workplace. As observed by results of previous research work (Johnston, 2010; Luparell, 2005; Winefield et al., 2003), despite having a fairly extensive industrial experience and knowhow of the trade they were teaching, these faculty members were not among good performers when compared to their colleagues. Periodic assessment observed by relevant institutions also showed below average performance scores and increased absenteeism and job burnout among the faculties who were hired from industry. Discovering moderation of psychological capital in the relation between occupational burnout and performance among faculty members of technical and professional institutions, this research suggests that management should consider psychological capital and other such personality traits of a candidate during the faculty recruitment process. This study suggests that the employees with higher psychological capital should be given preference over others, as they can better handle the burnout. Using simple instruments and tests as used in this study, the candidates can be

9

screened for high psychological capital; these results will also be helpful during appraisal of staff for training and development programs where higher psychological capital will ensure greater success of such programs. Based on the previous research where Luthans et al., (2007), described that management can effectively use training and development plans and similar interventions can raise psychological capital on the whole or any of its four components of self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience will benefit the overall performance of the employee. With higher levels of these states, people are more confident, better able to manage stress and adversity, have a higher level of motivation and drive, and likely to pursue growth and development (Froman, 2010) necessary to compete the growing demand of individuals from industry to education.


Limitations and future directions The data used to test this research model was a single point with a vulnerability to carry common method bias, further due to self-reported responses of psychological capital and occupational burnout, and supervisor reported responses for performance, there is potential that respondents might have called upon adopted and normative responses themselves and their subordinates. This study missed an important aspect of role of overall experience, family income, family size and physical appearance of the faculty member towards occupational burnout and performance which can be investigated carrying out future research in this regard. The model used in this research and subsequent results are based on responses from the faculty members of technical and professional institutions running under government control, future research is required to test viability of this model for private technical institutions and other sectors of education who wish to find faculty from industry like business management institutions. References 1. Abbas, A. (1997), "Technical and vocational education and training in the Philippines: experience and views of trainees", International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 18, No. 8, pp. 675-701 2. Abdelkarim, A. and Perez, P. (1996), "Labour market information system in the Philippines: is it relevant to industrial users?", Working Paper Series No.224, Institute of Social Studies Working Papers, The Hague, The Netherlands. 3. Avey, J. B., Luthans, F. and Youssef, C. M. (2010), “The additive value of psychological capital in predicting workplace attitudes and behaviors”, Journal of Management, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 430-452. 4. Avey, J., Reichard, R., Luthans, F. and Mhatre, K. (2011), “Meta-analysis of the impact of positive psychological capital on employee attitudes, behaviors, and performance”, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 22, pp. 127-152. 5. Avey, J.B., Hughes, L.W., Norman, S.M. and Luthans, K.W. (2008), “Using positivity, transformational leadership and empowerment to combat employee negativity”, Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 110-126. 6. Avey, J.B., Nimnicht, J.L. and Pigeon, N.G. (2009), “Two field studies examining the association between positive psychological capital and employee performance”, Leadership and Organization Development Journal, Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 384-401. 7. Bakker, A.B. and Heuven, E. (2006), “Emotional dissonance, burnout, and in-role performance among nurses and police officers”, International Journal of Stress Management, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 423-40. 8. Barkhuizen, E.N., Rothmann, S. and Tytherleigh, M.Y. (2004), “Burnout of academics in a South African higher education institution”, paper presented at the 2nd South African Work Wellness Conference, Potchefstroom, 25‐26 March. 9. Baron, A. (2011) "Measuring human capital", Strategic HR Review, Vol. 10 Iss: 2, pp.30 - 35 10. Blix, A.G., Cruise, R.J., Mitchell, B.M. and Blix, G.G. (1994), “Occupational stress among university teachers”, Educational Research, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 157‐61. 11. Brent, J. G. and Brett, L. W. (2015), "Development of psychological capital in an academic-based leadership education program", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 34, No. 7, pp. 773-786 12. Brewer, E. and McMahon, J. (2003), “Job stress and burnout among industrial and technical teacher educators”, Journal of Vocational Education Research, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 125‐40. 13. Brown, A.L., Daniels, J. and Sanchez, R. (1996), “Bridges and barriers to faculty vitality: the Grossmont college project 1995‐1996”, paper presented at the International Conference on Teaching and Leadership Excellence, Austin, TX, 26‐29 May.

10


14. Byrne, B. (1994), “Burnout: testing for the validity, replication, and invariance of casual structure across elementary, intermediate, and secondary teachers”, American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 31, No.3, pp. 645‐73. 15. Choi, Y. and Lee, D. (2014), “Psychological capital, big five traits, and employee outcomes”, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 122-140. 16. Combs, G.M., Milosevic, I., Jeung, W. and Griffith, J. (2012), “Ethnic identity and job attitude preferences: the role of collectivism and psychological capital”, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 5-16. 17. Demerouti, E. , Van-Eeuwijk, E., Snelder, M. and Wild, U. (2011), “Assessing the effects of ‘personal effectiveness’ training on psychological capital, assertiveness and self-awareness using self-other agreement”, Career Development International , Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 60-81. 18. Dick, M.J. (1992), “Burnout in doctorally prepared nurse faculty”, Journal of Nursing Education, Vol. 31, No. 8, pp. 341‐6. 19. Diener, E. (2000), “Subjective well-being: the science of happiness and a proposal for a national index”, American Psychologist, Vol. 55, pp. 34-43. 20. Doyle, C. and Hind, P. (1998), “Occupational stress, burnout and job status in female academics”, Gender, Work and Organization, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 67‐82. 21. Dworkin, A.G. “Teacher burnout in the public schools: structural causes and consequences for children, SUNY Press, Albany, NY, 1987. 22. Eisenberger, R., Karagonlar, G., Stinglhamber, F., Neves, P., Becker, T. E., Gonzalez-Morales, M. G., and Steiger-Mueller, M. (2010), “Leader-member exchange and affective organizational commitment: the contribution of supervisor’s organizational embodiment”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 95, pp. 10851103. 23. Froman, L. (2010), “Positive psychology in the workplace”, Journal of Adult Development, Vol. 17, No.2, pp. 59-69. 24. Gold, Y. and Dan Roth, R. A. (1993), “Teachers managing stress and preventing burnout- the professional health solution”, The Falmer Press, London. 25. Golembiewski, R.T., Munzenrider, R.F. and Stevenson, J.G. (1986), “Stress in organizations”, Praeger, New York, NY. 26. Hobfoll, S. (2002), "Social and psychological resources and adaptation", Review of General Psychology, Vol. 6, pp. 307–324. 27. Jacob Weisberg, (1994), "Measuring workers′ burnout and intention to leave", International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 4-14 28. Jensen, M. (2012), “Psychological capital: key to understanding entrepreneurial stress?” Economics & Business Journal: Inquiries and Perspectives 44 Volume 4, No. 1. 29. Johnston, B. (2010), “The first year at university: teaching students in transition”, Society for Research in to Higher Education & Open University Press, McGraw‐Hill Education, London. 30. Koustelios, A. (2009), “The effect of organization size on sports centers’ employees’ burnout”, Sport Management International Journal, Vol. 5, No.2, pp. 65‐70. 31. Lacy, F. and Sheehan, B. (1997), “Job satisfaction among academic staff: an international perspective”, Higher Education, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 305‐22. 32. Leiter, M.P. and Maslach, C. (1988), “The impact of interpersonal environment on burnout and organizational commitment”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 297‐308. 33. Luparell, S. (2005), “Why and how we should address student incivility in nursing programs”, Annual Review of Nursing Education, Vol. 3, pp. 23‐36. 34. Luthans, F. (2002), “The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 23, pp. 695-706. 35. Luthans, F. and Youssef, C.M. (2004), “Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management: investing in people for competitive advantage”, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 143-160. 36. Luthans, F., Avey, J.B. and Patera, J.L. (2008), “Experimental analysis of a web-based training intervention to develop positive psychological capital”, Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 7, pp. 209-221 37. Luthans, F., Avey, J.B., Avolio, B.J. and Peterson, S. (2010), “The development and resulting performance impact of positive psychological capital”, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 21, pp. 41-67. 38. Luthans, F., Avey, J.B., Avolio, B.J., Norman, S.M. and Combs, G.M. (2006), “Psychological capital development: toward a micro-intervention”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 387-393.

11


39. Luthans, F., Vogelgesang, G.R. and Lester, P.B. (2006), “Developing the psychological capital of resiliency”, Human Resource Development Review, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 25-44. 40. Luthans, F., Youssef, C.M. and Avolio, B.J. (2007), “Psychological capital”, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 41. Lyubomirsky, S., King, L. and Diener, E. (2005), “The beneﬁts of frequent positive affect: does happiness lead to success?” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 131, pp. 803-855. 42. Marann B., Aamir, C., Barbara, F., Evelyn, M. and Pauline, W. (2013), "Burnout among accounting and finance academics in Ireland", International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp.127-142. 43. Maslach, C. (1982), “Burnout: the cost of caring”, Prentice‐Hall, New York, NY. 44. Maslach, C. and Jackson, S. (1986), “Maslach burnout inventory manual”, Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA. 45. Maslach, C. and Jackson, S.E. (1981), “The measurement of experienced burnout”, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 99‐113. 46. Nonis, S.A. and Wright, D. (2003), “Moderating effects of achievement striving and situational optimism on the relationship between ability and performance outcomes of college students”, Research in Higher Education, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 327-346. 47. Oppler, S.H., Sager, C.E., Campbell, J.P. and McCloy, R.A. (1993), “A theory of performance”, in N. Schmitt and W.C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel Selection. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. 48. Pallant, J. (2005), “SPSS survival manual: a step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS”, ISBN: 9780335262588. 49. Peterson, S.J. and Byron, K. (2008), “Exploring the role of hope in job performance: results from four studies”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 785-803. 50. Peterson, S.J., Luthans, F., Avolio, B.J., Walumbwa, F.O. and Zhang, Z. (2011), “Psychological capital and employee performance: a latent growth modeling approach”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 64, No. 2, pp. 427450. 51. R. Adam Manley, (2012) "Keeping up with business and industry: secondary‐level career and technical education's struggle", On the Horizon, Vol. 20 Iss: 1, pp.17 - 23 52. Rego, A. and Cunha, M.P.E. (2008), “Organizational citizenship behaviors and effectiveness: an empirical study in two small insurance companies”, The Service Industries Journal, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 541-54. 53. Reuben, M. Baron and David A. Kenny, (1986). “The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1986, Vol. 51, No. 6, pp. 1173-1182. 54. Saleem, M. (2009), "The development and state of the art of adult learning and education (ALE)", National Report of Pakistan, Projects Wing Ministry of Education. http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/INSTITUTES/UIL/confintea/pdf/National_Reports/Asia%20 -%20Pacific/Pakistan.pdf 55. Schaufeli, W.B. and Bakker, A.B. (2004), “Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi‐sample study”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 293‐315. 56. Seiler, R.E. and Pearson, D.A. (1985), “Dysfunctional stress among university faculty”, Educational Research Quarterly, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 15‐26. 57. Singh, S.N., Mishra, S. and Kim, D. (1998), “Research‐related burnout among faculty in higher education”, Psychological Reports, Vol. 83, No. 2, pp. 463‐73. 58. Smith, K.J. (2010), “Work-life balance perspectives of marketing professionals in generation Y”, Services Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 434-47. 59. Snyder, C.R. (2000), “Handbook of Hope”, Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 60. Soheila Z, Samira Z, Leila B. (2011). The relationship between organizational culture and job burnout among the professors and employees in the University of Tabriz. Social and Behavioral Sciences (30) (2011) 19641968. 61. Stajkovic, A.D. and Luthans, F. (1998), “Self-efficacy and work-related performance: a meta-analysis”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 124, pp. 240-261. 62. Williams, L. J. and Anderson, S. E. (1991), “Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors”, Journal of Management, Vol. 17, pp. 601-617. 63. Winefield, A.H., Gillespie, N., Stough, C., Dua, J. and Hapuarachchi, J. (2003), “Occupational stress in Australian university staff: results from a national survey”, International Journal of Stress Management, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 51-63. 64. Wright, T.A. (2003), “Positive organizational behavior: an idea whose time has truly come”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 24, pp. 437-442.

12