implementation of the international coral reef initiative ...

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COMMISSION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION COOPERATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF INITIATIVE (ICRI) IN MEXICO

Arq. Juan E. Bezaury Creel M. en C. Rogelio Macías Ordoñez - Bibliographic Review Biol. Gerardo García Beltrán Biol. Gerardo Castillo Arenas Biol. Natasha Pardo Caicedo Biol. Roberto Ibarra Navarro Geogr. Ángel Loreto Viruel Advisors: Biol. Rosa María Loreto Viruel Biol. David Gutierrez Carbonell M. en C. Mario Lara Pérez Soto Dra. Claudia Padilla Souza

AMIGOS DE SIAN KA'AN A.C. November 18, 1997

Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Acknowledgements: Martha I. Rosas - CEC Fernando Gutiérrez - CEC Thomas F. Hourigan Ph. D. - NOAA Theresa Marsh - NOAA Biol. Oscar Ramírez Flores - SEMARNAP INP Biol. Amaya Bernárdez - SEMARNAP INE Biol. Eugenia Lezcano Bustamante - SEMARNAP INE Lic. José Carlos Tenorio Marañón - SEMARNAP INE Biol. Javier Medina González - SEMARNAP INE Biol. Dulce María Avila - SEMARNAP INE Dra. Ella Vásquez - CONABIO Dr. Juan Pablo Carricart-Ganivet - ECOSUR M. en C. Guillermo Horta-Puga - ENEP I, UNAM M. en C. Juan José Espejel-Montes - IPN M. en C. Héctor Reyes-Bonilla - UABCS Biol. Tito Livio Pérez - ICMLyL-UNAM Biol. Gerardo Leyte Morales - Univ. del Mar Lynne Hale - CRC-URI Alessandra Vanzella - Khouri - PNUMA Marea Hatziolos - World Bank Yalina Saldivar - ASK


1

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF INITIATIVE (ICRI) IN MEXICO 1. Status of Information on Mexican Coral Reefs

10

1.1 Scientific Literature 1.1.1 Thematic 1.1.2 Geographic

11 12 12

1.2 Government and other Institutional Reports 1.2.1 Thematic 1.2.2 Geographic

12 12 12

1.3 Popular Literature 1.3.1 Thematic 1.3.2 Geographic

13 13 13

1.4 Integrated Assessment

14

2. Legislation and Government Programs on Marine and Coastal Zones and Coral Reefs in México 2.1 Legislation 2.1.1 International Law, Conventions and Agreements 2.1.1.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS) 2.1.1.2 Convention on Biological Diversity - Jacarta Mandate 2.1.1.3 UN Conference on Environment and Development - Agenda 21 2.1.1.4 International Maritime Organization - International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) - The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention) 2.1.1.5 UNEP Conference on Protection of the Marine Environmental from Land-Based Activities 2.1.1.6 Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean (Cartagena Convention) - Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol) -Association of Caribbean States 2.1.1.7 UN Agreement on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks - FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 2.1.1.8 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 2.1.1.9 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 2.1.1.10 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) 2.1.1.11 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) - Subcommission of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (IOCARIBE) 2.1.1.12 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation - Commission for Environmental Cooperation Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

15 15 15 15 16 21

21 23

24 25 27 29 29

30 31

2 2.1.1.13 Tuxtla I and Tuxtla II Agreements on Cooperation Between México and the Central American Region - Central American Commission on the Environment and Development - Mesoamerican Biological Corridor 31 2.1.1.14 Mesoamerican Caribbean Coral Reef Systems Initiative 33 2.1.2 National Legislation 2.1.2.1 Environmental Legislation 2.1.2.1.1 Ecological Zoning Program 2.1.2.1.2 Protected Areas 2.1.2.1.2.1 Protected Areas Established for the Conservation of Coral Reefs 2.1.2.1.2.2 Other Protected Areas that Include Coral Communities 2.1.2.1.3 Official Mexican Norms 2.1.2.1.4 Coastal and Marine Pollution Legislation 2.1.2.2 Fisheries Legislation 2.1.2.2.1 Concessions, Permits and Authorizations 2.1.2.2.2 Fisheries Regulations and Official Mexican Norms 2.1.2.2.3 Fisheries Reserves and Refuge Zones 2.1.2.3 Other Relevant Legislation 2.1.2.3.1 Federal Maritime-Terrestrial Zone 2.1.2.3.2 Jurisdiction Over the Sea 2.1.2.3.3 Navy Secretariat 2.1.2.3.4 Navigation and Related Facilities 2.1.2.3.5 Tourism 2.1.2.3.6 Penal Code

33 34 35 36 36 42 43 44 46 47 50 51 51 51 53 53 54 55 55

2.1.3 State and Municipal Legislation

56

2.2 Government Programs 2.2.1 National Development Plan 1995-2000 2.2.2 National Environmental Program 1995-2000 2.2.3 National Fisheries and Aquaculture Program 1995-2000 2.2.4 Mexican Protected Area Program 1995-2000 2.2.5 National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs 2.2.6 National Commission for the Understanding and Use of Biodiversity 3. Mexican Coral Reefs and Communities: a National Perspective

56 56 57 59 66 67 68

3.1 Coral Reefs in the Global Context

68

3.2 Mexican Coral Biogeography 3.2.1 General Biogeographical Framework for México 3.2.2 Coral Biogeography

69 69 70

3.3 Species Composition of Coral Reefs and Coral Communities 3.3.1 Coral Species List for México 3.3.2 Endemic Species 3.3.3 Species Distribution

71 71 77 78


3 3.3.3.1 Pacific Ocean Coral Species Distribution 3.3.3.2 Atlantic Ocean Coral Species Distribution 3.3.3.3 Sponge Species Distribution

78 80 84

3.4 Distribution of Coral Reef and Coral Communities in México 3.4.1 General Characteristics and Distribution. Pacific Ocean 3.4.2 Coral Reefs and Coral Communities of the Gulf of Mexico. Veracruz 3.4.3 Coral Reefs and Coral Communities of the Gulf of México-Campeche Bank 3.4.4 Coral Reefs and Coral Communities of the Mexican Caribbean

87 87 93 101 107

3.5 Present Threats 3.5.1 Pacific Ocean 3.5.2 Gulf of Mexico 3.5.3 Caribbean Sea

117 117 118 120

4. The International Coral Reef Initiative

121

4.1 Background

121

4.2 Objectives and Approach

122

4.3 The Call to Action

123

4.4 Framework for Action 4.4.1 Management 4.4.2 Capacity Building 4.4.3 Research and Monitoring 4.4.4 Review

124 127 128 129 130

4.5 Global Activities for the Framework for Action 4.5.1 Integrated Coastal Resources Management 4.5.1.1 International 4.5.1.2 Regional 4.5.1.3 National 4.5.2 Capacity Building 4.5.2.1 International 4.5.2.2 Regional 4.5.2.3 National 4.5.3 Research and Monitoring 4.5.3.1 Assesment 4.5.3.2 Monitoring Programs 4.5.3.3 Management Oriented Research

130

4.6 Tropical Americas Activities for the Framework for Action 4.6.1 Management Option 4.6.2 Capacity Building Options

135 135 136


130 130 131 132 132 132 133 133 133 134 134

4 4.6.3 Research and Monitoring 4.7 Tropical Americas Agenda for Action 4.7.1 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and Related Institutional, Policy, and Legal Issues 4.7.2 Environmental Education and Awareness 4.7.3 Co-Management of Coastal Resources 4.7.4 Coral Reef Fisheries Management 4.7.5 Marine Protected Areas 4.7.6 Land-Based Sources of Pollution 4.7.7 Research and Monitoring for the Management of Coral Reef and Coastal Resources 4.7.8 Financing for the Management of Coral Reef and Coastal Resources 5. Recomentations for a National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Coral Reefs

137 137 137 138 139 140 141 142 142 143

145

5.1 Goal and General Objectives

146

5.2 Strategies

147

5.3 Coastal Management and Related Institutional Policy and Legal Issues 5.3.1 Integrated Coastal Management Planning and Implementation 5.3.2 Management of Coral Reef and Communities 5.3.3 Managing Coral Reef Fisheries 5.3.4 Managing Threats and Opportunities from Tourism 5.3.5 Managing Threats from Pollution 5.3.6 Enforcing Environmental Legislation

147 149 151 156 159 160 162

5.4 Capacity Building 5.4.1 Co-Managing Coral Reefs and Communities Resources 5.4.2 Educating and Informing the Public 5.4.3 Sustainable Financing

164 165 167 170

5.5 Research and Monitoring 5.5.1 Establishing a National Research and Monitoring Agenda 5.5.2 Coordinating Research and Monitoring Efforts

173 173 178

6 References

181

Annex - Bibliographical Review

187


5 Resumen Ejecutivo Implementación de la Iniciativa Internacional de Arrecifes Coralinos (ICRI) en México. El objetivo de este proyecto es el desarrollar recomendaciones para la implementación del "Programa de Conservación y Uso Sustentable de los Arrecifes Mexicanos" dentro del marco de la Iniciativa Internacional de Arrecifes Coralinos. En el capítulo 1 se presenta un panorama de los trabajos publicados sobre arrecifes y comunidades coralinas, basándose en una recopilación bibliográfica que se efectuó expresamente para este proyecto, misma que se incluye en el anexo de este documento. Se compilaron un total de 642 citas bibliográficas, mismas que incluyen: artículos científicos (44%), participaciones en simposios (13%), tesis (18%), reportes (10%), artículos y panfletos de divulgación popular (15%). Los trabajos científicos publicados se refieren a la siguiente temática: ecología (39%), general (21%), taxonomía (19%), conservación (9%), economía (8%) y geología (4%) y se refieren a las siguientes regiones geográficas: Mar Caribe (49%), Golfo de México-Veracruz (31%), Golfo de México-Banco de Campeche (10%) Océano Pacífico (10%). Los principales vacíos de información sobre los recursos coralinos en México son los referentes a los gorgonáceos del Pacífico, a las comunidades coralinas y arrecifes del Pacífico y al Golfo de MéxicoBanco de Campeche en donde solo las principales estructuras han sido estudiadas. Los trabajos sobre los impactos de las actividades humanas y su sinergia con los naturales, especialmente en el campo de las pesquerías, turismo y las fuentes terrestres de contaminación, son muy escasos. En el capítulo 2 se analiza el marco jurídico nacional e internacional, así como los programas nacionales relativos a la protección de la zona costera y marina aplicables a los arrecifes y comunidades coralinas. México es signatario de todos los instrumentos de la conservación de la biodiversidad marina.

legislación internacional relativos a la

La legislación nacional que constituye el marco jurídico para la protección y uso de los arrecifes y comunidades coralinas está constituida por leyes, reglamentos, decretos, acuerdos y Normas Oficiales Mexicanas relativas a: la legislación ambiental (programas de ordenamiento ecológico, áreas naturales protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres y acuáticas, contaminación), la legislación pesquera, la legislación jurisdiccional federal (zona federal marítimo terrestre, zonas marinas mexicanas), la legislación de navegación y puertos, la legislación turística y el Código Penal. La estructura programática derivada del Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, pasando por los correspondientes programas sectoriales, hasta el Comité para la Conservación y Uso Racional de los Arrecifes Mexicanos, ya está establecida. Este Comité podría constituirse como el órgano promotor y coordinador del "Programa para la Conservación y Uso Racional de los Arrecifes Mexicanos". En el capítulo 3 se presenta una compilación de listas y descripciones sobre corales, arrecifes y comunidades coralinas en México, así como de los principales impactos naturales y humanos sobre estos. Se han identificado en México un total de 94 géneros de corales con 218 especies, excluyendo los gorgonáceos del Océano Pacífico. El Pacífico presenta un total de 23 géneros con 51 especies (excluyendo gorgonáceos) y el Atlántico presenta 63 géneros con 121 especies. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

6 Los arrecifes y comunidades coralinas mexicanas, pueden ser en términos generales agrupadas en cuatro grandes zonas geográficas: Océano Pacífico, Golfo de México-Veracruz, Golfo de México-Banco de Campeche y Mar Caribe. En la zona del Pacífico predominan las comunidades coralinas (corales que no construyen estructuras), presentándose arrecifes coralinos (corales que si construyen estructuras) de extensión muy limitada solamente en pocos sitios. La zona Golfo de México-Veracruz presenta arrecifes coralinos cercanos a la costa en dos lugares, mientras que en la zona Golfo de México-Golfo de Campeche se presentan arrecifes más abundantes alejados de la costa. La zona del Caribe presenta el mayor desarrollo arrecifal del país, básicamente un arrecife bordeante que se presenta desde Isla Contoy paralelo a la costa hasta Xcalak, México, y a lo largo del Cayo Ambergris en Belice, a partir de donde se convierte en la Barrera Arrecifal de Belice. En el capítulo 4 se compilan los documentos que constituyen el marco de referencia de la Iniciativa Internacional de Arrecifes Coralinos incluyendo el Plan de Acción de América Tropical, mismos que fueron utilizados para estructurar las recomendaciones del Programa Nacional. En el capítulo 5 se presentan las recomendaciones para el Programa Nacional para la Conservación y Uso Sustentable de los Arrecifes Mexicanos, basadas en la información contenida en los anteriores capítulos. La estructura básica planteada, refleja las tres principales líneas temáticas del "Llamado a la Acción del ICRI": Manejo Costero; Creación de la Capacidad; Investigación y Monitoreo. Posteriormente estas líneas temáticas se desglosa en temas específicos conforme a la "Agenda de Acción para América Tropical" con algunas adiciones y modificaciones. Finalmente se presentan las acciones y actividades requeridas para implementar los siguientes temas específicos: - Planeación e implementación del Manejo Integrado de la Zona Costera. - Manejo de arrecifes y comunidades coralinas. - Manejo de las pesquerías arrecifales. - Manejo de las amenazas y oportunidades del turismo. - Manejo de las amenazas por contaminación. - Aplicación de la legislación ambiental - Co-manejo de los recursos de los arrecifes y comunidades coralinas. - Educación e información pública. - Financiamiento sustentable. - Establecimiento de una agenda nacional de investigación y monitoreo. - Coordinación de los esfuerzos de investigación y monitoreo.


7 Executive Summary Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico. The objective of this project is, to develop recommendations for a "National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs" within the context of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). Chapter 1 provides an overview of the status of existing information on Mexican coral reefs and communities, based upon an extensive bibliographical review specifically done for this project, which is included as the Annex of this document. A total of 642 references were compiled, including: scientific papers (44%), symposia (13%), theses (18%), reports (10%), articles on popular publications and pamphlets (15%). Published works (scientific) dealt with the following thematic subjects: ecology (39%), general (21%), taxonomy (19%), conservation (9%), economy (8%) and geology (4%). Published works (scientific) by geographic regions included: Caribbean (49%), Gulf of Mexico-Veracruz (31%), Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank (10%) and Pacific Ocean (10%). The most significant existing information gaps on Mexican coral resources, are the ones related to gorgonians in the Pacific Ocean, descriptive work on the coral communities and reefs of the Pacific Ocean and on the Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank, where only the main structures have been studied. Impact assessments on coral reefs and communities from human sources and their synergy with natural ones, especially those dealing with fisheries, tourism and land based pollution sources, are very scarce. Chapter 2 deals with existing national and international legislation and national programs related to management and protection of the coastal and marine zones in relation to coral reefs and communities. Mexico has adopted all major instruments of International Law dealing with the conservation of marine biodiversity. National legislation that provides the framework for the protection and use of coral reefs and communities, is composed of a set of Laws, Regulations, Decrees, Secretarial Dictates and Official Mexican Norms, contained within: the environmental legislation (ecological zoning programs, protected areas, species protection, pollution), fisheries legislation, national jurisdiction legislation (federal maritime-terrestrial zone, jurisdiction over the sea), navigation and related facilities legislation, tourism legislation and the Penal Code. A programmatic framework deriving from the National Development Plan, through sectorial programs and down to the National Committee for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Coral Reefs, has already been established. This Committee could constitute the promoting and coordinating body of the National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs. Chapter 3 is a compilation of existing lists and descriptions of Mexican corals, coral reefs and coral communities and includes an overview of natural and human impacts on them. A total of 94 coral genera with 218 species were identified for Mexico, not including Pacific Ocean gorgonians. The Pacific Ocean presented a total of 23 genera with 51 species (excluding gorgonians) and 63 genera with 121 species were found for the Atlantic.


8 Coral reefs and communities in Mexico con be in general terms grouped into four large zones: Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico-Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank and Caribbean Sea. Coral communities (corals not building structures) predominate in the Pacific Ocean zone, where only a few sites present true coral reefs (corals building structures) limited size. Nearshore coral reefs are found on two sites in the Gulf of MexicoVeracruz zone and more abundant distant offshore reefs in the Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank zone. The Caribbean Sea zone presents the best developed reef system for Mexico, basically a fringing reef that develops from Isla Contoy all the way to Xcalak, Mexico, into Ambergris Key, Belize, becoming afterwards the Belize Barrier Reef. Chapter 4 compiles into one document for easy reference, the framework documents of the International Coral Reef Initiative including the Tropical Americas Agenda for Action, which were used to structure the recommendations for a National Program. Chapter 5 presents the recommendations for a "National Program for conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs", based upon the information contained in the previous chapters. The basic structure reflects the three main thematic lines described in the ICRI call for Action: Coastal Management, Capacity Building, Research and Monitoring. Afterwards these thematic lines are subdivided into the specific themes indicated within the Tropical Americas Agenda for Action with some additions and modifications. Further along the line, actions and activities were developed to implement each of the following specific themes: - Integrated Coastal Zone Management planning and implementation. - Management of coral reefs and communities. - Managing coral reef fisheries. - Managing threats and opportunities from tourism. - Managing threats from pollution. - Enforcing environmental legislation. - Co-managing coral reefs and communities resources. - Educating and informing the public. - Sustainable financing. - Establishing a National research and monitoring agenda. - Coordinating research and monitoring efforts.

Notes: The contents of chapter 3 were being developed by Amigos de Sian Ka'an, to be published at the end of the International Year of the Reef. Even though this chapter was not included in the terms of reference of the project, the authors decided to include it here since it gives an appropriate framework for the development of the recommendations for a National Program. In order to make Chapter 5 less repetitive with the previous chapters and to provide within the National Program the rationale for the Actions and Activities proposed, the conclusions from Chapters 1, 2 and 3 were not included within the respective chapters, but throughout the National Program. The rationale for the Capacity Building section of the National Program was also included here, since the project did not consider an analysis of the status of public awareness, education and financing issues related to coral reefs and the authors decided to include them in order for the recommendations for a National Program to be complete.


9 Important: Since the first four chapters of the following document are mainly a compilation of existing works, organized into a more or less coherent form, the main author copied lengthy pieces from other authors. The author by all means recognizes the intellectual property of these authors, their important contributions to the knowledge of Mexican coral reefs and communities and apologizes from borrowing their work so extensively and freely. In order to make the document more readable, copied segments were not identified by using colons or by utilizing a different type or font. In some few cases, minor alterations or additions were made to link different sentences and paragraphs from the same paper, without citing the author between the breaks and citing only at the end. Special care was given to be as accurate as possible, but for this reason other author's work should not be cited from this document. All internal citations within the copied segments were respected and read: (Gnoiji, cited in Jing, 1820). When extensive modifications were needed the citation reads; (modified from Gnoiji, 1492), recognizing that the general idea was borrowed from the author. The following system was used to identify the sources of copied segments. Case 1: The U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development meets... ...biodiversity measures (de Fountanbert et al. 1996). The sentence was copied from source. Case 2: The U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development meets... ...biodiversity measures as an active member... ...coastal biodiversity measures. (de Fountanbert et al. 1996) The whole paragraph was copied from source. Case 3: 8.2.1 International Convention for the prevention of Pollution Pollution from ships poses a great danger... ...a new annex to MARPOL is under development regulating the discharge of ballast water... Pollution from ships poses a great danger to marine biodiversity... ...The 1973 MARPOL Convention aim to protec the marine environment... ...of oil and other harmful substances... (García, cited in de Fontaubert 1996) The Convention on the Prevention of marine Pollution... ...was adopted in 1972... ...designed to control the dumping of waste in the sea... (de Fontaubert 1996) The preceding paragraphs up to the chapter, subchapter or section titles, or up until another citation such as case 1 or 2 are found (not counting internal copied segments citations, which read Gnoiji, cited in Jing 1820), were copied from source. Finally, in Chapter 5 the National Plan, no references were cited. In this case, a special note is included in each of the three references of the documents that were freely used and adapted, specifying in which chapter they were used. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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1. Status of Information on Mexican Coral Reefs This chapter presents the results of the final stage of a literature review on work carried out on Mexican corals and coral reefs. 642 references have been compiled, including scientific papers, government reports, theses, articles on popular publications and pamphlets. We feel confident that this bibliography includes the great majority of the information available on Mexican coral reefs (Figure 1). The oldest reference we found referring to Mexican reefs is that of Smith in 1838. It is a description of the Alacranes and Arenas cayes in a nautical magazine. The oldest scientific paper we found is by Heilprin in 1890, a description of some reefs near Veracruz. A total of four papers from last century were found none previous to those, all by foreign authors. Clearly almost everything we now know about Mexican reefs comes from this century, especially the second half of it, since only eight references in our list are dated between 1900 and 1950. The paper by Osorio-Tafall and Cárdenas in 1945 is the first one we found done by Mexicans. However, only between 1950 and 1960, almost twice as many publications were found (15), a third of them written by Mexican researchers. We could say that research on Mexican coral reefs really took off in the late 1950's and the 60's. Jordán, in 1989, did a review of coral reef studies in Mexico, concentrating on work developed from around 1960 to the date of his publication. He mentioned how the work, up until 1989, had been carried out mainly by two institutions: the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) and the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), and that "Mexican coral reefs are (were) still poorly known". He suggested more base-line and descriptive studies along with other more specific lines in ecology, physiology and oceanography of all taxa which form a coral reef. He also expected that "in some ten years from now (1989), coral reef studies will have a solid base to start with, and a comprehensive inventory of our reef resources will be obtained then. During this period we would have gain both in scientific personnel training and first-hand experience, setting up the conditions for more elaborated future research projects on reef science." These expectations seem to be well on their way. In the review presented here, we found 275 publications produced in the 150 years of studies on Mexican reefs prior to Jordan's review (1838-1988), while 359 publications have been produced in the remaining nine years (1989-1997 and in press, see table 1). Although UNAM and IPN are still the leading institutions behind this research, many other institutions and organizations are now making large contributions to it. For the rest of this report, 1989 will be used as a turning point to compare past and present advances in the study of coral reefs

Figure 1.


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Table 1. Number of publications on Mexican coral reefs arranged by type of publication, topic and geographic region (see figures 1-3). SCIENTIFIC Thematic:

Papers

Symposia

Popular

Total

Ecology

116

47

88

21

40

313

General

64

22

6

23

57

172

Taxonomy

84

19

38

12

0

154

Conservation

17

Economic

21

15

1

18

21

74

1

15

7

17

62

Geology

25

1

6

1

0

33

129

37

52

31

55

304

Gulf of Mexico

80

29

58

22

5

196

Campeche Bank

42

5

7

9

2

65

Pacific

40

15

6

1

1

64

1838 - 1989

141

37

53

31

13

275

1989 - present

140

45

62

28

82

359

National

136

27

101

82

International

147

55

15

14

Total

283

82

116

Geographic: Caribbean

Theses Reports

61

96

642

Note: Numbers within topics or geographic regions may not add up to the total since some publications may deal with more than one topic or region. For the rows of periods before and after 1989, numbers may not add up to the total since the year was missing in some references. Numbers for the total row do not add up since four references were incomplete and could not be assigned to any category.

1.1 Scientific Literature Of all references in this review, 75% can be considered scientific work and they include theses and dissertations (18%), symposia presentations (13%) and papers in scientific journals and books (44%). About 87% of theses and dissertations have been made by students of Mexican institutions, mainly by those of UNAM (National Autonomous University of Mexico) and IPN (National Polytechnic Institute). Within UNAM, most theses come from the Facultad de Ciencias or the Escuela Nacional de Estudios Profesionales in Iztacala and just a few of them from the graduate program of the Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología. Other Mexican institutions whose students have done theses on Mexican coral reefs are Universidad de Baja California Sur, Universidad de Baja California Norte, Universidad de Nuevo Leon, Universidad Veracruzana, Universidad Simon Bolivar and Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana. 53 theses and dissertations had been made before 1989 and, since that year, 62 more theses have been completed. Presentations in meetings and symposia represent 13% of the production on coral reefs, out of which 4% have been presented in national meetings and 9% in international ones. The number of these presentations before 1989 was only of 37, while 45 have been presented in the last 9 years. Papers in scientific journals and books represent 44% of the publications in this review; 21% have been published in Mexican journals or books, and 23 % have been international publications. Prior to 1989, 140 of these papers had been published, whereas 140 have been published since 1989.


12 1.1.1. Thematic Ecology (natural history, physiology, community structure, population dynamics) was the topic most frequently covered by scientific publications (52% of 481 scientific publications). The distribution among papers, theses and symposia presentations for this and the following topics can be seen in table 1. 19% of the scientific production included general descriptions of the reefs and 29% dealt with taxonomic issues of different taxa (mainly soft and hard corals, fish, algae, sponges and mollusks). 7% of the publications addressed conservation and about the same percentage deal with the economic importance of the reef ecosystem. About 7% of the publications addressed the geology of the structures. 1.1.2 Geographic Most of the scientific production found in this review focuses on the Caribbean reefs (46% of scientific references) and the Gulf of Mexico reefs (35%). Less attention has been given to the Pacific reefs which has only 13% of the scientific references and the formations in the Campeche Bank which are the focus of only 11% of such references. A more detailed breakdown of scientific literature among geographic regions may be seen in tables 1 and 2. 1.2 Government and other Institutional Reports This section includes references of reports made to government agencies or any other organization. Even though they include very valuable information, they have not been subject to a peer review process as those in the previous section. They constitute only 10% of the references (61 reports, see table 1). 1.2.1 Thematic Of all reports, 38% included general descriptions of coral reefs; 35% included ecological information and 30% addressed conservation, 21% included taxonomic information and 14% dealt with the economic importance of the systems. 1.2.2 Geographic As in the case of the scientific production, most reports were done on Caribbean structures (46%) or the Gulf of Mexico (39%). Structures of the Campeche Bank were the focus of 15% of the work and only 1 report was found on structures from the Pacific.

Figure 2.


13

Figure 3.

1.3 Popular literature Under this topic we include work found on popular publications with no scientific or technical approach. We have not focused our search on this kind of literature given that the information it provides is secondary, usually based on scientific publications or reports and is mainly oriented towards creating public awareness or to be used for environmental education. Furthermore, these publications are usually not indexed in a way that searches may be made efficiently. However, we were able to collect 96 references (15% of the total) on popular knowledge on coral reefs, many by the same authors who have produced most of the technical and scientific work. 1.3.1 Thematic Most popular publications on coral reefs dealt with general descriptions (59%) and ecology (42%). Conservation issues were discussed in 22% of these and 18% approached economic issues. None of them dealt with taxonomy or geology. 1.3.2 Geographic The majority of popular publications were related to the Caribbean reefs (57%), this is due mainly to the series published during 1997 by the Crónica de Cancún and the Miami Herald (Cancun) in relation to the International Year of the Reef. The Gulf of Mexico was the focus of 5% of popular publications, the Campeche Bank was the topic of 2 articles and only one popular publication was found to be devoted to Pacific reefs. Many popular publications however, did not focus on any geographic area but dealt with coral reefs in general. Most of these popular publications on Mexican reefs were produced in México (table 1). It was also clear that publication of popular and educational literature on Mexican reefs is a recent phenomenon since only 13 of this type of publications were found before 1989, while 82 date from 1989 to the present. A majority of these were published during 1997, the International Year of the Reef.


14 1.4 Integrated Assessment This review clearly shows that most of the work on Mexican coral reefs has been undertaken in the most important reef regions, the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, and has focused on general descriptions of the structures as well as the ecology and taxonomy of the organisms which conform them. The structures from the Campeche Bank and the Pacific have been understudied. The later were considered of secondary importance by Jordan's 1989 revision, however, recent work has shown that their importance had been underestimated. The structures of the Campeche Bank have been relatively neglected probably due to their inaccessibility since they are located much further from the nearest coast than the structures of all the other geographic regions. Many institutions and organizations other than UNAM and IPN (CINVESTAV) have produced important work in the last decade. In the Pacific Region the State Universities of both Baja California Norte and Baja California Sur, as well as the Universidad del Mar (Oaxaca) have produced most of the work showing the importance of the Pacific coral communities and reefs. The Caribbean Region has received great attention in the last 10 years, not only by UNAM and IPN, but by other groups such as Amigos de Sian Ka'an and ECOSUR. Only during the last few years have conservation and economic issues emerged in the context of reef studies in Mexico. Although the trend is positive, much is still needed in regard to these issues. A complete list of references found is included in the Bibliographic Review. Table 2. Number of publications on Mexican reefs arranged by topic and geographic region (see figure 4). CAR

GULF

PAC

CAMP Total

Ecology

163

90

35

15

313

General

77

43

17

20

172

Taxonomy

51

83

18

20

154

Conservation 34

20

1

6

74

Economic

48

5

0

3

62

Geology

13

10

3

13

33

Total

304

196

64

65

Note: Numbers within topics or geographic regions may not add up to the totals since some publications may deal with more than one topic or region.

Figure 4.


15

2. Legislation and Government Programs on Marine and Coastal Zones and Coral Reefs in Mexico The following chapter compiles the legal and programmatic framework for the protection of coral reefs and communities in Mexico, within an integrated context for marine and coastal zone management and summarizes the legislation and government programs that could support the establishment of a National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Reefs. 2.1 Legislation The legislative framework for coral ecosystems management in Mexico is composed by the International Conventions and Agreements signed by Mexico and by a body of Mexican Laws, Regulations, Decrees and Secretarial Dictates and Official Mexican Norms dealing with marine and coastal management issues. 2.1.1 International Law, Conventions and Agreements Mexico has signed all major International Law instruments, dealing with coastal and marine biodiversity. 2.1.1.1 United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Montego Bay, 1982 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) establishes numerous rights and obligations for conservation of marine living resources and protection of the marine environment. When it was adopted after more than ten years of negotiations, UNCLOS was dubbed "a new constitution for the oceans" because it aimed to regulate practically all marine activities in any of the seas. UNCLOS was opened for signature in 1982 but did not come into force until November 16, 1994, because of a controversial part of the Convention that deals with deep seabed mining (Part XI). This problem was addressed through the negotiation of the 1994 Part XI Agreement, which adopted a modified regime for those mineral resources found on the seabed in the high seas. Over 100 nations have ratified UNCLOS including Mexico, many more have signed it and indicated their intention to ratify it shortly, and many nations either have or are in the process of accepting the Part XI Agreement. Under UNCLOS, coastal States' jurisdictional rights extend to a set of maritime zones, including inland waters, the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, and the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). For each of these zones, UNCLOS establishes a set of rights and obligations for the coastal State. Coastal States have sovereign jurisdiction in inland waters and (subject to rights of other States) over their territorial seas, which extend twelve nautical miles from a baseline that is approximately equivalent to the coastline. (A nautical mile is equal to 1.852 kilometers). Within their EEZs, which can extend up to 200 nautical miles (approximately 370 kilometers) from their coastline, coastal States have exclusive jurisdictional rights, as defined in the UNCLOS, over all living resources. In contrast to the territorial sea and internal waters, these rights are counterbalanced by obligations to conserve those resources. Coastal States also have exclusive rights over sedentary species and nonliving resources found on the bottom and in the subsoil of the continental shelf, which is defined to extend up to 200 nautical miles or to the outer edge of the geological continental margin, whichever is farther from the coast. At the same time, coastal States are obligated under Articles 192 and 61.2 to conserve and manage the living marine resources under their jurisdiction. States also have obligations to protect the marine environment and conserve its living resources beyond areas of national jurisdiction. For example, the freedom to fish on the high seas is limited by the requirements of Articles 117-120 that States cooperate to conserve and manage living resources of the high seas. UNCLOS also provides that States are to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment. In addition, States are obligated to share monitoring and assessment information and also to collaborate to undertake additional studies and research concerning the marine environment. Several recent international efforts build on principles articulated in UNCLOS. These include: (1) the U.N. Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (1995); (2) the UNEP Global Program of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities (1995); and (3) the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (1995). These are discussed separately below. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996) Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

16 2.1.1.2 The Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro 1992 - The Jakarta Mandate The Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity is a legally binding agreement opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Over 145 countries are Parties. The Convention's objectives are: the conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity); the sustainable use of biodiversity's components; and the equitable sharing of benefits derived from genetic resources. The Convention defines biodiversity as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". The Convention recognizes "the importance of biological diversity for ... maintaining life sustaining systems of the biosphere." It acknowledges that "conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is of critical importance for meeting the food, health and other needs of the growing world population." Biodiversity has intrinsic value, and biodiversity and its components have "ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, education, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values." The Convention establishes a framework of general obligations that Parties are to elaborate in more detail at the national level. For example, Parties must: create national plans, strategies or programs for conservation and sustainable use; inventory and monitor the biodiversity within their own territories; identify and regulate destructive activities; and, integrate consideration of biodiversity into national decision making. Parties must also take special measures to protect customary resource uses and local and indigenous communities' traditional knowledge, innovations, and practices, where they carry on sustainable traditions. Most of the Convention's obligations allow Parties some flexibility in implementation, recognizing that conditions of biodiversity conservation and loss may vary widely. The Convention also provides for an international structure to support national implementation and to promote continued international cooperation. This includes a permanent Secretariat, a Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA), and a Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM) to support scientific and technical cooperation. The parties meet periodically at Conferences of the Parties (COP) to elaborate and build on the Convention, for instance by negotiating protocols (follow-up treaties on specific issues), or creating and modifying annexes on technical or scientific matters. Each party must submit reports on its implementation to the COP. There is also a multilateral fund, currently operated by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), that is funded by developed countries and helps finance implementation in developing country Parties. The Convention establishes a new international regime for the transfer of "genetic resources," which are defined as "genetic material of actual or potential value." The Convention affirms each Party's sovereign right to control access to its genetic resources, while requiring that the Party make efforts to facilitate access for other Parties. It also requires the users of genetic resources to take measures to promote equitable sharing of the benefits, including technologies, with the providers of those resources. (Adapted from Downes cited in de Fontaubert et al. 1996) In Mexico the Secretariat for the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries (SEMARNAP) is in charge of the implementation of the Convention, and has: - Created the National Commission for the Understanding and Use of Biodiversity (Comisión Nacional de Uso y Conocimiento de la Biodiversidad - CONABIO), an organization devoted to funding, documenting, research and policy development related to biodiversity protection; - Implemented a Program for Productive Ecology (Programa para la Ecología Productiva - Solidaridad) as part of the Solidarity Community Development Program established to promote sustainable development of natural resources with an emphasis on the reuse and recycling of solid waste; - Created a Commission for Sustainable Development (Comisión para el Desarrollo Sostenible) under SEMARNAP. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org 1995) Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

17

The Jakarta Mandate The Conference of Parties (COP) of the Convention on Biological Diversity, at its second meeting held in Jakarta in 1995, outlined a program of action for implementing the Convention with respect to marine and coastal biodiversity. In the declaration adopted during the COP's ministerial segment, the ministers termed this program the "Jakarta Mandate." The Jakarta Mandate consists primarily of the recommendations to the COP from the Subsidiary Body on Science, Technology and Technical Advice (SBSTTA), which were adopted at its first meeting held in Paris in 1995. It also includes several additional points agreed upon at the COP. Most of these points were positive additions to the SBSTTA's recommendations. The following summary reviews the major substantive points of Jakarta Mandate. The COP also directed the secretariat to launch a process for developing recommended options for implementation of the Jakarta Mandate. This process will include meetings of experts drawn from a Roster of Experts on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity.

- Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (ICAM) Integrated marine and coastal area management (ICAM) is the most suitable framework for addressing human impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity and for promoting conservation and sustainable use. COP II/10.2; SBSTTA 1/8.10. Parties should promote ICAM as the framework for addressing impacts of landbased activities. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (a). ICAM should address the socio-economic needs of coastal communities. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (d). Governments should establish or strengthen the institutional, administrative, and legislative arrangements for the development of integrated management of marine and coastal ecosystems, plans and strategies for marine and coastal areas, and their integration within national development plans. COP II/10.3. Integrated management measures for environmentally sound land and coastal resources use practices should be based on precautionary ecosystem management approaches and best management practices. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (b)(ii). In addition to protecting specific stocks, the protection of ecosystem functioning should be emphasized in modeling, assessment, and conservation measures. The present mono-species approach to modeling and assessment should be augmented by an ecosystem process-oriented approach, based on research of ecosystem processes and functions, with an emphasis on identifying ecologically critical processes. Interdisciplinary scientific groups should develop models of ecosystem processes, and apply them in the development of sustainable land and coastal resource use practices. COP II/10 Annex I (v). Governments should carry out environmental impact assessments of all major coastal and marine development activities, paying special attention to marine and coastal biological diversity and taking into account cumulative impacts. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (c). Governments should undertake systematic monitoring and evaluation of project impacts during implementation. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (c). The impacts of land-based activities on marine and coastal biological diversity should be assessed and addressed, in close cooperation with the implementation of the Global Program of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (f). Relevant sectoral activities are crucial components of ICAM. They include, inter alia, construction and mining in coastal areas, mariculture, mangrove management, tourism, recreation, fishing practices, and watershed management. COP 11/10 Annex I (ii). Sustainable tourism planning and management should be incorporated into ICAM. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (b)(iii).


18 Current sectoral approaches to the management of marine and coastal resources have generally not proven capable of conserving marine and coastal biodiversity. Governments should develop new models based on precautionary approaches and ecosystem management principles. SBSTTA 1/8 Annex 6. The impacts of dislodging and pollution by maritime vessels on marine and coastal biological diversity, in particular in those countries which border international waterways, should be assessed, and measures adopted to mitigate adverse effects. SBSTTA 1/8.10 (g). Parties are encouraged to undertake and exchange information on ICAM demonstration projects. COP II/10 Annex I (iii). Governments should promote rapid appraisal techniques to improve the conservation and management of marine and coastal biodiversity. SBSTTA 1/8 10 (e).

- Marine and Coastal Protected Areas The value of living marine resources for biodiversity conservation should be an important criterion for the selection of marine and coastal protected areas, within the framework of integrated marine and coastal area management. Conservation measures should emphasize the protection of ecosystem functioning, in addition to protecting specific stock. COP 11/10 Annex l (iv). Parties should explore means to incorporate marine and coastal protected areas within a broader framework for multiple use planning, as exemplified in UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program. SBSTTA 1/8.11 (c). Parties should encourage local communities and resource users to participate in the planning, management, and conservation of coastal and marine protected areas. SBSTTA 1/8.11 (d). In the context of ICAM, Parties should establish or consolidate representative systems of marine and coastal protected areas (MPAs) and enhance linkages and information exchange among the sites. SBSTTA 1/8.11 (a). Parties should promote the research and monitoring of MPAs to assess their value for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity. SBSTTA 1/8.11 (b). Rapid assessment techniques should be applied, as appropriate, to assess the conservation requirements of MPAs. SBSTTA 1/8 11 (e). In the development and implementation of management plans, all three levels of biological diversity, (ecosystem, species, and population or genetic) and factors determining their structure and function, should be considered. SBSTTA 1/8 11 (e).

- Sustainable Use of Coastal and Marine Living Resources In their national plans and programs, Parties should ensure, as far as possible and as appropriate, that: Management decisions are based upon a precautionary approach. SBSTTA 1/8.8.12 (a). Management decisions are based on the best available and sound scientific knowledge, research and information, taking into account ecosystem impacts. SBSTTA 1/8.12 (b). Waste (e.g., through discard, spoilage, or mortality) in the trade in living organisms is reduced SBSTTA 1/8.12 (c). Local communities, users, and indigenous people are involved in the conservation and management of resources. SBSTTA 1/8.12 (d). There is national legislation that ensures the conservation and sustainable use of living marine and coastal resources, which is in conformity with the Convention on Biological Diversity, UNCLOS, and Agenda 21. SBSTTA 1/8.12 (e). Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

19 The provisions of the FAO of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries are followed. SBSTTA 1/8.12 (e). Countries accede to existing international agreements addressing the over-exploitation and conservation of marine and coastal resources, and fully implement and enforce them, especially the Agreement on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. SBSTTA 1/8.12 (f). Monitoring mechanisms are used or established to assist in the sustainable management of marine and coastal living resources. SBSTTA 1/8.12 (g). National plans and programs incorporate the basic management elements described above. SBSTTA 1/8.12. FAO efforts to provide advice on management and technology tools recommended in the FAO Code of Conduct are supported. SBSTTA 1/8.13. They identify constraints, including economic, for conversion of fishing gear and phase-out of fishing overcapacity, and consider the possibility of reducing subsidies for fisheries. SBSTTA 1/8.14 (a). They take into account the ecosystem functions and processes, identifying and targeting critical processes for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. SBSTTA 1/8.14 (c). They promote cooperation between regional fisheries bodies and regional organizations for the protection and conservation of marine environment. COP 11/18 Annex I (viii).

- Implementing Environmentally Sustainable Mariculture Practice Parties should implement environmentally sustainable mariculture practices, as far as possible and appropriate, including the following: Integrated marine and coastal zone management plans should incorporate mariculture, paying special attention to the vulnerability of areas of high biological value. SBSTTA 1/8.15 1(a). Mariculture activities should be subject to prior environmental and social impact assessments (in accordance with Article 14), as well as regulations (Article 10), incorporating the participation and needs of local and indigenous communities. SBSTTA 1/8.15 I (b). National reports and national biodiversity strategies should include an examination of mariculture operations and steps to avoid significant adverse impacts. SBSTTA 1/8.15 IV. The use of chemicals for therapeutics and other mariculture applications should be minimized. SBSTTA 1/8.15 (c). High nutrient release and freshwater diversion should be minimized in mariculture operations, and eutrophication should be avoided. Chemicals should only be used in a prescribed and responsible manner, involving improved waste treatment and feed technology, and integrated farming and polyculture. SBSTTA 1/8.15 I (c). Natural stocks should not be overexploited through the harvesting of wild larvae for mariculture. SBSTTA 1/8.15 I (d). In mariculture, the introduction of alien species, the products of selected breeding and living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology, should be treated as an introduction into the wild. Adherence to international codes of practice should be a minimum requirement. SBSTTA 1/8.15 I (e). Because of the potentially high risks of introductions of species, prior impact assessments should be rigorous, and must reflect application of the precautionary principle. SBSTTA 1/8.15 I (e).


20 An appropriate monitoring program must be put in place if introduction goes ahead. Preference should be given to use of indigenous species. The development of technology to ensure a more complete containment should be encouraged. SBSTTA 1/8.15 I (e). Knowledge of the genetic structure of the local populations of marine species subject to stock enhancement and sea-ranching activities should be improved. This knowledge should be used in the management of breeding stocks according to sound genetic principles that take into account the use of local populations for stock selection, minimum breeding numbers, and the renewal frequency of the breeding stock from the wild population. SBSTTA II/10 Annex l (ix) The conservation of genetic diversity in the wild stocks from which farmed populations are derived should be an objective of overall management. SBSTTA 1/8 15 I (f). Where appropriate and practical, Parties should prevent the physical alteration, destruction or degradation of vital habitats, and pursue the restoration of degraded habitats, including spawning areas and nursery grounds. SBSTTA II/10 Annex I (ii). Parties should, where possible, undertake restoration programs in areas where unsustainable mariculture operations have already degraded or destroyed natural habitats and ecosystems, including spawning areas and nursery grounds. SBSTTA 1/8.15 I (g), II/10 Annex I (ii). The clearing-house mechanism should be used to link databases and information networks to collect and disseminate data related to responsible mariculture measures, and other information relevant to mariculture, such as information on infectious agents, parasites, and disease outbreaks. SBSTTA 1/8.15 II 17(a).

- Introduction of Alien Species Parties should include in national plans and programs, as far as possible and as appropriate: Means to prevent, control or eradicate alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats, or species, in accordance with Article 8, paragraph (h). These means might include the implementation of international protocols and guidelines (e.g., IMO ballast water guidelines, or the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Code of Practice). SBSTTA 1/8.16 I (a). Conduct environmental impact assessments, including risk assessment, prior to intentional introductions. SBSTTA 1/8.16 I (b). The assessment could include: ·the identification of primary pathways for unintentional introductions, ·the identification of types of organisms with the greatest potential to be dangerous, ·mitigation techniques to minimize unintentional introductions, ·monitoring to identify the establishment of alien species, ·and the development of means for the elimination of hazardous alien species. Parties should consult with neighboring States before introducing alien species into shared waters. SBSTTA 1/8.16 I (b). Before intentionally introducing non-native species, Parties should assess possible indigenous species alternatives, whether the introduced species can be adequately monitored (per Article 7, paragraph (c), and whether adverse effects can be reversed within two human generations. SBSTTA 1/8.16 I (c). Prior to intentional introductions, parties should also assess biological information on the species in its native habitat, including life stages and trophic level; the results of previous introductions of this species elsewhere; the potential impacts on indigenous species, through, for example, predation and competition, or on ecosystem function, the associated pathogens and parasites and the ability to treat or screen for such organisms; the potential for habitat modification by the introduced species; and the potential for interbreeding with deleterious genetic impacts on indigenous species and stock. The assessment should take into account that organisms Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

21 transferred from one ecosystem to another may not maintain the same characteristics in the new ecosystem, SBSTTA 1/8.16 I (c). Parties should conduct environmental impact assessments before constructing canals linking coastal water bodies. SBSTTA 1/8.16 I (d). Parties should educate the public on the possible dangers to the ecosystem that could result from the release of ornamental species and unauthorized releases of species for sport fisheries. SBSTTA 1/8.16 I (e). In addition, Parties should conduct further research on the impacts of alien species on in-situ conservation, such as: · ecological surveys and ballast discharge water surveys to help establish baseline data and level of risk associated with introductions through ballast water, including the effects of the introduction of harmful algae species through ballast water; · the long-term effects of species replacements, due to introductions, on ecosystem functioning. SBSTTA 1/8.16 II. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996)

2.1.1.3 U.N. Conference on Environment and Development - Agenda 21, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 Agenda 21 is a program of action for sustainable development that was adopted at the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development in June 1992. While this instrument lacks the force of binding international law, the signature of this text carries with it a strong political obligation to ensure its full implementation. Moreover, the consensus achieved in Agenda 21 already has spurred the conclusion of a number of international initiatives, such as the adoption in 1995 of the U.N. Agreement on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks and the 1994 Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. Agenda 21 provides additional evidence of the international community's broad support for the tasks to be undertaken pursuant to the Convention. Two chapters of Agenda 21 are particularly relevant to the protection of marine biodiversity. Chapter 15 on the conservation of biological diversity; and Chapter 17 on the protection of the oceans, including open, enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas, including the protection, rational use and development of their living resources. Of the two chapters, Chapter 17 provides the broadest support for actions to protect marine biodiversity and promote sustainable use. For example, Chapter 17 specifically calls for coastal States to undertake measures to maintain biological diversity and productivity of marine species under national jurisdiction. The U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development meets annually in New York to review progress in implementing Agenda 21. At the 1996 meeting, countries reviewed implementation of Chapter 17 of Agenda 21. CBD Parties should make themselves aware of the Commission's activities and findings with respect to ongoing efforts to implement marine and coastal biodiversity measures. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996)

2.1.1.4 International Maritime Organization (IMO) - International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) - The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter (London Convention) International Maritime Organization (IMO) The IMO regulates all technical matters in relation to maritime trade dispositions, for example, matters related to maritime security and the prevention and control of ocean pollution by ships. The Caribbean Sea (including the Gulf of Mexico) was designated as a "special area" by the IMO, on account of an existing commitment Mexico made to control sea pollutants and fortify legislation for management and disposal of land residues. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

22 As an acting member of the IMO secretarial group, Mexico’s National Institute of Ecology (NIE) helped in coordinating a plan of action and the unification of maritime security and transportation, as a means to protect the marine environment. Also, in order to carry out the Convention of MARPOL at the regional level, the INE worked in cooperation with the "The Wider Caribbean Region Initiative Against Ship Contamination." (pers. comm. INE/Lezcano 1997)

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), 1973-1978 Pollution from ships poses a great danger to marine biodiversity. Highly productive estuaries and other coastal areas are particularly at risk from discharges. The 1973 MARPOL Convention and its 1978 Protocol aim to protect the marine environment by eliminating intentional discharges of oil and other harmful substances and minimizing accidental discharges of such substances by vessels sailing under flags of State Parties. Parties to the Convention opt to abide by one or more of the five annexes that deal with various substances and cargo loads: Annex I (oil); II (noxious liquids carried in bulk); III (packaged substances); IV (sewage); V (garbage and plastics). MARPOL also provides for designation of "Special Areas" of enclosed or semi-enclosed seas, based on ecological and traffic conditions, in which discharges are especially restricted. The IMO has developed guidelines for identifying special areas. A new annex to MARPOL is under development regulating the discharge of ballast water for the purpose of preventing alien species introductions. MARPOL has had some success in helping to reduce the number of operational discharges at sea, but implementation could be greatly strengthened. Implementation of Annex I on oil has had the most success. By signing, acceding to the Annexes and implementing MARPOL, Parties can reduce the harm to biodiversity due to activities of their nationals, whether in their own areas of jurisdiction, in the areas of another State or in a global commons area. Parties should maintain their commitment to ongoing efforts under MARPOL, such as attending technical meetings. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996). Currently, Annex I and II are obligatory for Mexico, the rest are optional. Annex V has been approved by Mexico and will soon become obligatory when published in the Official Journal of the Federation (Diario Oficial de la Federación - D.O.F.). In 1996, under the direction of the Secretariat for Foreign Relations, the Intersecretarial Group for International Maritime Organization Affairs created the National Regulation Project as a means for implementing the MARPOL Convention of 1973-1978, of which is currently being edited for publication in the D.O.F. In September of 1997, the Conference of Parties of the MARPOL Convention will examine the Protocol for 1997 with the addition of Annex VI of the MARPOL Convention of 1973-1978 that concerns ship emissions contributing to the pollution of the atmosphere. (pers. comm. INE/Lezcano 1997)

The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter, London, 1972 (London Convention) The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter, also known as the London Convention, was adopted in 1972, and entered into force in 1975. The disposal of wastes at sea can have severe impacts on marine biodiversity. The London Convention is designed to control the dumping of waste in the sea, and to encourage the formation of regional agreements to supplement the Convention. It requires States to limit the disposal at sea of such substances as radioactive materials, biological and chemical warfare agents, persistent plastics, heavy metals and toxic organics. Importantly, the Convention applies to activities of vessels flying flags of State Parties beyond national jurisdiction.


23 Countries should seek to adopt the Convention's pollution prevention approach at the national level. Moreover, UNCLOS Article 210.6 indicates that States are required to implement the London Convention's pollution reduction and prevention requirements because they qualify as globally applicable ocean dumping requirements (Birnie and Boyle 1992).(de Fontaubert et al. 1996) Other Instruments Other international instruments related to marine pollution signed by Mexico are: International Convention on high seas intervention in case of accidents that cause pollution by oil spills (Brussels, 1969). International Convention on high seas intervention in case of pollution caused from substances different from oil (London, 1973). United States of Mexico and United States of America Agreement of cooperation on environmental pollution by oil spills and other toxic substances. (Brañes, R. 1994)

2.1.1.5 UNEP Conference on Protection of the Marine Environmental from Land-Based Activities, Washington, 1995 As discussed previously, UNCLOS requires States to address land-based sources of marine pollution, which is a principal threat to marine and coastal biodiversity. Recognizing that specific implementation of this general obligation is complex and demands significant resources, the international community affirmed in Agenda 21 the need to implement their obligations to protect coastal and marine environments against land-based sources of pollution. The UNEP Intergovernmental Conference to Adopt a Global Program of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, was held in Washington, D.C. in 1995. This Conference, which was called for in Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, resulted in the Global Program of Action for the Protection of Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities (the GPA), UNEP (OCA)/LBA/IG.2/7, and the Washington Declaration on Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, UNEP (OCA)/LBA/IG.2.6. The GPA calls for actions to be taken at the national, regional and international levels. For example, it recognizes integrated coastal area management (ICAM - ICZM) as an essential tool for addressing the impacts of land-based activities at the national level. It also contains a number of prescriptive approaches to deal with different categories of sources, including detailed recommendations for the regulation of sewage, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), radioactive substances, heavy metals, oils (hydrocarbons), nutrients, sediment mobilization, litter, and physical alterations and destruction of habitats. The Washington Declaration calls on all Parties, to inter alia, develop or review national action programs, to cooperate on a regional basis to coordinate their efforts, and to develop a legally binding instrument for the reduction and/or elimination of emissions and discharges of POPs, and the elimination of their manufacture and use where appropriate. Through this Conference and the implementation of its GPA, governments have recognized the need to take a global approach to address the issue of marine pollution. While the bulk of the actions to be taken will be implemented at the national level, the GPA and Washington Declaration acknowledge the importance of cooperating in building capacities and mobilizing resources, cooperating on a regional basis, to coordinate efforts for maximum efficiency, and initiating the negotiation of a global legally-binding instrument to regulate the use production of POPs. Both the GPA and the Washington Declaration will require further cooperation among the Parties and all the relevant U.N. agencies. Thus, the GPA set in motion a process for UNEP to organize an inter-organizational group to develop the design and structure of a clearing-house mechanism in respect to the various source categories identified in the GPA, and the specific role that each U.N. agency will play.


24 The Program of Action also calls on States to negotiate and implement a legally binding instrument to address, where appropriate, the issue of production and consumption of persistent organic instruments (POPs). This elaboration of more specific strategies on reducing land-based sources of marine pollution enables States to begin devising and implementing national management regimes which should ultimately form a major part of the actions needed to protect marine biodiversity (see the discussion in the section on integrated coastal area management, Part II, Action Item I). (de Fontaubert et al. 1996)

2.1.1.6 Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean (Cartagena Convention) - Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol) - Association of Caribbean States Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean (Cartagena Convention), Colombia, 1983. The Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region was convened by the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Program in persuant to a recommendation adopted by the Intergovernmental Meeting on the Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment Program (Montego Bay, 6 to 8 April 1981). The Conference met at Cartagena de Indias, from 21 to 24 March 1983. As a result of its deliberations, the following instruments were adopted by the Conference: - Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region; - Protocol concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region The Government of the Republic of Colombia has been designated as the Depositary for the Convention and Protocol. UNEP has been designated as responsible for carrying out the Secretariat function for the Convention and Protocol (Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, article 30). The "Convention area" means the marine environment of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the areas of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent thereto, south of 30° north latitude and within 200 nautical miles of the Atlantic coasts of the States participant to the Convention. The Convention is a comprehensive, umbrella agreement for the protection and development of the marine environment. It lists the sources of pollution which require control: pollution from ships, dumping, land-based sources and sea-bed activities together with airborne pollution. It also identifies environmental management issues for which co-operative efforts are to be made: specially protected areas, co-operation in cases of emergency, environmental impact assessment and scientific and technical co-operation. There is also an article on liability and compensation. By ratifying a protocol, a Party accepts more specific obligations to control pollution from a discrete source, or to co-operate in a specific aspect of environmental management. Under the Convention no State or regional economic integration organization may become a contracting party to the Convention without also becoming a contracting party to at least one protocol. (Regional Coordinating Unit Caribbean Action Plan undated) A third Protocol Concerning the Pollution of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Sources and Activities is being negotiated, and it is expected that it could be ratified in late 1998 or early 1999. The first two annexes of this Protocol deal with priority pollutants, technology and management practices, and the following ones on specific sources. The inclusion of effluents on the Protocol has been approved but the inclusion of emissions is still on the table.


25 The Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in the Wider Caribbean Region (SPAW Protocol) (Kingston, 1990) The Conference of Plenipotentiaries on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in the Wider Caribbean Region was convened in Guadeloupe, October 26-28, 1987, by the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) pursuant to Decision No. 18 of the Fourth Intergovernmental Meeting on the Action Plan for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region. The Conference met at Kingston, Jamaica, from January 15 to 18, 1990, at the invitation of the Executive Director of UNEP. The protocol is a comprehensive framework for establishing regional cooperation to protect and improve the state of ecosystems, as well as threatened and endangered species and their habitat in the Wider Caribbean Region. It contains provisions for the establishment of protected areas, planning and management regimes for protected areas, establishment of buffer zones, protected areas and buffer zones contiguous to international boundaries, national and cooperative measures for the protection of wild flora and fauna, introduction of nonindigenous or genetically altered species, environmental impact assessments, changes in the status of protected areas or protected species, scientific, technical and management research, mutual assistance and establishment of common guidelines and criteria. (Final Act of the Conference of Plenipotentiaries Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in the Wider Caribbean Region 1990)

Association of Caribbean States The Association of Caribbean States was established in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia on June 24, 1994. Among other issues, it is stated in the preamble that member States are convinced of the vital importance of preserving the environment at a regional level and particularly the shared responsibility of preserving the ecological integrity of the Caribbean Sea, by the mobilization of the collective capacities of their people to develop and sustainable use natural resources, in order to improve the quality of life of present and future generations of people in the Caribbean. Among others, one of the functions of the Association is to preserve the environment and natural resources in the region, particularly the Caribbean Sea. The Council of Ministers is the principal organ of the association, and determines its policy and orientation. Among the Special Committees specified in the charter are: the Committee for Conservation and Environmental Protection and the Committee for Natural Resources. (D.O.F. 02/05/1995)

2.1.1.7 U.N. Agreement on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, New York, 1995 - FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, Rome 1995 U.N. Agreement on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks In an important step toward implementing some of the principles of UNCLOS, the U.N. Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks recently adopted an international agreement on stocks of fish species that straddle or migrate between EEZs and the high seas or over long distances (the "Straddling Stocks Agreement"), with the objective of ensuring the "long-term conservation and sustainable use" of these marine living resources. The Straddling Stocks Agreement articulates three conservation principles which build upon and strengthen the conservation requirements of UNCLOS: the precautionary approach, protection of biodiversity in the marine environment, and sustainable use of fisheries resources.


26 The Straddling Stocks Agreement, adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1995 and signed by more than 40 nations, calls on participating States to: - Protect biodiversity in the marine environment. - Take into account the interest of artisanal and subsistence fishers. - Adopt measures to ensure the long term sustainability of the fish stocks and promote their optimum utilization. - Ensure that the measures taken are based on the best scientific evidence available. - Take account of environmental and economic factors, such as the special requirements of developing States. - Apply the precautionary approach. - Adopt an ecosystems approach, whereby dependent or associated species are taken into account. - Take measures to prevent or eliminate over-fishing and excess fishing capacity. - Give a high priority to the collection and sharing of data, and - Implement and enforce conservation and management measures through effective monitoring, surveillance, and exchange of information. The Agreement provides for implementation of these principles through regional management arrangements. For each particular region, and the specific stocks it holds, coastal States and other States with interest in the stocks are to come together and negotiate among themselves to conduct scientific research, establish TACs, and agree on enforcement measures. The Straddling Stock Agreement is revolutionary in that it gives participating States strong enforcement powers. The flag State still has primary jurisdiction over its vessels, but if it fails to act after being notified of a likely violation, any other State Party to the relevant regional management arrangement or organization has the right to board and inspect the suspected vessel. The Agreement was opened for signature at the 50th session of the U.N. General Assembly on December 4, 1995. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996)

The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, 1995 The FAO Code of Conduct, which is non-binding, applies UNCLOS-consistent conservation and sustainability requirements to fisheries for all stocks in all areas of the seas. The Code of Conduct is an important instrument of "soft international law" that Parties should endorse and implement in order to achieve the goals of the Biodiversity Convention in the fisheries context. The Straddling Stocks Agreement and the FAO Code of Conduct were negotiated during approximately the same period of time and the two are intended to be complementary. The Straddling Stocks Agreement is intended as a framework for management regimes governing straddling stocks and highly migratory species that span EEZs and the high seas. The FAO Code of Conduct focuses on the practices of national fishing fleets, calling on countries to act at the national level. It covers fishing on the high seas, as well as activities within EEZs, including fishing of stocks exclusively within EEZs. The two instruments refer to one another extensively, and the full implementation of one will require implementation of the other. The Straddling Stocks Agreement draws heavily on the technical principles of the Code, but goes further by calling for establishment of strong regional organizations and arrangements, in which coastal States and distant water fishing States will collaborate to adopt conservation and management measures for straddling and highly migratory fish stocks. Both instruments seek to impose greater responsibilities on States whose vessels fish on the high seas. The Code consists of six thematic articles on Fisheries Management, Fishing Operations, Aquaculture Development, Integration of Fisheries into Coastal Areas Management, Post-Harvest Practices and Trade, and Fisheries Research. The Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Vessels Fishing on the High Seas ("the Compliance Agreement") is an integral part of the Code of Conduct, and technical guidelines are being prepared by the FAO Secretariat in support of the implementation of the Code. The Code was adopted by the Conference of the FAO in November 1995. The Code addresses most of the threats to biodiversity from current fisheries practices and explicitly states that it is designed to be interpreted and applied with due regard to the Biodiversity Convention (FAO Code, Article 3). The Code, like the Biodiversity Convention, notes that the precautionary approach must guide States in developing conservation and sustainable use programs when complete information is not available, so that Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

27 conservation and management measures are not postponed or undermined by a lack of complete scientific certainty. The FAO Code of Conduct helps address many of the damaging practices discussed above. It calls upon States to reduce the use of indiscriminate and destructive technologies such as trawls and drift nets, and to eliminate entirely the use of poisons and explosives. It calls upon States instead to use responsible technologies and methods, and urges developed countries to share technologies and knowledge with developing nations, with the aim of maintaining biodiversity and conserving population structures, aquatic ecosystems and fish quality. This cooperative, uniform approach can also help eliminate competitive impulses to fish unsustainably; if all nations’ fleets are invested in using sustainable technologies and practices, the pressure to cut costs by using short-term, profit-maximizing destructive technology or practices will be reduced. The FAO Code of Conduct also calls for the protection of artisanal fisheries. Under the Code, States are to provide educational and technical assistance to encourage those fishers to shift to more sustainable methods, where such a shift is necessary. In addition, those fisheries that already are sustainably managed, especially those that embody traditional practices of local and indigenous communities, are to be protected. Indigenous management methods may need to be strengthened or modified in order to address the difficulties of modern fisheries and competition from commercial fishers, but traditional knowledge must not be lost to large-scale commercial fishing. Customary sea tenure must be respected whenever authorities regulate, manage, or redistribute fishing rights. The Code calls on States to reduce overcapitalization by ensuring that investments in fisheries are in proportion to the value of fishery yields. In addition, Code of Conduct recognizes the need for fisheries management to be incorporated into a larger scheme of coastal area management, planning and development because of the effects of land-based activities on marine ecosystems (see also Part II, Action Item I on Integrated Coastal Area Management). Recognizing the need for a comprehensive management approach, the Code of Conduct requires States to establish a legislative, administrative and institutional framework within which sustainable fisheries management will be developed. The FAO Code of Conduct is to be applied by States to fishery operations by their nationals and by vessels flying their flag, whether within their national jurisdiction, in the zones of jurisdiction of other States or on the high seas. The FAO is now developing technical guidelines to help countries implement the Code. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996)

2.1.1.8 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, Washington, 1973, (CITES) CITES, which has over 125 Parties, seeks to ensure that international trade in animal and plant species, defined as including subspecies and populations, is sustainable. In periodic Conferences of the Parties, CITES Parties identify species that are, or may be, threatened by trade, listing them on Appendix I to CITES. They also identify species that may become threatened unless trade is regulated, listing them on Appendix II. These determinants are made based on biological criteria and evidence concerning the species' status and threats to their survival. Specimens of listed species can be traded only with permits from the country of export; Appendix I species must also have prior permits from the country of import. Commercial trade is forbidden for species listed on Appendix I. While not banned, trade is strictly regulated for species on Appendix II, and Parties are to monitor trade impacts and adjust regulation as needed. A number of marine species are listed under CITES. For example, all species of the order Cetacea (whales and dolphins) and all species of sea turtles are listed under either Appendix I or Appendix II. A number of species of coral are also listed under CITES. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996) Under CITES, Mexico is in charge of maintaining species "at a level consistent with its role in the ecosystem." There is no single law or regulation, however that directly addresses habitats or ecosystem protection. Such protection is provided for under different laws (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995).


28 No corals and reef species present in Mexico are included in Appendix I and the following are included in Appendix II of CITES:

SPECIES

COMMON NAME

Phylum Mollusca Class Gastropoda Strombus gigas

(Queen conch)

Phylum Cnidaria (=Coelenterata) Class Anthozoa Order Coenothecalia All species in the Order except those in genus with earlier date Heliopora spp.

(06/11/92)

(corals, sea anemones)

(01/18/90) (Blue corals)

Order Stolonifera Tubiporidae spp. All species in family except genus with earlier date

(08/01/85)

(01/18/90)

Tubipora spp.

(Organ-pipe corals)

Order Antipatharia

(Black corals)

All species in the Order Order Scleractinia All species in the Order except the following genera with earlier date Acropora spp. Favia spp. Pavona spp. Pocillopora spp

DATE LISTED

(08/01/85)

(06/06/81) (Stony corals)

(Staghorn corals) (Brain corals) (Cactus corals) (Brush corals)

(01/18/90) (08/01/85) (08/01/85) (08/01/85) (08/01/85)

Class Hydrozoa (Sea ferns, Fire corals, Stinging medusae) Order Milleporina (=Athecata) Milleporidae spp. All species in family except genus with earlier date Millepora spp. (Fire corals)

(01/18/90) (08/01/85)

Order Stylasterina Stylasteridae spp. All species in family

(01/18/90)

(CITES 1995)


29 2.1.1.9 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972 (World Heritage Convention) The World Heritage Convention, which has been in force since 1972, has the objective of creating international support for the protection and maintenance of sites demonstrating outstanding cultural and natural heritage of universal value. It provides for identification and protection of such sites under international law and encourages public and official attention to the value and the need to preserve such sites. Each of the 146 Parties to the World Heritage Convention assumes an obligation to identify, protect, conserve and transmit to future generations its unique cultural heritage, and natural heritage. In addition, the World Heritage Commission selects sites nominated by Parties to be placed on the World Heritage List. The criteria for selecting sites were revised in 1994 to provide for identification of sites that are the most important and significant natural habitats for in situ conservation of biological diversity. The World Heritage Convention provides for identification of World Heritage Sites within the "territory" of its Parties. Thus, while Parties may nominate Sites within their internal and territorial waters, it is unclear whether Sites can be identified within Parties' EEZs. The World Heritage Convention was ahead of its time in setting up a multilateral fund, the World Heritage Fund, to finance protection of World Heritage Sites in developing country Parties. However, the amount of funding contributed by developed countries has been minimal, generally amounting to between US$2 and 3 million per year. Measures under the World Heritage Convention are related to the obligations of States under the CBD to identify and protect ecosystems of particular importance. In encompassing both natural and cultural heritage, and providing for identification of sites rich in biological diversity, the World Heritage Convention implicitly recognizes that biodiversity's cultural as well as natural values are important, consistent with the Preamble of the CBD, which recognizes the many values of biodiversity including its cultural value. One useful step that Parties to both Conventions could take would be to review and augment their national inventories and protective measures for natural and cultural heritage in light of the CBD's call for national inventories of biodiversity, the 1994 revision to the World Heritage Convention, and the developing awareness of the value of biodiversity for humanity. (de Fontaubert, et al. 1996) In Mexico only two Natural Sites have been included in the World Heritage List, out of the sixteen designated Mexican sites. The first is the Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve which contains important coral reef habitats bordering its coasts, and the second one is the Whale Sanctuary in the Vizcaino Lagoons, in the Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve. The Belize Barrier Reef located south of the Mexican Caribbean Reef System has also been included in the List.

2.1.1.10 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Ramsar, 1971 (Ramsar Convention) The Ramsar Convention, which has been in force since 1975 and has been ratified by 93 Parties, aims to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands, now and in the future. While Ramsar focuses on wetlands that are important for migratory waterfowl, it recognizes the overall values of wetlands, including their fundamental ecological functions and their economic, cultural, scientific and recreational value. Ramsar defines wetlands broadly to include freshwater, brackish and saltwater marshes, including marine waters up to six meters deep at low tide, and any deeper marine waters contained within the wetland area, as well as adjacent islands and coastal areas. The Ramsar Convention Parties are to designate at least one national wetland of international importance; many Parties have designated more than one. Designation of these areas should be an element of the process of identifying priority components of biodiversity under Article of Convention (see Part II, Action Item 6). Under Ramsar, Parties are also required to establish wetlands nature reserves and cooperate in the exchange of information for wetlands management, obligations that are consistent with the obligations to establish marine protected areas and cooperate on scientific and technical matters under the CBD. Ramsar also requires Parties to assess the impacts of any changes in use on identified wetland sites, which is consistent with the CBD's Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

30 requirement in Article 14 that Parties establish environmental impact assessment procedures. Finally, Ramsar requires Parties to take responsibility for conservation, management and wise use of migratory stocks of waterfowl, an approach that is also taken in Annex I of the CBD, which identifies ecosystems necessary to migratory species as being potentially important for purposes of conservation priorities. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996) Mexico has designated only one site to the Ramsar Convention, the Zona de Refugio Faunístico (zone for faunal refuge) Ria Lagartos, Yucatan. This area does not contain reef habitat in its present state, but might do so if planned expansions to include marine habitats are approved. Mexico is also nominating two biosphere reserves for inclusion in RAMSAR; La Encrucijada, Chis. and Alto Golfo de California y delta del Rio Colorado, Son., B.C.

2.1.1.11 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) - Subcommission of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (IOCARIBE) Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) The IOC is an instrument within the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) whose ultimate purpose is to: "Further scientific research on the oceans, through studies of its natural processes and living organisms in order to gain deeper understanding." The IOC is the acting coordinator for the United Nations System on Ocean Sciences. Objectives for the IOC are: - Define the problems for the development of solutions necessitating international cooperation within the realm of oceanographic research. - Prepare, advice and coordinate international programs for scientific research of the oceans, services related to the programs, strengthen education, development and technology, and coordinated action of its member states. - Develop cooperative scientific research, global oceanic services and educational, development and mutual assistance programs. Mexico’s National Institute of Ecology takes part in the CONALMEX (The National Mexican Commission) as the representing party for the IOC which determines the guidelines for the Mexican Delegation to the IOC meetings. (pers. comm. INE/Tenorio 1997)

Subcommission of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (IOCARIBE) IOCARIBE was created in 1984 in order to promote and develop regional cooperation for marine sciences. Twenty-two Member States from the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas and the Mid-Western Region of the Atlantic Ocean participate in IOCARIBE. IOCARIBE's objectives are: -To define regional problems and through international cooperation, present solutions. -To facilitate the exchange of scientific data and information and the transfer of technological innovations. -To determine the needs for training, education and public assistance. -To present recommendations to the IOC and cooperate with the United Nations Subsidiary Organizations. IOCARIBE's Plan of Action (1990-1995) is comprised of three fields: oceanic sciences, oceanic related services and development, and guidance and public assistance for marine affairs. (pers. comm. INE/Tenorio 1997)


31 2.1.1.12 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation - Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 1994 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation The North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) subscribed by Canada, Mexico and the United States, came into effect January 1, 1994, at the same time as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The Agreement incorporates and complements environmental provisions contained in NAFTA, and in general terms aims to protect, preserve and improve environmental conditions in North America (CCA Undated).

The Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) The Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) is an international organization whose members include Canada, Mexico and the United States. The CEC was created under the North American Agreement for Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) to address regional environmental concerns, help prevent potential trade and environmental conflicts and to promote the effective enforcement of environmental laws. The Agreement complements the environmental provisions established in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The CEC Mission Statement States that the CEC “facilitates cooperation and public participation to foster conservation, protection and enhancement of the North American environment for the benefit of present and future generations, in the context of increasing economic trade and social links between Canada, Mexico and the United States”. Under Article 14 of the NAAEC, the CEC Secretariat may consider a submission from any non-governmental organization or person asserting that a Party to the NAAEC is failing to effectively enforce its environmental law. When the Secretariat determines that the Article 14 (1) criteria are met, it shall then determine whether the submission merits requesting a response from the Party named in the submission under Article 14 (2). In light of any response provided by that Party, the Secretariat may recommend to the Council that a factual record be prepared, in accordance with Article 15. The Council comprised of the environmental ministers (or their equivalent) of Canada, Mexico and the U.S., may then instruct the Secretariat to prepare a factual record on the submission. The final factual record is made publicly available upon a 2/3 vote of the Council. Per section 15 of the Guidelines, the Secretariat has established a registry to provide information so that any interested organization or person, may follow the status of any given submission during the submission process envisaged under Articles 14 and 15 of the NAAEC. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org 1995) The first instance where the provisions of Article 14 (1) were met, and the responses by the Party and factual record integration process were initiated, dealt with the construction of a Cruise Ship Pier in Isla Cozumel, within the limits of the Costa Occidental de Isla Cozumel Refuge Zone for the Protection of Marine Flora and Fauna Q. Roo, an area designated as a non-fishery, non-extractive zone. Part V deals with Party to Party Disputes that can potentially result in trade sanctions.

2.1.1.13 Tuxtla I and Tuxtla II Agreements on Cooperation between Mexico and the Central American Region - Central American Commission on the Environment and Development - Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Through meetings held between the Mexican and other Central American Presidents, the Mexican Government has participated in a project of regional cooperation of outstanding proportions. These meetings named Tuxtla, manifest a dynamic version to address matters of regional importance between Mexico and Central America. Within this framework, the following issues are related to regional cooperation in environmental matters:


32 Tuxtla I The first meeting between the Mexican President and the Presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua was held in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, hence the name Tuxtla Meeting, on January 10 and 11, 1991. One of the objectives of the meeting was to declare Central America a peaceful, free, democratic and developing region. In order to achieve this status of stability and aid the recovering neighboring countries on the road to development, cooperation as well as greater support from the international community for the region must be enhanced.

Tuxtla II On February 16, 1996, the President of Mexico gathered with the Presidents of seven Central American countries, including Panama and the Prime Minister of Belize, resulting in the Joint Declaration of the Chiefs of State of the Central American and Mexican Governments "Tuxtla II". Point XVIII from the "Plan of Action" deals with the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries. Within this context, SEMARNAP and the National Institute of Ecology contracted obligations to cooperate in the fields of: environmental zoning, environmental impact, biodiversity and climate change. Cooperative obligations have been fulfilled, and include projects such as the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, the Mesoamerican Caribbean Reef System and actions relevant to ecotourism in the region.

Central American Commission on the Environment and Development (CCAD) The Central American Commission on the Environment and Development is a Central American regional organization responsible for the environment within the region. Since its Sixth Regular Meeting in June of 1991 (as of the end of 1997 there have been 23 meetings), Mexico has been an observing participant and through the agreement signed on June 1991, has also been the instrument for the National Institute of Ecology regional environmental cooperation. Since then, Mexico has participated in different events and regional meetings related to the environment organized by the CCAD. The most recent activity concerning this matter was the XVIII Regular Meeting of the CCAD, which took place in Mexico City. In this meeting, on October 6, 1995, SEMARNAP and the Secretaries of the Environment of the seven Central American countries signed the Joint Mexico-Central American Declaration, to promote, consolidate, and instrument policies to promote sustainable development, conservation, rational use of natural resources and protection for the region's environment.

The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Faced with the urgency to stop destruction and loss of biodiversity within the Mesoamerican region, in Managua, Nicaragua, June 1992, the XII Regional Summit of Presidents of Central America, signed the Agreement for Biodiversity in Central America, which calls for the development of a Central American Council of Protected Areas, within the framework of the Commission on Environment and Development in Central America. The CCAD would coordinate regional efforts that would harmonize policies to develop a Regional System of Protected Areas and create a Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Following the Tuxtla II meeting, and in the interest of the Commission on Environmental and Development in Central America, Mexico was incorporated into to the "Mesoamerican Regional System of Protected Areas, Buffer Zones and Biological Corridors" project (Mesoamerican Biological Corridor). The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor's principal objective is to avoid the deterioration and loss of biodiversity, through conservation of representative samples of the region's environments, preventing the fragmentation of ecosystems with the conformation of a set of interconnected areas that would permit: the possibility of genetic Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

33 and biological interchange between fragmented populations; the continuity of biological processes; and the integration of these areas within a regional planning process oriented towards sustainable development. (pers. comm. INE/Tenorio 1997) Within this context the Yucatan Peninsula biological connectors system aims to achieve the same objectives at a subregional level. In the marine context, the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor is being implemented through the Mesoamerican Caribbean Coral Reef Systems Initiative.

2.1.1.14 Mesoamerican Caribbean Coral Reef Systems Initiative Within the context of the International Year of the Reef (1997), on June 5, 1997, the “Tulum Declaration” was signed by the First minister of Belize an the Presidents of Honduras, Guatemala and Mexico in order to adopt the “Mesoamerican Caribbean Coral Reef Systems Initiative”, whose goal is to promote conservation and sustainable use of coral reef systems shared by these four nations. An action plan is being designed to jointly promote scientific research, education to create constituency, reduction of pollution from land sources, information interchange and sustainable financing mechanisms. This initiative offers at the end of the millennium, the framework for one of the most viable and transcendental opportunities on the planet for carrying out a multinational conservation effort.

2.1.2 National Legislation All Mexican legislation is based on the Political Constitution of the United States of Mexico. There are many articles within the Constitution that derive into a set of Laws, Regulations, Decrees, Secretarial Dictates (acuerdos) and Official Mexican Norms, that constitute, as a whole, the body of Mexico's environmental legislation, but the single most important base is contained within Article 27, which states that property of land and waters corresponds originally to the Nation, who has the right to transfer it, creating private property. Nevertheless, the Nation maintains the right to impose on private property the modalities that public interest dictates, and also to regulate the appropriation of natural resources based on the interest of society.

Agencies Responsible for Coastal and Marine Management Diario Oficial de la Federación (D.O.F.) 12/28/94 Decreto que reforma, adiciona y deroga diversas disposiciones de la Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal (D.O.F. Official Journal of the Federation, roughly equivalent to Federal Register) By means of the Organic Law of Public Federal Administration, the Secretariat of the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca - SEMARNAP) was created as the Federal Government's agency responsible for the aspects expressed in its name. Other Federal agencies have jurisdiction over different aspects related to coastal and marine ecosystem management: the Navy Secretariat (Secretaría de Marina), the Transportation and Communications Secretariat (Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes), the Tourism Secretariat (Secretaría de Turismo), the Governance Secretariat (Secretaría de Gobernación), and the Health Secretariat. The first three mentioned secretariats functions will be discussed with more detail further in this document. The Governance Secretariat has jurisdiction over federal islands and cays and should play an important role in island ecosystems, having jurisdiction mainly on terrestrial issues. The Health Secretariat has jurisdiction over pollution issues that can affect the health of the population.


34 D.O.F. 08/07/1996 Reglamento Interior de la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca The Internal Regulations of SEMARNAP specify functions of the following administrative units that have jurisdiction over different aspects related to coastal and marine ecosystem management: Undersecretariat of Natural Resources Federal marine-coastal zone, soil conservation, forestry. Undersecretariat of Fisheries Fisheries management, aquaculture and fisheries infrastructure. National Water Commission (CNA) Water management. National Institute of Ecology (INE) Protected areas, wildlife management, pollution control, environmental zoning and environmental impact assessment. National Institute of Fisheries (INP) Fisheries research. Federal Attorney for the Protection of the Environment (PROFEPA) Enforcement of environmental law.

2.1.2.1 Environmental Legislation Mexico has no single law that regulates biological diversity or wildlife. Protection and management of wildlife regulations are instead established in four central pieces of legislation: the General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico y Protección al Ambiente hereinafter Ecology Law); the Federal Hunting Law (Ley Federal de Caza); and the Federal Fisheries Law (Ley Federal de Pesca) and the Regulation to the Federal Fisheries Law (Reglamento de la Ley Federal de Pesca). The Official Mexican Standard (Norma Oficial Mexicana (NOM)) NOM-059-ECOL-1994 which establishes lists of more than 2,150 endangered and threatened species and measures for their protection (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995). D.O.F. 29/01/1988 D.O.F. 13/12/1996 Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente. The General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (hereinafter Ecology Law) was recently amended and is divided into six Titles. Title l sets forth general provisions, jurisdiction and powers of municipal, state and federal governments, environmental policy and its instruments. Title II deals with biodiversity and establishes procedures for developing and managing protected areas and provides general policies for environmental restoration, and wildlife (flora and fauna) management. Title III governs the rational use of natural elements and sets forth the general environmental provisions regulating sustainable use of aquatic ecosystems, soil, and nonrenewable resources. Title IV, entitled Environmental Protection, sets forth general standards governing pollution on seven mediaspecific areas which include: the atmosphere; water and aquatic ecosystems; soil; ultra-hazardous activities; hazardous waste and materials; nuclear energy; and noise, vibration, thermal energy, light, odors and visual pollution. Title V creates policies to promote public participation. Title VI establishes administrative inspection procedures, enforcement actions, the application of sanctions, environmental crimes, and a system for popular complaints. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

35

The Ecology Law sets forth fourteen broad principles that serve as the basis for national environmental protection policies and goals. The most important goal established under the Ecology Law is that of ecological balance, defined as the "interdependent relationship between the elements that comprise the environment and that make all human, plant and animal existence, transformation and development possible." Environmental Policy Instruments are also created as a series of administrative and participatory tools which include: environmental planning, environmental zoning (POE), economical instruments, environmental regulation of human settlements, environmental impact assessments (EIA), environmental official Mexican norms (NOM), autoregulation and environmental audits, research and environmental education. The Ecology Law is complemented by a number of media-specific laws and regulations in the area of; water, occupational health and safety; pesticides, fertilizers and toxic substances; fisheries; forestry; hunting; mining; agriculture; energy; and transportation of hazardous materials. (Updated and modified from Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org 1995)

2.1.2.1.1. Ecological Zoning Program Ecological Zoning Programs (Programas de Ordenamiento Ecológico del Territorio - POE) are based on the Mexican Constitution and the Ecology Law. A POE is an instrument of environmental policy whose objective is to induce land use and productive activities, towards the protection of the environment and sustainable use of natural resources. Four different types of POEs are contemplated in the Ecology Law; General (national level), Regional (part of a state, a state or more than one state), local (municipalities) and marine. Marine POEs are part of the additions to the Environmental Law and belong within the sphere of Federal Jurisdiction. Ecological Zoning Programs have the potential of becoming the main tool to unify diverse criteria and convoke the different actors that need to be involved in an integrated coastal zone management strategy. The following list includes all POEs subscribed up through September 1997. All of them go as far as the coast, but most of them "do not go into the sea". P.O.G.E.N. 11/04/1992 Plan Director de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecología del Municipio de Bahía de Banderas, Nay. POE published as an Urban Development Plan (PDU) for the Municipality of Bahía de Banderas, Nayarit. Includes marine zones such as Islas Marietas. P.O.G.E.C 28/08/1993 Ordenamiento Ecológico Estatal de Colima, Col. POE for the State of Colima, mainly terrestrial. P.O.G.Q.R 09/06/1994 D.O.F. 26/10/1994 Acuerdo de Coordinación para el Ordenamiento Ecológico de la región denominada Corredor Cancún-Tulum, Quintana Roo. POE for the Cancun-Tulum Touristic Corridor. Includes six Marine Management Units specifically designed for coral reef conservation and 15 environmental criteria applicable to these units. P.O.G.Q.R 30/11/1994 D.O.F. 05/06/1996 Acuerdo de Coordinación para el Ordenamiento Ecológico de la región denominada Sistema Lagunar Nichupté, Cancún, Quintana Roo. POE for the Nichupte Lagoon System in Cancun. Includes one Marine Management Unit specifically designed for coral reef conservation and two environmental criteria applicable to these units.


36 B.O.G.E.B.C.S. 31/08/1995 Plan de Ordenamiento Ecológico para el Desarrollo Urbano y Turístico del Municipio de los Cabos, Baja California Sur. POE for the Los Cabos Municipality. Includes environmental criteria such as K-14 that states that; Due to the importance of Cabo Pulmo and in order to protect the rocky zone adjacent to the reef, the area is proposed as a natural monument. P.O.G.E.B.C. 02/06/1995 Ordenamiento Ecológico del Corredor Turístico Tijuana-Ensenada, Baja California. POE for the Tijuana Ensenada Touristic Corridor, mainly terrestrial. P.O.G.E.B.C. 08/09/1995 Ordenamiento Ecológico Estatal de Baja California. POE for the State of Baja California, mainly terrestrial. P.O.G.E = Periódico Oficial del Gobierno del Estado B.O.G.E = Boletín Oficial del Gobierno del Estado Equivalent to State Registers. Ecological Zoning Programs in progress, related to coastal zones with coral reef ecosystems include; Bahía de la Paz, B.C.S., State of Sonora, Son., Northcentral and Southcentral Coast of Sinaloa, Sin., Northern Coast of Nayarit, Nay, Coast of Jalisco, Jal., Coast of Oaxaca, Oax., Huatulco, Oax. for the Pacific Ocean coast and Cozumel, Q. Roo, Sian Ka'an, Q. Roo and Costa Maya, Q. Roo. There are no POEs in progress for Veracruz and Yucatan and in Campeche only Laguna de Términos POE is in progress. The first marine POE for Mexico under the modified Ecological Law is being executed for the Gulf of California. (pers. comm. INE/Medina)

2.1.2.1.2 Protected Areas Protected areas constitute an important part of the Mexican strategy to protect biodiversity. Protected areas in Mexico are conceptualized to a certain extent as multiple use zones, where activities are limited by the thresholds imposed by sustainable use of natural resources. In this respect, protected areas are not isolated from the national economy, but participate to enhance and consolidate Mexico's economy within the limits imposed by the environment and not the economy. The present Ecology Law considers as management categories for protected areas that can include marine habitats; biosphere reserves, national parks, natural monuments, areas for the protection of flora and fauna and sanctuaries. To this respect some of the legal management categories described below, will need to be adjusted, as stipulated by the law. Article 97 of the Ecology Law establishes that SEMARNAP will establish nurseries, breeding facilities and "species reserves" for aquatic flora and fauna, creating among with the Fisheries Law "fisheries reserves and refuge zones" that will be discussed later, two other "de facto" categories for marine protected areas.

2.1.2.1.2.1 Protected Areas Established for the Conservation of Coral Reefs A total of nine protected areas have been established or modified specifically for the protection of coral reefs on Mexican waters. These include one on the Pacific Ocean, two on the Gulf of Mexico and six in the Caribbean Sea.

2.1.2.1.2.1.1 Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California. (Map 1) D.O.F. 06/06/1995 Parque Marino Nacional Cabo Pulmo, Baja California Sur. San Diegan Neritic Province, Gulf Cape Subprovince Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

7,111 Ha.

37

2.1.2.1.2.1.2 Gulf of Mexico (Map 2) D.O.F. 28/07/1975 114.2 Ha. Zona de Refugio de Flora y Fauna Marinas La Blanquilla, Veracruz. D.O.F. 24/08/1992 52,238 Ha. Parque Marino Nacional Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano, Veracruz. Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province, Veracruzan Subprovince D.O.F. 25/11/1995 Decree modified in order to include fishing of mollusc species within the park. D.O.F. 06/06/1994 333,768 Ha. Parque Marino Nacional Arrecife Alacranes, Yucatan. Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province, Campeche Bank Subprovince

2.1.2.1.2.1.3 Caribbean Sea (Maps 3 and 4) D.O.F. 08/02/1961 230 Ha. Zona de Reserva Natural y Refugio de la Fauna Isla Contoy, Q.Roo (Terrestrial) D.O.F. 5,148 Ha. Parque Nacional Isla Contoy, Quintana Roo Caribbean Neritic Subprovince, Contoyan Subprovince D.O.F. 07/02/73 Zona de Refugio de Flora y Fauna Marina Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc, Quintana Roo. D.O.F. 19/07/1996 8,673 Ha. Parque Marino Nacional Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc, Quintana Roo. Caribbean Neritic Subprovince, Cancunean Subprovince D.O.F. Parque Nacional Arrecife de Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo Caribbean Neritic Subprovince, Cancunean Subprovince

10,828 Ha.

D.O.F. 11/06/1980 Zona de Refugio de Flora y Fauna Marina Costa Occidental de Isla Cozumel, Quintana Roo. D.O.F. 19/07/1996 11,987 Ha. Parque Marino Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel, Quintana Roo. Caribbean Oceanic Province D.O.F. 20/01/1986 155,360 Ha. (marine) Reserva de la Biosfera Sian Ka'an, Quintana Roo. D.O.F. 34,920 Ha. Reserva de la Biosfera Arrecifes de Sian Ka'an, Quintana Roo. Caribbean Neritic Province, Sian Ka'anean Subprovince and Caribbean Oceanic Province D.O.F. 19/07/1996 Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro, Quintana Roo. Caribbean Oceanic Province


144,360 Ha.

38 Map 1.


39 Map 2.


40 Map 3.


41 Map 4.


42

2.1.2.1.2.2 Other Protected Areas that Include Coral Communities A total of nine protected areas have been established in Mexico for other conservation objectives, but which also include or might include coral communities. These consist of seven located on the Pacific Ocean, one on the Gulf of Mexico and one in the Caribbean Sea.

2.1.2.1.2.2.1 Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California (Map 1) D.O.F. 02/08/1978 Zona de Reserva y Refugio de Aves Migratorias y de la Fauna Silvestre Islas del Golfo de California. (only terrestrial) Isla San Luis (Gonzaga), Baja California Norte Isla Las Animas (Anima), Baja California Norte Isla San José, Baja California Sur Isla San Francisco, Baja California Sur (not enumerated, but included by the decree) Isla Espíritu Santo, Baja California Sur Isla Ballenas, Baja California Sur (not enumerated, but included by the decree) Isla Cerralvo, Baja California Sur Cortezian Neritic Province, Salsipuedes, Southcalifornian and Cape Gulf Subprovinces D.O.F. 02/08/1978 Zona de Reserva y Refugio de Aves Migratorias y de la Fauna Silvestre Islas del Golfo de California. (only terrestrial) D.O.F. 19/07/1996 Parque Marino Nacional Bahia de Loreto. (Marine and Z.F.M.T) Islas Coronado, Baja California Sur Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur Cortezian Neritic Province, Southcalifornian Subprovince D.O.F. 29/11/1973 Zona de Refugio Submarino de Flora y Fauna y Condiciones Ecológicas del Fondo Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur. San Diegan Neritic Province, Cape-Pacific Subprovince D.O.F. 14/09/1937 Reserva de Caza Cajón del Diablo, Sonora. Cortezian Neritic Province, Sonoran Subprovince D.O.F. 08/12/1980 Parque Nacional Isla Isabel, Nayarit. Cortezian Neritic Province, Islas Marias/Isla Isabel Subprovince D.O.F. 28/07/1975 Zona de Refugio para la Protección de Flora y Fauna Marinas Los Arcos, Jalisco Mexican Neritic Province, Jalisco Oaxacan Subprovince D.O.F. 06/06/1994 Reserva de la Biosfera Archipiélago de las Revillagigedo Northern Mexican Pacific Oceanic Province

2.1.2.1.2.2.2 Gulf of Mexico (Map 2) D.O.F. 06/06/1994 Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Yum Balam, Quintana Roo. Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province, Yucatecan Subprovince Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

43

2.1.2.1.2.2.3 Caribbean Sea (Maps 3 and 4) P.O.G.E.Q.R. 26/09/1983 (State PS) Parque Natural Laguna de Chankanaab, Quintana Roo. Caribbean Oceanic Province

2.1.2.1.3 Official Mexican Norms D.O.F. 19/05/1994 Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-059-ECOL-1994, que determina las especies de flora y fauna silvestres terrestres y acuáticas en peligro de extinción, amenazadas, raras y las sujetas a protección especial y que establece especificaciones para su protección. This Official Mexican Norm establishes determines the status of flora and fauna species and specifies measures to protect them. Threatened and endangered species are regulated under the general terms of the Ecology Law, and also under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), to which Mexico is a Party. NOM-059-ECOL-94 establishes lists of plants and fungi, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes and invertebrates classified as either endangered, threatened with extinction, rare or under special protection. All use and development of rare, threatened and endangered species requires special permission from the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries Secretariat (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca (SEMARNAP). Listed species may be collected for scientific, growing and preservation purposes in quantities specified by the SEMARNAP. Use, development and possession of endangered and threatened species for commercial purposes may occur only on the condition that they be reproduced in a controlled environment for repopulating purposes. Rare and specially protected species used for commercial purposes are subject to tariffs established according to population studies. Commercial development of the listed species habitats must occur in a manner that ensures their conservation. Sanctions for violation to NOM-059-ECOL-94 can arise under the relevant provisions of the Ecology Law, Federal Fisheries Law (Ley Federal de Pesca), Federal Hunting Law, and the Penal Code for the Federal District in Common Matters and for the Entire Republic in Federal Matters (Código Penal para el Distrito Federal en Materia Común y para toda la República en Materia Federal). (Updated and modified from Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995) The norm specifies the following coral species with the status of special protection: Acropora cervicornis Acropora palmata Antipathes bichitoena Antipathes grandis Antipathes ules Plexaura dichotoma Plexaura homomalla Note: Apparently none of the Antipathes species specified in the norm have been registered in Mexico and the ones present are not covered by the Norm (pers. comm. Padilla 1997).

D.O.F. 27/10/97 Acuerdo que establece la clasificación y codificación mercancías cuya importación y exportación está sujeta a regulación por parte de la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca This Secretarial Dictate establishes merchandise whose importation or exportation is subject to regulations by SEMARNAP. Article 5 establishes the classification and codification of species’ related products and subproducts, mentioned in Article 4 of the Agreement, whose introduction within the national territory is subject to presenting an Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

44

import certificate issued by the National Institute of Ecology, and a visual inspection within the terms highlighted in Article 9 of the Agreement, only when their destination point coincides with custom’s regulations for final, temporary or fiscal deposit importation, included in the tariff fractions of the General Importing Tax Law on Tariffs, mentioning: 0508.00.01 Corals. Article 7 establishes the classification and codification of species related products and subproducts, mentioned in Article 6 of the Agreement, whose introduction within the national territory is subject to presenting an export certificate issued by the National Institute of Ecology, and a visual inspection within the terms highlighted in Article 9 of the Agreement, only when their destination point coincides with custom’s regulations for final, temporary or fiscal deposit exportation, included in the tariff fractions of the General Exporting Tax Law on Tariffs, indicating: 0508.00 Coral and similar materials, raw or simply prepared, not including any other workmanship; valves and mollusc carapaces, crustaceans or echinoderms, and cuttle fishbone, raw or simply prepared, without trimmings, its powder or remains.

2.1.2.1.4 Coastal and Marine Pollution Legislation Ocean pollution control provisions are dispersed among a variety of laws and regulations. The Federal Oceans Law (Ley Federal del Mar) provides generally that all prevention, reduction, and control of ocean pollution is to be regulated under the General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico y Protección al Ambiente) (hereinafter Ecology Law), the National Waters Law (Ley de Aguas Nacionales), the Regulation to the National Waters Law (Reglamento de la Ley de Aguas Nacionales), the General Health Law (Ley General de Salud), and their implementing regulations. The Official Mexican Standards (Normas Oficiales Mexicanas (NOM)) also apply to wastewater discharges into the oceans.

D.O.F. 23/01/1979 Reglamento para prevenir y controlar la contaminación del mar por vertimiento de desechos y otras materias. Although the Regulation to Prevent and Control Ocean Pollution from the Dumping of Wastes and Other Materials (hereinafter Ocean Dumping Regulation) precedes both the Ecology Law and the current National Waters Law and its Regulation, it has been incorporated into the general environmental regulatory regime and remains valid. The Secretariat of the Navy administers and enforces the Ocean Dumping Regulation in the exclusive economic zone, the territorial seas, and the maritime fishing zones. Under the Ocean Dumping Regulation any individual or legal entity, including ocean vessels, platforms and airplanes, that deliberately dumps substances in the ocean must obtain a permit from the Secretariat of the Navy. In addition, the Regulation includes three Annexes which provide lists of chemicals and characteristics that must be taken into consideration by the Secretariat of the Navy when granting such permits. Annexes I and II identify specific chemicals that require "special consideration" when dumping authorization is requested. The Ocean Dumping Regulation also provides a number of exceptions to the dumping permit requirement: (1) where there exists an imminent danger to human life or the safety of any sea or air vessel; (2) where illegal dumping activities occur without knowledge of the owner of the sea vessel; and (3) when dredging activities occur with the intent to facilitate navigation or preserve the marine ecological balance. These exceptions will completely absolve a vessel owner and the crew from liability unless their own negligence gave rise to the dangerous circumstances. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995)

D.O.F. 29/01/1988 D.O.F. 13/12/1996 Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección del Ambiente The General Law for Ecological Equilibrium and Environmental Protection (Ecology Law) sets forth pollution control guidelines that apply generally to all aquatic ecosystems, which include oceans. The central principle guiding water pollution is prevention. The Ecology Law also establishes jurisdiction over ocean pollution control issues and provides a framework for the regulation of wastewater discharges. The Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries Secretariat (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca SEMARNAP), in conjunction with the Secretariat of the Navy (Secretaría de Marina - SEMAR), is responsible for Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

45

establishing the permit regime and standards for all wastewater discharges into the ocean. Administration and enforcement of pollution control measures and the preservation and restoration of marine ecosystems also belong to SEMARNAP, in coordination with the Secretariat of Communications and Transport (Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes - SCT), and the Secretariats of Health, Energy, and the Navy (Secretarías de Salud, Energía y Marina). The Ecology Law reserves to the Federal Executive the power to issue specific environmental criteria for any exploitation, conservation and administration of marine natural resources in the exclusive economic zone. Any ocean pollution that contravenes the general provisions under the Ecology Law could be subject to administrative fines or penalties provided therein. These include: (1) fines ranging from twenty to twenty thousand times the daily minimum wage of the Federal District on the day on which the sanctions are imposed; (2) temporary, final, partial and/or total plant closure; or (3) administrative arrest up to thirty-six hours. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995)

D.O.F. 01/12/1992 Ley de Aguas Nacionales D.O.F. 12/01/1994 Reglamento de la Ley de Aguas Nacionales The National Waters Law and its implementing Regulation require all continuous, intermittent or unforeseen wastewater discharges to be authorized by SEMARNAP. The Regulation to the National Waters Law includes all "marine zones" in its definition of a wastewater receiving body. The SEMARNAP (through the National Commission for Water - Comisión Nacional del Agua - CONAGUA) also has administrative power, together with the Naval Secretariat over all wastewater discharges into oceans from mobile sources and fixed platforms. The Official Mexican Standards (Normas Oficiales Mexicanas (NOM)) also apply to wastewater discharges into the oceans. Under the National Waters Law and its Regulation, illegal or unauthorized wastewater discharges into the ocean are subject to fines ranging between 100 to 10,000 times the daily minimum wage in the area in which the violation occurs. In addition, SEMARNAP has the authority to enjoin all activities that cause the unauthorized discharge, revoke any discharge permits or close the discharging facility. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995)

D.O.F. 08/01/1982, 12/02/1982, 24/03/1982, 07/02/1994, 21/01/1995, 25/05/1987, 03/01/1992 y 29/07/1994 Ley General de Bienes Nacionales The National Property Law requires that all consignees of national property, which includes oceans, prevent damage to the ecosystem (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995). D.O.F. 02/12/1989 Acuerdo por el que se establecen los Criterios Ecológicos de Calidad del Agua CE-CCA-OO1/89 This Secretarial Dictate established ecological criteria for determining water quality on 128 inorganic, organic, microbiological and radioactive parameters, 95 of which were applicable to protection of aquatic life in coastal and marine waters. It also included water quality parameters for aquacultural activities. This regulation was not reviewed under the process established by the General Law on Metrology and Standardization (Ley General de Metrología y Normalización) that requires the expedition of Mexican Official Norms (Normas Oficiales Mexicanas NOM), which de-facto devoids it from its legal status (pers. comm., INE/Avila). Nevertheless, it constitutes the only legal precedent that establishes water quality standards for the protection of aquatic life in coastal and marine waters, instead of parameters on the maximum limit of pollutants that can be permitted for discharging, which the NOMs specify. D.O.F. 06/01/1997 Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-001-ECOL-1996, Que establece los límites máximos permisibles de contaminantes en descargas de aguas residuales en aguas y bienes nacionales. D.O.F.30/04/1997 Aclaración a la NOM-001-ECOL-1996 Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

46

This Official Mexican Norm establishes limits (Table 3) for discharging residual water effluents into coastal waters This Norm does not specify parameters for other nutrients, which for coral reefs can affect the natural balance between corals and algae to favor algae:

Table 3. Coastal Waters Parameters (milligrams per liter except where specified)

Temperature °C Greases and oils Floating matter Sedimentable solids ml/l Total suspended solids Biochemical oxygen demand Total nitrogen Total phosphorus Arsenic Cadmium Cyanide Copper Mercury Nickel Lead Zinc PH units Fecal coliforms

Fisheries

Recreation Navigation & other uses

PM

PD

PM

PD

40 15

40 25

40 15

40 25

2 200 200 N.A. N.A. 0.2 0.2 2 6 0.02 4 0.04 20

1 75 75 N.A. N.A. 0.2 0.2 2 4 0.01 2 0.5 10

none 1 150 150 N.A. N.A. 0.1 0.1 1 4 0.01 2 0.02 10

none

5 -10 1,000 - 2,000

PM= Daily average PD=Monthly average Instantaneous Average MNX-AA-006

2 125 150 N.A. N.A. 0.4 0.4 3 6 0.02 4 1 20 (MPN x 100 ml)

2.1.2.2 Fisheries Legislation Under Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution, all ocean flora and fauna originally belong to the Nation as part of its ownership rights over all territorial seas and ocean resources. All of the criteria and policies relating to protection and management of (land) fauna (fauna silvestre) under the Ecology Law (Ley de Ecología) apply to ocean fisheries as well. Aquatic flora and fauna, defined together, include all biological species or biogenetic elements that live temporarily, partially or permanently in national waters or territorial seas over which the nation exercises its right of sovereignty and jurisdiction. Criteria for the general management and protection of (land) fauna are set out in (Articles 79 to 87 bis 2) of the Ecology Law.


47

D.O.F. 25/06/1992 Ley de Pesca D.O.F. 21/07/1992 Reglamento de la Ley de Pesca The Fisheries Law (Ley Federal de Pesca) and the Regulation to the Fisheries Law (Reglamento de la Ley Federal de Pesca) establish specific regulations governing the conservation, preservation, rational exploitation and management of all aquatic flora and fauna. In 1995, the Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries Secretariat (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca (SEMARNAP)) assumed regulatory authority over aquatic species, when the former Fisheries Secretariat (Secretaría de Pesca) was dissolved and made part of SEMARNAP. SEMARNAP is in charge of establishing conservation methods and measures to preserve or repopulate fisheries' resources, including fisheries bans and reserves. It also is responsible for establishing the volumes of permissible capture; the types of fishing instruments to be utilized; as well as the seasons and minimum size and weight of fish that may be caught. The Federal Fisheries Law establishes five types of general administrative sanctions for violations, which include: 1. Temporary suspension or revocation of the concession, permit, or authorization; 2. Appropriation of the fishing products or equipment; 3. Imposition of fines; 4. Temporary, permanent, partial or complete closure of fisheries facilities or vessels; and 5. Warnings. Fines are assessed depending upon the type and severity of the violation and can range from 20 and 20,000 times the minimum wage of the Federal District (Distrito Federal). Recurring fines can incur twice the amount of the original fines. Fines and sanctions may be appealed through the appeals procedures set forth in the Federal Fisheries Law. Final resolution of the appeals can be reviewed through an “amparo” action. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995).

2.1.2.2.1 Concessions, Permits and Authorizations Fisheries resources are managed and controlled by concessions, permits and authorizations. Fishing activities are further classified as either developmental, educational, commercial, aquaculture or recreational. All concessions, permits and authorizations must be inscribed in the National Fisheries Registry (Registro Nacional de Pesca). Concessions and permits are granted according to technical and economic studies taking into account conservation needs and the public interest. Concessions Concessions provide for the use, exploitation, and development of the national waters or territorial seas. Concessions are granted for a minimum of five years and a maximum of twenty years. Cultivative fisheries concessions can be granted for fifty years. Under Article 34 of the Fisheries Regulations, concession holders must, among other things: 1. Extract, capture and cultivate authorized species exclusively in zones determined by SEMARNAP; 2. Present annually to SEMARNAP the status of the technical and economic projects associated with the concession, including a program and schedule of the volumes of fish to be caught and a final report on the amount of fish captured; 3. Execute fishing activities with authorized and registered equipment and methods; 4. Engage in aquaculture activities in the concessioned areas according to authorized methods; 5. Comply with the technical and economic conditions for the exploitation of each species, group of species or zones established in the concession; 6. Assist the federal government in the preservation of the aquatic environment and the conservation and reproduction of species, including the development of programs for repopulating species in natural settings; 7. Allow observers, investigators, and scientific and technical experts authorized by SEMARNAP to board all vessels and facilities associated with the fisheries activities. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995) Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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The most relevant existing fisheries concessions related to coral reef conservation in Mexico, are those that give exclusive rights for cooperatives for a period of 20 years to capture Caribbean Spiny Lobster Panulirus argus (Map 5), a species that lives in an important reef habitat within the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. This process was started in 1994, when 9 concessions were given and published in he D.O.F. In 1995 four more were given, their publication on the D.O.F., being no longer required. No new concessions have been given since, although not all concessionable areas have been covered. Cooperatives are using permits to fish on these areas. Existing concessions include: Map 5.


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D.O.F. 18/07/1994 Concesión otorgada a S.C.P.P. Pescadores de Dzilam de Bravo S.C.L. para la extracción, captura y aprovechamiento comercial de langosta del Caribe en aguas de jurisdicción federal del Golfo de México, Yuc. D.O.F. 18/07/1994 Concesión otorgada a S.C.P.P. Pescadores Unidos de San Felipe S.C.L. para la extracción, captura y aprovechamiento comercial de langosta del Caribe en aguas de jurisdicción federal del Golfo de México, ubicadas frente al Puerto de San Felipe, Yuc. D.O.F. 18/07/1994 (each one in separate) Concesión otorgada a 1) S.C.P.P. Manuel Cepeda Peraza S.C.L. 2)S.C.P.P. Pescadores de Rio Lagartos S.C.L. para la extracción, captura y aprovechamiento comercial de langosta del Caribe en aguas de jurisdicción federal del Golfo de México, ubicadas frente al Puerto de Río Lagartos, Yuc. D.O.F. 18/07/1994 Concesión otorgada a S.C.P.P. El Cuyo S.C.L. para la extracción, captura y aprovechamiento comercial de langosta del Caribe en aguas de jurisdicción federal del Golfo de México, ubicadas frente a las costas del puerto del Cuyo, Yuc. D.O.F. 14/11/1994 (each one in separate) Concesión otorgada a 1) S.C.P.P. Pescadores de Tulum S.C.L. 2) S.C.P.P. José María Azcorra S.C.L. 3) S.C.P.P. Pescadores de Puerto Morelos S.C.L. 4) S.C.P.P. Pescadores de Vigía Chico S.C.L. para la extracción, captura y aprovechamiento comercial de la especie langosta del Caribe, en Q. Roo Not Published in D.O.F. 24/03/1995 Concesión que otorga el Poder Ejecutivo Federal a través de la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca, Representada por su titular la C. Julia Carabias Lillo, de acuerdo a las facultades que le confieren los Artículos 32 bis Fracciones I, II, III, XXXII y XXXIX de la Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal, 1o, 2o, 3o, Fracciones VI y IX, 4o, 5o, 6o, 7o, 9o, 10, 16, 17, 18 y demás relativos de la Ley de Pesca, 20, 21, 28, 30, 33, 34, 73, 74, 75, 76 y demás relativos de su Reglamento, a la... 1) S.C.P.P. Vanguardia del Mar S.C.L. 2) S.C.P.P. Por la Justicia Social S.C.L. 3) S.C.P.P. Cozumel S.C.L. 4) S.C.P.P. Langosteros del Caribe S.C.L. para la extracción, captura y aprovechamiento de la especie: langosta del Caribe Panulirus argus en aguas de jurisdicción federal del Mar Caribe, ... Permits In addition to obtaining a concession, most fisheries activities require a specific permit. Permits to fish are granted for four years. Permit holders must comply with the same general requirements as concession holders with the exception of making status reports related to technical and economic projects. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995) D.O.F. 01/10/1990 Acuerdo que establece un sistema general para la expedición de permisos de pesca comercial por pesquerías. This Secretarial Dictate, establishes the general system under which commercial permits are to be given. Coral reef related species specified within this system are classified as: Stone Crab, other crabs, Conch, Black Coral, Pink Coral, other corals, marine fishes, scale fishes, lobster, octopus and sharks. A permit is required for each classification. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Authorizations Authorizations are special permits for particular fisheries activities and may only be granted to Mexican nationals. The following activities require authorization: 1. Fishing on the high seas or in waters of foreign jurisdiction by boats under the Mexican Flag; 2. Installing fixed equipment for fish captured in waters under federal jurisdiction; 3. Collecting all reproductive species, larva, post larva, juveniles, eggs, seeds or fingerlings for the purpose of aquaculture or research; 4. Introducing live species in waters under federal jurisdiction; 5. Engaging in educational fisheries activities; 6. Unloading domestically captured species at foreign ports by fishing vessels under the Mexican flag; 7. Unloading fresh fish products in Mexican ports by foreign vessels; and 8. Transferring or substituting title holders of concessions and permits. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995)

2.1.2.2.2 Fisheries Regulations and Official Mexican Norms D.O.F. 18/10/1993 Aviso por el que se da a conocer el establecimiento de épocas y zonas de veda para la pesca de diferentes especies de la fauna acuática en aguas de jurisdicción federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. This Official Announcement compiled all previous fisheries regulations dealing with fishing seasons, bans and zones on Mexican waters under Federal jurisdiction into a coherent document. Coral reef related regulations and their specifications included are: Reaffirms the permanent ban for collecting Plexaura homomalla, a gorgonian coral in the Mexican Caribbean Sea, established by D.O.F. 05/11/1974 (Acuerdo que establece veda general para el coral blando (Plexaura homomalla) en las aguas territoriales del Caribe). This ban was originally created to protect this organism until the proper research was carried out. The regulation intended to protect this coral species that was in demand by the pharmaceutical industry. Although a synthetic substitute for prostanoids was found, the regulation still holds. Reaffirms the permanent ban for all species of marine turtles, including Eretmochelys imbricata which depends on the reef habitat in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, originally established in D.O.F. 31/05/1990, (Acuerdo por el que se establece veda para las especies y subespecies de tortuga marina en aguas de jurisdicción federal del Golfo de México y Mar Caribe, así como en las del Oceano Pacífico, incluyendo el Golfo de California). Establishes a permanent ban for the following conch species: Strombus gigas, Strombus costatus, Busycon contrarium and Pleuroploca gigantea, Busycon sp and Xancus sp in federal waters off coast from the State of Yucatan. Establishes closed season for the following conch species; Strombus gigas, Strombus costatus, Busycon contrarium and Pleuroploca gigantea, Busycon sp and Xancus sp in federal waters off coast from the State of Quintana Roo, from May 1 to October 31. Establishes closed season for the following lobster species; Panulirus argus, Panulirus laevicauda and Panulirus guttatus in federal waters off coast from the States of Yucatan and Quintana Roo, from March 1 to June 31. Establishes closed season for the octopus fishery which includes Octopus maya and Octopus vulgaris, in federal waters off coast from the States of Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, from December 16 to July 31. These species are related to reef habitat in the Gulf of Mexico and to a lesser extent in the Caribbean Sea. D.O.F. 31/12/1993 Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-006-PESC-1993, Para regular el aprovechamiento de todas las especies de langosta en las aguas de jurisdicción federal del Golfo de México y Mar Caribe, así como del Océano Pacífico incluyendo el Golfo de California. D.O.F. 01/07/1997 Modificación Establishes regulations for the lobster fishery in Mexican waters, which includes Panulirus argus, Panulirus laevicauda and Panulirus guttatus that live in important reef habitat in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.

D.O.F. 21/04/1995 Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-013-PESC-1994, Para regular el aprovechamiento de las especies de caracol en aguas de jurisdicción federal de los estados de Campeche, Quintana Roo y Yucatán. Establishes regulations for the conch fishery, which includes Strombus gigas, Strombus costatus, Busycon contrarium and Pleuroploca gigantea, Melongena corona, M. corona bispinosa and Xancus angulatum species related to the reef habitat in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.

D.O.F. 09/05/1995 Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-017-PESC-1994, para regular las actividades de pesca deportiva recreativa en las aguas de jurisdicción federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Establishes regulations for sport and recreational fishing activities. This fishery includes only fish species. Crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic mammals, reptiles and amphibians can not be taken. Subaquatic sport fishing can only be done through skin-diving, with one rubber band or spring harpoon per fisherman and a catch limit of no more than five specimens per fisherman/day. All other fishing regulations apply to this fishery.

2.1.2.2.3 Fisheries Reserves and Refuge Zones In addition to controlling the fisheries activities according to quantity, type, and method through the concessions, permits and authorizations programs, SEMARNAP may also establish special fishery reserves, refuge zones and fishing bans to protect threatened or endangered species. Fisheries reserves or bans can be established according to species or zone and can be temporary or permanent. Fishing activities are prohibited in fishery reserves except in the volumes and according to methods established by SEMARNAP. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995)

2.1.2.3 Other Relevant Legislation In terms of their management, coral reefs like any other near-shore habitats, cannot be isolated and cannot be protected if the complete array of sociobiological coastal processes are not taken into account. Within this framework, coral reefs would constitute the "flagship species" to achieve their own conservation and sustainable use, through an integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) strategy. There is not a single piece of legislation that could support ICZM efforts in Mexico. In this chapter we describe legislation that complements the legal body that covers areas relevant to ICZM issues.

2.1.2.3.1 Federal Maritime-Terrestrial Zone The General Law of National Property (Ley General de Bienes Nacionales) (hereinafter National Property Law) and the Regulation for the Use and Exploitation of the Territorial Sea, Navigable Waters, Beaches, Federal Coastal Land Zone and (newly emerged lands) (Reglamento para el uso y aprovechamiento de mares territoriales, aguas navegables, playas, la zona federal marítimo terrestre y terrenos ganados al mar) (hereinafter Coastal Zone Regulation) regulate the management and development of coastal zones (Federal maritimeterrestrial zone) (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org 1995). Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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D.O.F. 08/01/1982, 12/02/1982, 24/03/1982, 07/02/1994, 21/01/1995, 25/05/1987, 03/01/1992 y 29/07/1994 Ley General de Bienes Nacionales The National Property Law establishes a general regime for granting land use rights to private individuals and public entities over national common lands, which include the Federal maritime-terrestrial zone. Article 49, fraction III specifies that the total surface of cays and reefs located in territorial seas are to be considered Federal maritime-terrestrial zone.

D.O.F. 21/08/1991 Reglamento para el uso y aprovechamiento del mar territorial, vías navegables, playas, zona federal marítimo terrestre y terrenos ganados al mar. The Coastal Zone Regulation governs administration and development of all federal coastal land zones (Federal maritime-terrestrial zone) which are lands above the mean high tide line (generally 20 meters of federal property adjacent to the coast). National ownership rights over coastal lands are inalienable and unassignable and use rights depend on the terms of the concession, payment of rental rights and protection of the relevant ecosystems. The Coastal Zone Regulation grants administrative authority over coastal zone management to SEMARNAP, which establishes regulations restricting the use, access and contamination of the coastal zone areas. The Coastal Zone Regulation requires SEMARNAP to: (1) establish general management policies regarding coastal land use in coordination with state and municipal, or sub-state governments and the Secretariat of Communications and Transport (Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes SCT); (2) develop regional master plans for development and exploitation purposes in order to provide guidelines for granting concessions; (3) develop and publish technical studies and an inventory of the topography, boundaries and landmarks of the coastal zones; and, (4) establish a national registry that catalogues all concessions and permit holders who have been granted rights to use federal coast lands. All use, development and exploitation of federal coastal zones and beaches, other than general public enjoyment and specially permitted temporary businesses, require authorization from SEMARNAP. A concession must also be obtained from SCT for any use, development, occupation and construction of maritime facilities and ports. Concessions are granted primarily to private commercial entities, but may also be obtained by cooperative societies, such as “ejidos” and “comunidades.” States, municipalities and other local or public entities are granted coastal land use rights through intergovernmental agreements executed by SEMARNAP. Public entities have preference over private applicants. Foreign applicants must also comply with the ownership and control restrictions under the Foreign Investment Law (Ley para Promover la Inversión Mexicana y Regular la Inversión Extranjera) and its implementing Regulation. The Coastal Zone Regulation similarly establishes that all other federal laws or common laws, customs, uses and general principles - which include environmental pollution control laws - shall apply to and supplement the Coastal Zone Regulation. SEMARNAP has authority to enforce all violations to the Coastal Zone Regulation that are not related to maritime facilities and ports. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995) Some of the national marine parks (a management category not included in the new Ecology Law) established for reef protection include the federal maritime-terrestrial zone such as Arrecifes de Cozumel, but others like Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc do not.


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2.1.2.3.2 Jurisdiction over the Sea D.O.F. 08/01/1986 Ley Federal del Mar. National boundaries over all coastal lands are set forth under Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution and the Federal Oceans Law (Ley Federal del Mar). In general, Mexico asserts (federal) jurisdiction on all territorial seas within the confines of international law. The Federal Oceans Law describes national boundaries for six types of maritime bodies. - Territorial Sea Mexico claims jurisdiction over the territorial sea, which extends twelve nautical miles (22,224 meters) from the Mexican shoreline and includes air space and the ocean floor and soils. The territorial sea is measured by straight lines from the low water tide line. Where the territorial sea meets waters under the jurisdiction of other Nations, the Executive Branch (Ejecutivo) will enter into international accords to determine the exact boundaries. - Interior Marine Waters Mexico also asserts jurisdiction over all interior marine waters which include: the Northern Gulf of California; interior bays; Mexican ports; interior reefs; and all deltas, estuaries, lakes, rivers and other freshwater ocean outlets. The interior boundaries are marked by the low tide water line. - Contiguous Zone Mexico also declares under its jurisdiction a "contiguous" zone that extends 24 nautical miles (44,448 meters) beyond the boundaries of the territorial sea, for the purposes of deterring and enforcing customs, immigration, fiscal and health violations within the territorial and interior marine waters. Mexico does not, however, declare actual ownership over this area. - Exclusive Economic Zone The exclusive economic zone extends 200 nautical miles (374,400 meters) beyond the boundaries of the territorial sea. Within this area, Mexico exerts national sovereignty over all coastal zone exploration, exploitation and conservation, including the establishment of artificial islands and facilities, scientific marine research, mineral extraction and the protection and preservation of the marine environment. - Continental Shelf Mexico also maintains jurisdiction over its marine continental shelf, which includes the ocean floor and sub-soils that extend 200 nautical miles from the boundary of the territorial sea. Where the continental shelf does not extend the full distance, the boundary is defined according to international law. The continental shelf is contiguous to the exclusive economic zone. Jurisdiction over the continental shelf remains exclusive and prevents all others from exploring the shelf, even where Mexico has not. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995) Mexico also considers as a Mexican marine zone any other zone permitted by international law.

2.1.2.3.3 Navy Secretariat The Navy Secretariat's main responsibility is to assert Mexico's sovereign rights over territorial waters within the confines of international law. Among other functions, the Navy Secretariat carries out oceanographic research through the General Direction of Naval Oceanography, including among other subjects; meteorology, topohydrography, cartography, ocean generated energy, aquaculture, desalination, sustainable harvesting of ocean resources and marine biodiversity. The Navy Secretariat coordinates with SEMARNAP to enforce fishing regulations over Mexican territorial waters (D.O.F. 31/01/1990). The Navy Secretariat is required to observe strict enforcement of the Ocean Dumping Regulation, principally through inspection. Naval inspectors may board any vessel suspected of transporting cargo to be dumped Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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illegally; examine any substance or cargo; demand inspection of all documentation and permits travel with vessels to ensure dumping occurs in the appropriate sites; and detain any vessel for the time necessary to execute a proper inspection. Vessel owners and crew must facilitate all aspects of the inspection. Application of fines under the Ocean Dumping Regulation does not preclude application of any other sanctions or penalties under other relevant laws (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995). D.O.F. 22/02/1978 Acuerdo por el que se crea la Comisión Intersecretarial de Investigación Oceanográfica. D.O.F. 23/02/1978 Fe de erratas del Acuerdo por el que se crea la Comisión Intersecretarial de Investigación Oceanográfica, publicado el 22 de febrero de 1978. D.O.F. 18/05/1979 Acuerdo por el cual se modifica el Artículo 1o del diverso que crea la Comisión Intersecretarial de Investigación Oceanográfica. The Intersecretarial Commission for Oceanographic Research (CIIO) was created and modified by the above mentioned Secretarial Dictates to promote the development of oceanographic research in Mexico through the active participation of the public, private and social sectors. The Commission is responsible for coordinating all actions related to oceanographic research, in order to rationalize resource use and the conservation of aquatic ecosystems, taking into account the potential value that recreational activities and use of coastal and marine resources have on the national economy. The Commission's objectives are to: - Promote coordination in all aspects related to oceanographic research to optimize efforts and resources. - Coordinate the authorization of permits for foreigners seeking to carry out oceanographic research in marine zones of national jurisdictions. - Promote coordination of activities to optimize resources in oceanographic cruises. - Promote scientific research from the national scientific community, through the annual National Prize for Oceanographic Research. (pers. comm. INE/Lezcano 1997) Intersecretarial Commission for Oceanographic Research is presided over by the Navy Secretariat and needs to be revitalized as a coordinating body.

2.1.2.3.4 Navigation and Related Facilities The Secretariat of Communications and Transportation (SCT) is responsible for the regulation of maritime ports (Ports Law - Ley de Puertos), facilities, trade and traffic in accordance with the Navigation Law (Ley de Navegación). D.O.F. 19/07/1993 Ley de Puertos D.O.F. 04/01/1994 Ley de Navegación The Navigation Law (Ley de Navegación Art. 65 and 66) generally prohibits all vessels from discharging garbage, petroleum and petroleum derivatives, wastewater discharges and other dangerous and noxious elements that could contaminate or harm waters under Mexican jurisdiction. (Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995)


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2.1.2.3.5 Tourism Coral reefs have an important potential to generate touristic activities. In this case, Mexican legislation contain some side provisions, oriented towards preventing the destruction of natural resources which support touristic activities.

D.O.F. 31/12/1992 Ley Federal de Turismo The Federal Tourism Law states as an objective (Art. 2, Fracc. III) to promote the use of touristic attractions and resources preserving the environmental and social equilibrium. It also states that areas with natural assets that can be considered of touristic importance, can be declared Priority Touristic Development Zones (Zonas de Desarrollo Turístico Prioritario), and promote investment in these areas.

D.O.F. 13/06/95 Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-05-TUR-1995, Requisitos mínimos de seguridad a que deben sujetarse las operadoras de buceo para garantizar la prestación del servicio. Establishes regulations for any principal individual or company that offer diving services within the limits or proximity of a protected area decreed in accordance with the law, to abstain from assisting in any sort of scuba diving activity, except when the tourist has obtained permission that enables him to be at that location. When diving within areas not included within the protected area decrees, the individual or company offering services should prevent any destruction for flora and the extraction or collection of species fauna by divers. In case the tour operators fail to comply, it should be noted that they are legally responsible and can be sanctioned by law.

D.O.F. 04/08/1997 Norma Oficial Mexicana NOM-09-TUR-1997, Que establece los elementos a que deben sujetarse los guías especializados en actividades específicas. Establishes regulations for diving guides, including amongst other issues, the obligation to include in the briefing information on environmental protection and also establishes the maximum number of divers that a guide can include in its group, according to the different grades of expertise of the divers.

2.1.2.3.6 Penal Code D.O.F. 13/12/1996 Decreto por el que se reforma, adiciona y deroga diversos artículos del Código Penal para el Distrito Federal en Materia Común y para toda la República en Materia Federal Recent changes to the Ecology Law were complemented by additions to the Penal Code that specify environmental crimes. The Penal Code for the Federal District in Common Matters and for the Entire Republic in Federal Matters (hereinafter Federal Penal Code) typifies the following environmental crimes related to coastal management issues. Articles 414, 415 and 416 specify imprisonment from three months to six years, and a fine from 1,000 to 20,000 minimum daily wages to each person that: Executes highly risky activities that harm natural resources, flora, fauna or ecosystems. Conducts any activity with toxic materials or wastes that harm or can harm natural resources, flora, fauna or ecosystems. Discharges in any way waste waters, liquid chemicals or biochemicals that harm or can harm natural resources, flora, fauna or ecosystems. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Destroys, desiccates or fills wetlands, mangroves, lagoons, coastal lagoons or swamps. Article 420 specifies imprisonment from six months to six years, and a fine from 1,000 to 20,000 minimum daily wages to persons that: Intentionally captures, seriously injures or takes the life of marine mammals or turtles, or harvests them for commercial use without proper authority. Intentionally captures, processes, keeps, transports, destroys, buys or sells banned aquatic species without proper authority. Conducts any commercial operation with endangered, threatened, endemic, rare flora and fauna and those subject to special management, without proper authority.

2.1.3 State and Municipal Legislation Mexico´s Ecology Law creates a decentralized federalist system in which both the states and the federal government share regulatory authority over environmental issues. SEMARNAP is the administrative authority responsible for almost all environmental issues under federal jurisdiction. All thirty-one states have created their own environmental legal regimes; the Federal District (Distrito Federal) is also in the process of developing its own environmental legislation. Changes made to the Ecology Law in 1996 grant states more extensive jurisdiction and regulatory authority. Increased decentralization will not, however, diminish Mexican environmental standards: federal standards establish a floor to state standards, i.e., state standards must be equivalent or more stringent than the federal standards. Nevertheless, in coral reef related issues, States and Municipalities are expected to have a minimal jurisdictional participation since marine conservation is still under federal jurisdiction. (modified from Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org 1995)

2.2 Government Programs 2.2.1 National Development Plan 1995-2000 D.O.F. 31/05/1995 Decreto por el que se aprueba el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 1995-2000. The National Development Plans (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo), are six year programs established by the Mexican President at the beginning of their term. The Plans are intended to provide systematic and coordinated integrated economic, social, political and cultural development. Each Secretariat, including SEMARNAP develops specific Programs in accordance with the President's National Plan. Development Plans serve as long term policy guides (modified from internet: http://www.cca.cec.org, 1995). The National Development Plan conceptualizes the environment within the framework of economic growth and social development, stating that economic growth should be environmentally sustainable, and policy towards this end should be applied in conjunction with strategies, programs and actions that will tend to improve environmental conditions and promote rational use of natural resources. The Plan makes a commitment to sustainable development on ethical and economical grounds. On the ethical side it expresses the survival of future generations and on the economic side stresses the importance that without natural resources and a healthy environment, economic development is not viable. The Environmental Policy for Sustainable Growth chapter of the Plan identifies among other national priorities, some principles which are applicable to coral reef management: Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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- To stop the tendency towards environmental degradation and initiate the transit towards sustainable development. - To restore critical areas for the protection of biodiversity. - To achieve sustainable financing of protected areas. - To develop an integrated strategy for fisheries. - To develop better management practices and zoning (ordenamiento) of coastal zones. - To achieve social co-responsibility. (Poder Ejecutivo Federal-SHCP 1995)

2.2.2 National Environmental Program 1995-2000 D.O.F. 03/04/1996 Decreto por el que se aprueba el programa sectorial de mediano plazo denominado Programa de Medio Ambiente 1995-2000. The National Environmental Program 1995-2000 was developed within the context of the directives indicated in the National Development Plan 1995-2000 and in accordance with the legal framework for SEMARNAP. Following the concept of sustainability that offers a new and richer dimension to the political [U1] atmosphere and which demands a reinterpretation of problems and available opportunities, the coastal and marine environment was considered among the six fundamental points that were used to establish the diagnosis for this Program. The objective of the Program is "To stop the tendency towards environmental, natural resources and ecosystems degradation, and establish the basis for environmental restoration and recuperation, that permits economic and social development based upon the principles of sustainability" (INE1995). The program achieves viability and becomes operational through the use of the environmental policy instruments. Some of the most relevant environmental policy instruments applicable to coastal zone management are; protected areas, direct regulation of wildlife, ecological zoning, environmental impact assessments, official Mexican norms and research and education, among others. Among the 15 stated strategies for implementing the Program, three aspects are of special interest for the protection of coral reefs: Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and protected areas. Environmental zoning for regional development Environmental protection of coastal zones The first two issues are dealt with separately in other chapters of this document, so this section will address only the policies for the Protection of Coastal Zones. The strategy utilized by the National Environmental Program for the protection of coastal zones, mentions the following projects/priority activities: - Environmental Diagnosis and Development of a Database for the Coastal Zones of Mexico The objective of this project is to integrate the necessary information for environmental action on the coastal zones. Counting with a water quality database will permit a convenient and effective diagnostic of the Mexican coastal ecosystems. This information will contribute vital elements for decision making and policy development for the protection of coastal zones. - Evaluation and Control of Land-Based Marine Pollution In the Global Program of Action for Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities adopted during the UNEP Intergovernmental Meeting (Washington, D.C., November 1995), countries pledged to protect and preserve the marine environment by means of implementing actions to reduce any detrimental impact due to Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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land-based activities, especially those related to wastewater, persistent organic pollutants, radioactive substances, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, nutrients, sediments, trash and any physical modifications to the habitats. On behalf of this program of action, an inventory will be taken of land-based point-sources of pollution such as: water treatment plants, industrial plants, municipal discharges, electric plants, tourist developments, aquaculture, habitat alterations (i.e. dredging, marshlands, destruction of mangroves) and introduction of exotic species. This inventory should also include non point-sources of pollutants such as urban runoff, agricultural run-off, forestry, mines and construction runoff, as well as atmospheric pollutants (vehicle, industrial, incinerators and agricultural).

The National Institute of Ecology is developing the project entitled "An Inventory of Land-Based Pollutants to the Sea Applying a Geographical Information System (GIS)", which includes the six Gulf States and Caribbean Sea of Mexico, and will allow for the identification and evaluation point and non-point sources of pollution that threaten marine and coastal environments. The information shall be integrated into the Information System for Coastal Zones. In addition, INE is participating in a regional (Mexico-US) pilot program entitled "Conserving the Marine Resources of the Southern California Bight" for the implementation for the Global Program of Action for Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities within the framework of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). - Monitoring System for Mexican Seas Within Mexico, there is no existing periodic or permanent monitoring system that evaluates the status of Mexican seas and varying environmental parameters over time. It is deemed necessary to initiate the development of a long-term monitoring system with a dependable information base that will supply preventive and corrective methods for the protection of marine and coastal ecosystems. The above mentioned project (An Evaluation of Pollutants in Mexican Waters within the Gulf Coast and Caribbean Sea) executed in collaboration with the Secretariat of the navy, whose results are in the stages of integration and analysis, will help to establish the baseline for a monitoring system. Periodical monitoring of the marine environment is necessary in order to maintain an information base that supplies preventive and corrective methods for the protection of marine and coastal ecosystems. - Inspection, Verification and Enforcement In compliance with the Ecology Law and related ecological regulations, environmental zoning, management plans, environmental impact statements and regulations pertaining to the Federal marine-terrestrial zone must be promoted through inspections, verifications and enforcement actions, as part of the coastal and marine ecosystem conservation strategy. - Strengthening International Cooperation in Relation to the Protection of the Marine Environment The requirement for increased participation in global and regional programs having to do with the protection of the marine environment and promoting the establishment of efficient mechanisms for the exchange of information and technical support is necessary. Program participation occurs principally in the following organizations: · Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the Subcommission of the IOC for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (IOCARIBE) · International Maritime Organization (IMO) · United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) · Economic Cooperation and Development Organization (OCDE) · Commission for Environmental Cooperation in North America (CEC) (adapted from INE/Lezcano 1997)


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2.2.3 National Fisheries and Aquaculture Program 1995-2000 D.O.F. 13/03/1996 Decreto por el que se aprueba el programa sectorial de mediano plazo denominado Programa de Pesca y Acuacultura 1995-2000. The Fisheries Program 1995-2000, as an integral part of the National Development Plan 1995-2000, focuses on the search and consolidation of a diversified resource use that at the same time is consistent with environmental protection and the improvement of living standards of those who participate in the activity. As with all economic activities, the interactions between fisheries/aquaculture and the environment are multiple. In this respect, special care of adequate resource management techniques are fundamental for achieving sustainable development. In this way, fishing activities, processing and commercialization of fishing products, become part of the production chain, integrated by different activities and industrial operations that should function harmoniously and in equilibrium. The sport and recreational fishery, an area that has had limited development, is also considered to have important economic potential. Consequently, the action framework for fishing and aquaculture, viewed as a whole, contains economic processes that significantly impact nutrition, regional investments/job market and foreign trade. The Subprogram for Protection, Conservation and Rehabilitation for Habitat and Species, states that a major problem impacting the environment is the effects on the coastal habitat (coastal, lagoons, coral reefs and mangroves) which play a preponderant role in ecological sustainability and use of living resources. Also, there is a major problem with species being threatened by over-exploitation and poor management of their ecosystems, amongst other things. One of the objectives of this Subprogram is to identify and evaluate the most important aquatic ecosystems that are being deteriorated by the following threats: sedimentation or pollution aggravated by land based activities, deforestation, industrial pollution, agro-chemical and domestic pollution, hydraulic works. Likewise, this Subprogram contemplates ecosystems considered critical because of their fragility. Other objectives are to strengthen the programs for protection of marine species through activities such as research oriented towards the development of new alternatives and strategies for resource conservation. The infrastructure and the resources of the National Institute for Fisheries (Instituto Nacional de la Pesca - INP), will be used to research and monitor pollution within the aquatic ecosystems associated with shore communities. The INP's scientific capacity will be applied on conservation and management of marine species. The INP should join efforts with other research institutions in order to achieve the desired effect. With the National Institute for Ecology INE, environmental zoning plans and environment impact statements, will serve as preventive instruments for deteriorating habitats and the effects on species. In coordination with the PROFEPA, there will be support for inspection and overseeing actions in order to enforce respective norms. The Subprogram's goal is to integrate an environmental diagnostic plan for deteriorating aquatic ecosystems, that will permit to identify the causes and propose methods to globally correct land and coastal management and insitu rehabilitation for a better use of aquatic ecosystems. In this Subprogram the INP shall be responsible for defining the areas in need of rehabilitation work in order to devise the pertinent environmental diagnostic plans. The General Directorate for Infrastructure (Dirección General de Infraestructura) shall be responsible for executing the physical works necessary for the Subprogram, in coordination with the National Institute for Ecology, the PROFEPA, state and Municipal governments, as well as with national and foreign research institutions, social organizations and economic agents.


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2.2.4 Mexican Protected Area Program 1995-2000 The Mexican Protected Area Program 1995-2000 was developed within the context of the directives indicated in the National Environmental Program 1995-2000 and in accordance with the legal framework for SEMARNAP and the National Institute of Ecology. Among the Program objectives it is stated that; -Protected areas need to be consolidated through management programs (plans) and operative programs. -The territorial coverage and the representation of protected areas needs to be increased. -The number of actors and social involvement toward their conservation needs to be increased. -New possibilities for regional planning and sustainable use of natural resources through protected areas need to be created. -The funds of protected areas need to be diversified. The Program includes the following areas with important reef ecosystems, within the administrative strategy, as Pilot Areas where initial institutional integration, financing, management and administrative efforts will be concentrated: - Costa Occ. de Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc, Q. Roo. - Sian Ka'an - Uaymil Q. Roo - Isla Contoy Q. Roo - Islas del Golfo de California B.C., B.C.S., Son, Sin. The Program states within the strategy to increase representation and range of Mexican protected areas with a greater emphasis should be made in coastal and marine areas. Within the context of this new emphasis, it is indicated that the coral reef systems of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico and the small coral communities extending from Salina Cruz to the Gulf of California, among other coastal and marine ecosystems, should be included in the National System of Protected Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas Naturales Protegidas - SINAP). The Program specifies the following areas with important reef ecosystems within the strategy to increase representativity and range of Mexican protected areas, the first two which have already been decreed: - Costa Occ. de Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc, Q.Roo. - Banco Chinchorro Q. Roo - Huatulco, Oax. (INE, 1996) As a result of the intervention of SEMARNAP and the application of the Mexican Protected Area Program, most of the protected areas that contain coral reef habitat have increased their management level. The following list indicates advances made toward the consolidation of these areas:

Pacific Ocean (Map 1) Reserva de la Biosfera Archipíelago de las Revillagigedo Administered by the Mexican Navy (SEMAR). Ongoing research activities by CIBNOR, Instituto de Ecologia UNAM, UCLA-Los Angeles, California Academy of Sciences. Supporting NGO, Island Conservation and Ecology Group from UC- Santa Cruz. Management plan in progress. Established in 1994. Zona de Reserva y Refugio de Aves Migratorias y de la Fauna Silvestre Islas del Golfo de California. Federal and GEF funds. Operative administrative structure. Regional Management plan in progress. Ongoing research activities by: CICESE, Instituto de Biología and Facultad de Ciencias UNAM, Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas de la UABC, CIDESON, ITESM-Guaymas, Instituto del Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo Sustentable del Estado de Sonora (IMARES), University of Arizona. Supporting NGOs, Pronatura Peninsula de Baja California, Fundación Mar de Cortéz A.C., Conservación del Territorio Insular Mexicano A.C. (ISLA). Established in 1978, needs to be recategorized and redecreed. 57+ islands (mostly terrestrial, also coastal). Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Parque Nacional Bahia de Loreto Federal funds. Operative administrative structure. Supporting NGOs, Grupo Ecologísta Antares A.C., Fundación Mar de Cortéz A.C., Conservación del Territorio Insular Mexicano A.C. (ISLA). Established in 1996 Parque Nacional Cabo Pulmo Management plan in progress. Ongoing research activities by the Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur. Interested NGOs, Peninsula de Baja California, Patronato Cabo Pulmo. Established in 1995.

Zona de Refugio Submarino de Flora y Fauna y Condiciones Ecológicas del Fondo Cabo San Lucas No management structure or plan. No research has taken place, but the area seems to have very limited potential for coral conservation. Established in 1973 Reserva de Caza Cajón del Diablo, Sonora. No management structure. Some local interest for conservation (Predio Seri Muerto). Ongoing research activities by Instituto del Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo Sustentable del Estado de Sonora (IMARES). Basic studies and management plan in progress. Established in 1937. Parque Nacional Isla Isabel, Nayarit. Minimum administrated infrastructure, needs management plan. No references of coral communities were found for the island. Established in 1980. Zona de Refugio para la Protección de Flora y Fauna Marinas Los Arcos, Jalisco No management structure or plan. Research is needed for this area, to determine its potential for preserving coral and other marine species. Established in 1975. Map 1.


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Gulf of Mexico (Map 2) Parque Nacional Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano Basic administrative functions by the Mexican Navy (SEMAR). Supporting NGO Chalchicueye A.C. Established in 1992. Zona Especial de Protección de Flora y Fauna Silvestre y Acúatica Los Petenes. Might include some coral communities. Management plan in progress. Ongoing research activities by EPOMEX. Established by the State in 1996, will be Federally decreed in 1997. 382,396 Ha. State, 375,951 Ha. Federal (coastal and marine) Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province, Campechean Subprovince Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes Management plan in progress. Ongoing research activities by CINVESTAV. Established in 1994. Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Yum Balam Local participation. Supporting NGOs Yum Balam A.C., Reserva Ecológica El Eden A.C. Established in 1994. Map 2.


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Caribbean Sea (Maps 3 and 4) Parque Nacional Isla Contoy Federal and GEF funds. Operative administrative structure and management plan. Ongoing research activities by UNAM, ECOSUR. Supporting NGOs Por Contoy A.C., Amigos de Isla Contoy A.C., Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. Established in 1961, was recategorized and expanded in 1997. Parque Nacional Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc Federal and tourism generated funds. Operative administrative structure. Management plan in progress. Ongoing research activities by CINVESTAV, Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C.. Supporting NGOs Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C., Asociados Náuticos de Cancún A.C., Asociados Náuticos y Subacúaticos de Isla Mujeres A.C. Established in 1973, was recategorized and expanded in 1996. Parque Nacional Arrecife de Puerto Morelos Local participation. Ongoing research activities by ICML-UNAM, Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C.. Supporting NGOs Lu'um K'aanab A.C., Yum Balam A.C. Established in 1997 Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel Federal and tourism generated funds. Operative administrative structure. Ongoing research activities by ICMLUNAM, Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C.. Supporting NGOs Asociación Nacional de Operadores de Actividades Acuáticas y Turisticas A.C. Management plan in progress. Established in 1980, was recategorized and expanded in 1996. Parque Natural Laguna de Chankanaab, Quintana Roo. Self generated funds through entrance fees managed by a Trust (Patronato). Restoration actions of damage caused by Hurricane Gilbert in progress within the cove. Managed as a recreational park. Ongoing research activities by ICML-UNAM. Supporting NGO Patronato de Parques y Museos de Cozumel A.C. Established in 1983 by the State Government. Reserva de la Biosfera Sian Ka'an Federal and GEF funds. Operative administrative structure and management plan. Ongoing research activities by CRIP- Puerto Morelos, ECOSUR, Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C., Facultad de Estudios Superiores-UNAM, ICMLUNAM. Supporting NGO Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. Established in 1986, was expanded in 1997 to include, Reserva de la Biosfera Arrecifes de Sian Ka'an. Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro Private funds being negotiated. No management structure. Basic studies for the management plan in progress. Ongoing research activities by CRIP- Puerto Morelos, ECOSUR, Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. Supporting NGO Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. Local participation being promoted. Established in 1996.


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Map 3.


65

Map 4.


66

New Protected Areas The following protected areas projects that include coral reefs or communities are actively being promoted: Pacific Ocean (Map 1) - Marine zones for Islas del Golfo, B.C., B.C.S., Son., Sin. - Islas Marías, Nay. - Islas Marietas, Nay. - Bahías de Huatulco, Oax. Gulf of Mexico (Map 2) - Arrecifes del Banco de Campeche, Camp., Yuc. Caribbean Sea (Maps 3 and 4) - Arrecifes de Xaman-Ha, Q. Roo Pta Maroma Polygon Tulum Polygon - Arrecifes de la Costa Maya, Q. Roo Uaymil Polygon Majahual Polygon - Arrecifes de Xcalak, Q. Roo - Arrecifes de Cozumel, Q. Roo Northern Polygon Expansion of Southern Polygon

920,671Ha.

2,024 Ha. 12,044 Ha. 23,958 Ha. 6,028 Ha. 13,340 Ha. Marine, 4,037 Wetlands 11,109 Ha. 1,705 Ha.

2.2.5 National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs The National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs is integrated by the Navy, Environment Natural Resources and Fisheries, Communications and Transportation, and Tourism Secretariats, the Governments of the states of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Veracruz and Yucatan and several private and public research Institutions and NGOs of Mexico. Its functions are: - To facilitate in the restoration, conservation, development and monitoring of Mexican reefs with the proper authorities, through the elaboration of programs, projects, studies for sustainable development. - To prioritize actions and investments for the sustainable development pertaining to the Mexican reef. - To propose solutions for any problems affecting the conservation and sustainable development of the Mexican reefs that have been analyzed and presented. - To participate in obtaining financial resources for scientific research, actions and infrastructure for the conservation and sustainable use of Mexican reefs. - To support coordination among the private and social sectors with the public sector for the sustainable development of the country's reefs. - To support availability of information for sustainable protection, restoration, supervision, investment and development of Mexican reefs. - To propose to proper authorities the development of studies for the establishment of protected areas that protect the biodiversity of Mexican Reefs. - To strengthen the Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras Alliance in its efforts to successfully conserve and sustainably develop the coral reefs of the Caribbean Mesoamerican Reef System. - To support the development of environmental tourism in Mexican reefs. - To promote scientific research and education on reefs, that will allow for greater understanding and decisions on their management. - To observe the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries which states development for responsible fishing as an obligation and the protection of marine habitat and its diversity. - To promote coordination among federal, state and municipal authorities responsible for the environment, natural resources and fisheries, education and tourism as a way for the community and their authorities to manage and conserve sustainably the Mexican reefs. - Any others that its members deem necessary to achieve the objectives of the Committee. (Convenio de Concertación... 1997) Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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2.2.6 National Commission for the Understanding and Use of Biodiversity D.O.F. 16/03/1992 Decreto por el que se crea la Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. The National Commission for the Understanding and Use of Biodiversity (Comisión Nacional para la Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad- CONABIO)), exists to coordinate activities and research related to understanding and preservation of biological species. CONABIO has the following responsibilities: - Generating, compiling and maintaining a national inventory of flora and fauna. - Synthesizing information related to national biological resources into a data base. - Promoting development of projects concerning the potential and utilization of both conventional and nonconventional biological reserves; - Assisting other government agencies in the technical aspects and research related to the conservation and utilization of biological resources. - Promoting information dissemination to prevent the deterioration and destruction of the biological resources. - Any other activities necessary to meet their objectives (Adapted from Internet: http://www.cca.cec.org 1995) To this date CONABIO has concentrated its efforts on terrestrial ecosystems, but is planning to include marine biodiversity in its 1998 agenda.


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3. Mexican Coral Reefs and Communities: a National Perspective 3.1 Coral Reefs in the Global Context Coral reefs are biodiversity-rich ecosystems found in over 100 countries that are highly valuable for coastal communities of the tropics for food and ecological services such as storm buffering. They are increasingly threatened by a range of human activities, including fishing, coral mining, tourism, sediment and pollution from land-based activities, and global warming. By some estimates, 10 percent of coral reefs have already been lost, and another 60 percent may disappear in the next twenty to forty years (Pain, cited in de Fontaubert et al. 1996). Coral reefs are part of larger ecosystems including other habitat types such as seagrass beds and mangrove forests. Because of the range of threats, and dependence of coral reefs on other parts of their ecosystem, protective action cannot be limited to the reefs alone. Coral reefs are massive marine structures formed by the accretion of the limestone skeletons of successive generations of huge numbers of polyps, tiny, anemone-like animals. The true reef-building corals are the stony corals, composed of hermatypic polyps containing symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) within their bodies. The algae process the coral’s wastes, recycling vital nutrients and contributing to the ecosystem's high productivity. Reef-building corals form three distinctive types of structures: fringing reefs close to the shore, barrier reefs separated from the mainland by lagoons, and atolls that are circular reefs formed on the base of islands which 2 have long since submerged. The total area of all coral reefs is about 600,000 km , or slightly more than 0.1 percent of the Earth's surface. Coral reefs are the mega-diversity areas of the oceans. They are biologically rich and highly productive systems, endowed with a great diversity of species that display an equally impressive variety of organic form and color. Scientists have identified about 93,000 species of organisms found in coral reefs, and by some estimates there may be as many as one million species yet to be identified (Pain, cited in de Fontaubert et al. 1996). Human communities, especially in coastal areas of the tropics, depend heavily on intact, productive coral reefs and their resources. Reefs are crucial sources of food for many coastal communities, providing fish, mollusks, and crustaceans, and they function as breeding grounds for many commercial species upon which even people inland depend on. They are especially important for maintaining subsistence and artisan fisheries in island nations. Reef-related tourism can be a very important source of foreign currency and local employment. Reefs also buffer coastal communities against storms and wave erosion. An increasing number of biochemicals with medicinal and other valuable applications are being discovered in species from reefs. In addition, some recent studies suggest that reefs may counter global warming by sequestering carbon (i.e., removing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, from the atmosphere). While coral reefs are highly adaptive to natural disturbances, they are extremely sensitive to human-induced environmental change. Their fragility is compounded by their rate of regrowth, which is slow in comparison to the rate of damage. Reefs grow no more than twelve meters (and often much less) in 1000 years. They have strict environmental requirements, requiring a great deal of light, oxygen, water temperatures between twenty-two and twenty-eight degrees Celsius, and low loads of suspended sediments. This sensitivity renders coral reefs vulnerable to a wide range of stresses. Land-based activities pose some of the most serious threats. Many corals are killed by sediment runoff due to deforestation, agriculture, and loss of mangroves, which act as sediment traps. Pollution from sewage originating from coastal settlements causes eutrophication, stimulating the growth of algae and smothering corals. Run-off from agricultural development on coasts can have a similar over-fertilizing effect. Mining of living coral for use as building materials is another significant impact in some places. Destructive fishing gear such as pole nets and dynamite, or fishing with poisons like cyanide, cause long-lasting and sometimes irreversibly widespread repercussions. For example, overfishing of algal-grazing fishes not only depletes the target species but can trigger the spread of harmful algae on the surface of the corals, that results in degradation by smothering. Climate change poses a severe long term threat because corals cannot live in waters over twenty-eight degrees Celsius. Coral bleaching (in which the polyps expel the symbiotic algae) appears to be linked to water temperature increases; after repeated bleaching, the coral dies. Researchers have recorded significant increases Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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in water temperatures within coral reef areas over the last decade (Pain, World Resources Institute, Maragos et al., cited in de Fontaubert et al. 1996). What is needed to conserve coral reefs and their valuable resources? Areas of reef that are highly productive or harbor a wide diversity of species are obvious targets for conservation. Many less obvious areas, ecologically linked to reefs, are equally important and must also be protected. These typically include soft-bottom communities adjacent to the reefs, seagrass meadows where many reef organisms feed and breed, mangrove forests that provide nutrients and nursery areas for many species, and the major migration corridors that link these diverse critical habitats. Any coral reef protection program will have to conserve all these critical areas to some degree in order to be effective. The necessary measures will include control of land-based sources of pollution, designation of protected areas in which uses are restricted, and regulation of resource uses to ensure sustainability. While most attention is currently focused on reefs, it is important to note that many species of coral do not build reefs. These coral communities may rival reefs in high productivity, and merit as much attention for conservation as coral reefs themselves. (de Fontaubert et al. 1996)

3.2 Mexican Coral Biogeography 3.2.1 General Biogeographical Framework for Mexico Coral reefs are tropical shallow water ecosystems largely restricted to the seas between the latitudes of 30o N and 30o S. The exact extent of coral reefs in the world is unknown and is very difficult to estimate. Smith (cited in WCNC 1992) has calculated that there are 600,000 km2 of reefs to the depth of 30 m. About 60% of this total occurs in the Indian Ocean region; approximately 14% in the Caribbean, 13% in the South Pacific (including eastern Australia) and 12% in the North Pacific (including the Galapagos and west coast of North America. The remaining 1% is divided between the South Atlantic and the Eastern Pacific. (WCNC 1992) The global distribution of corals is defined by two centers of biodiversity. At the Indo-Pacific Centre, by far the richest one, the highest diversity occurs in the Indonesian and Philippine archipelagoes. West from this Centre, diversity remains approximately uniform across the coral regions of the Indian Ocean and into the Red Sea. East from the Centre, diversity attenuates across the central and south Pacific, with depauperate outlying regions occurring in Hawaii in the north, Easter Island in the southeast, and the Far Eastern Pacific (Veron 1993). The Tropical Atlantic Centre, which is less diverse, includes the Eastern Coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, all the Caribbean Sea Islands north to the Bahamas and south to the cost of Venezuela (Wells and Hanna, cited in UNEP 1995). The Atlantic has less than half the number of coral genera found in the Indo-west Pacific and only eight genera are common to both areas (Acropora, Porites, Montastrea, Siderastrea, Madracis, Leptoseris ,Cladocera, Favia). The region has a relatively homogeneous faunal assemblage of about 70 hermatypic scleractinean species. Ahermatypic corals show a slightly greater proportion of genera in common between the Pacific and the Caribbean (20 out of 150). The hydrozoan corals Millepora and Stylaster are widespread. (UNEP/IUCN 1988) Mexico is one of the few countries that present a diverse coral fauna from both Centres, including octocorallia (Alcyonacea and Gorgonacea, polips with eigth tentacles), hexacorallia (Scleractinia, polips with tentacles in multiples of six) and hydrozoa ((Milleporina, Stylasterina, hydroid colonies that secrete hard and calcareous skeletons). This compilation identified a total of 94 coral genera with 218 species for Mexico, not including Pacific Ocean gorgonians. The Pacific Ocean presented a total of 23 genera with 51 species (excluding gorgonians) and 63 genera with 121 species were found for the Atlantic (see 3.3.1). A thesis about Pacific Ocean gorgonians exists, however the document was not accessible. Reefs fall into two basic categories: shelf reefs, which form on the continental shelf of large land masses; and oceanic reefs, which develop in deeper waters often in association with oceanic islands. Within these two categories are a number of different reef types: fringing reefs which grow close to the shore; patch reefs which Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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form on irregularities on shallow parts of the sea bed; bank reefs which occur in deeper waters, both on the continental shelf and in oceanic waters; barrier reefs which develop along the edge of a continental shelf or through land subsidence in deeper waters and are separated from the mainland or island by a relatively deep, wide lagoon; and atolls, which are roughly circular reefs around a central lagoon and are typically found in oceanic waters, probably corresponding to the fringing reefs of long submerged islands. (WCNC 1992) The true reef-building coral polyps are ones that collectively deposit calcium carbonate to build colonies. The term "reef" is used here for a population of stony corals which continues to build on products of its own making (Stoddart, cited in WCNC 1992). However, not all reefs are constructed predominantly of coral. For instance, several genera of red algae grow as heavily calcified encrustations which bind the reef framework together, forming structures such as algal ridges. Alternatively, populations of ahermatypic and non-symbiotic corals exist which do not build reefs, while other populations do not build on themselves. (WCNC 1992) These have been termed in this document as coral communities.

3.2.2 Coral Biogeography Stony corals (Milleporina, Stylasterina, Scleractinia) A list of 152 species of stony corals has been compiled by Horta-Puga and Carricart-Ganivet (1993) for Mexico. Of these, one has been recorded for Milleporina, 12 species belong to four genera for Stylasterina and 139 species belonging to 69 different genera for Scleractinia. Sixty nine Genera of stony corals can be found in Mexico. 56 in the Atlantic, 19 for the Pacific and six are shared (Astrangia, Balanophyllia, Dendrophyllia, Paracyathus, Porites and Phyllangia). Other genera have species in both oceans, but have not been registered on Mexico´s coasts. Seventeen Families of stony corals can be found in Mexico. 15 in the Atlantic, nine in the Pacific and seven of them are in both (Pocilloporidae, Acroporidae, Agariicidae, Poritidae, Rhizangiidae, Caryophyllidae and Dendrophyliidae), although more families have representatives in both oceans if other latitudes are considered. Twelve species of Stylasterina corresponding to four genera were registered. There are no common species between both oceans. One species of Milleporina was recognized by the authors for the Atlantic. It exists on both oceans but has not registered in the Pacific for Mexico. (Horta and Carricart 1993)

Hermatypic corals (Milleporina, Scleractinia) Hermatypic corals in the oceans of the American continent are surprisingly different (Porter, cited in Cortés 1986). There are only three Genera of coral in common among the Eastern Pacific and the Caribbean Sea: Acropora (Cortés cited in UICN 1988) Porites and Millepora but they do not share common species. Hermatypic corals of the Eastern Tropical Pacific are related to modern corals of the Western Indo-Pacific (Stehli and Wells, Glynn et al., Dana, cited in Cortés 1986). Atlantic hermatypic corals on the other hand, are considered to be relics of the coral fauna from the Mid Tertiary Tetis Sea (Wells, cited in Cortés 1986). The Caribbean Sea reefs have close to 75 species from 15 Families of the Order Scleractinia: Acroporidae, Agariciidae, Astrocoeniidae, Caryophylliidae, Dendrophylliidae, Faviidae (dominant Family in the Caribbean), Flabellidae, Guyniidae, Meandrinidae, Mussidae, Oculinidae, Pocilloporidae, Poritidae, Rhizangiidae, Siderastreidae and the hydrozoan, Milleporidae (Wells, Smith, Cairns, cited in Cortés 1986). Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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The Eastern Pacific has close to 22 species of Scleractinia in six Families; Acroporidae (Prahl y Mejia, cited in UICN 1988), Agariciidae, Dendrophyllidae, Pocilloporidae (dominant in the reefs of Panama), Poritidae, Thamnasteridae and the hydrozoan, Milleporidae (Durham, Glynn et al., Glynn et al., cited in Cortés 1986). (Cortés 1986). Sixty three species of hermatypic corals (Scleractinia and Milleporina) were classified in Mexico, 46 in the Atlantic and 17 for the Pacific (Horta and Carricart 1993). Reyes Bonilla (1993) classified 15 species in five genera for the Mexican Pacific.

3.3 Species Composition of Coral Reefs and Coral Communities 3.3.1 Coral Species List for Mexico CODES º = Families present in both oceans in Mexico + = Genus present in both oceans in Mexico / = Species present in both oceans, not registered for Mexico in one of them A= Atlantic, P=Pacific, E=Endemic, H=Hermatypic, Ah=Ahermatypic, S=Stony corals, No.=Reference. SPECIES

CODES

Class Hydrozoa Ordo Milleporina Family Milleporidae Millepora alcicornis Millepora complanata Millepora squarrosa

A A A

H H H

S S S

Class Hydrozoa Ordo Stylasterina Family Stylasteridae Subfamily Errininae Errina altispina Subfamily Distichoporinae Distichopora rosalinda Distichopora yucatensis Subfamily Stylasterinae Stylaster californicus Stylaster complanatus Stylaster duchassaingi Stylaster erubescens Stylaster inornatus Stylaster laevigatus Stylaster roseus Crypthelia glossopoma Class Anthozoa Subclass Alcyonaria u Octocoralia Ordo Alcyonacea Class Anthozoa Subclass Alcyonaria or Octacoralia Ordo Gorgonacea Subordo Scleraxonia Family Briareidae Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

A

E

Ah

S

A A

E E

Ah Ah

S S

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

S S S S S S S S

P A A A A A A A

E E E

1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5

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Briareum asbestinum Family Anthotheiidae Iciligorgia schrammi Erythropodium caribaeorum

A

Ah

A A

Ah Ah

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

A A A A P P A A A A A A A A A

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

6 5 6 6 5 5 17 6 10 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 15 6 6 10 6 17 6 6 6 10 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 5 6 6 6 10 13 13 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6

P

Ah

13

Subordo Holaxonia Family Plexauridae Eunicea asperula Eunicea calyculata Eunicea clavigera Eunicea fusca Eunicea laciniata Eunicea laxispica Eunicea mammosa Eunicea palmeri Eunicea succinea Eunicea tournefortii Muricea atlantica Muricea elongata Muricea laxa Muricea pinnata Muricea muricata Muriceopsis flavida Muriceopsis petila Plexaurella dichotoma Plexaurella fusifera Plexaurella grandiflora Plexaurella grisea Plexaurella nutans Plexaurella pumila Plexaura flexuosa Plexaura homomalla Pseudoplexaura crucis Pseudoplexaura flagellosa Pseudoplexaura porosa Pseudoplexaura wagenaari Swiftia exserta Family Gorgoniidae Gorgonia flabellum Gorgonia mariae Gorgonia ventalina Lophogorgia sanguinolenta Lophogorgia sp Pacifigorgia sp Pterogorgia anceps Pterogorgia citrina Pterogorgia guadalupensis Pseudopterogorgia acerosa Pseudopterogorgia americana Pseudopterogorgia bipinnata Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae Pseudopterogorgia hummelinckii Pseudopterogorgia rigida Family? Eugorgia sp Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

73

Filigella sp Class Anthozoa Subclass Alcyonaria u Octocoralia Ordo Helioporacea

13 1 1 1

Class Anthozoa Subclass Alcyonaria u Octocoralia Ordo Stolonifera Class Anthozoa Subclass Zoantharia Ordo Scleractinia Subordo Astrocoeniina Family Astrocoeniidae Stephanocoenia intersepta Family Thamnasteridae Psammocora brighami Psammocora superficialis Psammocora stellata Family Pocilloporidae Madracis dacactis Madracis myriaster pharensis Madracis Madracis mirabilis Pocillopora damicornis Pocillopora elegans Pocillopora inflants Pocillopora meandrina Pocillopora palmata Pocillopora verrucosa Family Acroporidae Acropora cervicornis Acropora palmata Acropora prolifera Montipora fragosa Subordo Fungiina Superfamily Agariicidae Family Agariciidae Agaricia agariciates Agaricia fragilis Agaricia humilis Agaricia lamarcki Agaricia tenuifolia Agaricia undata Gardineroseris planulata Leptoseris cucullata Pavona clivosa Pavona frondifera Pavona gigantea Pavona varians Family Siderastreidae Siderastrea radians Superfamily Fungiidae Family Fungiidae

1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 16 1 1 16 1 16 1 1 1 1


P

Ah

A

H

S

P P P

H H H

S S S

A A A A P P P P P P

Ah Ah Ah H H H H H H H

S S S S S S S S S S

H H H H

S S S S

A A A A A A P A P P P P

H H H H H H H H H H H H

S S S S S S S S S S S S

A

H

S

º

E

º A A A P

E

º

74

Cycloseris elegans Cycloseris mexicana Fungia curvata Fungia distorta Fungiacyathus pusillcus Fungiacyathus symmetricus Superfamily Poritidae Family Poritidae º Porites astreoides + Porites baueri + Porites branneri + Porites californica + Porites colonesis + Porites divaricata + Porites lobata + Porites furcata + Porites panamensis + Porites porites + Subordo Faviina Superfamily Faviicae Family Faviidae Subfamily Faviinae Favia conferta Favia fragum Favia gravida Diploria clivosa Diploria labyrinthiformis Diploria strigosa Manicina areolata Colpophyllia breviserialis Colpophyllia natans Subfamily Montastreinae Cladocora arbuscula / Montastrea annularis Montastrea cavernosa Montastrea faveolata Montastrea franksi Solenastrea bournoni Solenastrea hyades Family Rhizangiidae º Astrangia brasiliensis + Astrangia browni + Astrangia californica + Astrangia conferta + Astrangia costata + Astrangia dentata + Astrangia equatorialis + Astrangia haimei + Astrangia oaxacensis + Astrangia solitaria + Astrangia tangolaensis + Colangia immersa Oelangia bradleyi Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

P P P P A A

A P A P A A P A P A

H H H H Ah Ah

S S S S S S

H H H H H H H H H H

S S S S S S S S S S

A A A A A A A A A

H H H H H H H H H

S S S S S S S S S

A A A A A A A

H H H H H H H

S S S S S S S

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

S S S S S S S S S S S S S

A P P P P P P P P A P A P

E E

E E E

E

E

1 1 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 3 11 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

75

Phyllangia americana Phyllangia dispersa Family Oculinidae Subfamily Oculinidae Oculina diffusa Oculina valenciennesi Madrepora carolina Madrepora oculata

+ +

A P

Ah Ah

S S

/

A A A A

H H Ah Ah

S S S S

A

H

S

A A

H H

S S

A A A A A A A A A

H H H H H H H H H

S S S S S S S S S

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

Family Meandrinidae Meandrina meandrites Subfamily Dichocoeniinae Dichocoenia stokesi Dendrogyra cylindrus Family Mussiidae Isophyllastrea rigida Isophyllia sinuosa Mycetophyllia aliciae Mycetophyllia danana Mycetophyllia ferox Mycetophyllia lamarckiana Mussa angulosa Mussismilia harttii Scolymia lacera Subordo Caryophyllina Superfamily Caryophylliicae Family Caryophyllidae Subfamily Caryophylliinae º Bathycyathus consagensis Caryophyllia ambrosia Caryophyllia berteriana Caryophyllia cornuformis Caryophyllia parvula Caryophyllia polygona Ceratotrochus franciscana Coenocyathus bowersi Concentrotheca laevigata Deltocyathus calcar Deltocyathus eccentricus Deltocyathus italicus Heterocyathus aequicostatus Labyrinthocyathus langi Paracyathus humilis Paracyathus pulchellus Paracyathus tiburonensis Paracyathus stearnsii Stephanocyathus coronatus Stephanocyathus diadema Stephanocyathus paliferus Tethocyathus recurvatus Tethocyathus variabilis Trochocyathus fasciatus Trochocyathus rawsonii Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

P A A A A P P A A A A P i A + P + A + P + P A A A A A A A

E

E

E

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

76

Subfamily Turbinoliinae Peponocyathus stimpsonii Sphenotrochus hancocki Subfamily Desmophyllinae Thalamophyllia riisei Subfamily Parasmilliinae Anomocora fecunda Asterosmilia prolifera Coenosmilia arbuscula Phacelocyathus flos Rhizosmilia maculata Subfamily Eusmiliinae Eusmilia fastigiata Superfamily Flabellicae Family Flabellidae Flabellum fragile Flabellum moseleyi Gardineria paradoxa Javania cailleti Polymices fragilis Family Guyniidae Guynia annulata Schizocyathus fissilis Stenocyathus vermiformis Subordo Dendrophylliina Family Dendrophyllidae Balanophyllia bayeri Balanophyllia cedrosensis Balanophyllia cyathoides Balanophyllia elegans Balanophyllia palifera Balanophyllia tiburonensis Dendrophyllia californica Dendrophyllia cortezi Dendrophyllia gaditana Endopachys vaughani Rhizopsammia manuelensis Tubastrea aurea Tubastrea coccinea

A P

Ah Ah

S S

A

Ah

S

A A A A A

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

S S S S S

A

H

S

A A A A A

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

S S S S S

A A A

Ah Ah Ah

S S S

A P A P A P P + P + A P A / P A

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah H Ah

S S S S S S S S S S S S S

+ + + + + +

E

Class Anthozoa Subclass Ceriantiphataria Ordo Anthipataria Family ? Antiphates atlantica Antiphates caribbeana Antiphates galapagensis Antiphates gracilis Antiphates hirta Antiphates lenta Antiphates pennacea Cirrhipathes leutkeni Cirrhipathes seticornis Cirrhiphates sp


A A P A A A A A A A

Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah Ah

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 1 1 1 4 4 9 4 9 4 4 18 18 4

77

Note 1. Supraespecific categories listed according to Boschma (1956) for Milleporina, Cairns (1983) for Stylasterina, Wells (1956) for Scleractinia and Bayer (1961) for Gorgonacea. Note 2. Astrangia conferta was not included in Horta-Puga’s list (1993), however is mentioned as an endemic species in that paper. REFERENCES: 1. Horta-Puga (1993) 2. Weil and Knowlton (1994) Cited in Humann (1994) 3. Carricart-Ganivet et al. (1996) 4. García et al. (1997) 5. Bayer (1961) 6. Ibarra (1997) 7. Gutiérrez et al. (1995) 8. Gutierrez et al. (1996) 9. Dra. Claudia Padilla Souza. Personal communication

10. Jordán (1980). 11. Reyes-Bonilla (1993) 12. López et al. (1996) 13. UNEP/IUCN (1988) 14. Lara et al. (1994) 15. García et al. (1997) 16. Leyte (1996) 17. Dominguez (1993) 18. Britton et al. (1989)

3.3.2 Endemic Species There are 19 species of stony corals considered to be endemic to Mexico. However, due to the capacity for dispersal, and as more extensive studies may show, these species could be present in other regions as well. (Horta and Carricart 1993)

Species Stylasterina Errina altispina Stylaster inornatus Stylaster laevigatus Crypthelia glossopoma Distichopora rosalindae Distichopora yucatanensis

Locations R.T.L. Arrowsmith Bank, Q.Roo R.T.L. Arrowsmith Bank, Q.Roo R.T.L. Arrowsmith Bank, Q.Roo R.T.L. Yucatan Channel Restricted to Mexican Caribbean Restricted to Mexican Caribbean

Scleractinia Pocillopora palmata + Montipora fragosa + Astrangia browni + Astrangia oaxacaensis *+ Oulangia bradleyi Bathycyathus consagensis Porites californica * Ceratotrochus franciscana Paracyathus tiburonensis Dendrophyllia cortezi Porites baueri + Astrangia conferta + Astrangia californica *+%

R.T.L. Puerto Angel, Oax. R.T.L. La Paz, B.C.S R.T.L. Puerto Angel, Oax. R.T.L. Puerto Angel, Oax. R.T.L. Tenacatita Bay, Jal. Both coasts of Baja California Both coasts of Baja California Gulf of California Gulf of California Gulf of California Islas Marias, Nay. Mexican Pacific Mexican Pacific

R.T.L = Restricted to type locality + = inhabitants of shallow waters * = modified by Carricart-Ganivet pers. com. (1997) % = Species that does not appear in the same article on the list. (Horta and Carricart 1993)


78

3.3.3 Species Distribution The following tables were compiled from existing sources, in order to identify the general distribution patterns of coral species in Mexico. 3.3.3.1 Pacific Ocean Coral Species Distribution Key to Table 4. LOCATIONS Sonora

Oceanic

a. San Esteban Island b. Guaymas c. Tiburón Island d. Punta Cholla e. Rio Yaqui to Huatabampo

A. Revillagigedo Islands B. Socorro Island C. Clarión Island

Northern Baja California

Nayarit

f. Bahía Sn L. Gonzaga g. I. Angel de la Guarda h. Isla Cedros i. Canal de Sn Lorenzo

D. Jaltemba Island E. Guayabitos Bay F. Marías Islands

REFERENCES 1. Horta-Puga et al. 1993 2. Sánchez et al., 1992 3. Reyes 1993 4. UNEP/IUCN 1988 5. Leyte 1996a. 6. López et al. 1996 7. Leyte 1996b. 8. Squires 1959

Jalisco G. Banderas Bay H. Cape Corrientes I. Tenacatita Bay Southern Baja California j. Concepción Bay k. Coronados Island l. Isla del Carmen m. Puerto Escondido n. Agua Verde Bay o. San Diego Island p. San José Island q. Magdalena Bay r. San Francisco Island s. Partida Island t. Espíritu Santo Island u. Ballena Island v. Cerralvo Island w. La Paz Bay x. Cabo Pulmo/Frailes y. Los Cabos z. Gulf of California (Additional)

Guerrero J. Tlalcoyuque Beach to Río Cortéz K. Acapulco Oaxaca L. Puerto Angelito M. Puerto Escondido N. East of Puerto Angel (Tijera Beach) to Punta Cometa O. Huatulco Bay P. Tangola Bay Q. Oaxaca Coast (Additional)

Table 4


79

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION IN THE MEXICAN PACIFIC S P E CIE S O rd er S tylasterin a

SONORA a

b

c

d

BCN e

f

g

h

BCS i

j

k

l

m n

o

p

q

r

Ocea.

s

t

u

v

w x

y

z

Nay.

Jal.

A B C D E F

Guerr.

G H I

J

Oaxaca

K L

M N O P

Q

F am ily S tylasterid ae Stylaster californicus

1

O rd er S cleractin ia F am ily Den d rop h yllid ae Balanophyllia cedrosensis

1

Balanophyllia elegans

1

Balanophyllia tiburonensis

1

1

Dendrophyllia californica

1

Dendrophyllia cortezi

1

1

1

Endopachys vaughani

1

1

1

1

8

T ubastrea aurea

1

1

1

T ubastrea coccinea

6

T ubastrea sp

4

F am ily Caryop h yllid ae Bathycyathus consagensis

1

1

Bathycyathus sp

4

Ceratotrochus franciscana

1

Coenocyathus bowersi

1

Heterocyathus aequicostatus

1

1

1

1

1

Paracyathus humilis

1

Paracyathus stearnsii

1

Paracyathus tiburonesis

1

1

1

1

Sphenotrochus hancocki

1

F am ily Rh iz an g iid ae Astrangia californica

1

Astrangia conferta

8

1

1

1

8

Astrangia costata

8

8

Astrangia browni

1

Astrangia dentata

1

1

Astrangia equatorialis Astrangia haimei

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

8

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Astrangia oaxacensis

1

Astrangia tangolaensis

1

Oelangia bradleyi

1

Phyllangia dispersa

1

1

F am ily F u n g iid ae Cycloseris elegans

1

Cycloseris mexicana

1

1 1

1

1

1

Fungia curvata

1

1 8

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

1 1

3

Fungia distorta

3

F am ily P oritid ae Porites baueri Porites californica

3 1

1

1

4

1 4

4

1

1

1

1

4

4

Porites lobata Porites panamensis

1 3

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

6

2

1

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

F am ily Ag ariciid ae Gardineroseris planulata Pavona clivosa

3

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

Pavona frondifera

7

Pavona gigantea

3

1

1

2

Pavona varians

7

F am ily P ocillop orid ae Pocillopora damicornis

1

Pocillopora meandrina

3

1

1

1 3

1

1

6

1

1 6

5

5

Pocillopora palmata

5

5

1

Pocillopora inflants

7

Pocillopora elegans

1

Pocillopora verrucosa

1 3

3

1

1 4 1

1

1

1 1

4 1

Pocillopora sp

4

1

2

2

8 3

3

4

1 6

5

5

5

5

1 6

5

5

5

5

4

F am ily T h am n asterid ae Psammocora superficialis

3

Psammocora brighami

3

Psammocora stellata

3

1

2 1

1

F am ily Acrop orid ae Montipora fragosa

8

G E NE RA

5

9

18

7

4

7

3

5

S P E CIE S

8

13

32

7

9

11

6

16


80

3.3.2.2 Atlantic Ocean Coral Species Distribution Key to Tables 5a, 5b, 5c. LOCATION North/Gulf Atlantic A. Bermuda B. Bahamas y S Florida C. Florida Middle Ground D. Flower Gardens Veracruz E. Northern Veracruz Reefs F. Southern Veracruz Reef System Campeche G. Cayo Arcas H. Triángulos I. Cayo Arenas J. Campeche Bank (Additional) Yucatán K. Arrecife Alacrán Quintana Roo L. Contoy Island-Pta Cancún M. Pta. Nizuc-Pto Aventuras N. Pto. Aventuras-Tulum O. Sian Kaán P. Pta Pulticub-Boca Bacalar Chico Q. Arrowsmith Bank R. Cozumel Island S. Chinchorro Reef T. Mexican Carribbean (Additional) Belize U. Carrie Bow Cay, Belize REFERENCES 1. Bright et al. 1984 2. Horta-Puga et al. 1993 3. Ferré-DÁmaré 1995 4. Carricart-Ganivet et al. 1997 5. Reyes-Castro et al. 1989 6. Lara et al. 1994 7. Gutiérrez et al. 1995 8. Gutiérrez et al 1993 9. Gutiérrez et al. 1992 10. Gutiérrez et al. 1996 11. García et al. 1997 (a) 12. García et al. 1997 (b) 13. Jordán 1987 14. Cairns 1982 15. Parque Nac. Costa Occ. Isla Mujeres, Pta Cancún y Pta Nizuc 16. Ibarra 1997. 17. Jordán 1980 18. Muzik 1982 19. Chavez 1985 20. Castañares et al. 1982 21. Jordán 1993 22. Britton et al. 1989 23. Dominguez et al. 1993 24. Kornicker et al. 1959


81

Table 5a. SPECIES DISTRIBUTION IN THE MEXICAN ATLANTIC AND CARIBBEAN S P E CIE S O rd er M illep orin a

North/Gulf Atlantic A

B

C

Veracruz

D

E

Campeche

F

G

H

I

Yuc J

K

Quintana Roo L

M

N

O

P

Q

C.B R

S

T

U

F am ily M illep orid ae Millepora alcicornis

1

Millepora complanata

1

1

1

1

1

Millepora squarrosa

22 2

23

21

19

21

19

4 19

2

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

4

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

4

5

17

2

13

O rd er S tylasterin a F am ily S tylasterid ae Crypthelia glossopoma

2

Distichopora rosalindae

2

Distichopora yucatensis

2

Errina altispina

2

Stylaster complanatus

2

Stylaster duchassaingi

2

Stylaster erubescens

2

Stylaster inornatus

2

Stylaster laevigatus

2

2

2

Stylaster roseus

2

2

2

14

O rd er S cleractin ia F am ily Astrocoen iid ae Stephanocoenia intersepta

1

1

1

1

2

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

F am ily P ocillop orid ae Madracis asperula Madracis decactis

1 1

1

1 1

1

2

2

3

3

Madracis myriaster Madracis formosa Madracis mirabilis

14 2

1

1

1

2

8

9

Madracis pharensis

10

11

10

11

10

2

12

14 14

F am ily Acrop orid ae Acropora cervicornis

1

2

2

3

3

Acropora palmata

1

2

2

3

3

Acropora prolifera

1

2

2

22

2

21

2

2

21

19

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

24

5

7

8

9

10

2

12

14

2

2

2

10

13

14

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

F am ily Ag ariciid ae Agaricia agariciates Agaricia fragilis

1 1

Agaricia grahamae

1

1 1

1

19 19

4

24

4

1

10

Agaricia humilis Agaricia lamarcki

1

2

4

Agaricia tenuifolia Agaricia undata

1

Leptoseris cucullata

1

1

2

4

12

15

7

8

10

11

12

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

2

8

9

10

11

12

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

F am ily S id erastreid ae Siderastrea radians

1

1

1

1

2

2

21

19

4

24

F am ily F u n g iid ae Fungiacyathus pusillcus

2

Fungiacyathus symmetricus

2

F am ily P oritid ae Porites astreoides

1

Porites branneri

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

21

19

1

2

2

21

19

19

1

2

2

3

3

19

3

3

4

24

5

4

Porites colonesis Porites porites

7

8

7

8

9

7 1

4

10

11

12

10

11

12

14

10

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

20

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

2

2

8

9

10

11

12

F am ily F aviid ae Colpophyllia natans

1

Colpophyllia breviserialis

1

Cladocora arbuscula

3

3

Diploria clivosa

1

1 1

1 2

2

3

3

19

24

5

7

8

9

10

2

12

Diploria labyrinthiformis

1

1

2

2

3

3

19

24

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

Diploria strigosa

1

1

2

2

3

3

19

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

20

1

1

3

3

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

1

Favia conferta Favia fragum

5

2 2

2

14 14

5 24

Favia gravida

5 5

Manicina areolata

1

1

2

2

3

3

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

Montastrea annularis

1

1

1 1

2

2

3

3

19

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

Montastrea cavernosa

1

1

1

2

2

3

3

19

24

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

11

13

20

Montastrea faveolata

4

Montastrea franksi

4

Solenastrea bournoni

1

5

7

8

9

10

Solenastrea hyades

1

5

7

8

9

10


12

82

Table 5b. North/Gulf Atlantic S P E CIE S

A

B

C

Veracruz

D

E

Campeche

F

G

H

I

Yuc J

K

Quintana Roo L

M

N

O

P

Q

Bel R

S

T

U

F am ily Rh iz an g iid ae Astrangia brasiliensis

2

Astrangia solitaria

2

14

Colangia immersa

2

Phyllangia americana

2

14

23

14

F am ily O cu lin id ae Madrepora carolina

2

Madrepora oculata

2

Oculina diffusa

2

Oculina valenciennesi

2

2 3

2

3

5

2

17

5

F am ily M ean d rin id ae Dichocoenia stokesi

1

Dendrogyra cylindrus

1

1

2

3

3

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

15

2

8

9

10

11

12

14

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

5

7

8

9

10

2

12

14

15

7

8

9

10

2

12

14

4

2

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

4

2

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

2

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

2

7

8

9

10

2

12

14

1

Meandrina brasiliensis

1

1

Meandrina meandrites

1

1

Isophyllastrea rigida

1

1

Isophyllia sinuosa

1

1

1

2

3

3

F am ily M u ssiid ae

Mycetoophyllia aliciae

1

Mycetophyllia danaana

1

Mycetophyllia ferox

1

Mycetophyllia lamarckiana

1

Mussa angulosa

2

3

3

2

1 1

21

1

1

2

2

3

3

2

2

3

3

Mussismilia harttii

19 24

2

Scolymia lacera

1

1

1

2

4

F am illy Caryop h yllid ae Anomocora fecunda

2

Asterosmilia prolifera

2

Caryophyllia ambrosia

2

Caryophyllia berteriana

2

2

2

2

2

Caryophyllia cornuformis

2

Caryophyllia polygona

2

Caryophyllia parvula

2

Coenosmilia arbuscula

2

2

Concentrotheca laevigata

2

Deltocyathus calcar Deltocyathus eccentricus

2

Deltocyathus italicus

2

2

2

2

2 2

Labyrinthocyathus langi

2

Paracyathus pulchellus

2

Peponocyathus stimpsonii

2

2

Phacelocyathus flos

2

2

Rhizosmilia maculata

2

Stephanocyathus coronatus

2

2

Stephanocyathus diadema

2

2

Stephanocyathus paliferus

2

2

T ethocyathus recurvatus

2

T ethocyathus variabilis

2

T halamophyllia riisei

2

T rochocyathus fasciatus T rochocyathus rawsonii Eusmilia fastigiata

2

2 2 1

1

2

3

3

24

15

7

8

9

10

11

13

14

F am ily F lab ellid ae Flabellum fragile

2

Flabellum moseleyi

2

Javania cailleti

2

2

Polymices fragilis

2

2

Gardineria minor

14

Gardineria paradoxa

2

F am ily G u yn iid ae Guynia annulata

2

Schizocyathus fissilis

2

Stenocyathus vermirformis

2

F am ily Den d rop h yllid ae Balanophyllia cyathoides Balanophyllia bayeri Balanophyllia palifera Dendrophyllia gaditana Rhizopsammia manuelensis

2 2 2 2 2

T ubastrea coccinea

6

G E NE RA

24

28

35

12

55

29

S P E CIE S

34

43

56

17

101

44


83

Table 5c O rd er G org on acea

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

F am ily Briareid ae Briareum asbestinum

22

19

19

21

15

21

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

F am ily An th oth eiid ae Erythropodium caribearum

23

21

Iciligorgia schrammi

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

15

8

9

10

11

12

18

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

7

8

9

10

11

12

F am ily P lexau rid ae Eunicea asperula

23

Eunicea calyculata

21

Eunicea clavigera

21

Eunicea fusca

22

Eunicea laciniata

22

21

21

21

6

21

17 15

21

Eunicea laxispica Eunicea mammosa

21

21

17

8

15

7

8

9

10

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

7

8

9

10

11

12

11

12

Eunicea palmeri Eunicea succinea Eunicea tournefortii Muricea atlantica

21

21

21

18 12

21

6

7

8

9

10

21

6

7

8

9

10

21

21

15

7

8

9

10

15

7

8

9

10

11

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

10

11 11

Muricea laxa 21

10

21

Muricea elongata

Muricea muricata

18

21

21

Muricea pinnata Muriceopsis flavida

15

Muriceopsis petila

7

21

Plexaurella fusifera

21

19

21

18

12 18

8

9

10

12

9

10

12

10

12

17

Plexaurella dichotoma

18

18 18

6

7

8

15

7

8

6

7

8

9

10

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

23

Plexaurella grandiflora Plexaurella grisea

21

Plexaurella nutans

21

Plexaurella pumila

12

18

17

Plexaura flexuosa

21

8

21

Plexaura homomalla

22

21

21

19

21

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

21

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

6

7

8

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

Pseudoplexaura crucis Pseudoplexaura flagellosa Pseudoplexaura porosa

8

21

Pseudoplexaura wagenaari

10

Swiftia exserta

10

T hesea plana

18

F am ily G org on id ae Gorgonia flabellum

22

21

Gorgonia mariae Gorgonia ventalina

22

19

6

7

8

15

7

8

15

7

8

9

9

10

11

12

10

11

12

18

10

11

12

18

Leptogorgia virgulata

12

Lophogorgia sanguinolenta

17

Pterogorgia anceps Pterogorgia citrina

22

21

6

7

8

9

10

12

18

21

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

21

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

19

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

15

7

8

9

10

11

12

18

7

8

Pterogorgia guadalupensis Pseudopterogorgia acerosa

21

Pseudopterogorgia americana

22

8

21 21

19

Pseudopterogorgia bipinnata Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae Pseudopterogorgia hummelinckii

10

7

Pseudopterogorgia kallos

12 12

21

Pseudopterogorgia rigida

18 15

7

8

10

12

10

12

18

O rd er An th ip ataria F am ily ? Antiphates pennacea Antiphates caribbeana

12

Antiphates atlantica

12

Antiphates gracilis

12

Antiphates lenta

12

Antiphates sp

22

Cirrhiphates seticornis

22

Cirrhipathes leutkeni

22

Cirrhiphates sp

12

22

G E NE RA

2

11

7

10

17

13

S P E CIE S

0

21

13

21

51

28


84

3.3.3.3 Sponge Species Distribution The Phylum Porifera is one of the least studied invertebrate Phyla in Mexico and the world, mainly due to the sponge’s characteristics which represent a huge plasticity in response to the local and geographic environment. Also, many of the morphological characteristics subject to change, make the selection of characteristics used in delimiting the systematic categories be difficult and subjective (López 1992). On account of this, the biological understanding of these organisms has developed quite slowly, even though they offer the marine environment and pharmacology distinct values of interest and importance. In the seas the number of species of sponges is approximately 9,000 which constitute a large part of the epifaunal biomass. Sponges represent the first efforts of cellular association in differentiated layers. They possess a level of tissue organization that encompasses all four basic tissues. It has also been noted that sponges play an important role in territorial competition along with other sessile organisms like algae, crinoids, annelids, bryozoans, and tunicates. On account of its habitat, they represent an important component within the coral ecosystem, since they supply housing for a number of organisms like: brittle stars, crustaceans, fish, mollusks, corals, principally zoanthids and green algae; defined associations with bivalves, spider crabs and shrimp also exist. (Green, Bergquist, cited in López, 1992). Apart from the sponge’s ecological and taxonomical aspects considered important, there are also pharmacological aspects that offer new window into natural products of interest to man, mainly antimicrobacterial and anticancerous substances (Green, cited in López 1992). Some studies from the Caribbean Sea and adjacent areas have been carried out by foreign researchers. One of the most comprehensive taxonomical studies carried out was conducted by Wiedenmayer (cited in Green 1984), which included 82 species of sponges of the Western Bahamas, mainly around the Bimini area. Van Soest (cited in Green 1984) carried out a taxonomical study of 33 species from the Order Keratosa in the Western Indies (Curacao and other islands of the Caribbean). The following authors have contributed in one way or another to the understanding of this phylum: Verrill (cited in Green 1984), studied sponges of the Bermuda Islands and the Bahamas Islands; de Laubenfels (cited in Green 1984), the sponges in the Western Indies, in waters adjacent to Florida and the biology of sponges in general; Osorio and Cárdenas (cited in Green 1984) and Storr (cited in Green 1984), commercial sponges in the western coast of Quintana Roo and adjacent waters to Florida, respectively; Hartman (cited in Green 1984), sponges from the eastern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico; Little (cited in Green 1984), sponges in waster close to Florida; Hechtel (cited in Green 1984) the Demospongiaes in Puerto Royal, Jamaica; Green (cited in Green 1984) and Fuentes (cited in Green 1984), a taxonomical synopsis of sponges in the reef La Blanquilla, Veracruz, consisting of 27 different species described in both studies; Hartman and Goreau (cited in Green 1984), coral sponges (Sclerospongiae) in Jamaica. Núñez (cited in Green 1984), described nine species of sponges in the lagoons of Términos, Campeche and its environmental parameters. Gómez and Green (1984), did a systematic study of the sponges of Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo while López (1992) studied the reefs of Antón Lizardo and Puerto de Veracruz. (Map 6 and table 6)


85

Map 6.


86

Table 6. Porifera. Species present in Mexican seas. (Sánchez et al. 1992) PACIFIC OCEAN Class Calcarea Demospongiae

GULF OF MEXICO Class Demospongiae

CARIBBEAN Class Demospongiae

Orders

Families

Genera

Species

1 9

1 19

1 29

1 36

Order

Families

Genera

Species

8

15

18

20

Order

Families

Genera

Species

Important Families

11

30

37

54

Geoiidae Vaspidae Tetillidae Spirastellidae Clionidae Placospongiidae Suberitidae Axinellidae Agelasidae Desmoxyidae Calthropellidae Stellidae Thrombidae Siphoniidae Esperiopsidae Mycalidae Biemnidae Myxillidae Microcionidae Nepheliospongidae Haliclonidae Niphatidae Callyspongiidae Spongiidae Thorestidae Aplysinidae


Important Families

Geoiidae Suberitidae Axinellidae Myxillidae Halicionidae Callyspongidae Important Families Agelasidae Esperiopsidae Mycalidae Niphatidae Callyspongiidae Thorecitidae Aplysinidae

87

3.4 Distribution of Coral Reefs and Coral Communities in Mexico Coral reefs and communities in Mexico can be grouped into four large zones: Pacific Ocean, Gulf of MexicoVeracruz, Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank and Caribbean Sea. Coral communities predominate in the Pacific Ocean zone, where only a few sites present true coral reefs of limited size. Nearshore coral reefs are found on two sites in the Gulf of Mexico-Veracruz zone and more abundant distant offshore reefs in the Gulf of MexicoCampeche Bank zone. The Caribbean Sea zone presents the best developed reef system for Mexico, basically a fringing reef that develops all the way to Xcalak, Mexico, into Ambergris Key, Belize, where it becomes the Belize Barrier Reef.

3.4.1 General Characteristics and Distribution Pacific Ocean. Reef building corals were originally considered to be rare in the Eastern Pacific, but recent research has shown abundant coral populations despite the small size of the reefs (a few hectares or less in area), their discontinuous occurrence (absent from sand/mud coastal stretches and meagre development in areas experiencing upwelling and high river drainage (Dana; Glynn and Wellington, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). Reefs are found in the Gulf of California, and off the coasts of Mexico. The Gulf of California is the northernmost limit for hermatypic growth with El Pulmo reef near the tip of Baja California probably being the northernmost reef. (UNEP/IUCN 1988) In the Mexican Pacific there are no true reef structure developments, only coral communities established over hard substrate. Maybe the only existing reefs are at Cabo Pulmo, Ensenada Grande on Isla Espiritu Santo (Reyes-Bonilla, 1993), and on specific sites along the southern coast of Oaxaca (Leyte 1996). These sites present true growth, with enough calcium carbonate deposits to create an elevated structure. Coral communities generally present themselves along all the coastal zone, occupying rocky areas between 0 and 30 m in depth. The communities are composed of few species, mainly ramifications of the species Porites, Pavona, Psammocora and Fungia. There is no clear zonation pattern but changes do occur in the community structure at different depths. (Reyes-Bonilla 1993) Pacific Ocean coral communities and reefs were geographically grouped using the Biophysical Coastal and Marine Classification System (Neritic Provinces in this document) proposed by Carlton Ray et al. (1994), the open ocean and marginal seas realms (Oceanic Provinces in this document) adapted by Carlton Ray et al. from Dietrich (1963), modified and detailed (proposed Subprovinces) by Bezaury et al. (1996), as follows: Pacific Ocean (San Diegan, Cortezian and Mexican Neritic Provinces) (Northeastern Temperate Pacific, Gulf of California Oceanic Provinces) A. Gulf of California, Reef and Coral Communities (Cortezian Neritic Province) (Gulf of California Oceanic Province) A.1 Central Gulf (Salsipuedes, Southcalifornian and Sonoran Neritic Subprovinces) A.2 Southern Gulf Gulf-Cape, Sinaloan-Nayaritan and Islas Marias Neritic Subprovinces) B. Pacific Coast Coral Communities (San Diegan and Mexican Neritic Provinces) (Northeastern Temperate Pacific Oceanic Province) B.1 Offshore Islands (Northeastern Temperate Pacific Oceanic Province) B.2 Baja California Coast (San Diegan Neritic Provinces) Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

88

(Pacific Cape Subprovince) B.3 Jalisco Coast (Mexican Neritic Province) (Jalisco-Oaxacan Subprovince) B.4 Guerrero-Oaxaca Coast (Mexican Neritic Province) (Jalisco-Oaxacan Subprovince) A. Gulf of California, Reef and Coral Communities A.1 Central Gulf Isla San Luis Gonzaga (San Luis), Baja California Norte. (map in Reyes Bonilla 1993) Gulf of California from north of Isla Ángel de la Guardia, Baja California Norte, to Bahía Concepción, Baja California Sur. Presence of Porites panamensis (Sanchez A. 1992). P. panamensis is considered to be the only common coral reef present north of Concepción Bay (Glynn and Wellington, cited in IUCN 1988). Porites californica (Sin.: P. sverdrupi) much less abundant, is the only other coral that can survive the low temperatures of the upper Gulf. It is an endemic species that has inhabited the Gulf since the Pliocene and is probably a relict undergoing a natural process of extinction (Reyes Bonilla 1993) Isla Las Animas, (Anima? D.O.F. 02/08/1978 o San Lorenzo Norte, Secr. Gob. 1981), Baja California Norte Coral Communities may occur (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Isla San Esteban Presence of Astrangia haimei and Porites californica (Squires 1959). Gulf of California from south of Isla Tiburón to Punta Baja, Sonora. Presence of Porites panamensis (Sanchez 1992). Gulf of California from south of the Río Yaqui to Huatabampo, Sonora. Presence of Porites panamensis (Sanchez 1992). A.2 Southern Gulf Bahía Concepción, Baja California Sur. Corals can be found with some abundance (Reyes Bonilla 1993) Islas Coronado, Baja California Sur. Coral formations are composed predominantly by Porites californica are found (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Isla del Carmen, Baja California Sur. Scattered colonies of Porites are found on isolated rock patches at Marquer Bay. At Bahía de Salinas, coral formations composed predominantly by Porites californica are found (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Puerto Escondido, Baja California Sur. Coral formations composed predominantly by Porites californica are found in the inner harbor (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Bahía de Agua Verde, (Puerto Agua Verde?), Baja California Sur. Coral formations composed predominantly by Porites californica are found (UNEP/IUCN 1988).


89

Map 7


90

San Telmo, Baja California Sur. San Telmo reefs are situated north of San Carlos Bay, just south of San Telmo Point (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Isla San Diego, Baja California Sur. Coral communities may occur in the San Diego Reef (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Isla San José, Baja California Sur. Corals form patches of a few square meters in surface (Squires, Reyes Bonilla, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Isla San Francisco, Baja California Sur. Corals form patches of a few square meters in surface (Squires, Reyes Bonilla, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Isla Espíritu Santo, Baja California Sur. Dense growth of Porites and Pocillopora elegans are found in San Gabriel Bay on the south-east side of the island. A small Pocillopora reef community is found off the west side of the island (UNEP/IUCN 1988). In Ensenada Grande, there is a concentration of corals that can be called a small coral reef (0.3 Ha.) formed by the species Pocillopora with over 40% substrate coverage (Reyes Bonilla 1993). Isla Ballena, Baja California Sur. A dense growth of Pocillopora elegans is found on the northeastern side of the bay that thins progressively on the eastern side, only scattered heads are found in the southeastern portion and no coral was found in the southern sector (Squires 1959). Bahía de la Paz, Baja California Sur. Corals do not exceed 5% of the substrate’s coverage (Arizpe et al. cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Isla Cerralvo, Baja California Sur. Corals form patches of a few square meters in surface (Squires, Reyes Bonilla, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Punta Pescadero, Bahia de las Palmas, Baja California Sur. Relatively rich coral and gorgonian populations and very rich fish communities (Glynn and Wellington, Hobson, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). Cabo Pulmo, Baja California Sur. The reef projects offshore in a north easterly direction and consists of a series of rocky ridges covered with algae and encrusting Porites. The two most common corals are P. californica and Pocillopora elegans (Brusca and Thomson, Gotshall, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). The reef covers an area of 150 ha. making it one of the most important coastal reefs in the American Pacific (Reyes Bonilla 1993) Los Frailes, Baja California Sur. Coral communities with very rich fish communities (Glynn and Wellington, Hobson, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). Punta Palmilla, Baja California Sur. Area with abundant coral. (Wilson, Reyes Bonilla, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Punta Chileno, Baja California Sur. This bay presents the highest abundance of hermatypic corals in the Cape Region. From a constructional point of view, it forms a true reef (Wilson, Reyes Bonilla, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). San José del Cabo, Baja California Sur. Coral communities with very rich fish communities (Glynn and Wellington, Hobson, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur. Coral communities with very rich fish communities (Glynn and Wellington, Hobson, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988).


91

Coast of Sinaloa, Sinaloa. Due to the sandy nature of the coast, hermatypic corals are scarce and few species can be found (van der Heiden and Hendricks cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Islas Marias, Nayarit. These islands present well developed reefs (Squires, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). The coral community is composed of nine species, one of them, Porites baueri is endemic with no fossil record, which indicates it is a "new" species, less than one million years old (Reyes Bonilla 1993). Isla Jaltemba (Isla La Perla), Bahía de Guayabitos (Bahía de Jaltemba), Nayarit. Dense patch of corals, mainly Pocillopora on the landward side of the island (Greenfield et al., Chávez, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). Bahía de Banderas Norte, Nayarit. Areas of high coral cover, over 40% can be found. Well-developed physical reef structures between one and two meters thick; formations are hundreds of meters in length (Reyes Bonilla 1993) Islas Marietas, Jalisco. Small reefs can be found (Durham and Barnard, Reyes Bonilla, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993) Bahía de Banderas Sur, Jalisco. Small reefs can be found (Reyes Bonilla 1993)

B. Pacific Coast Coral Communities B.1 Offshore Islands Rocas Alijos, Baja California Sur. Hanna registered certain coral reef communities in the southern side (cited in Carricart-Ganivet et all. 1993) Islas Revillagigedo. These volcanic islands support many diverse fish and coral communities, including Porites californica, Pocillopora elegans, Tubastrea, Bathycyatus and gorgonians Muricea, Eugorgia, Lophogorgia, Pacifigorgia, Gorgonia and Filigella (Gotshall; cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). The reef at Isla Socorro is particularly rich. Two of the species Psammocora superficialis and Porites lobata are dominant but have not yet colonized the continental coast of Mexico. This is important since only in Revillagigedo and in Clarion, the normal pattern of Pocilloporidae dominance for communities in the Mexican Pacific is broken (Reyes Bonilla 1993). At Isla Clarión the most abundant coral is Porites lobata (Ketchum Mejia, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993)

B.2 Baja California Coast Bahía de Santa María, Baja California Sur. Area with abundant coral (Wilson, Reyes Bonilla, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Pacific Ocean coast from Cabo San Lucas to south of Bahía Magdalena, Baja California Sur. Presence of Porites panamensis (Sánchez 1992)

B.3 Jalisco Coast Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco. Small reefs can be found (Reyes Bonilla 1993)


92

Coast of Jalisco, Jalisco. Due to the sandy nature of the coast, hermatypic corals are scarce and few species can be found (Reyes Bonilla 1993). Bahia de Tenacatita, Jalisco. Small reefs can be found (Bonilla 1993) Coast of Michoacán, Michoacán There are no data on the existence of hermatypic corals on this coast (Reyes Bonilla 1993). Small colonies of corals were observed at Caleta de Campos (Gutierrez pers. comm.).

B.4 Guerrero Oaxaca Coast Zihuatanejo, Guerrero. Hermatypic corals have been registered (Squires; Salcedo Martínez et al., cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Acapulco, Guerrero. Hermatypic corals have been registered (Squires; Salcedo Martínez et al., cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Coast of Guerrero, from Playa Tlalcoyunque to Rio Cortés, Guerrero. Presence of Pavona gigantea (Sanchez 1992). Coast of Oaxaca, Oaxaca. Twenty-six coral communities have been detected, ranging from 0.24 to 10 hectares, at a maximum depth of 14.33 m. Five genera with 13 species of hermatypic corals were found, but communities are dominated by Pocillopora. Four new species were reported for the Mexican Pacific region; Gardineroseris planulata, Pavona varians, P. frondifera and Pocillopora inflatans (Leyte 1996 in Memorias 1er Encuentro Regional de Inv. y Des. Sust. Gro., Oax. y Chis.). Leyte (1996) describes three formations well defined: the first one corresponds to the Huatulco Bays containing 16 communities known as: Tejoncito, Rincón Sabroso, Tangolunda Manzanilla, Tangolunda Casa Mixteca, Isla Montuosa, Santa Cruz, la Entrega, Cacaluta, la India, Chachacual, las Dos Hermanas, La Prima, Riscalillo, San Agustín, Isla San Agustín and Sachi. The second group is located east of Puerto Angel and Tijera Beach and ends at Punta Cometa west of Mazunte where there are eight minor extensions: la Tijera (two communities), Boquilla, Ixtacahuite, la Guacha, Panteones, Camaroncillo and Mazunte (Punta Cometa). The third group is located at Puerto Escondido, containing the communities of Puerto Angelito and Carrizalillo. There is a clear zonation in which the species Pocillopora is present from the shallow areas of the sea to 14 m below the surface. From 4 m below the surface blotches of Porites panamensis begin to appear and from 8 m below the surface Pavona gigantea begin to appear. Gardinoseris planulata is located at a depth of 3 m and only in Camaroncillo Bay. The reef pieces in various zones grow in vertical columns up to 5 m thick indicating their old age. Particular attention is given to the actual growth sustained by young colonies established over the remains of dead coral, which on account of their size indicates very old age. (Leyte 1996) Puerto Angelito, Oaxaca. An approximation to a reef is found consisting mainly of Pocillopora capitata (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca. Palmer registered a monospecific block of Pocillopora elegans about 160 meters wide in Puerto Escondido Bay (cited in Carricart-Ganivet et al 1993). Coast from Puerto Ángel to Huatulco, Oaxaca. Fringing reefs of considerable size can be found in this area, reaching a maximum width of over 150 m in front of Puerto Angel. Pocillopora is the most abundant genera, followed by Porites and Pavona (Palmer, Durham,


93

Rodríguez Palacios et al., Mitchell Arana y Gómez, Comas Rodríguez y Pérez Rojas, cited in Reyes Bonilla 1993). Huatulco, Oaxaca. (map in Reyes Bonilla 1993) South Coast of Oaxaca, Oaxaca Brief description of areas (Palmer, cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). Golfo de Tehuantepec, Oaxaca y Chiapas The Gulf is an area of cold upwellings which prevents the formation of reefs (Glynn et al., cited in UNEP/IUCN 1988). Coast of Chiapas, Chiapas There are no data on the existence of hermatypic corals on this coast. Due to the sandy nature of the coast and the Tehuantepec upwelling, the probability that they are abundant is highly unlikely (Reyes Bonilla 1993).

3.4.2 Coral Reefs and Coral Communities of the Gulf of Mexico. Veracruz. The Gulf of Mexico reefs have been divided into two systems: Northern Veracruz and Southern Veracruz. The first one consists of six platform-like reefs, some with emerging parts like Isla Lobos. The Veracruz Reef System includes 17 reefs (Gutiérrez, et al. 1993) and is subdivided into the north group and south group (Carricart and Horta 1993). The majority of the structures in the northern reef group are platform-like although reef patches do exist like in El Giote, and ridges like in Punta Gorda, Punta Majagua, Hornos and Punta Mocambo (Carricart and Horta op. cit.). In the southern group all of the reef structures are platforms. The Gulf of Mexico-Veracruz coral reefs and communities were geographically grouped using the Biophysical Coastal and Marine Classification System (Neritic Provinces in this document) proposed by Carlton Ray et al. (1994), the open ocean and marginal seas realms (Oceanic Provinces in this document) adapted by Carlton Ray et al. from Dietrich (1963), modified and detailed (proposed Subprovinces) by Bezaury et al. (1996), as follows: Gulf Of Mexico-Veracruz (Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province) C. Northern Veracruz Reef System (Veracruzan Neritic Subprovince) C.1 Tamiahua Group C.2 Tuxpan Group D. Southern Veracruz Reef System (Veracruzan Neritic Subprovince) D.1 Veracruz Group D.2 Antón Lizardo Group D.3 Fringing Reefs Gulf of Mexico-Veracruz Reefs C. Northern Veracruz Reef System The Northern Veracruz Reef System consists of two groups, one off the Tamiahua Lagoon and the other in front of the port of Tuxpan. These groups represent the northernmost reefs in the East coast of Mexico. The northernmost tropical coral reefs on the Atlantic continental shelf occur within US waters, at the crests of the East and West Flower Garden Banks in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, 103 nautical miles southeast of Galveston, Texas. The Flower Bank's northerly location, insofar as it is exposed to winter temperatures which are marginal


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for the development of thriving coral reefs, has resulted in reduced coral diversity, but has not reduced abundance or growth rates of those species present (Bright et al. 1984) Map 8.

Map 8


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C.1 Tamiahua Group Blanquilla Located at 21° 30' 10" N and 97° 10' 32" W, 5 km offshore, southeast of Cabo Rojo is the northernmost reef in the Eastern coast of Mexico. Its longest axis is 739 m and runs north-south, with 500 m at its widest point. It presents a small caye in its southwest portion. (Carricart and Horta 1993). According to Moore (cited in Carricart and Horta 1993) living corals are scarce on the windward side and more common on the leeward. Medio This corresponds to a platform reef located at 21° 30' 00" N and 97° 10' 25" W, 7.5 km from the coast completely submerged (Carricart and Horta 1993). Lobos This is located at 21° 20' 36" N and 97° 10' 19" W, 11.25 km from the coast and presents a small island (Isla Lobos) with its longest axis 630 m long oriented northwest to southeast and 300 m wide (Carricart and Horta 1993). Physiographically it corresponds to a platform reef. It is moon shaped and emerges from a platform located at a depth of 25 - 30 m, up to 1 - 2 m below sea level. The greatest development of the reef is achieved on the sides of the platform, where Montrastea cavernosa, M. annularis, Diploria strigosa, D. clivosa and Acropora palmata dominate (Chávez 1973).

C.2 Tuxpan Group Tangüijo Platform reef located at 21° 00' 36" N and 97° 10' 30" W, 8.75 km from the coast (Carricart and Horta 1993). Enmedio Platform reef located at 21° 00' 31" N and 97° 10' 29" W, 8.75 km from the coast (Carricart and Horta 1993). Tuxpan Platform reef located at 21° 00' 04" N and 97° 10' 12" W, 11.25 km from the coast (Carricart and Horta 1993).

D. Southern Veracruz Reef System General Characteristics and Distribution The Southern Veracruz Reef System (VRS) consists of two groups: one off the Veracruz Port and the other in front of Antón Lizardo village. The limit for both groups are river deltas. Antigua to the north and Papaloapan and Alvarado Lagoon to the south. The Jamapa River divides the VRS into two natural groups. There are 17 main reefs and four fringing reefs. Eleven of the largest reefs are in Antón Lizardo (Map 9). Following the criteria and classification schemes of other authors (Darwin, Stodartt, Goreau, Milliman, Guilcher, cited in Lara et al. 1992) some of the reefs can be described as fringing reefs and others as bank reefs. Veracruz reefs especially around the port have unique characteristics compared with other reefs (Stodartt, Goreau, cited in Lara et al. 1992). These reefs are in an area with high concentrations of river sediment. The location, size, scleractinian diversity, coverage and topographic complexity of the reefs are probably controlled by a dynamic interaction between turbid fresh or brackish water from rivers and currents of clear marine water (Roberts and Murray, cited in Lara et al. 1992) The reefs have two main structures: elongated in a NW-SE direction and kidney-shaped with the same orientation. The long axis is called topographic axis (Pichon, cited in Lara et al. 1992). Perpendicular to this axis at approximately 300 E is the morphological axis. Dimensions, area, general features and maximum depth of the reefs are shown in Table 7.


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Map 9


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Table 7.

Reefs

Topografical Axis Km

A. Adentro I. Verde Pájaros I. Sacrificios Galleguilla Gallega Pta. Gorda Hornos Pta. Mocambo

2.3 1.8 1.9 1.2 1.3 2.5 3.5 0.6 2.1

General features Veracruz Group Morphologica Distance Reef Area l to shore Km 2 Axis Km Km 1.2 8.3 2.4 1.3 6.3 2.25 1.4 3.1 1.94 0.6 1.9 0.87 1.1 1.9 1.21 1.5 0 0.4 0 0.3 0 0.4 0 -

A. Afuera Santiaguillo Anegadilla Cabezo Rizo I. Enmedio Chopas Bajito Polo Blanca Giote

5.8 1.2 0.7 11.9 3.9 3.5 5.8 1.0 1.1 1.9 -

2.1 0.8 0.4 3.2 1.4 2.5 1.75 0.5 0.6 1.1 -

Antón Lizardo Group 17.2 7.69 20.0 1.01 21.0 0.75 14.2 18.92 5.7 4.28 6.8 6.47 3.3 8.54 4.6 0.91 5.2 0.75 3.2 1.83 0.2 -

Windward slope m

Leeward Slope m

40 30 24 12 30 12 6 6 6

15 15 10 6 6 -

36 33 33 40 27 27 24 21 21 27 3

27 30 27 27 18 15 12 10 10 10 3

Zonation Using topographic and benthic characteristics in the field, and aerial and underwater photography, the VRS was divided into four structural zones: Fore Reef, Reef Crest, Lagoon and Leeward slope. Each zone was divided into several subzones. The number and characteristics of subzones are common to most reefs. This zonation forms bands perpendicular to the dominant currents in the offshore reefs. This pattern is probably the combined result of wind, currents and sedimentation unique to the Veracruz region. Different reefs have different scleractinian species richness, diversity, coral coverage and topography although benthic communities do not differ considerably (UNAM-Ciencias, Lara, Padilla, Pizaña, Jácome, López, cited in Lara et al. 1992). Leeward Slope This zone is the most variable area on most reefs, possibly due to the high rate of sedimentation caused primarily by run-off following heavy rains. Depth ranges between 3 and 24 m. The leeward slope was divided into three zones: The Plate zone, Dead A. cervicornis matrix and the Gorgonian zone. The Plate zone is the deepest part of the Leeward slope. M. annularis is common and grows in massive coral heads and boulders. In the offshore reefs, this morphological zone is more developed along its center, compared with nearshore reefs where only the extremes of the reef are developed. The benthic community is dominated by Montastrea spp. and Siderastrea spp., sponges like Verongia fistularis, Callispongia falax, Ircinia campana, I. fasciculata and I. strobilina, and the echinoderm Nemaster rubiginosa. The extent of the Dead A. cervicornis zone is highly variable and occurs mainly on the central sections of the reefs. The benthic community is varied possibly due to the highly heterogeneous substrate. Scleractinians like Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Montastrea spp., Siderastrea spp., Porites spp., and Diploria spp. grow mainly as flattened sheets. Sponges like Ircinia spp., Callispongia spp., Verongia spp., and Haliclona spp. are present. Echinoderms include Equinometra lucunter, Ophiocoma echinata, Eucidaris tribuloides, Euapta lappa and Strongilocentrotus droebachiensis. Lyropecten spp. and Lima scabra are the most abundant mollusks. On the leeward slope close to the rear edge, high density gorgonian patches occur, mostly at the near shore reefs. Pseudoplexaura porosa is the dominant species. Most species have a whip growth form like Plexaura flexuosa, Pseudopterogorgia acerosa and Eunicea sp. Scleractinians are small. The most common are D. clivosa, D. strigosa, A. cervicornis, M. annularis. The gastropod Cyphoma gibbosum associated with the gorgonians; and the echinoderm Echinometra viridis are also common. Lagoon The Lagoon is shallow and flat. Depth varies from 0.5 m near the Reef Crest to 2.5 m close to the leeward slope. Bottom sediments are silt-like or muddy, typical of calm environments. The Lagoon was divided into two zones: the Rear Edge and the Patch Zone. One distinctive feature of the Rear Edge is the scattered branching and lobed coral heads on muddy bottoms. These coral heads, some of which are partially dead or in the process of breaking down, support a diverse biota of mollusks, fishes and echinoderms. Common scleractinian species are D. clivosa, D. strigosa, A. palmata, A. cervicornis and P. porites. The Patch Zone is a mixture of coral heads and algae, beds of Thalassia testudinum and bare patches of sand. In offshore groups, a calcareous framework of P. porites, in different stage of filling by mud and sand, is stabilized by seagrasses and algae turfs. In the nearshore groups the rate of sedimentation is very high, the layer of sand is deep and sea grasses are tall. The most conspicuous Scleractinians are Porites spp. Siderastrea spp. and D. clivosa, with low coverage and large amounts of dead coral. The sponges, Haliclona spp. and Tedania spp., the sea urchins, Diadema antillarum, Tripneustes ventricosus and Echinometra spp. and the mollusks, Tridachia crispata, Pinna spp. and Cerithium litteratum occur. Reef Crest The Reef Crest is the shallowest part of the reefs where turbulence is high, particularly from September to March when strong cold winds from the north "Nortes" occur. A unique feature of this zone is the high density of the sea urchin Echinometra lucunter present at all reefs in the VRS (up to 45 per square meter). At the nearshore reefs it is common to find huge aggregates of colonial zoanthids of the genera Zoanthus and Palythoa in places where scleractinians would normally be found (Rosado, cited in Lara et al. 1992). This zone is divided into three subzones: Back Reef, Breaker Zone and Fore Edge. The Back Reef is next to the Patch Zone of the Lagoon. The bottom has a smooth slope towards the seashore and calcareous rubble is abundant. It is common to find gastropod shells and Halimeda debris. D. clivosa, S. radians and P. porites colonies are in the form of small heads and rolling stones. The Breaker zone in the VRS is exposed to intense wave energy and high illumination. Tidal exposures are common in some areas. There are several species of calcareous algae which have cemented the structure over the years. There is also considerable growth of hydrocorals such as Millepora and a rich interstitial fauna is found in the crevices. Scleractinians are few and of an grow in an encrusting form. The most common species found are P. porites, S. siderea and D. clivosa. The Fore Edge zone has a gentle slope which is continuously exposed to turbulence. Huge strands of A. palmata both living and dead, some growths of Millepora sp. and algae dominate the substrate. Large colonies of zoanthids are common at nearshore reefs (Rosado 1990). Fore Reef This zone is on the windward slope. It has a spur and groove structure that extends to 12 m on the nearshore reefs and 40 m on the offshore reefs. The Fore Reef was subdivided into the Inner Fore Reef and Outer Fore Reef.


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The Inner Fore Reef is a terrace that ranges between 3 m and 15 m in depth. The buttress zone is well developed along the topographic axis. Its width is related to the slope; steeper slopes have narrower buttress zones. The substrate is very heterogeneous over the spurs, providing places for many benthic species. The substrate is dominated by scleractinians like Acropora palmata forming branching growths in the shallowest part of the slope. Montastrea spp., Colpophyllia spp., and Diploria spp. are also present and growing in lobed boulders, mushroom and massive forms. Sponges like Callispongia falax, Haliclona rubens and species of Ircinia genus are abundant (UNAM-Ciencias; López; cited in Lara et al. 1992). The Outer Fore Reef is steep between the spurs and grooves, particularly on the offshore reefs. It has a drop-off that reaches 15 m on the sandy bottom. The main development of this zone is between 10 and 40 m, widest around the central sections of the reefs. Montastrea annularis, Siderastrea siderea, Montastrea cavernosa, Colpophyllia natans and Porites astreoides are dominant and have massive or tabular growth forms. Demospongiae like Ircinia campana and Verongia fistularis are common in this zone. Villalobos-Figueroa, Kühlmann, Chávez, and UNAM-Ciencias (cited in Lara et al. 1992), indicated that Veracruz reefs had low coral coverage, few scleractinian species, and low topographic complexity especially in the deeper parts. They found that the highest coral cover was at six meters. This is true only for the fringing reefs and for some nearshore reefs in Veracruz such as "Isla Sacrificios", "La Gallega" and "Gallegilla". The offshore reefs in front of Antón Lizardo have well developed spur and groove structures with high coral cover and diversity up to 40 m. A previous study (IUCN, cited in Lara et al. 1992) recorded that the maximum coral diversity, topographic heterogeneity and amount of calcium carbonate deposited was found on the SE tips of the reefs, due probably to the influence of currents and destructive effects of the "Nortes" at the NW edges. In this case, it has been detected that zonation runs parallel to the topographic axis, showing elongated or semicircular bands. Furthermore, it was found that at some reefs the NW edges are more complex in terms of Scleractinian species richness, diversity and topographic heterogeneity. This is the case of "Rizo", "Anegada de Afuera" and "Cabezo" (UNAM-Ciencias, Lara, Padilla, Espejel, cited in Lara et al. 1992). This last reef is the biggest in the VRS, presenting the highest coral coverage and diversity on both slopes, and also on the reef flat on the NW edge (Padilla, cited in Lara et al. 1992). Dominant SE wind and the "Nortes" in Veracruz induce coastal currents that interact with the rivers deltas. It is postulated that the variability in the spatial patterns of sediment deposition is the main cause of the variability in the development of the leeward slope. The "Nortes" cause some damage mainly on reef flats due to the wind speed that causes highly energetic wave action. On the other hand, this has a positive effect by diminishing the amount of sediment reaching the reefs. The VRS has many unique characteristics compared with other reefs in Jamaica (Goreau and Goreau. Goreau, Liddell et al., cited in Lara et al. 1992), Belize (Rützler and Macintyre cited in Lara et al. 1992) and the Mexican Caribbean (Jordán et al., Jordán, Padilla et al, cited in Lara et al. 1992). These are due to the growth and zonation of reefs over the continental shelf, the development of coral communities on the leeward slope, and the presence of spur and groove formations at a 40 m depth on the seaward side. Scleractinian Communities The VRS grows on a subhorizontal submerged platform (Emery; IUCN, cited in Lara et al. 1992). Three groups of scleractinians species were identified. These are possibly associated to depth, slope and rate of sedimentation. In deeper zones scleractinian fauna is abundant and Montastrea spp., Colpophyllia spp., Porites astreoides and Siderastrea radians are found. On the windward slope of the reefs, coral grows both vertically and horizontal. The growth forms are massive, flattened, and lobed. This type of coral association is found within the spurs and grooves. On the Leeward slope, terrigenous material has a strong influence on coral growth in deeper parts. Corals have tabular growth forms with the flat surface facing upward. Near the edge, dead A. cervicornis build up a calcareous matrix which is incorporated into the framework. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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In shallower water, massive growth forms are replaced by branching A. palmata on the seaward side and lobed Diploria spp. on the leeward side of the reefs. This change in coral composition is typical of the outer edges of the reefs. Close to the sea surface, the dominant Acropora palmata and Diploria spp. associations are replaced by digital growth forms together with encrusting coral-like algae and Millepora spp. at exposed reef flat. On the rear reef flat, rubble and other sedimentary material are carried leeward by tide currents. These sediments fill the framework. Eventually seagrasses establish themselves. P. porites, D. clivosa and Siderastrea spp. are common on the reef flat. Reefs in Veracruz have a windward and leeward slope. Each slope presenting different: topographic complexity, amount of calcium carbonate deposition, scleractinian species richness and coral coverage (degree of development). Each main group of reefs was subdivided according to presence and degree of development of the windward and leeward slopes as a distinguishing factor. (Lara et al. 1992)

D.1 Veracruz Group The Veracruz group was divided into two subgroups. a) Offshore. The first group includes the well-developed reefs of "Anegada de Adentro" and "Isla Verde". The main features are a continuous and well developed leeward slope and large gorgonian patches in the shallow parts of the slope. b) Nearshore. "La Blanquilla", "Pajaros", "Isla Sacrificios", "Galleguilla" and "La Gallega" form the second group. These reefs have a poorly developed leeward slope, where coral growth is only found in the shallowest and deepest extremes. (Lara et al. 1992)

D.2 Antón Lizardo Group In Antón Lizardo three subgroups were differentiated. a) Offshore. These were "Anegada de Afuera", "Santiaguillo", Anegadilla" and Central and NW sides of "Cabezo". The main characteristic of these reefs is the continuous development of both windward and leeward slopes parallel to the topographic axis. b) Midshelf. The second subgroup consists of "Isla de Enmedio", "Rizo" and the SE tip of "Cabezo". These reefs have a large smooth leeward slope with coral heads on the sandy bottom. On the windward slope it is common to find a calcareous framework made from the remains of dead Acropora cervicornis; a small proportion (around 5 %) is alive. c) Nearshore. "La Blanca", "Bajito", "Polo" y "Chopas" are near the coast and have a poorly developed leeward slope with few small coral heads and boulders, with considerable cover of sponges. Sedimentation in these reefs is very high. (Lara et. al. 1992)


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D.3 Fringing Reefs These reefs are found near the sea shore. Three of them are near the Port of Veracruz: "Punta Gorda" to the north, "Hornos" in front of the port and "Punta Mocambo" to the south. The only fringing reef in Antón Lizardo is "El Giote". The main feature of these reefs are the very low scleractinian coverage and a maximum depth of 6-12 m with large amounts of deposited and suspended sediment. (Lara et. al. 1992)

3.4.3 Coral Reefs and Communities of the Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank. The Wider Caribbean lacks and extensive shallow continental shelf, except off the north and western portions of the Yucatan Peninsula. The Campeche Bank, is an underwater extension of the Yucatan Peninsula, which slopes gradually northwards for about 200 km and descends abruptly into the Sigsbee Deep. The Gulf of Mexico is basically an area of terrigenous sedimentation, but scattered reef growth is found off Mexico and there are relict coral and algal mounds over much of the shelf. (UNEP/IUCN 1988) (Map 10). The Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank coral reefs and communities were geographically grouped using the Biophysical Coastal and Marine Classification System (Neritic Provinces in this document) proposed by Carlton Ray et al. (1994), the open ocean and marginal seas realms (Oceanic Provinces in this document) adapted by Carlton Ray et al. from Dietrich (1963), modified and detailed (proposed Subprovinces) by Bezaury et al. (1996), as follows: Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank Reefs (Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province) (Campeche Bank, Campechean and Yucatan Neritic Subprovinces) E. Outer Campeche Bank Reefs and Coral Communities (Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province) (Campeche Bank Neritic Subprovince) E.1 Cayo Arcas and associated shallows E.2 Bancos Obispo E.3 Banco Nuevo E.4 Bancos Pera and Perlas E.5 Arrecife Triángulos and Cd. Condal E.6 Banco Ingles E.7 Banco y Cayo Nuevo E.8 Cayo Arenas E.9 Arrecife Alacranes E.10 Bajos del Norte E.11 Bajo Granville E.12 Unnamed outer banks E.13 Eastern banks F. Inner Campeche Bank Reefs and Coral Communities (Gulf of Mexico Neritic Province) (Campechean Neritic Subprovince) F.1 Unnamed Campechean inner banks (Yucatan Neritic Subprovince) F.2 Bajos Serpiente, Madagascar and Sisal F.3 Bajo Pawashik F.4 Roca Ifigenia F.5 Bajo Antonieta F.6 Unnamed Yucatecan inner banks F.7 Laguna Yalahau Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Map 10


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General Characteristics and Distribution Campeche Bank reefs present ecological and morphological characteristics that distinguish them from the coral reefs of the Caribbean Basin, although their fauna is similar (Ferré D'Amaré 1995). Both emerged and submerged reefs are present, but all of them are platforms growing as incomplete cones, arising from a pre-Holocene base located at 50-60 m in depth (Ferré D'Amaré 1995, Jordán 1993). Emerged reefs represent growth from the postHolocene that reaches the water's surface. According to Neumann and Macintyre (Jordán 1993), submerged reefs did not develop a growth rate that enabled them to keep up with the rise of the sea level; therefore they remain 10 to 15 m below the surface and are colonized by species common to these depths (Jordán op. cit.). The Holocene portions of the Campeche Bank reefs are growing atop submarine prominences that rise to 30 - 35 m, which in turn bulge from a submarine terrace that lies at 50 - 60 m. The Ingleses, Obispo, and Triángulos groups are knolls or simple reef walls having very steep sides and small reef flats. These knolls and walls are oriented to the north-east, facing the prevalent winds and waves. These structures are quite small, the longest wall measuring less than 3 km. The Arenas and Arcas groups are both formed by three crescent-shaped reef walls with large leeward clastic sediment drapes. They have wider reef flats and, in some cases, sandy cays with vegetation. There is no noticeable active leeward coralline growth. These reefs are also quite small, the length of their long axis being less than 3 km. The zonation pattern of the windward side is basically the same for all Campeche Bank reefs. If hard substrate is available, a moderate to low density community composed chiefly of Agaricia agaricites, Montastrea sp., and Solenastrea sp., together with some Lithothamnium, will be present from about 35 m (the lower limit of coral growth in the Bank) up to about 20 m. From 20 m to about 10 m a community composed mainly of Diploria sp., Montastrea sp., and Porites astreoides is dominant. This is in turn substituted by a dense growth of Acropora palmata which with live hermatypic coverage as high as 75% (Farrell et al. cited in Ferre D'Amare 1985) dominates, together with Millepora sp. to 2- 3m. From there to just beneath the crest, the zoanthids Palythoa caribaeorum and Zoanthus sociatus are the dominant organisms. In most of the reefs, a spur and groove structure up to 6m relief is present in the A. palmata zone, sometimes extending seawards from here. Above the zoanthid zone exists the reef crest which is composed of unconsolidated coral debris cemented in places with calcified algae. This area is, in general, barely awash at low tide, and its width varies with the size of the reef, from a few dozen meters to more than a 100m around the Alacran Reef (Kornicker et al., Bonet, Logan, Farrell et al., cited in Ferre D'Amare 1985). Bank reefs have a reef flat community which may be quite diverse, being composed chiefly of Diploria spp., Montastrea spp., Acropora spp., Agaricia spp., and Porites spp., or a monospecific stand of A. cervicornis several hundred meters wide (Farrell et al., cited in Ferre D'Amare 1985). In Alacran Reef, the barren crest ends in the "sand cliff" where the bottom dips abruptly for as much as 10 15 m. Beyond this, a variety of coalescent patch reefs exist (in Alacran) having a faunal composition similar to that of the reef flat of the smaller reefs, as well as dense patches of the Thalassia-Halimeda community, which is absent on the smaller reefs (Kornicker and Boyd, cited in Ferre D'Amare 1985). The leeward edge of Alacran Reef seems to be an aggregate of anastomized patch reefs which exhibit a zonation similar to that of the windward side, but compressed vertically and horizontally. Twenty to twenty-five hermatypic species are thought to exist in the Campeche Bank reefs (Farrell et al. cited in Ferre D'Amare 1995). Radiocarbon study of the upper part of a core hole practiced in Pérez Island, one of the sand cayes of Alacran, has shown that the reef has a Holocene growth, in that section, of 33.5 m, with deposition rates of as much as 12m/1000yr. This high rate of growth is attributed to the presence of A. cervicornis in a protected environment to the lee of the reef crest. This shows that the lagoon was a zone of very active growth and not merely a place of windward reef derived debris deposition (Macintyre et al.; cited in Ferre D'Amare 1985). Bonet (cited in FerreD'Amare 1985) has shown through examination of the same perforation that the submarine mound (beyond 33.5 m) on which the Holocene growth is taking place is preholocene reef environment also dominated by A. cervicornis. This extends to a depth of 50 - 60 m, at which level lies the shelf terrace. Although this information was gathered from only one perforation, it is tempting to apply it to all the other reefs and subreef mounds in the Campeche Bank. (Ferre D'Amare 1985) Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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There is an abundance of submerged banks on the Yucatan and Campeche platform, some of them of a considerable extension such as Banco Nuevo, Pera and Ingleses. Their origin has not been determined, but their distribution pattern suggests that they are preholocene reef structures, similar to the emerged banks. In this case, they are probably coral communities that were not able to keep up a growth rate, fast enough to compensate the rise of the sea level during the Holocene transgression, and/or were unable to reach the surface afterwards, when the rate of sea level rising was reduced (Nuemann et al. cited in Jordán, 1993). (Jordán 1993)

E. Outer Campeche Bank Reefs E.1 Cayo Arcas and associated shallows A platform like reef located at 20o 12' 46" N and 91o 58' 09" W, that is 2.63 km in length and 1.54 km in width, its longest axis runs in a NW-SE direction made up of three cays: the East, West and South Cays. (Carricart and Horta 1993). The group consists of three sand cays and an elongated 3 km long reef flat, that surrounds a sandy semilagoon on the west side of the main cay. There was a dense coverage of Acropora cervicornis (Farrell et al. cited in Chávez et al. 1985) which has now disappeared, apparently as a result of human activities related to the oil industry. The zonation at the front reef shows that the zoanthids Palythoa caribaeorum and Zoanthus sociatus are dominant between 1 and 3 m; then Acropora palmata prevails between 3 and 7 m; Montastrea annularis and Diploria strigosa, plus octocorals, are characteristic from 7 through 18 m followed by a sandy slope occupying the lower level (Farrel et al. cited in Chávez et al. 1985).

E.2 Bancos Obispo Located at 20°13.02' N and 90°00.08' W (Torruco 1997). This reef system is formed by plain walls or by walls fusing with inclining exterior slopes. The backreef is quite narrow, reaching depths of 50 m within a very confined space. The reef walls face southeast to northeast with the narrow portion facing windward. The reefs are relatively small; the longest wall is less than 3 km in length (Ferre D'Amaré 1995).

E.3 Banco Nuevo A submerged reef, located close to the continent at 20°32.37' N and 91°54.07' W (Jordán 1993). Its origin, like many others of the Campeche Bank is unknown (Sosa-Cordero 1997). Although Torruco et al. (1997) confirms its wide expanse and a depth of 20 to 46 m in depth, Jordán (1993) states that at a depth of 43 m it rises to 39 and 14 m. From 30-40 m to 20-25 m, one finds a moderately dense community dominated by Agaricia agaricites and Montastrea sp., along with calcareous algae of the genus Lithothanium. From this point onto the 10 m depth range, one finds a community composed principally of Montastrea sp., Porites astreoides, Diploria sp. and hydrocorals of the genus Millepora. The dominant species of the area are the Palythoa caribaeorum and Zoanthus sociatus sea anemone colonies. Differentiated reef crests are not present in the bank. (Torruco et al. 1997)

E.4 Bancos Pera y Perlas Banco Pera is located at 20°41' N and 92°15' W (Jordán 1993). It is very similar to Banco Nuevo in zonation and species characterizations (Torruco et al. 1997). The base of its platform is at 44 m in and its top somewhere between 25 and 16 m in depth (Jordán, 1993). To date, its origin has not been determined (Sosa-Cordero 1997). Banco Perlas appears only at the Gulf of Mexico Bathymetric Chart - CB 003 INEGI (1:1,000,000 scale), along with Banco Pera and no further information was found.

E.5 Arrecife Triángulos y Cd. Condal Arrecife Triángulos is a complex of three coral reefs no more than 1000 m from each other. Triángulos West is the result of the fusion of two smaller joined at their NE end; leaving a channel 15 m deep on its dead end and deeper at the mouth. A reef flat occupies the top of the reef, at 0.5 m depth leading to a slope towards the outer margins. Some patches of coral heads grow several meters above the bottom of the channel. The reef flat on the top is Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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occupied by P. caribaeorum where it becomes dominant using dead remains of A. palmata as a substratum. Looking at the side walls of the channel, it is evident that the growth of A. palmata colonies started at least 8 m below the sea level and their branches anastomized and luxuriously developed up to the surface. Changes of the sea level in the recent geological history may be responsible for the death of these organisms, leading to the secondary formations like those already mentioned. On the leeward side of the reef, extensive areas of naked hard substratum are noticeable between 5 and 15 m deep. (Chávez et al. 1985) Triángulos Oeste. A platform like reef located 20° 57' 00" N and 92° 14' 00" W. It is 656 m in length and 300 m in width, its longest axis runs in a NW-SE direction. In the Southern end a small caye is present. Triángulos Este. A platformlike reef located at 20°55 00" N and 92° 12' 43" W. It has 2.37 km in length and 547 m in width, its longest axis runs in a NE-SW direction. In the Southeastern side a small caye is present. Triángulos Sur. A platformlike reef located at 20° 54' 00" N and 92° 14' 00" W. It has 2 km in length and 1 km in width, its longest axis runs in a NE-SW direction with no emerging parts. (Carricart and Horta 1993)

E.6 Banco Ingles Located at 21° 46' 78" N and 91° 56' 97" W. (Torruco 1997). Like Banco Obispo, this reef system is formed by plain walls or by walls fusing with steeply inclining exterior slopes and a narrow backreef (Ferré D'Amare 1995) reaching 43 m in depth at a short distance (Torruco 1997). Jordán (1993) indicates that the base of the platform is at 63 m depth, and its top somewhere between 25 and 2 m.

E.7 Banco y Cayo Nuevo Located at 21° 50' N and 92° 03' W (Jordán, 1993). This well-developed reef (Chávez 1994), of unknown origin, reaches tens of meters above the seafloor over a considerable expanse (Sosa-Cordero 1997). The base platform is at 54 m in depth and the top at 20 m (Jordán 1993). It has two cays, one in the east and one in the west, formed by coral remnants with sparse portions of sand. The east cay, the smallest one, is 30 m in length, 5 m in width and 1.3 m in above the water. The cay to the west where vegetation is becoming established is also 1.3 m above water with an emerged area of 651 m2, four times larger than the cay to the east. (Torruco et al. 1997)

E.8 Cayo Arenas A platform like reef located at 22° 07' 09" N and 91° 24' 18"W. It is 972 m in length and 729 m in width, its longest axis runs in a NW-SE direction. In the Southeastern side a small cay is present (Carricart and Horta 1993). The development of the front reef leaves a semi lagoon widely opened on the west side. Near the SE end there is an island, covered by large blocks of dead coral washed ashore from the reef, probably as a result of some hurricane. The beaches of the island are sandy on the lee margin and are covered by gravel on the windward side, where a 100 m wide terrace 0.5 m to 1.0 m below the sea level leads to a 10 m spur and groove step oriented towards the northeast. A second terrace at 1012 m depth is covered with soft sediment and coral heads. The front reef extends about 700 m north westward and westward from the cay forming a semi lagoon with a depth of about 9 m at its opening; the bottom of the lagoon has some red algae and a few coral heads (Chávez et al. 1985).

E.9 Arrecife Alacranes Located 130 km from Progreso, this atoll is the reef located furthest north in the Bank of Campeche. It comprises five islands. Pérez, Chica and Pájaros are located in southern region; Desertora runs SW and Desterrada runs NW. Due to storms and wind changes, formation varies from island to island (Kornicker et al. 1959). Of all the islands, Pérez, located at 22° 23' 30" N and 89° 41' 48" W, is the largest and most important (Carricart and Horta 1993).


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Alacranes reef has been the site of several geologically oriented studies: Kornicker et al. 1959; Kornicker and Boyd 1962, Folk and Robles 1964, Bonet 1967, Logan et al. 1969, Macintyre et al. 1977 (cited in FerreD'Amare 1985). The axes of oval shaped reef measure ca. 11 and 22 km, the reef being elongated to the northwest. (Ferre D'Amare 1985) Physiographically, Alacranes Reef has a windward reef on its east side, a not well developed leeward discontinuous reef on the southwestern side, and a lagoon divided into three areas: one about 8 m deep near the west margin, another east of Isla Pérez (the deepest part), and the remaining one, where ridges of coral give a cellular pattern. Coral patches emerge 23 m on the first two sections. The outer slope of the reef is heterogeneous, with the presence of a spur and groove zone along the east ridge below a 10 m depth. The slope is abrupt from the upper ridge to 3035 m depth where it forms a terrace and leads into the sandy sediment of the Campeche Bank. Amongst the main biotopes easy to identify are coral patches in the open west lagoon as well as on the slopes of the cells at the eastern lagoon, sandy flat areas and Thalassia beds. (Chávez et al. 1985).

E.10 Bajos del Norte These shallows have not been extensively described. They are mentioned in studies by Chávez and Hidalgo (1988), Jordán (1993) and Chávez (1994). They are located at 23° 29' N and 88° 45' W, their base being at a depth of 60 to 73 m and their tops at 33 m (Jordán 1993). Chávez (1994) classifies them as scarcely developed.

E.11 Bajo Granville A submerged bank located at 21° 55' N and 89° 19' W. Its base is located at 36 m. of depth and the top of the platform at 8 m below sea level (Jordán 1993). Chávez (1994) identified this as a very well developed reef.

E.12 Unnamed outer banks Various unnamed banks are present in the outer Campeche Bank, Jordan (1993) mentioning two of them, south of Bajos del Norte. The first one is located at 22° 46' N and 88° 24' W, its base at a depth of 16 m and the top of the platform 5 m below sea level. The second shallow area is located at 22° 21' N and 34' W, its base at 51 m, and its top 33 m below sea level (Jordán 1993).

E.13 Eastern banks The Eastern banks are a group of about 27 unnamed structures that are distributed east and north of the Yucatan Peninsula located between 21° 40' N, 86° 42' W and 24° 10' N, 89° W and following the 100 m depth contour. Chávez (1994) indicates a large are of scarce coral development west from these structures.

F. Inner Banks Campeche Bank There are numerous emerged and submerged banks located close to the Yucatan Peninsula's coast, colonized by somewhat abundant coral communities that support local fishing activities. These banks dominate the northern and eastern margins of the Yucatan Peninsula and are constructed in a similar fashion to the exterior bank reefs except that they have smaller dimensions (Jordán 1993). F.1 Unnamed Campechean inner banks Facing Isla Arenas and Los Petenes Reserve, a pair of shallows are present 30 - 40 km from the coast. Facing Isla Arenas the shallow is located at 20° 39' N and 90° 50' W, its base at a depth of 15 m and its top 10 m below sea level. The shallow in front of Los Petenes is located at 20° 26' N and 91° 01' W, its base at a depth of 16 m and its top 10 m below sea level (Jordán 1993).

F.2 Bajos Serpiente, Madagascar y Sisal These three named banks are grouped with other unnamed banks at the northwest corner of the Yucatan Península north of the port of Sisal. Location corrections on Jordán (1993), result in Bajo Serpiente being located at 21° 26' N and 90 °30' W, with its base at 27 m in depth and the top 8 m below sea level; Bajo Madagascar at


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21° 26' N and 90° 18' W with its base at 18 m and top 3 m below sea level and Bajo Sisal at 21° 20' N and 90° 09' W with its base at 12 m and its top 2 m below sea level.

F.3 Bajo Pawashik Located at 21° 31' N and 88° 47' W, with its base at 7 m in depth and the top at 3 m below sea level (Jordán 1993).

F.4 Roca Ifigenia Located at 21° 58' N and 88° 35' 30" W. Its base is located at 30 m in depth and the top 15 m below sea level (Jordán 1993).

F.5 Bajo Antonieta Located at 21° 36' N and 88° 18' W, with its base at 5 m in depth and the top 1 m below sea level (Jordán 1993).

F.6 Unnamed Yucatan inner banks Minor coral patches can be found in the Northern coast of Quintana Roo (Snedaker et al. 1991). According to the nautical maps (S.M. 800; S.M. 900; DMA-USA 28300) other small shallows are present close to the coast, and have not been named. The majority of which are located between Bajo Pawashick and the northeast corner of the Yucatan Peninsula.

F.7 Laguna Yalahau Small coral patch discovered in 1991 (Snedaker et al. 1991).

3.4.4 Coral Reefs and Coral Communities of the Mexican Caribbean On the east coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, reefs border the state of Quintana Roo. The coastline is notable for its lack of rivers, but numerous limestone sink holes or cenotes, result in an outflow of freshwater at various points. (UNEP/IUCN 1988) Recent studies have proven the existence of highly developed and extensive spur and grove systems in the central and southern coast. Cozumel Island and Banco Chinchorro (an atoll-like structure) present developed leeward reefs and highly developed windward reefs (Map 11). Based upon extensive surveys carried out by Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Caribbean Sea coral reefs and communities were geographically grouped using the Biophysical Coastal and Marine Classification System (Neritic Provinces in this document) proposed by Carlton Ray et al. (1994), the open ocean and marginal seas realms (Oceanic Provinces in this document) adapted by Carlton Ray et al. from Dietrich (1963), modified and detailed (proposed Subprovinces) by Bezaury et al. (1996), as follows: Caribbean Sea Reefs (Caribbean Neritic Province) (Caribbean Oceanic Province) G. Northern Quintana Roo Patch Reefs (Contoyan Neritic Subprovince) G.1 Contoy-Cancun Subregion H. Northern Quintana Roo Shallow Fringing Reefs (Cancunean Neritic Subprovince) H.1 Puerto Morelos Subregion H.2 Playa del Carmen Subregion Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Map11


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I. Southern Quintana Roo Deep Fringing Reefs (Sian Ka'anean Neritic Subprovince) I.1 Caletas Region I.2 Sian Ka'an North Region I.3 The Bays Region I.4 Sian Ka'an South Region I.5 Majahual Region I.6 Xcalak Trench Region J. Arrowsmith Bank (Caribbean Oceanic Province) J.1 Arrowsmith Region K. Isla Cozumel Reefs (Caribbean Oceanic Province) K.1 Leeward Cozumel Region K.2 Windward Cozumel Region K.3 Cozumel Shallows (Bajo) Region L. Chinchorro Bank (Caribbean Oceanic Province) L.1 Leeward Chinchorro Region L.2 Windward Chinchorro Region L.3 Chinchorro Reef Lagoon Region

General Characteristics and Distribution The State of Quintana Roo is located in the eastern part of the Yucatan Peninsula, in front of the Caribbean Sea. It comprises a linear coastal distance of approximately 375 km. There is an almost continuous reef bordering the whole coast, already recognized as a fringing reef by Darwin in 1842. The Yucatan Peninsula and its broad shelf form a great limestone platform that extends northward into the Gulf of Mexico. The Caribbean shelf on the eastern margin of the Peninsula is very narrow, in many places less than 2 km wide. (Gutiérrez et al. cited in Gutierrez-Carbonell and García 1996). Currents are the coral larvae's means of dispersal; therefore, water characteristics are considered very important for understanding reef development (Levinton cited in Gutierrez-Carbonell and García, 1996). There are at least seven water masses in the Caribbean (Merino cited in Gutierrez-Carbonell and García, 1996), but it seems that only the upper mass has influence over the coral growth area, since it occupies the upper 150 m of the water column. (Merino 1992). The uniformity of species present along the entire Caribbean may be explained by this in a meso-scale process. The Caribbean area is subject to east-northeast trade winds throughout most of the year (Milliman, Burke, cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell and García 1996). Wind stress is the primary energy source for surface currents. Currents are rather large scale and this component of ocean circulation that has strong influence on distribution of biomass over very long distances (Andrews and Pickard cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell and García 1996). High turbidity and sedimentation rates strongly inhibit reef growth. Turbidity increases light attenuation and thereby decreases photosynthesis by zooxanthellae. In general high sedimentation rate is an explanation of the absence or paucity of coral reefs, water turbidity is probably as important as sea temperature in the distribution of reefs (Mann cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). Storms and other major physical disturbances are important sources of change in coral reef communities, and can result in the destruction of reef organisms, (Milliman, Levinton, cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). Hurricanes are a common occurrence throughout much of the Caribbean (Rogers et al., cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Major topographic elements identified are 1) A wide platform starting in Punta Maroma through the northeast 2) Cozumel Island 3) The large Bays; Ascension and Espíritu Santo 4) The Xcalak Trench and 5) Chinchorro Bank. The Quintana Roo shelf can be divided into two major areas, using Punta Maroma as a reference point. Southward, the shelf is a narrow platform with a sharp slope. Northward, the platform starts widening. This contrast helps explain differences in reef development. The reef profile is interrupted by well-developed wave-cut terraces well at about 910 m (Ward and Wilson, cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). Fore edges described in this paper mostly develop in the first terrace where environmental conditions are severe, although it is more likely to associate fore edge buttress-like reefs with erosional rather than accretional origin. Upon reaching the Yucatan Peninsula, the presence of Cozumel Island modifies the Caribbean Current to form the Yucatan Current. South of Cozumel part of it is funneled into the channel accelerating the speed up to 4 knots (Merino cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). The current's speed is assumed to influence sedimentation rates and possible coral larvae settlements, particularly in the Playa del Carmen Subregion. Ascension and Espíritu Santo are twin bays, which resulted from extensive normal faulting. The age of faulting is considered to be Tertiary (Ward et al. cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). According to López Ramos (cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992) Quintana Roo belongs to two physiographic regions; The Northern Pitted Karst Plain fringed by barrier beaches and dune, developing from Cancun to Tulum; and the Eastern Block-Fault District that extends from Tulum to Belize. The bays along with Chunyaxche Lagoon represent the northward extension of the Eastern Block-Fault. The geological characteristics and hydrological dynamics outside the bays are different from the rest of the coast; therefore reef development in this subregion can be explained with these bases. There is no geological information about the Xcalak Trench, but there may be some similarities with the Belizean reefs that develop southward to an almost continuous barrier down to Honduras. MacIntyre (cited in GutiérrezCarbonell 1992) studies, dealing with shelf-edge ridges, indicates the existence of two hypothesis, the first one speculates that they are late Holocene relic shallow water reefs, in contrast to the second one proposed by Burke (cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992), that points out that ridges along the barrier reef complex are restricted to areas protected from long period storm waves by the outlying atolls. To this respect, northeast of the Xcalak Trench an atoll shaped reef, Chinchorro Bank is located, allowing for certain amount of protection. Chinchorro Bank is a coral reef complex located 30 km off Quintana Roo's south coast. It has an area of 800 km2 mainly composed by a sandy bank. It is 46 km in length and 15 km in width. The general morphology of the reef structures on the windward margin of the atoll are greatly influenced by the depth of the subjacent substrate and the presence of an extensive and gently dipping platform; this platform is not found on other western Caribbean atolls (Jordan y Martin cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). The main environmental factors identified for the Mexican Caribbean reefs are 1) Marine currents and local counter-currents, predominant winds and wave forces 2) Sedimentation rates and nature of sediments 3) Freshwater input in certain places 4) The Yucatan Upwelling and 5) Hurricane incidence. Merino (cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992) made a very specific study along the Yucatan Current that showed the existence of nearshore counter-currents along the entire coast that might have particular implications for reef development. Furthermore he proposed the presence of small eddies between rocky points where objects are trapped for a period of time moving northward and then southward and so on, until the drifter finally reaches the coast. For coral larvae caught in these eddies this might imply traveling distances from few meters or many kilometers in a microscale process. Marine water and its currents affect distribution of sediments, either by transport or by erosion. Sedimentation rates are related to a reef profile as quoted by Ward et al. (cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992), that points out of the area where the narrow continental shelf begins to broaden there is a dramatic change in the sedimentation regime of the 10 m platform.


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The entire Quintana Roo State is a karstic surface. Rainwater rapidly infiltrates the porous carbonate rock. Consequently, there are almost no surface streams in all of the Yucatan Peninsula, instead there is a large quantity of sinkholes and underground rivers. All discharge of this region occurs in the coastal and nearshore areas as underwater springs, with the exception of Sian Ka'an. The fractures act as conduits for the mixing of fresh groundwater and marine water. This results in an undersaturated calcite solution that causes maximum dissolution of limestone. Thus maximum fracture density of the Eastern Block-Fault District, is closely related to high incidence of "caletas" (Back et al., Weidie, cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). Another environmental feature that affects the northern and northeastern Yucatan Peninsula is the Yucatan Upwelling which has a dominant influence around the northeastern corner at Cabo Catoche, and could have some influence in its transition zone down to Puerto Morelos. The upwelling has a seasonal cycle, rising from the deep layers of the sea entering the photic zone but not reaching the ocean surface, hence it has a relevant fertilizing effect over water masses (Merino cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell D. 1992). The Yucatan Peninsula is largely affected by hurricanes. There were 31 storms or hurricanes that hit the Mexican Caribbean between 1960 and 1988, most of them concentrated in two parts; south near the Belizean border; and between Cozumel and the Yucatan Channel, leaving the central part free of hurricanes for that period. In Mexico, Jordan (cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992) reported the damages produced by Hurricane Allen to the reef and widely discussed the role of hurricanes on reef development, proposing that the low reef development in Quintana Roo might be a consequence of environmental severity, and the high frequency of storms and hurricanes in the region might help to regulate reef development. Roberts et al. (1985) reported that wave force declined with depth, but force attributed to currents increased at depths of 36 m or more. The sum of both provided a bimodal pattern with a minimum of about 10 m. These conditions resulted in the following characteristics of the Mexican Caribbean reef system: The incline of the reef slope creates a more severe shallow environment north of Punta Maroma, limiting reef development and promoting higher sedimentation rates. Southern fore reefs up to Puerto Aventuras develop where the most stable conditions prevail, allowing accretion over long periods. The spur and groove systems seem to have had vigorous accretion processes and do not originated from erosion processes; in particular below 20m. Cozumel Island influences current conditions, hence its presence determines the lack of constructional spurs north of Puerto Aventuras. Most of the Quintana Roo Fore Edges lie on the 810 m terrace, colonized by a coral community, but environmental severity in the shallows might not allow reef accretion to be very large in size. Chinchorro's shadow allows high coral reef development adjacent to the mainland, from Xcalak to Bacalar Chico, allowing the development of the Xcalak Trench. Reef Zonation Three structural coral reef zones were identified according to previous studies that already described Quintana Roo's coral reef zonation's main characteristics: Lagoon, Reef Crest and Fore Reef (Jordan, Padilla et al., cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell 1992). Lagoon The presence of this zone is closely associated with a breaker zone, which provides protection and therefore calms the waters. It can be very wide (to more than 3 km) and up to 8 m deep, such as in the Bays Subregion. It Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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can be very narrow and shallow as in the Majahual Subregion, where the back reef develops almost to the coast and it can be almost or completely absent from the rocky shores as in the Caletas Subregion. Reef Crest Within the reef crest it is possible to identify the back reef, the breaker zone and the fore edge. Back reef characteristics are determined by the degrees of development of the breaker zone; thus it can be very wide and cover a large area between the breakers and the beach, such as in the Puerto Morelos Subregion; it can be quite narrow like in the Sian Ka'an South Subregion, or almost absent like in the Playa del Carmen Subregion. The presence of a breaker zone is strongly related to the severity of environmental conditions for each subregion. This zone is more exposed to winds, currents and nearby freshwater discharges. It can develop as a barrier-shape or bank such as in the Xcalak Trench Subregion; it can be faint or very shallow as in the Sian Ka'an North Subregion, or it can be absent or almost absent like in the Playa del Carmen Subregion. Although the fore edge is quite diverse along the coast, most of it was recorded as a limestone terrace that drops to 810 meters. Seawards, a sand channel running parallel to the coast can often be found. The terrace can be an almost flat rock, where a few coral colonies grow such as in the Puerto Morelos Subregion; or it can show low relief and wide spurs (2 m high) as in the Bays Subregion. The fore edge can be eroded, showing an interdigitating pattern resembling spurs and grooves such as in the Sian Ka'an North Subregion; or it can show a mixture of coral formations between those that grow over the terrace and those that are relatively close to the terrace, but show an active coral growth. Their shape seems to be constructional as in the Majahual Subregion. The fore edge is one of the reef zones with higher diversity, where the colonies tend to be small with no apparent dominating species. Several of the features listed as factors that influence reef development are associated with this zone, being as many scenarios as subregions. Fore Reef Quintana Roo fore reefs may be divided into two large groups; to the north of and south from Puerto Aventuras. Northern subregions lack a fore reef, except at the northernmost section of the Puerto Morelos Subregion, where a not very well developed fore reef was identified. The morphology of southern subregions, present spurs 2 to 12 m thick in the fore reef zone. The presence of spurs in southern subregions is more or less continuous from Puerto Aventuras down to Bacalar Chico. It is possible to identify the inner fore reef, the outer fore reef, the deep fore reef and the shelf edge reef. The deep fore reef was found only in some subregions. Because of divetime limitations the shelf edge reef was only surveyed in the Caletas Subregion. The fore reef develops in strips parallel to the coast. Most of the time the spur and groove strips are divided by sand channels that also develop parallel to the coast. Many times there is a mixture and not a clear distinction between the fore edge and the inner fore reef, developing continuous spur and groove systems from 68 m to 3545 m depth. The inner fore reef develops in depths ranging from 6 to 25 m, the outer fore reef develops in depths ranging from 15 to 40 m, the deep fore reef develops in depths ranging from 35 to 50 m, and the shelf edge reef develops at the wall. The inner fore reef showed an average coral coverage of around 30%. It develops buttresses up to 7 m high and up to 30-45 m long, 410 m wide. The outer fore reef showed an average coral coverage around 35%, some very rich subregions such as Caletas and Sian Ka'an North reached up to 45% on average and developed buttresses up to 12 m high, 75100 m long and 2030 m wide. The deep fore reef showed huge buttresses that were not measured, with an average coral cover above 50%.

Regionalization The entire Quintana Roo reef system presents great variability in each geographical area, due to different morphology and development degrees, therefore, 19 subregions were identified and characterized. Within each of these subregions, the topographic features as well as the coral communities are more or less uniform. The main criteria used to define subregions were: the presence or absence of buttresses on the fore reef, the presence or Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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absence of a breaker zone, the fore reef's degree of development based on the size of spurs and the presence or absence of trenches. Table 8 summarizes general descriptions for each subregion. Table 8. Region

Subregion

CONTOYAN

1. ContoyCancun

CANCUNEAN

2. Puerto Morelos

3.Playa del Carmen

SIANKA’ANEAN 4. Caletas

5. Sian Ka'an North

6. The Bays

7. Sian Ka'an South

8. Majahual

9. Xcalak Trench

OCEANIC

10. Arrowsmith 11. Cozumel Leeward

12. Cozumel Windward 13. Bajo Cozumel

Latitudinal Main features, coral cover and Length Lagoon and Spurs at Range number of species present (km) breaker zone Fore Edge 21°32' to Wide shelf, influence from 47 Absent Absent 21°02'18.9" upwelling. Only patch reefs. Coral cover unknown, 27 species 21°02'18.9" Wide shelf, the most smooth 50 Very Low and to 20°43' shelf slope of all subregions, developed, not well very wide lagoon, some barrier shaped defined influence from the upwelling. Coral cover 25.82%, 39 species 20°43' to Medium shelf, medium slope 25 Almost absent Absent 20°30' with strong currents, Cozumel Island influence, lagoon almost absent. Coral cover 13.07%, 37 species 20°30' to Narrow shelf, steep slope with 30 Present only Present 20°08' the greatest freshwater influence at the mouths but in the shallow reef crest. Rocky of inlets irregular shores, short back reefs and lagoons mostly at the inlets. Coral cover 35.02%, 45 species. 20°08' to Narrow shelf, steep slope, 45 Well Present, 19°46' medium freshwater input, developed well medium to narrow lagoons. marked Coral cover 24.6%, 42 species terrace 19°46' to Probable large influence of tidal 55 Well Well 19°13' brackish water, medium slope, developed, defined, wide shelf and the wider lagoon barrier very wide of all subregions. Coral cover shaped, but but low 14.68%, 38 species not continuos. 19°13' to Narrow shelf, steep slope, 55 Irregular Low 18°43'40" narrow reef crest, presence of deep and very deep spurs. Coral cover 22.41%, 41 species 18°43'40" Narrow shelf, under slight 50 Well Low and to 18°16' influence of Chinchorro's developed, irregular shadow. Back reef developing barrier shaped at north; almost to the beach, terraces well well marked. Coral cover develope 27.53%, 46 species d at south 18°16' to Presence of the Xcalak trench 11 Well Well 18°10'30" allows the develop of twin reef developed, develope crest and fore reefs, under some barrier shaped d influence of Chinchorro's shadow. Coral cover 24.41%, 33 species present. 21°17'15" Platform submerged reef, strong Not Absent ? to currents. Coral cover and Apply 20°51'00" species number unknown. 20°34' to Narrow shelf, steep slope, 40 Absent Absent 20°15'29" presence of reef patches and edge reef at the south. Coral cover 10.71%, 41 species. 20°35'20" Wide shelf, generally low 45 Absent Generally to development at shallow zones. absent 20°15'29" Coral cover 18.91%, 43 species. 20°35'20" Wide shelf, presence of isolated 16 Absent Absent to 20°34' big coral heads, with a coral cover of 15.18%, 19 species.


Spurs at Development Fore Reef Absent

Low

Absent

Medium

Absent

Low

Generally High highly developed

Generally High highly developed Deep Medium developed only

Deep Medium developed only Generally High highly developed

Well High developed at the twin zonation

?

?

Well Medium developed at the edge reef. Generally Medium deep developed Absent Low

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14. Chinchorro Leeward 15. Chinchorro Windward 16. Chinchorro Lagoon

18°23'16" Narrow shelf, steep slope, low 43 to relief spurs at southern point. At 18°46'11"* center, two edge reef developed.. 18°23'16" Wide shelf, high coral cover at 43 to fore edge. 18°46'11"* 18°23'16" Very wide, it presents a long 43 to trench in the south. 18°46'11"*

Irregular Absent breaker zone. Lagoon well developed. Well Very well developed develope d Well Not Apply developed

Low relief at south. Absent al center. Low relief

Medium

High

Not Apply High

General Description of the Mexican Caribbean Subregions G. Northern Quintana Roo Patch Reefs Reef patches are found in Mujeres Bay (Manchones, Cuevones, Chital, etc.) south of Isla Contoy (Islaché Grande and Islaché Chico). They are generally small with high coral coverage, except those that have been impacted by touristic activities.

G.1 Contoy-Cancun Subregion Isla Contoy does not present reef development; limestone substrata is covered by algae and sandy bottoms are covered with sea grasses. Scleractinians are present in small and dispersed colonies; total cover is less than 10% (Lara et al. 1993). South of Contoy a fringing reef called Islaché is present; it has a back reef with massive growths of Montastrea annularis and Acropora palmata, with high coral diversity but low coverage (Lara et al. op. cit.). Between Punta Cancun and Isla Mujeres, coral development is scarce, with some Acropora palmata patches damaged by hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Intensive touristic activities take place in this area, but there are still some small zones in good shape. At Isla Mujeres, two patches of A. palmata and M. annularis, that reach 5m in height and are about 400m long (Manchones), have also been impacted by tourism. Other patches like El Garrafón have been completely destroyed. At Punta Cancun, scleractinian corals are established on the edge of limestone steps (probably ancient coast lines) at a depth of 12 to 18 meters. Some patches of Montastrea annularis and Acropora palmata and extensive gorgonian flats can be found in their vicinity.

H. Northern Quintana Roo Shallow Fringing Reefs From Punta Nizuc to Puerto Aventuras, a discontinuous fringing reef develops over on the shallow areas of a wide platform, that narrows south of Punta Maroma. H.1 Puerto Morelos Subregion Located from Punta Nizuc (21o 02' 19" N, 86o 46' 45" W) to Punta Maroma (20o 42' N, 86o 59' W). Its main characteristic is the presence of well-developed barrier shaped breakers and wide lagoons; at Punta Nizuc there is a spur and groove system with very low relief development, which eventually disappears; the reef crest ends at this point. Results show, that the smooth slope is one of the likely main factors that limit coral reef development, combined with some other factors such as tropical storms, hurricanes and slight influences from the Yucatan Upwelling that makes this area an area of high environmental severity. This subregion seems to be partially protected from the strong currents inside the Cozumel Channel allowing the presence of a well-developed shadow reef Crest, an argument that likely lead Jordan (1989) to conclude that the Barrier reef of Quintana Roo has an atypical configuration, however this seems to be applicable only for this area.


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H.2 Playa del Carmen Subregion Located from Punta Bete (20° 41' N, 87° 00' W) to Puerto Aventuras (20° 30' N, 87° 13' W). Its main characteristic is a short reef crest colonized by small coral colonies. In front of Playa del Carmen sand accumulation is noticeable. Additionally, there is always a strong current that increases during the summer, limiting possibilities for coral larvae to colonize the area. When available, substrate is occupied by sponges and sea fans. It is interesting to note the development of wide fine algal strips parallel to the coast at the same depths that reef formations should do. The strength and direction of the Yucatan current affects the topography on the shelf and strongly influences the distribution of sediments, scouring the bottom in some places and piling up dunes. This is the case of Punta Maroma where a series or ridges are clearly manifested. I. Southern Quintana Roo Deep Fringing Reefs South from Puerto Aventuras to Xcalak, on the border with Belize, and down to the tip of Ambergris Cay, Belize, deep and highly developed fringing reefs are present on a very narrow platform. I.1 Caletas Subregion Located from Puerto Aventuras (20° 30'N, 87° 13'W) to Tankah (20° 14'N, 87° 23'W). Its main characteristics are: rocky shores, the presence of a reef crests only between rocky points protecting lagoons and beaches, inputs of freshwater close to the shore, the steepness of the slope and the development of an important spur and groove system without a well-developed reef crest. It can be assumed that the serrated coast south from Playa del Carmen to Tulum is the result of a meso-scale process of limestone dissolution that also causes the paucity of a well-developed breaker zone in reefs of this area. In fact there are great underground river complexes close to the shore, such as the Carwash and Naharon systems explored by Akumal divers at depths of 2500 and 4900m, respectively.

I.2 Sian Ka'an North Subregion Located from Tankah (20° 14' N, 87° 23' W) to Punta Xohken (19° 50' N, 87° 25' W). Its main characteristics are: the presence of a lagoon complex behind the barrier island that configures the coast, a directional change of the coast from NE to SW an almost N-S direction, the presence of well-developed reef zones along the entire reef including the deep fore reef, and a spur and groove system with buttresses more than 12 m thick.

I.3 The Bays Subregion Located from Punta Xohken (19° 50' N, 87° 25' W) to Punta X-Kanab Haltun (19° 17' N, 87° 27' W). The bays are large shallow bodies with an 25 km mouth opening to the Caribbean. The bays are protected by a line of barrier shaped breakers that produce relatively calm waters. The shelf is wider at the mouths and displays a mosaic of coral reef development containing: areas with thick buttresses, places where buttresses are almost absent or short, very wide and covered almost completely by Agaricia tenuifolia and places where only deep buttresses are present.

I.4 Sian Ka'an South Subregion Located from Punta X-Kanab Haltun (19° 17' N, 87° 27' W) to Punta Rio Indio (18° 46' N, 87° 39' W). Its main characteristics are: all reef zones are well developed particularly in areas of great depth, including a deep fore reef. New species were recorded from this subregion to the south, including: Agaricia grahamae, Porites colonensis and Oculina robusta.

I.5 Majahual Subregion Located from Punta Rio Indio (18° 46' N, 87° 39' W) to Xcalak (18° 16' N, 87° 49' W). It presents a mosaic of welldeveloped reef formations with large sandy areas between them. It receives protection from the prevailing winds from Chinchorro's shadow (Burke cited in Gutiérrez-Carbonell and García 1996). Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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I.6 Xcalak Trench Subregion This subregion starts 1 km south of Xcalak (18° 16' N, 87° 49' W) entering 2 km into Belize where it is called Sandy Valley. This underwater trench drops to a depht of 38 to 43 m, being 100 to 500 m wide. This feature is unique for the Mexican Caribbean. As a result of the trench, a similar zonation pattern is observed on both sides of the trench. High relief and well developed reef zones are observed. According to Burke (cited in GutierrezCarbonell, 1996) this subregion is influenced by Chinchorro's shadow, which provides some protection from the prevailing winds and allows for constant reef development. This suggests that the ridges are active accumulations of the rapidly growing coral, Acropora cervicornis.

J. Arrowsmith Bank Arrowsmith Bank is considered to be a submerged platform (Lara, pers. comm.), although Jordán (1993) affirms that it is somewhat risky to consider it a reef on the basis that little is known about the zone. J.1 Arrowsmith Subregion Due to the strong currents, this area, located next to the Yucatan Channel has scarcely been prospected or studied. Cairns (cited in Horta-Carricart 1993) lists a number of deep water Scleractinia and Stylasterina for the area.

K. Isla Cozumel Reefs K.1 Leeward Cozumel Subregion The leeward side of Cozumel Island extends from Punta Celarain (20° 15' 29" N and 87° 00' 07" W) to Punta Norte. Its main characteristic is a narrow stretch of sand 500 to 1000 m wide, originating from the beach and gradually descending to a depth of 18 to 21 m to the shelf edge that drops to around 400 m. The north end of the island has no trace of coral development as opposed to the south region where variably sized reef patches atop the sand are found starting at Paradise Reef. These are not highly developed but attain high coral coverage. From Santa Rosa to the South is an older, spectacular and well developed formation of coral containing few Scleractinians and dominated by sponges and algae (García et al. 1997a), did not keep up with the rise of sea level and is eroding faster than it is increasing (Jordan 1988). Laguna de Chankanaab is a small coastal cove with an underground connection to the sea. The coral reef community within the cove was affected by the sand from the surrounding artificial beach as a result of Hurricane Gilbert in 1988.

K.2 Windward Cozumel Subregion The windward side of Cozumel Island from Punta Celarain (20° 15' 29" N and 87° 00' 07"W) to Punta Molas (20° 36' 00" N and 89°52'00"W) displays a gradually descending insular platform that reaches the drop off point at about 90 120 m. The same sort of zonation described for the continental zone exists at greater depths along this side of the island, but the area does not have a breakers zone, thus there is no back reef. The fore reef presents limited development with spur and groove-like rises covered with algae and gorgonians. Between Punta Celarain and Punta Morena there are well developed spur and groove formations, some of which reach 8 m in height with high coral coverage. The area of Hanam presents microatolls of calcareous algae and shallow highly developed spur and groove systems, with high coral coverage (García et al. 1997a).

K.3 Cozumel Shallows (Bajo) Subregion This area is located between Punta Molas (20° 36' 00" N and 89° 52' 00" W) and Punta Norte (18° 34' 00" W). Over a distance of 6 to 8 km this area of slowly descending sandy bottom reaches depths of only 12m. There is no conspicuous reef development in the subregion. Close to the coast at 5 8m depth, large sized Montastrea annularis formations, some reaching up to 1m below the surface, are abundant. (García et al. 1997a).


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L. Chinchorro Bank Reefs Chinchorro Bank represents an emerged platform reef (Aguilar-Dávila and Aguilar-Perera 1993). Jordán (1993) affirms that Chinchorro Bank is constructed over a deep submarine crest and not over a continental or insular platform, on account that it is considered an atoll and at the same time the only reef to have existed before the Pleistocene within Mexican waters. Chávez and Hidalgo (1988), affirm that Chinchorro has greater diversity and is more heterogeneous than the platforms of the Campeche Bank. L.1 Leeward Chinchorro Subregion Its main characteristic is a short platform with a significant slope reaching 18 to 21 meters followed by sudden drop off. Along the edge of the lagoon a short semicircle of Acropora palmata similar to that of a fringing reef is present. The southern end of Chinchorro presents, low relief spurs and channels dominated by gorgonians and algae, with sparse scleractinean coverage. Within the central portion presents a series of steps parallel to the bank whose edges have extensive reef development. Between the steps, the slope drops at an angle of 40 to 50 degrees. L.2 Windward Chinchorro Subregion Its main characteristics are a fringing reef and back reef that develop all along the bank, with a well-developed reef crest. A well developed spur and groove system with vast amounts of Millepora complanata and Agaricia agaricites coverage make up the transition to the windward side of the bank. L.3 Chinchorro Reef Lagoon Subregion The Reef Lagoon is a wide continuous zone within the Chinchorro Bank breakers. The southern portion presents long up-rises and well developed coral mounds, made up mostly of Montastrea annularis. The central portion presents patches of gorgonians and small sized heads of M. annularis. Very little reef development is present in the northern portion. (Adapted and expanded from Gutierrez-Carbonell and García 1996)

3.5 Present Threats Over millions of years corals have adapted to natural caused impacts. Presently, not only the direct human caused impacts that harm the reef need to be considered, but also, the synergistic impact of catastrophic natural events over weakened coral reefs and communities. Some impacts, such as present effects of overfishing herbivore fish on the reef structure are very hard to measure, since a baseline before the fishing activity developed simply does not exist for any given area. Locating areas where low intensity fishing activities take place, or establishing functional no-take zones and monitoring them over a long period of time, may be the closest we would ever get to infer this baseline. The same could be said on impacts derived from sedimentation, nutrients, pollutants and tourism, only better opportunities for establishing a baseline might still exist.

3.5.1 Pacific Ocean Very little information exists on the natural and human caused impacts on the coral reefs and communities on the Mexican Pacific. A strange pattern emerges, when analyzing the places where coral communities seem to concentrate on the Mexican Pacific. Most of the coral rich areas are places subject to intensive touristic development; Baja California Sur, Bahía de Banderas, Guerrero and Oaxaca. Even though, this phenomenon could be attributed to better knowledge ot these areas, due to existing infrastructure, derived from the touristic developments, it is clear that tourism can generate significant impacts on these very localized an small communities. The increase of sediments from rivers, as deforestation increases in the adjacent watersheds, will surely generate increasing impacts. Impacts derived from other activities such as: port activities, oil exploration, agricultural runoff, etc., seem to be of lesser importance, but should not be overlooked. The following list of impacts was created from information compiled by Reyes-Bonilla (1993).


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Table 9. Natural and human impacts to the coral reef resources of the Mexican Pacific, including selected references

Impacts NATURAL El Niño Bleaching Cold thermal stress Hurricanes

HUMAN Souvenirs Aquarium fishing Anchor damage Building Touristic infrastructure Runoff by deforestation Sewage

Comment (Selected Reference) (Reyes-Bonilla 1993a) Cabo Pulmo and Los Cabos. Other locations unstudied. (Reyes-Bonilla, 1993a) Cabo Pulmo. Mortality in populations of Pocillopora spp and Porites panamensis (Reyes-Bonilla 1993b, 1993c). Massive deaths of Pocillopora (Wilson 1990). This is an unpredictable phenomenon An evaluation needs to be done on the impact of Hurricane Pauline (Oct. 1997) on coral reefs and communities off the coast of Oaxaca and Guerrero. (Reyes-Bonilla 1993a). Several states (Reyes-Bonilla 1993a). Gulf of California. SCUBA diving collectors - unstudied. Coral breakages as a result of collecting aquarium fishes - unstudied. The entire Pacific. The effects are greater than natural erosion (Reyes-Bonilla and Hernández-Cortés, cited in Reyes-Bonilla 1993a). Baja California Peninsula. The ancient human populations used coral blocks to build up houses (del Barco cited in Reyes-Bonilla 1993a). Probable but uncertain in Guerrero and Oaxaca. Some reports for Los Cabos (Reyes-Bonilla 1993a). Unstudied but present in Guerrero, Oaxaca and Nayarit. Los Cabos and Acapulco - unstudied.

3.5.2 Gulf of Mexico The existence of a large body of information over a long period of time, has allowed for greater knowledge on natural and human caused impacts on the coral reefs and communities on the Gulf of Mexico, especially for the Southern Veracruz Reef System and some structures in the Campeche Bank such as Cayo Arcas. In general, the Veracruz reefs have suffered the greatest impact, due to their proximity to the coast and their location close to important ports such as Veracruz and Tuxpan, which subjects them to the whole range of human threats. Campeche Bank reefs have been subjected over the last 25 years to impacts derived from oil related activities. A deep water oil port was installed by Cayo Arcas and cronic small spills, in addition to accidental large spills affect the health of the coral banks. The following list of impacts was compiled by Tunnel (1992).


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Table 10. Natural and human impacts to the coral reef resources of the southern Gulf of Mexico, including selected references (cited by Tunnell 1992). Impacts NATURAL Freshwater inflow Winter fronts Wind/waves/turbidity Cold thermal stress Hurricanes Diadema die-off Bleaching Black-Band Disease HUMAN Oil and gas activities. Deballasting chronic small spills Large oil spills Exploration Overfishing Clams ("almejas") Conch Fish

Lobster West Indian Seal Municipal and industrial pollution Urban sewage Agricultural chemical Dredging/Excavation

Poor land/river management Coral collecting Commercial curio trade Personal souvenirs Sport diving and tourism Anchor and propeller damage Shipwrecks/groundings

Comment (Selected Reference) Southern Veracruz reefs (Tunnell 1988).

Nearshore Veracruz reefs. Mostly northern Veracruz reefs. All reefs; frequency low; storm tossed boulders on most windward reef crests (Rigby and McIntyre 1966). Concurrent with Caribbean-wide die off in the 1980s now recovering. Moderate and localized, not widespread. Not widespread but increasing in recent years.

La Blanquilla (Santiago 1977), Arcas (Chávez and Hidalgo 1988). IXTOC l impacts, over most southern Gulf reefs (Jernelov and Linden 1981, Chávez and Hidalgo 1988) Northern Veracruz reefs and Arcas (Chávez and Hidalgo 1988). Seagrass beds being destroyed by this fishery on nearshore southern Veracruz reefs. Exterminated from Veracruz reefs in 1970s overfished on Alacran with 500-2000 taken per fishing boat per 2-week trip in 1986. Snapper and grouper almost depleted on southern Veracruz reefs; commercial spearfishermen now taking many other species (parrot fish, angel fish, surgeon fish, etc.) Seldom seen on southern Veracruz reefs; overfished on Alacran and other Campeche Bank reefs. Exterminated from Campeche Bank reef islands (Ward 1887, Fosberg 1962) Greatest around large cities of Veracruz and Coatzacoalcos Nearshore Veracruz city Uninvestigated, but potential with southern state of Veracruz crops (tobacco, sugar cane, pineapple) Channel dredging for oil exploration and production, Lobos (Rigby and McIntyre 1966); construction of Fort San Juan de Ulua, Veracruz city from Gallega Reef Clearing of mangroves from river mouths (Rio Jamapa) and poor inland practices have increased nearshore sediment load and run-off La Blanquilla (Santiago 1977) and other Veracruz area reefs; many curio shops with local corals in Veracruz city

Large numbers of divers on Anton Lizardo reefs on weekends, 2-6 busloads per weekend from Mexico City Mainly from small boats, on reefs and in lagoons (Santiago 1977) Several large vessels on Alacranes and Arenas; late 1990 grounding of New Hope from Panama on western Chopas (still present and abandoned in June 1991).


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3.5.3 Caribbean Sea

Caribbean coral reefs contain the most highly developed structures for México and apparently some of the most pristine reef areas remaining. Nevertheless, since the 1960s, the reefs have been subjected to an intense artisanal fishing effort, whose impact has not been evaluated. Tourism has become an increasing reef impacting activity since the mid-1970s. Small reef patches such as El Garrafón at Isla Mujeres and Punta Nizuc at Cancun, have been completely destroyed by tourism and impacts are becoming more evident along the Cancun-Tulum Touristic Corridor in places such as Akumal and Puerto Morelos. This tendency seems to be accelerating and impacts derived not only from direct touristic use, but from impacts caused indirectly by tourism, such as urban growth and coastal development without adequate sewage treatment on karstic subsoil, are becoming the most important threat.

Table 11. Natural and human impacts to the coral reef resources of the Mexican Caribbean, including selected references Impacts NATURAL Hurricanes

Bleaching Black band HUMAN Overfishing Black coral Monk seal Marine turtle Grouper Conch Lobster Souvenirs Aquarium

Tourism Sport diving Nautical sports Touristic infrastructure

Urban pollution Anchor and propeller damage Shipwrecks

Comment (Selected Reference) All reefs, frequency high, variable magnitude and relatively fast recovery (Fenner 1991, Rodriguez-Martinez 1993, Crespo-Romero 1991, García et al. 1996). All reefs, eventually, moderate and localized effects (García et al. 1996). All reefs, sporadic effects on isolated colonies effects (García et al. 1996).

Cozumel island and North Coast. Highly damaged populations (Kenyon, 1993, Camarena 1996, De la Torre 1978). Exterminated in Caribbean Sea in the middle century (Villa et al. cited in Morales 1987 ) Endangered (Durán 1990, Durán 1991, Gil, 1988, Gil y Miranda 1990). Reduction in number of individuals in massive aggregation events at Southern Q. Roo (Aguilar et al. 1994). Overfishing in all state (Cruz-Santabalbina 1986). All Caribbean Sea. Reduction on catches (Orr 1985). Harvesting of corals, gorgonians, sea stars and shells mainly (Jordán 1993). Low scale. Mainly over fishes, corals, anemones, algae and live rock for house and commercial aquariums. Potentially danger effects (Jordán 1993). Intensive use due to its status as an international diving destination. There are around 700 touristic boats in Cancun (P.N. Costa Occ. de I. Mujeres, Pta Cancun y Pta. Nizuc) All along the coast. High intensity impacts and short term during construction; low intensity and long term impacts during operation (Jordán 1993). Mainly in Cancun-Tulum corridors. Filtration to the underground currents of pesticides and agricultural chemicals and sewage (Jordan 1993). All Quintana Roo. Caused by fishermen and touristic boats. Several old vessels on Banco Chinchorro (Aguilar et al. 1993). Vessel reef grounding accidents are constantly being reported.


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4. The International Coral Reef Initiative The following chapter was copied from Partnership Building and Framework Development, The Final Report: The International Coral Reef Initiative Workshops, (ICRI, 1995), except 4.7 which was copied from Consultation on coastal Resource Management in The Tropical America (ICRI, 1995). They are included in this document only for easy reference and to be used as the framework for the National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Coral Reefs detailed in Chapter 5:

4.1 Background In 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the world community adopted Agenda 21. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 identifies the importance of marine and coastal issues in the achievement of sustainable economic development and environmental cooperation. It identifies coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds as marine ecosystems of high biodiversity and production and it recommends that they be accorded high priority for identification and protection. The ICRI is a partnership consisting of like-minded nations and organizations seeking to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, and other international conventions and agreements, for the benefit of coral reefs and related ecosystems. Founded by eight governments- Australia, France, Japan, Jamaica, the Philippines, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States of America- the ICRI was announced at the First Conference of the Parties (COP) of the Convention on Biological Diversity in December 1994, and at the high level segment of the U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) Intercessional Meeting in April 1995. Since then, the ICRI has come to encompass the participation and support of additional governments, U.N. organizations, regional environmental organizations, multilateral development banks, environmental and development NGOs, and the private sector. As ICRI became more active, it became clear to the partners that a coordinating body should be established. In January 1995, the eight founding ICRI partner governments, as well as representative from other interested entities, met in Washington and established an ICRI Planning Committee from which Executive Planning Committee (EPC) was derived. The ICRI Planning Committee is composed of the eight founding partner governments as well as representatives from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Inter American Development Bank, the World Bank, United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) and UNEP's Caribbean Environment Program (CEP), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the Coordinating Body on Southeast Asia (COBSEA) and the South Pacific Regional Environmental Program (SPREP). The EPC is composed of the same eight founding partner governments and representatives of the IUCN, UNEP, and the World Bank. In practice, the EPC has become the working level coordinating body for ICRI. It meets periodically to provide guidance to the ICRI Secretariat and to facilitate planning and decision making. For the sake of continuity and consistency, the ICRI Planning Committee has agreed to retain the present composition of the EPC meeting in April 1996. One of the first decisions of the EPC was to recognize the need for, and give its concurrence to, the establishment of an ICRI Coordinating Office/Secretariat. Currently, Australia hosts the Coordinating Office. A second early EPC decision was to sponsor an international workshop focusing on coral reefs. In anticipation of the workshop, the ICRI Secretariat and the EPC worked to produce a "Call to Action." The purpose was to provide the broad principles which could be used to unify the workshop. The Call to Action reflects a concern over the continuous degradation and damage to coral reef and related seagrass bed and mangrove communities or ecosystems; the difficulty of determining the threat spectrum (direct, indirect, potential) to the ecosystems; the significance of reefs to the world community as well as to individuals; measures that can help to reduce the threats; and what types of actions under those measures the ICRI might best collectively focus its attention upon either through encouragement or direct activities.


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Participants of the Dumaguete workshop provided additional insights, leading to changes in the draft of the Call to Action approved by consensus at the workshop. The international ICRI workshop was held at Dumaguete City, the Philippines, from May 29 through June 2, 1995. The intent of the workshop was to enable nations, donors and funding agencies, development organizations, NGOs, the research community and the private sector to work together in order to develop a Framework for Action for coral reefs. The Framework, which appears in its entirety in this report and which was developed from the collective deliberation and wisdom of the participants, will serve as a comprehensive guide to mobilize national, regional, and international actions on behalf of coral reefs.

4.2 Objectives and Approach The long-term vision for ICRI is to build and sustain partnerships with particular emphasis on increasing the capacity of countries and regions to achieve effective management and sustainable use of coral reefs and related environments. The ICRI seeks to provide for the protection, restoration, and sustainable use, understanding and enjoyment of coral reefs and associated ecosystems of the world for the benefit of present and future generations, in perpetuity. The approach of the initiative is twofold: 1) to raise global and local awareness and obtain national, regional and global commitments to conserve and sustainable use coral reefs and associated ecosystems; and 2) to use and better coordinate governmental and regional agency efforts, as well as stimulate and facilitate the development of new activities, to address coral reef issues. The initiative has, and will continue to, involve partnerships and coordination with international and regional organizations including UNEP and its Regional Seas programs; IUCN; COBSEA; the U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO); UNESCO and its Coastal Marine Program (COMAR) and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC); UNDP; U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED); the World Bank and the regional multilateral development banks; and NGOs, the private sector and the scientific community. The ICRI seeks to facilitate the leveraging and channeling of resources among all sectors (governments and nongovernmental organizations) for the benefit of coral reefs and associated environments. The ICRI does not intend to establish new bureaucracy or act as a funding source. The broad objectives of the ICRI are: - For governments and international organizations: To strengthen implementation of existing programs at the local, national, regional, and international level to conserve, restore and promote sustainable use of coral reefs and associated environments; - For each country and region: To incorporate management provisions for protection, restoration, and sustainable use of the structure, processes and biodiversity of coral reefs and associated environments into existing local, regional, and national development plans; - To strengthen capacity for development and implementation of policies, management research, and monitoring coral reefs and associated environments; and - To establish and maintain coordination of international, regional, and national research and monitoring programs, including the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network in association with the Global Ocean Observing System; and to ensure efficient use of scarce resources and a flow of information relevant to management of coral reefs and associated environments.


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4.3 The Call to Action The Call to Action was approved by the EPC and the participants of the International Planning Workshop on Friday, June 2, 1995, and states that: The nations and organizations supporting the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) urge attention to the following: The Global Problem Coral reefs are in serious decline globally, especially those near shallow shelves and dense populations. It has been estimated that 10 percent of the earth's coral reefs have already been seriously degraded and a much greater percentage is threatened. If allowed to continue, this decline is likely to lead to the loss of most of the world's reef resources during the next century.

Threats to Coastal Ecosystems The reasons for the decline in reef health are varied, complex, and often difficult to accurately determine. While natural events -such as storm damage, predator infestations, and variations in temperature- have some impact on reef ecosystems, human activity is a primary agent of degradation. Contributing factors include: - Direct impacts from activities such as resource extraction, in-filling, overharvesting, and diving and boating activities, as well as nutrient enrichment and toxic pollution; - Inadequate planning and management of coastal land use, including upland activities; - Potential adverse effects of climate change, including temperature and sea-level changes, alteration of natural patterns of precipitation, tropical storms, and ocean circulation; and - Population growth, increasing pollution and increased uses of the fragile resources will accelerate the decline in coral reef ecosystems, with societal and ecological effects extending beyond reef environments.

The Significance of Coral Reef Ecosystems Coral reef ecosystems offer benefits to humankind beyond those realized for food production, tourism, recreation, aesthetics, and shoreline protection. Capable of sustaining innumerable coastal communities worldwide, these ecosystems also have great economic, social and cultural importance to nations, and to entire regions. As competition among multiple uses of reef resources increases, so too will their significance to the human populations that depend on them. Coral reef ecosystems are among the most biologically productive and diverse in the world; they also serve as indicators of environment health. These facts were recognized at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, where coral reefs and associated systems were accorded a high priority for protection in Agenda 21. Reducing the Threats Threats from human-related impacts can be minimized or eliminated through: - Improved and sustained management practices; - Increased national and local capacities for coral reef ecosystems management; - Increased political support for managing coral reef ecosystems; and - The sharing of existing important and new information related to maintaining the health of these ecosystems. The ICRI governments endorse the following measures, to be implemented through global, regional, and national actions:


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Coastal Management - Incorporate integrated coastal management measures into local, national, and regional coastal development plans and projects and support their long-term implementation. - These measures will serve as a framework for achieving the sustainable use of, and maintaining the health of, coral reefs and associated environments. - Develop coral reef initiatives (regional, national and/or local). These should use an ecosystem-based, integrated approach that encourages participation and includes programs for community-based management or comanagement of reef resources.

Capacity Building - Establish regional networks to share knowledge, skills, and information. - Develop and support educational and informational programs aimed at reducing adverse impacts of human activities. - Establish information exchanges with stakeholder communities. - Improve developing nations' access to bilateral, multilateral, and other forms of financial and technical support for coral reef management.

Research and Monitoring - Use regional networks to achieve better coordination and cooperation among national research programs. - Promote linkages between regional and global research and monitoring networks, such as CARICOMP (Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity), PACICOM (Pacific Coastal Marine Productivity), and GOOS (Global Ocean Observing System). - Support research and monitoring programs, projects, or activities identified as essential to managing coral reef ecosystems for the benefit of humankind. - Promote the development and maintenance of a global coral reef monitoring network.

Review - Periodically review the extent and success of implementation of actions identified in the initiative. The nations and organizations supporting ICRI call upon all other relevant, international entities, governmental and non governmental organizations, including the private sector and scientific communities, to undertake the actions above.

4.4 Framework for Action The ICRI Framework for Action was drafted by the Philippine workshop participants, reflecting a unique partnership of governments, U.N. agencies, donors, scientists, NGOs, and industry. The Framework will launch much more detailed regional and national priority setting in the next eight months, and therefore was deliberately focused on actions at the global level.


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The participants developed the Framework for Action so that it would directly address the measures identified in the Call to Action to achieve improved coastal management, capacity building, research and monitoring and review. The drafting process took account of the issues raised in the preliminary discussions and keynote addresses as well as the workshops which were organized, initially, in relation to the four themes of the Call to Action, and second, in relation to the perspective of the regional groups. This approach enabled participants to address issues and priorities, drawing on their experience as practitioners and paying particular regard to creating a framework that would address the range of regional requirement, as well as the feasibility of actions in a range of regional and developmental settings. The results of the workshop discussions in the two sessions were then considered by an open-ended drafting group, which included the Executive Planning Committee (EPC) members, chairs of the working groups and others who expressed a particular interest in being involved in the drafting of the Framework. The ICRI workshop participants reviewed the initial draft of the framework in a plenary session. A revised draft was considered and adopted, with minor amendments taking place at subsequent plenary sessions on June 2.

Framework for Action Maintaining the biological diversity, condition, resources, and values of coral reefs and related ecosystems is a matter of global urgency. While the majority of countries which have coral reefs are developed countries, there are many reefs in the waters of developing countries. This unites the developed and developing countries and should command the attention of the international community. Coral reef survival depends upon the world community acquiring and maintaining the knowledge and capacity to conserve and sustainable use coral reefs and related ecosystems. This requires that all uses and impacts be brought within and maintained at levels which do not exceed these systems' natural capacity for production and regeneration. The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) Workshop was held at Silliman University in Dumaguete City, Philippines in May 1995 to enable countries, donors, development and funding agencies to work with coral reef managers, private sector representatives, nongovernmental organizations and scientists to develop this Framework as a basis for achieving sustainable management of coral reefs and related ecosystems. The ICRI Framework for Action builds upon and reflects the principles and processes established by Agenda 21, the U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Global Conference on Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing State, the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea., Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, Global Program of Action to Protect the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities and other relevant international programs. It has been developed as a succinct statement which should be read and interpreted in light of these documents. This Framework addresses the four elements of the ICRI Call to Action, which are: - Management; - Capacity building; - Research and monitoring; and - Review.

Framework Purpose The purpose of this Framework for Action is to mobilize governments and the wide range of other stakeholders whose coordinated, vigorous and effective actions are required to implement the Call to Action.


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Principles The ICRI recognizes the following principles: • Achieving the ICRI's purpose requires the full participation and commitment of governments, local communities, donors, NGOs, the private sector, resource users and scientists; therefore true partnerships, cooperation and collaboration exemplify the ICRI activities. • The overriding priority is to support actions that will have tangible, positive and measurable effects on coral reefs and related ecosystems and on the well-being of the communities which depend upon them. • Human activities are the major cause reef degradation; therefore, managing coral reefs means managing those human activities. Individuals whose decisions and actions affect coral reefs - from board rooms to beaches - need to become aware of and committed to the conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs and related ecosystems. • The diversity of cultures, traditions and governance within nations and regions should be recognized and built upon in all the ICRI activities. • Integrated coastal management, with special emphasis on community participation and benefit, provides a framework for effective coral reef and related ecosystem management. • Developing national capacity to conserve and sustainable use coral reefs and related ecosystem requires a long-term (decade) commitment. Improvement of coral reef management requires a permanent commitment and an adaptive approach. • Strategic research and monitoring programs should be an integral part of the ICRI because management of coral reefs and related ecosystems should be based on the most relevant scientific information. • Actions promoted under this framework should take account of, and fully use, the extensive body of international agreements and organizations that address issues related to coral reefs and related ecosystems. The ICRI will facilitate the leveraging and channeling of existing resources among all sectors for the benefit of coral reefs and related ecosystems.

Actions • All those committed to supporting the ICRI and this Framework for Action are called upon to take account of and to act on the following at the international, regional and national levels. • Support national and regional efforts to establish and coordinate strategies, priorities and programs to implement the ICRI Framework for Action, starting with regional workshops to be held by early 1996. • Ensure that sustainable management of coral reefs and related ecosystems is considered at future relevant international meetings. • Develop and/or strengthen national, regional and international mechanics for gathering and sharing information and expertise on the sustainable management of coral reefs and related ecosystems. • Promote improved access to financial and technological resources to enable institutions, regional centers and networks to assist and inform governments, industries and communities. • Addressing conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs and related ecosystems requires activities in the following areas: ·Integrated coastal management; ·Public awareness, education and training; Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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·Ratification of or accession to relevant international instruments; ·Stakeholder participation at all levels; training policymakers and private sector decision makers in the development and implementation of coral reefs management; ·Marine science and technology; .Environmental Law, particularly assessment regulations; and ·Assessing the potential for micro-enterprise development and facilitating access to financing on a small to medium scale.

4.4.1 Management • Encourage governments to develop and adopt integrated coastal management measures, including: ·Protection of the marine environment from land-based sources of marine pollution; ·Environmentally sound land-use practices, including zoning where appropriate; ·Measures to protect the marine environment from the adverse effect of maritime activities; ·National and regional disaster strategies; ·Measures to prevent illegal fishing practices, achieve sustainable fisheries and protect the ecological systems that support them; ·Tourism management and planning; ·Cultural aspects of resources use; and ·Enforcement of regulations. • Encourage governments and funding agencies to consider ICRI Framework in project and program design and implementation. • Encourage, where appropriate, an intersectoral systems approach to planning and management. • Encourage improved coordination among international organizations, donors and NGOs to provide more effective programs at the regional and national level. • Encourage prompt implementation of the outcomes of FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and the Global Program of Action to Protect the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities. • Promote awareness and action by the global tourist community to minimize individual and collective impacts of tourism on coral reefs and related ecosystems. • Promote the establishment and effective management of coastal and marine protected areas for coral reefs and related ecosystems, within the framework of customary international law as exemplified by the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea. This will contribute to the development of the Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas as proposed by the World Bank, IUCN and Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. • Promote the regulation of international trade in endangered and threatened reef-associated species through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), and improve its implementation where required. • Encourage governments to develop and promote mechanisms for regulating international trade in species that are illegally harvested. • Encourage governments to develop legislation, policy and institutional capacity to apply environmental assessment to development activities. • Promote appropriate technologies, including voluntary programs and economic incentives and best management practices, for control of land-based causes of marine pollution.


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• Promote and replicate successes in integrated coastal management, including community-based management, as appropriate. • Support management measures to improve the socioeconomic condition of local communities through such means as retraining and sustainable alternative livelihood development.

4.4.2 Capacity Building • Capacity building includes establishing and strengthening human resource and international capabilities for coastal management, science, training and education. • Encourage regional organizations to assist countries and communities implementing ICRI, for example through measures including: ·Preparation of project proposals; and ·Implementation of small grant programs. • Establish, strengthen and sustain mutually supportive networks of centers of expertise in management of coral reefs and related ecosystems. • Base human resource development strategies on needs assessments and ensure that they address: ·The diversity of cultures traditions and governance structures; ·Increased community awareness and involvement; ·Improving the capacity of today's managers; ·Providing for the education of tomorrow's managers; ·Coverage of coral reef management issues in the training of all professional whose work involves decisions which affect coral reefs and coastal resource management; ·Technical training needs for people at the field level; ·Training and supporting trainers to work at the community and field level; ·Evaluation of the effectiveness of training; and ·The need to target children in awareness raising. • Improve coordination and targeting of the education and human resource development programs provided by development partners. • Support formal and informal environmental education programs for all levels of the community on the subject of coral reefs and related ecosystems, with curricula and materials tailored to the interests and needs of the regions and end users. • Encourage maximum use of national and regional expertise in management, research and capacity-building activities. • Support the development, identification and dissemination of materials which address the interests and needs of the regions, including; ·The value coral reefs and related ecosystems; ·Practical monitoring and management techniques; ·Inventories of formal and on-the-job training opportunities; ·Case studies of management, including success stories as well as examples which have not been successful; and ·Case studies of human impact and natural variation in coral reefs and related ecosystems.


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• Increase the relevance to ICRI of existing donor scholarship programs by: ·Devoting a proportion of scholarship awards to environmental studies; and ·Encouraging thesis and dissertation studies carried out in home countries. • Encourage the private sector's role in management of coral reefs and related ecosystems through: ·Use of appropriate technologies; ·Development of a trained and educated workforce; and ·Innovative approaches to better environmental operating standards.

4.4.3 Research & Monitoring • Research and monitoring are needed to assess the status of coral reefs, evaluate the success of management and conservation actions and develop more effective management practices. As tropical ecosystems, coral reefs and related ecosystems are subject to dynamics which are generally less well-understood than temperate systems. Therefore, without evidence it should not be assumed that they will react to natural and human disturbances in the same way as temperate systems. • Research and monitoring programs should address biological, physical, social, cultural and economic studies and should be carried out over time periods appropriate to their objectives. They should be supported by information management, interpretation and dissemination. In the collection of data for both research and monitoring, resource users should be involved to the maximum extent practicable. • Promote the involvement of managers in the development, conduct, interpretation and application of research and monitoring programs. • Promote and assist the development and application of resource assessment methods that: ·Allow for rapid assessment to establish baselines and initiate management; and ·Can be used in Geographic information and Decision Support systems. • Promote the development of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network Under the Coastal Zone Module of the Global Ocean Observing System by incorporating and, as necessary, establishing or strengthening regional nodes. • Encourage studies of coral reef and related ecosystems which: ·Address priority management issues in individual countries or regions; ·Address the synergy between human effects and natural variations as causes of stress and degradation in coral reefs and related ecosystems; ·Involve interdisciplinary research into human impacts with initial priority on fisheries and tourism; ·Integrate traditional knowledge; ·Quantify the socioeconomic impacts of conservation and habitat destruction, ·Address the scale and linkages of the biological communities; and ·Develop methods for impact mitigation and reef restoration. • Develop programs to involve communities, resource users, the private sector and others in monitoring the condition of coral reefs and related ecosystems. • Encourage regional and international forums which bring together managers and scientists to identify priority information requirements for management of coral reefs and related ecosystems.


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4.4.4 Review • Review of the state of coral reefs and related ecosystems and of action taken to implement the ICRI Framework for Action should be conducted at national, regional and international levels on a regular basis. • The four-year cycle of the international coral reef symposia provides an excellent opportunity to discuss the ecological condition of coral reefs. This should be matched by an equivalent program to review the effectiveness of implementation of actions in accordance with the ICRI Framework for Action. At the international level, the U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development provides an appropriate forum for review of international organizations and agencies. The 1996 session of the Commission on Sustainable Development, with its focus on Chapter 17 (Protection of Oceans) of Agenda 21 will deal, inter alia, with coral reefs and related ecosystems. • UNEP should be encouraged to review the implementation and success of the ICRI Framework for Action through relevant programs including the Regional Seas programs. • Similarly, the IOC through the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, should be encouraged to produce reports on the ecological condition of coral reefs and related ecosystems for discussion at the quadrennial International Coral Reef Symposia and other relevant international forums.

4.5 Global Activities for the Framework for Action 4.5.1.1 International • Encourage regional and international fora to endorse the ICRI goals and objectives in the ICRI Call to Action. • Provide improved access to financial and technological resources to enable organizations, institutions, and regional centers to assist governments and communities in matters including:

·Waste management and the adoption of cleaner production technologies; ·Management of marine transport; ·Management of sustainable commercial and noncommercial fisheries; and ·Ratification and implementation of relevant international instruments. • Improve coordination of U.N., international organizations and NGOs to provide more effective delivery of programs. • Encourage multilateral and bilateral donors to consider ICRI framework in project design. • Identify coral reefs of regional and international importance in order that governments may designate them under appropriate conventions. • Promote the establishment of a globally representative system of marine protected areas for coral reefs, mangroves and seagrasses, within the framework of existing international rights and obligations as exemplified by the Law of the Sea Convention; for example, through the IUCN/World Bank efforts. • Identify mechanisms for sustainable international trade in marine species and enhance the effectiveness of national implementation of CITES regarding trade in coral species and products.

4.5.1.2 Regional • Support regional ICRI workshop to enhance regional cooperation.


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• Strengthen regional organizations, in particular UNEP Regional Seas programs and activities, to strengthen national and regional efforts to implement ICRI goals. • Conduct biennial review of ICRI activities at national and regional levels. • Improve donor coordination of ICZM technical assistance. • Training of local personnel should be incorporated into management projects (national and regional levels). • Identify funding opportunities for ICRI related activities. • Recognizing national differences, develop common approaches for ICZM that may provide models for in particular administrative and legislative arrangements. • Support adoption of ICZM appropriate to small island states' circumstance with realistic time frames. • Design and implement regional recovery plans for endangered and threatened species, in particular, migratory species, such as turtles, that are dependent on coral and related ecosystems. • Identify and develop methods at national and regional levels for combating illegal resources extraction in remote shelf areas. • Improve regional and international ICZM information exchange, for example on the effectiveness of management measures. • Support implementation of national environmental strategies. • Seek better regional policy coordination on tropical marine ecosystems in international fora.

4.5.1.3 National • Promote and implement ICZM as the organizing framework for a national priority to manage coral reefs and related ecosystems and their associated watersheds. • Develop statutory and policy support for applying environmental impact assessment for all development activities. • Improve the coordination of all governmental national-to-local ICZM, actors including the designation of a national focal point for management of coral reef ecosystems (to coordinate at national and regional levels). • Strengthen national agency ability to design coral reef conservation and sustainable use/ICZM projects that may compete for funding at national, regional and international levels. • Harmonize policies and legislation at national and regional levels on environmental impact assessment, fisheries, pollution and marine protected areas. • Implement management measures based on currently available information, adapting these measures as new information from the scientific and management communities becomes available regarding the status of reefs and the effectiveness of management measures. • Promote adoption of appropriate technology for land-based activities of marine pollution, including through voluntary programs and economic incentives to introduce appropriate technology. • Promote the use of MPAs and zoning for multiple use purposes, at national and regional levels. • Strengthen the governmental enforcement mechanisms through designation of clear institutional lead player. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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• Promote a framework for funding domestic marine protected areas - one that features primarily domestic funding by NGOs, the private sector and communities, and possibly includes an appropriate role for international donors. • Improve NGO, private sector, science community and government cooperation. • Strengthen coral reef fisheries management. • Expand number of pilot activities in community-based management. • Recognize and build on traditional management skills and systems. • Reduce pressures on coral reefs by developing alternative uses and income of coral reefs. • Strengthen enforcement/compliance of environmental regulations. • Promote designation of centers of excellence in ICZM and MPAs. • Develop national response capabilities to respond to hazardous materials response events. • Promote the awareness of the tourist industry to minimize tourism impacts. • Support links between research and monitoring, management and capacity building at all levels. • Promote public awareness at all three levels.

4.5.2 Capacity Building 4.5.2.1 International • The need for building human and institutional capacity was identified in Agenda 21 of the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development, as well as by the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), as established for integrated coastal management (ICM) and sustainable development in developing countries. • The group recognized that there has been significant effort in short-term training in some regions and that these efforts must be recognized, built upon and better linked to long-term capacity building requires long-term commitments. Capacity building is needed more urgently than ever as the need for coastal management practitioners grows. Experience shows us that capacity-building efforts need to include both short-term intensive training efforts for today's managers and long-term institutional strengthening programs so that tomorrow's coastal managers can be better trained.

4.5.2.2 Regional • Increase university capacity within a region to sustain training and education efforts. This will decrease the longterm costs to train coastal management practitioners. Regional long-term institutional strengthening also increases job opportunities, incorporates local cultural traditions within the training programs and reduces the barriers of language. • Utilize regional experts as trainers in international short-term training programs. • Create regional centers of excellence to further refine ICM techniques and to increase human capacity. • Develop and maintain a network of ICM mentors to supplement the short-term and long-term training that new and experienced coastal managers participate in. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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• Assist with identifying mechanisms for sustainable funding and improve coordination with and between existing programs and their funding to avoid duplication of efforts and to better use and leverage limited resources (funds, technology, and equipment).

4.5.2.3 National • Target capacity-building efforts to key target groups, including: ·Coastal managers who can coordinate ICM programs; ·Technical specialists to better participate in and contribute to ICM initiatives; and ·Local officials, private sector resources user groups who play important implantation roles. • Assist with identifying mechanisms for sustainable funding and improve coordination with and between existing programs and their funding to avoid duplication of efforts and to better use and leverage limited resources (funds, technology, and equipment)

4.5.3 Research and Monitoring The purpose of research and monitoring is to assess and provide regular updates on the condition of coral reefs and related ecosystems, understand problems and processes, to evaluate the success of management and conservation actions and to make the predictions essential for wise management decisions. Both research and monitoring require the collection of data using tools from the natural and social sciences and must be carried out as an integral part of management. It is only through this that management decisions can be made based on the best available information.

4.5.3.1 Assessment The top priority for work in many areas is the baseline assessment of coral reefs and related ecosystems. Many coral reef areas remain unmapped and their communities poorly known. An assessment program must be established to: • Develop rapid assessment techniques to determine patterns and processes in coral reefs and associated ecosystems; • Apply inter-compatible assessment techniques nationally, regionally and internationally; • Acquire baseline information on the status of coral reefs and related ecosystems, especially through rapid assessment techniques for remote areas; • Assess land-based sources of pollution across complete drainage basins; • Identify and quantify various forms of local human impact; and • Develop regionally applicable ecosystem inventories and GIS (habitat and resource mapping).


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4.5.3.2 Monitoring Programs Many important events in coral reefs have gone undocumented or unexplained due to the lack of basic data to identify causes and understand problems. Monitoring and problem-based research, when modeled using sound theoretical principles, provide the basis for understanding and predicting ecological change- It is essential that a coordinated monitoring program be established to: • Develop and apply inter-compatible monitoring methodologies, to routinely determine the status, direction and rate of change, and understand basic patterns and processes, making data widely available. • Develop national, regional and global monitoring networks -- fostering development of new networks where needed and supporting and/or expanding existing networks as appropriate (examples: expand CARICOMP to wider Caribbean, develop Eastern Pacific monitoring and Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network) as contributions to the Coastal Change module of the Global Ocean Observing System. • Carry out monitoring through a question-based system to collect environmental, ecological, social, economic and cultural data. • Develop programs to ensure that communities, private sector, resource users and others participate in the design, collection, interpretation and use of monitoring data, and provide training and technical assistance needed to accomplish this. • Monitor coral reefs, related ecosystems and their associated socioeconomic systems to detect change and determine causality and responses (i.e., discriminate human effects from natural variation). • Utilize training and technical assistance to enable local personnel to undertake monitoring. • Assess and monitor the socioeconomic impacts of conservation and habitat destruction, and develop information management systems to provide quality control and data accessibility.

4.5.3.3 Management-Oriented Research While much will be learned through assessment and monitoring programs, basic problems exist that require focused research to be resolved. Some of these are natural science problems pertaining to the ecosystems and their function, while others are essential to our understanding of socioeconomic problems. Some of this work includes: • Research into interconnectedness among reefs and between reefs and related ecosystems, on varied spatial and temporal scale; • Research into proper size, shape and placement of MPAs in relation to their environmental setting (larval supply, delivery patterns, optimal habitat spaces, SLOSS) • Research on ecotoxicology to test effects of pollutants on marine organisms; • Research into the development of sustainable resource uses; • Research to address key conflicts between users, to provide scientific recommendations on plans/proposals; • Policy research to enable community to protect the ecosystem; • Research into reef management, including evaluation of management alternatives, conservation and sustainable use options (fisheries management, marine protected areas site location and design, local tenure and use rights); • Recognition of traditional/customary knowledge;


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• Economic valuation of resources; • Research in local socioeconomic constraints and opportunities in community-based coastal zone management/comanagement; and • Research to identify causes of degradation of coral reefs.

4.6 Tropical Americas Activities for the Framework for Action The Tropical Americas Working Group members, participating in of The International Coral Reef Initiative Workshop in Dumaguete City, The Philippines, met to discuss the Framework for Action. In the brainstorming session, a number of actions were suggested. For this report, these are presented below by topical area. These actions were not prioritized by the group, however.

4.6.1 Management Option • Ensure integration of the ICRI program of action with the proposal to develop a global representative system of marine protected areas, as well as with other regional programs. • Implementation activities should proceed within the broad context of integrated coastal management. • Establishment of coordinating mechanisms among government agencies is important to facilitate coastal zone management. • Priority should be placed on development of sustainable financing mechanisms for coral reef management programs. • The ICRI should encourage development of strategies, policies, plans, and legislation relating to integrated coastal management (ICM). • Attention should be placed on supporting appropriate harmonization of policies and legislation relating to coral reef management. • Increased cooperation between governments and NGOs should be encouraged within countries. • Reef management needs to be identified as a priority within government policy. • Effective management of coral reefs may require consolidation or development of legislation and strengthened enforcement of regulation pertaining to environmental impact assessment, pollution, fisheries, etc. • While recognizing national differences, ICRI should seek to promote common approaches to ICM. • The ICRI should assist with identification of appropriate funding sources to facilitate implementation of coral reef management programs. • The ICRI should develop model administrative/legal frameworks for national ICM implementations. • The ICRI should promote formulation and implementation of programs to mitigate the degradation of coral reefs and other ICM problems. • The ICRI should encourage development of joint papers for presentation in international fora. • Design of ICM programs should include a full analysis of economic costs and benefits. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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• The ICRI should encourage establishment and sustainable management of system of marine protected areas, using local resources and cost-recovery strategies. • Pilot programs in community-based management should be promoted. • The adoption of appropriate technologies to reduce land-based sources of marine pollution should be promoted. • Identify and develop methods for combating illegal resource extraction in remote coastal and shelf areas (e.g., trawling off the Miskito Coast). • Where feasible, apply the comanagement approach to integrated coastal management. • Countries should be encouraged to ratify/accede to international conventions and relevant to coral reef management. • Coral reefs of regional and global importance should be identified and designated as such under appropriate conventions (e.g., World Heritage). • Multilateral and bilateral donor agencies should be encouraged to take ICRI outcomes and recommendations into account in their deliberations on program development.

4.6.2 Capacity Building Options • The ICRI should promote development of environmental education programs, both for increasing general public awareness and for inclusion in primary and secondary education programs. • The ICRI should seek to identify and make available appropriate literature on coral reefs and associated ecosystems. • Needs assessments and audits of existing capacity should be conducted to provide the basis for development for human resource development and institution strengthening programs. • The ICRI should encourage efforts to develop tools and techniques for effective ICM and to train people to use them. • The ICRI environmental education programs should be based on assessment of existing levels of public awareness and designed accordingly. • The ICRI should encourage establishment of linkages and networking of databases and other information systems. • The ICRI should support development and conduct of short seminars for high officials in the public and private sectors. • Policy briefs should be developed to educate policymakers on the ICRI. • National seminars on ICM and ICRI should be held. • The ICRI should encourage assessment of training needs for ICM within each country. • The ICRI should identify and develop regional centers of excellence for ICM, and encourage these centers to strengthen their capacities to train trainers in ICM. • The ICRI should promote development of school curricula covering ICM.


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4.6.3 Research and Monitoring • The ICRI should seek to ensure that coral reef management strategies are based on the best scientific data available. • The ICRI should support development of marine habitat mapping and classification programs. • The ICRI should encourage development of national monitoring programs, using to the maximum extent possible private sector, local communities, and other developing country institutions in this effort. • Economic and social evaluations of reef use and resources should be conducted. • Research on design of marine protected areas in relation to larval dispersion, population, dynamics, migration processes, and other biological, physical, and social processes should be encouraged. • Research on local socioeconomic constraints and opportunities for community-based ICM should be promoted. • The ICRI should encourage development of rapid assessment techniques to evaluate reef condition and then promote wide adoption of these techniques to increase data comparability and trend analysis. • A reef monitoring program should be established in the Eastern Pacific. • Assessment of land-based sources of marine pollution should be given greater attention. • Reef monitoring at the regional level should be supported in the Caribbean.

4.7 Tropical Americas Agenda for Action The ICRI Framework and the Tropical Americas' Agenda for Action are intended to mobilize governments and the wide range of other stakeholders whose coordinated, vigorous and effective actions are required to sustain these fragile resources, and the communities who depend on them. The international Framework focuses on how the international community can support regional, national and local activities. The 'Tropical Americas' Agenda for Action consists of an evolving regional process outlining "initial next steps" mostly national actions, to provide an early basis for enhanced regional collaboration.

4.7.1 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and Related Institutional, Policy, and Legal Issues Problems: 1. Weak commitment to ICZM in the Tropical Americas due to its low priority in national agendas and lack of funding by governments. 2. National ICZM plans and strategies are not developed through intersectoral, interagency, interdisciplinary and public consultation, resulting in fragmented and overlapping ICZM policies and legislation. 3. Inadequate regional and international coordination resulting in fragmentation and duplication of efforts. 4. Lack of understanding of national obligations, responsibilities, and implications of international conventions, treaties and agreements.


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Goal: To develop a sustainable ICZM through a coordinated and action oriented institutional, policy, and legal framework which emphasizes equity, empowerment, and transparency. Objectives: 1. To improve coordination of ICZM efforts at national, regional and international levels; 2. To initiate broad based participation (public and private sectors, NGOs, resource users) in the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of coastal zone programs and projects; and 3. To coordinate donor activities and commitments in ICZM in the tropical Americas. Activities: 1. Conduct an audit of agencies and institutions; including all existing ICZM related policies and legislation, at the national and regional levels. 2. Based on the audit proposed, develop appropriate policies and legislation (at the national and, where appropriate, at the regional level) for addressing the identified overlaps and gaps. 3. Conduct training based on an assessment for ICZM training needs building on such existing assessments as those of CIDA, OECS, and CCUNRM. 4. Develop intersectoral and interdisciplinary curricula for coastal zone management building on existing efforts at a tertiary level. 5. Develop and implement appropriate mechanisms for intersectoral, inter-agency coordination, and the public including the following: Review experiences of UNDP's capacity 21 council for sustainable Development and replicate, if appropriate. Develop policy guidelines and necessary frame legislation for setting up intersectoral and interagency committees/council for coastal management. Establish intersectoral and interagency committees/councils for coastal zone management at the national level. These communities should ideally be set up in Central Planning Units. 6. Develop policy guidelines for use of economic instruments and incentives for broad based participation in ICZM programs. 7. Develop policies and guidelines for funding mechanism, including cost recovery, for ICZM programs. 8. Provide assistance to governments for ratification and implementation of obligations in International treaties related to ICZM. e.g. Biodiversity, Climate Change, and Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW).

4.7.2 Environmental Education and Awareness Problem: Poor understanding of the value of coastal and marine resources and the impact of human activities on these resources has resulted in environmental degradation throughout the Tropical Americas.


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Goal: To achieve sustainable management and conservation of coastal and marine resources through targeted education and environmental awareness. Objectives: 1. To change attitudes and behavioral patterns in relation to the coastal environment, in particular coral reefs and their associated ecosystems. 2. To identify the relevant target groups to be addressed and involve them in the educational process. Activities: 1. Conduct diagnostic studies of public awareness activities to determine those methods which have resulted in behavioral change such as policy and institutional changes, conservation by resource users, pollution control/mitigation by industry sector, etc. 2. Develop hands-on and activity-based teaching materials on marine and coastal resources for inclusion in primary and secondary school curricula and ensure their effective application. 3. Develop a targeted and strategic educational program to enhance media effectiveness in communicating coastal issues to the general public. 4. Prepare educational materials relating to coral reefs and associated ecosystems targeting the general public. 5. Provide the public with the necessary tools and technologies to affect public policy and industrial practices which may be detrimental to the environment. 6. Develop educational packages for key economic and political sectors to demonstrate the economic benefits of selected coastal resources conservation measures, as well as cost effective management practices and technologies to minimize land-based sources of marine pollution.

4.7.3 Co-Management of Coastal Resources Problem: Traditional public sector approaches to resource management, in general, and coastal zone management in particular, have no proven to be effective in the Tropical Americas, Goal: To achieve sustainable development of CZM through a partnership of public and private sectors, resource users, local communities, NGO's, the scientific community, and donor agencies. Objectives: 1. To develop a dynamic, on-going process of co-management, involving the empowerment of the resource users. 2. To build on and refine existing guidelines and procedures for facilitating co-management of natural resources. 3. To disseminate information to all the stakeholders in the co-management partnership in a relevant and appropriate manner.

Activities: 1. Review and analyze on-going initiatives in co-management in order to document and share experiences and technical data in co-management. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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2. Develop and implement procedures for facilitating co-management of natural resources, including: To facilitate the formation of stakeholder groups by informing the stakeholder of the value of co-management and how to implement it. To provide the scientific data (biological, economic, social, and cultural) necessary to guide the negotiation process, implementation, and review of resource management plans. To prepare a resource management plan, including appropriate legislation, that identifies and/or develops economic alternatives for resource exploitation; 3. Develop the resources necessary to effectively implement a co-management plan, including the necessary documents and manuals for advertising and training stakeholders, government official, international and local funding agencies, etc.; 4. Form a pool of regional expertise in co-management available to aid the establishment of coastal zone comanagement (e.g. by providing training).

4.7.4 Coral Reef Fisheries Management Problem: The status and trends in the reef fisheries in the Tropical Americas are cause for concern. Most coral reef fisheries are either fully exploited, over-exploited or depleted. Improved conservation and management is needed to ensure rehabilitation of depleted stocks, optimum sustainable utilization of fisheries resources and preservation of habitat and biological diversity of the reef ecosystem. Goals: 1. To improve management of coral reef and related ecosystems. 2. To improve fisheries management to optimize resource use and ensure healthy coral reef ecosystems. 3. To improve public awareness on coral reef fisheries. Objectives: 1. To solicit active participation by stakeholders in developing and implementing measures to rehabilitate and ensure sustainable use of the resource. 2. To coordinate fisheries management among the national agencies, private sector, community interest groups and the resource users who have an interest in the coastal zone. 3. To manage fishing efforts through ecologically and environmentally sound fishing methods that ensure continued socioeconomic benefits to the resource users. 4. To expand and improve applied research as well as statistical reporting on fishing stocks, catches, and investment trends. 5. To reinforce existing national and regional mechanisms, organizations for research and management, and dissemination of scientific information among countries utilizing common resources. Activities: 1. Develop programs aimed at improving public education and awareness of policy makers, fishermen, farmers, school children, developers, tourism interest and other groups whose activities impact on coastal and marine resources. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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2. Establish a campaign to inform the public of the crisis facing the coral reef systems generally and the fisheries in particular and solicit active participation in fisheries management strategies. 3. Establish a central coordination mechanism at the national level to ensure participation of the various interest groups in the planning and implementation of fisheries management measures as well as ensure that these measures are integrated in the wider national plan for management of the coastal zone. 4. Create and maintain a national register of number of vessels active in the fishery, including information on vessel capacity, power, gear, operating range, and area of operation. 5. Strengthen existing management legislation and enforcement mechanisms. 6. Promote use of fisheries practices that protect the habitat. 7. Monitor catch rates and species composition of coral reef fisheries. 8. Conduct research on reef fisheries including, biology/ecology, population dynamics, and the recruitment of exploited species in coral reef fisheries.

4.7.5 Marine Protected Areas Problem: Coastal marine systems are under threat from intense and unsustainable human activities resulting in the potential loss of unique ecosystems. This is jeopardizing long term biological and economic viability and other benefits to the resource users. Ensuring that these coastal resources remain in a healthy and viable condition requires effective management. Goal: To achieve the sustainable management of coastal and marine resources through the establishment and management of coastal and marine protected areas consistent with international law. Objectives: 1. To strengthen management capabilities in marine and coastal protected areas programs and transform "paper" parks into real parks. 2. To have selected areas designated and legally declared as marine protected areas with appropriate management strategies, and upgrade the level of technical expertise of coastal and marine resources management personnel. Activities: 1. Fund existing Marine Parks and Protected Areas (MPAs) initiatives in the region and to ensure their long-term financial sustainability. 2. Develop local capacities for strategic design, planning, and management of MPAs. 3. Monitor key critical parameters for adaptive management including biological, physical, chemical, social, economic, and cultural parameters. 4. Enhance human resource development in science, administration, education and enforcement through technical assistance and training. 5. Provide infrastructural support for research, administration, resource management and environmental education and awareness. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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6. Review and update legislation that will support integrated coastal resource management. 7. Encourage governments to sign and ratify relevant international treaties and conventions. 8. Promote the incorporation of the impacting lands into the management of the marine protected area.

4.7.6 Land-Based Sources of Pollution Problem: Land-based point and non-point pollutants, in particular nutrients and sediment loads, constitute a major contribution to the degradation of coral reefs in the Tropical Americas. Goal: To reduce through the ICZM process the land-based (point and non-point) sources of pollution reaching the coastal and marine environment of the region. Objectives: 1. To achieve effective integrated management of the entire watershed and coastal zone. 2. To establish the most appropriate and economically feasible treatment facilities and management practices, in particular for sewage, sediment, and nutrients. Activities: 1. Provide financial and technical assistance to implement effective existing technologies and management practices for the collection and treatment of sewage. In this context, the best affordable technologies should also be considered if the very best technologies, such as tertiary treatment, are unaffordable. 2. Implement with urgency erosion control practices such as re-vegetation, road paving, sediment screening and soil conserving agricultural practices, in light of the fact that sediments are a major threat to coral reefs. 3. Adopt and implement relevant water quality standards and monitor water quality. 4. Identify and monitor via appropriate bio-indicators. 5. Promote sound application of fertilizers and pesticides, as well as integrated pest management. 6. Complete negotiation of a protocol on land-based sources of marine pollution to the Cartagena convention. 7. Implement pollution prevention strategies to reduce solid waste and industrial pollutants. 8. Implement strategies for prevention and management of oil spills.

4.7.7 Research and Monitoring for the Management of Coral Reef and Coastal Resources Problem: Ability to manage coastal resources in the Tropical Americas is hampered by: - limited local sociological, economical, and ecological understanding; - poor knowledge of fundamental aspects of coral reef biology/ecology and sociology/natural resource economics; incomplete use of available knowledge due to poor dissemination and lack of information, and, - data-sharing networks; and perceived low value of research and monitoring by funding agencies, policy-makers, and the public at large. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Goal: To utilize research and monitoring to facilitate better management of coastal and marine resources. Objectives: To improve understanding of coastal resources: the natural ecosystem, the interaction of human activities with it, and each other. To improve coordination and information sharing between natural and social sciences and within science disciplines. To provide information and data to help develop useful guidelines and options for resource managers and decision-makers. Activities: 1. Conduct basic inventories of coral reefs and associated ecosystems as a prerequisite for the design of monitoring programs and for planning resource use. 2. Engage the collaboration of resource users, scientists, and managers, as appropriate and feasible, in monitoring coral reef resources. 3. Establish well balanced advisory boards for monitoring and management. 4. Ensure that research and monitoring results, and their implications, are made known to the public. 5. Increase support for research institutions throughout the region and for communication networks that facilitate monitoring, research, and management initiatives. 6. Continue interdisciplinary research on natural variation in the system, on human impacts, and on synergies between them. 7. Conduct research in the natural and social science disciplines, including research on economic valuation and cost-benefit analysis. 8. Continue interdisciplinary research, development, and demonstration on the mitigation of human impacts, for example: - low-cost tertiary treatment of sewage, - watershed management and control of sedimentation, - fishery improvements by gear chances, by marine protected areas, by social organization alternative livelihoods for fishers, and, - sustainable levels (carrying capacities) of coral reef resource use.

4.7.8 Financing for the Management of Coral Reef and Coastal Resources Problem: Management of coral reefs and associated ecosystems is hampered by lack of adequate financial resources and difficulties in accessing them. There are inadequate national and regional capabilities to develop and implement financial strategies for ICZM and its related components.? Goal: To improve regional and national capacity to generate and access funds for managing coastal resources on a sustainable basis.


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Objectives: 1. To facilitate cooperation among governments, NGOs, and the private sector in order to improve access to and generate funds for coastal management initiatives. 2. To develop capabilities in public and private environmental management organizations to achieve financial sustainability. Activities: 1. Improve coordination among governments, NGOs, regional entities, and other relevant organizations to identify and access funds. 2. Strengthen institutions for regional and sub-regional NGOs to enable them to effectively participate in regional strategies to expand the availability of financial resources. 3. Identify economic benefits and values of coral reef resources in order to demonstrate a case for financial support from public and private sources. 4. Improve financial accountability of environmental management agencies and organizations. 5. Provide training and technical assistance to environmental management agencies and organizations in the design and implementation of fund-raising programs. 6. Encourage the creation of dedicated environmental funds for research, management, and capacity building. 7. Facilitate development of revenue generating opportunities from marine protected areas services such as entrance and user fees, concessions, contributions, etc.


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5. Recommendations for a National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Coral Reefs This chapter provides recommendations for the consideration of policy makers and managers to improve management and sustainable use of coral reefs and coral communities. These recommendations are based on the information presented in the previous chapters. The objective of this document is to provide a base document for discussion within the National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs, that will facilitate the design and adoption of a National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Coral Reefs, compatible with the International Coral Reef Initiative. The structure given to the Recommendations for a National Program for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Coral Reefs, utilizes various elements from the International Coral Reef Initiative. The basic structure reflects the three main thematic lines described in the ICRI call for Action (Coastal Management, Capacity Building, Research and Monitoring). Afterwards these thematic lines are subdivided into the specific themes indicated within the Tropical Americas Agenda for Action. Further along the line actions and activities to implement each specific theme are developed. Two themes not covered by the Tropical Americas Agenda for Action were added; tourism and law enforcement. The protected area theme was expanded to include a hierarchical system for protecting coral reefs and communities that includes other environmental policy tools and environmental education and awareness was separated into two distinct themes. It should be noted, that in order to comprehend more easily the relation of each thematic line to the structure of the Recommendations for a National Program, within each thematic line the objectives and strategy are also included, thus appearing twice throughout the document. Also within each specific themes the list of actions are compiled, thus also duplicated. The following list indicates as a reference, the structure given to the National Program: Goal General Objectives A) Coastal Management B) Capacity Building C) Research and Monitoring Strategies Call for Action Chapter A) Thematic Objectives A) Strategy Actions 1,2,3, etc.

Specific Theme Problems Specific Goal Specific Objective General Considerations # Action 1 Activities for 1.

* ICRI Call for Action

@ a for A, b for B and c for C - ICRI Call for Action * (From above, repeated below) @ a (From above) # Related to each Thematic Objective grouped for each Specific Theme - Trop. Americas Agenda for Action - Trop. Americas Agenda for Action - Trop. Americas Agenda for Action * (Repeated from above) (Only when required)

# Action 2 # Action 3 Activities for 2 and 3 when they would become repetitive if separate.

# Action 4 Activities for 4


# Etc.

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5. National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Coral Reefs

5.1 Goal and General Objectives The goal of the National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable use of Coral Reefs - Mexico is to strive for optimal use of some of our most important and diverse marine habitats, so they can continue to be used on a sustainable basis to support multiple uses including ,fisheries, tourism, conservation, education and research. To achieve this purpose, the national strategy has the following general objectives:

Coastal Management - Define and coordinate the actions required from all involved actors to achieve the implementation of the national strategy utilizing Integrated Coastal Zone Management practices. - Manage coral reefs according to their different ecological values and economical potential in order to maintain a balance of uses, within the context of Mexico's transition to sustainable development and protect coral reefs that are of outstanding value to the national heritage. - Reduce the impacts from fisheries, tourism and pollution that promote the degradation of coral reefs and communities to maintain their uses and benefits to society. - Build and strengthen the national capacity to effectively enforce the legislative bases to protect coral reefs and communities.

Capacity Building - Build and strengthen the national commitment and capability both within and outside the government to implement coral reef management actions, through the development of a dynamic, on-going process of comanagement, involving the empowerment of the resource users. - Create and fortify social awareness of the value of coral reefs and communities to provide for wide based support for their conservation, through a change of attitudes and behavioral patterns. - Build and strengthen sustainable financing mechanisms that will permit the implementation of the Program.

Research and Monitoring - Obtain the scientific bases that will permit the effective conservation and sustainable management of reef resources and associated environments. - Define protocols and prioritize sites for monitoring the effects of natural and human impacts and their synergies on coral reefs and communities. - Establish a framework for interinstitutional and interdisciplinary collaboration to achieve the goal of the National Program.


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5.2 Strategies In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives and utilizing the framework of the International Coral Reef Initiative, three main strategies will need to be implemented and their effectiveness periodically reviewed: - Establishment of integrated coastal management practices through planning, consultation and action implementation in order to promote sustainable use and conservation of coral reefs and associated environments, utilizing existing laws, regulations and environmental policy tools and creating new ones as needed. - Build and maintain strong social support for reef conservation through the establishment of co-management practices, networks for stakeholder communication, education, public education and the promotion of sustainable financing and technical support mechanisms. - Obtain the scientific knowledge needed to manage coral reefs through the support of research and monitoring programs and by establishing networks for coordination and cooperation among research institutions and the other actors involved.

5.3 Coastal Management and Related Institutional Policy and Legal Issues Coastal Management Objectives: - Define and coordinate the actions required from all involved actors to achieve the implementation of the national strategy utilizing Integrated Coastal Zone Management practices. - Manage coral reefs according to their different ecological values and economical potential in order to maintain a balance of uses, within the context of Mexico's transition to sustainable development and protect coral reefs that are of outstanding value to the national heritage. - Reduce the impacts from fisheries, tourism and pollution that promote the degradation of coral reefs and communities to maintain their uses and benefits to society. - Build and strengthen the national capacity to effectively enforce the legislative bases to protect coral reefs and communities.

Coastal Management Strategy: Establish integrated coastal management practices through planning, consultation and action implementation in order to promote sustainable use and conservation of coral reefs and associated environments, utilizing existing laws, regulations and environmental policy tools and creating new ones as needed.

Coastal Management Actions: - Integrated Coastal Management Planning and Implementation CM-1) Develop the national capacity to establish ICZM practices through the creation of an experimental Integrated Coastal Zone Management Authority for the Mexican Caribbean Coast. CM-2) Consolidate existing structures that include intersectorial, interagency and public participation.


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- Management of Coral Reef and Communities CM-3) Categorize coral reefs according to each site's ecological status, uses and potential and utilize existing environmental policy tools to balance the intensity and variety of uses. CM-4) Establish the basic tier for the protection of coral reefs and communities through the implementation of an Official Mexican Norm. CM-5) Protect specific coral reefs and communities through their inclusion in Environmental Zoning Programs and/or prevent their degradation from land based activities through the implementation of such programs in adjacent land areas. CM-6) Protect coral reefs and communities that are of outstanding value to the national heritage, through their inclusion in the National System of Protected Areas.

- Managing Coral Reef Fisheries CM-7) Promote sustainable coral reef fisheries practices, balancing potential output to capture effort. CM-8) Utilize fisheries concessions, permits and authorizations as an important tool for promoting sustainable reef fisheries through site related social and individual appropriation. CM-9) Strengthen existing fisheries management legislation for its use in coral reefs and communities. CM-10) Establish "no take zones" to protect breeding stock, generate increased catches in surrounding areas and enhance the touristic value of coral reefs and communities.

- Managing Threats and Opportunities from Tourism CM-11) Promote sustainable tourism based on the use of coral reefs and communities and generate funds towards their conservation by the development of this activity. CM-12) Strengthen existing tourism legislation for its use in coral reefs and communities.

- Managing Threats from Pollution CM-13) Reduce the threats to coral reefs and communities from pollution, especially from land-based activities. CM-14) Strengthen existing water pollution legislation for its use in coastal and marine habitats.

- Enforcement of Environmental Legislation CM-15) Utilize environmental impact statements and mandatory environmental audits to reduce the threats to coral reefs and communities from fisheries, tourism and pollution. CM-16) Consolidate enforcement activities, utilizing the financial potential existing from the use of coral reefs.


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5.3.1 Integrated Coastal Management Planning and Implementation Problems: - Weak commitment to ICZM due to the low priority in the national agenda, lack of wide ranging working models and specific funding. - Lack of plans and strategies that are developed through intersectorial, interagency, interdisciplinary and public consultations, thus resulting in fragmented and overlapping policies and legislation for the coastal zone. Specific Goal: To develop the bases for implementing sustainable ICZM practices in Mexico, through a coordinated and action oriented institutional, policy and legal framework which emphasizes equity, empowerment and transparency. Specific Objective: Define and coordinate the actions required from all involved actors to achieve the implementation of the national strategy utilizing Integrated Coastal Zone Management practices, in order to reduce the impacts that promote the degradation of coral reefs to maintain their uses and benefits to society. General Considerations Integrated multi-sectoral natural resource planning and management is presently becoming the most appropriate way to address the challenge of biodiversity conservation. Yet achieving this need for the coast is more difficult than for most geo-economic zones. Coastal areas and coastal resources systems are not only biologically complex, but are also governmentally complex because of unclear jurisdiction, dispersal of authority and the amount of common property resources involved. An approach to integrated multi-sectorial resource planning and management for coastal resources has been widely discussed over the last two decades, resulting in the terms Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM) or Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (IMCAM), all referring generally to the same set of strategies and methodologies used in coastal environments, that incorporate management of natural resources, conservation of biodiversity, maximization of socioeconomic benefits and protection of life and property from natural hazards, within a participatory environment that includes all stakeholders and fits the institutional and organizational environment of the regions involved, including political and administrative structures, economic conditions, cultural patterns and social traditions. Action CM-1: - Develop the national capacity to establish ICZM practices through the creation of an experimental Integrated Coastal Zone Management Authority for the Mexican Caribbean Coast. Coral reefs can't be isolated and can't be protected if the complete arrays of sociobiological coastal processes are not taken into consideration. Within this framework, corals could constitute the "flagship or umbrella species" or "charismatic microfauna" that would allow for the adoption of Integrated Coastal Zone Management practices in Mexico that will permit not only their conservation and sustainable use, but that of other coastal ecosystems and species as well. Although the National Environmental Plan 1995-2000 includes environmental protection of coastal zones as a strategy and priority action, no integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) strategy has been explicitly proposed for Mexico. In order to advance towards the implementation of an ICZM strategy for Mexico and due to the complexity of implementing such a strategy at once in a country that includes over 11,000 kilometers of coastline, we propose


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to experiment with the development of an "Integrated Coastal Zone Management Authority" with jurisdiction over a small portion of the coast, as the first step that would help with the further definition of a wider ranging strategy. In this respect, it is proposed that such authority be initially established with the participation of governmental agencies and stakeholders, for the Mexican Caribbean due to the following characteristics: - It comprises only a limited section of coastline, 335 km. of linear length. - It contains a globally significant ecosystem, with extensive coral reef, mangrove and sea grass communities. - The most important economic activities in the area; tourism and fisheries are coastal based. - The Mesoamerican Reef Initiative offers the framework to experiment with international cooperation of ICZM. - The presence of only one state, Quintana Roo on the Caribbean facilitates federal - state coordination. Only six municipalities would need to be involved. - Some examples of integrated coastal zone management that include governmental agencies and stakeholders have been developed in the area, such as the Subcommittee for Protection of the Nichupte Lagoon System, the participatory advisory groups set up for the federal protected areas within the state and the Xcalak Community Coastal Resource Management Project. An ICZM strategy has been implemented for the adjacent coast of Belize, generating experiences that Mexico could draw upon. The proposed authority could be built by the initiative of SEMARNAP through the National Committee for the Protection and Sustainable use of Mexican Reefs, and based upon the experience gained, a national ICZM strategy could be later developed. One drawback might be the limited potential for dealing with upper watershed management issues in this area, due to the karstic underground drainage system of the Yucatan Peninsula.

Action CM-2: - Consolidate existing structures that include intersectorial, interagency and public participation. While action 1 implies the creation of a new entity, action 2 addresses the consolidation of existing structures that already have an ICZM approach and include intersectoral, interagency and public participation including the public and private sectors, NGOs and resource users in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of coastal zone programs and projects. Some of these structures include the Technical Advisory Committees and Planning Committees of protected areas, the National Committee for the Protection and The proposed authority could be built by the initiative of SEMARNAP through the National Committee for the Sustainable use of Mexican Reefs, State Environmental Commissions, the Subcommission for Environmental Zoning for Quintana Roo, the Subcommittee for Protection of the Nichupte Lagoon System and many others. New ICZM structures could by established based on existing legislation included within the National Waters Law, such as the Watershed Councils (Consejos de Cuenca) and National Waters Reserves (Reservas de Aguas Nacionales).

Activities for actions CM-1 and CM-2: - Conduct an audit of agencies, institutions and stakeholders, including all ICZM related bodies, policies and legislation at the national and state levels. - Based on the audit, develop appropriate policies and legislation for addressing identified overlaps and gaps. - Asses ICZM training needs and conduct such training. - Develop and implement appropriate mechanisms for intersectoral, interagency coordination and with stakeholders and the public, including policy guidelines and necessary legislative framework.


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- Develop policy guidelines for use of economic instruments and incentives for broad based participation on ICZM programs. - Develop policies and guidelines for funding mechanisms, including cost recovery for ICZM programs.

5.3.2 Management of Coral Reef and Communities Problem: Coastal and Marine systems are under threat from intense and unsustainable human activities resulting in the potential loss of unique ecosystems. This is jeopardizing their long term biological and economic viability and other benefits to resource users. Insuring that these coastal resources remain in a healthy and viable condition requires effective management. Specific Goal: Achieve the sustainable management of coral reefs and communities through the establishment of a hierarchical system for their management. Specific Objective: Manage coral reefs according to their different ecological values and economical potential in order to maintain a balance of uses, within the context of Mexico's transition to sustainable development and protect coral reefs that are of outstanding value to the national heritage.

Action CM-3: - Categorize coral reefs for according to each site's ecological status, uses and potential and utilize existing environmental policy tools to balance the intensity and variety of uses. While a National Integrated Coastal Zone Management strategy does not currently exist, most of the environmental policy tools that could support such a strategy already exist in Mexican Law. The use of such tools for coral reef protection would facilitate future development of such a strategy. Underlying the National Program for the Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Coral Reefs is the recognition that coral reefs, like other habitats, must be managed according to the specific conditions - the ecological status, uses and development potential - that exist at each site. For this reason, the policies and measures of the Program are organized around a classification system based on the environmental policy tools that will be used for each coral reef site's protection. All major coral reef or communities present in Mexico should be assigned to one of the following three categories: - Coral Reefs protected only through an Official Mexican Norm. This category includes scattered and small coral reefs and communities that are in poor to fair conditions or are poorly formed due to natural oceanographic conditions and do not have unique biological characteristics that require the implementation of additional protection measures. These reefs are of limited significance to local economic activities and their potential for tourism development is low or unconfirmed. - Reefs included within or adjacent to areas covered by Environmental Zoning Programs (POE). This category includes coral reefs or communities in good to fair condition. These reefs are used for artisan fisheries and small scale tourism. These reefs need specific guidelines for their management that could be provided through marine environmental zoning programs and supported by terrestrial ones that protect them from land based activities.


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- Coral Reefs included within the National System of Protected Areas. This category includes coral reefs or communities of outstanding ecological value, of scientific interest and of high potential for tourism. Generally in good and very good conditions, these sites are not without problems and threats, and these should best be approached by declaring them protected areas. Depending on their location these sites would benefit from the establishment of terrestrial or marine environmental zoning programs in adjacent areas.

Activities: - Refine the proposed scheme of classification of coral reefs and communities proposed in Actions CM-4, CM-5 and CM-6, within the National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mexican Reefs.

Action CM-4: - Establish a basic tier for protection of coral reefs and communities through the implementation of an Official Mexican Norm. The primary and most basic tool for protection of coral reefs and communities in Mexico, should be implemented in the form of an Official Mexican Norm. The proposed "Reef Use Norm" would establish the basic regulations for sustainable use of these habitats. The Norm should include regulations on tourism, fisheries and navigation related uses. This Norm would be applicable to all known or unknown coral reefs and communities existing in Mexico and would provide the basic regulations for their use until further regulatory refinement is achieved through "environmental criteria" (criterios ecológicos) contained within POEs, or through specific guidelines established by a protected area management plan. Activities: - Draft and public review process of the Reef Use Official Mexican Norm. - Establisht and implement Reef Use Official Mexican Norm.

Action CM-5: - Protect specific coral reefs and communities through their inclusion in Environmental Zoning Programs and/or prevent their degradation from land based activities through the implementation of such programs in adjacent land areas. The Environmental Zoning Program (POE) is the instrument of Mexican environmental policy that allows for the establishment of land and waters use regulations. The use of POEs could also lead to the development of ICZM practices, if intergovernmental and nongovernmental cooperating bodies (commissions, committees etc.) to look after their implementation are established. In such case, the basis for the implementation of a national ICZM strategy could be furthered. These cooperating bodies could be built upon the experience gained by the Subcommittee for the Protection of the Nichupte Lagoon System in Cancun, Quintana Roo, which oversees the implementation of the POE for the Lagoon System, or any other existing coordinating entity that includes all the coastal actors. It is obvious that the use of the newly established marine POEs will be an important experiment for its applicability and effectiveness. Nevertheless, terrestrial OETs at the national, regional and local level should complement marine OETs by including provisions to protect coral reef communities from land based activities and the


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protection of coastal ecosystems such as wetlands and others, which have an important interrelation with the coral reefs. Activities: - Gulf of California Completion, publication and enforcement of the marine POE for the Gulf of California. Further research is needed in order to identify and cover all existing coral communities along the coastline in order to establish specific "environmental management units" (unidades de gestion ambiental) and "environmental criteria" in order for the POE to become an effective instrument for coral conservation in this area. Completion, publication and enforcement of the regional and local POEs for areas adjacent to coral communities that include: Bahía de la Paz, B.C.S., State of Sonora, Son., Northcentral and Southcentral Coast of Sinaloa, Sin.. These should address impacts from land based activities. - Pacific Ocean Enforcement of the local POE for Bahía de Banderas, Nay. especially with reference to Islas Marietas. Completion, publication and enforcement of the regional POEs for the Coast of Jalisco and the Northern Coast of Nayarit, Nay., including marine units. Completion, publication and enforcement of the local POE for Huatulco, Oax. and inclusion of marine units to protect important coral communities. Promotion of regional POEs for the coasts of Guerrero and Oaxaca, addressing sediment input, tourism and fishery use. - Gulf of Mexico-Veracruz Promotion of a regional POE for the coast of Veracruz. This POE should especially address sediment input to the reef systems.

- Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank Promotion of a marine POE for the Campeche Bank and regional OETs for the coasts of Campeche and Yucatan. - Caribbean Sea Enforcement of the local OET for the Cancun Tulum Touristic Corridor and the Nichupte Lagoon System, Quintana Roo. Since the Cancun-Tulum POE is being revised, environmental criteria dealing with the parts that won't be established as protected areas should be reinforced. Completion, publication and enforcement of the regional POEs for the Maya Coast and Cozumel, Quintana Roo including marine units. Promotion and execution of local POE for the northern coast of Quintana Roo including marine units.

Action CM-6: - Protect coral reefs and communities that are of outstanding value to the national heritage through their inclusion in the National System of Protected Areas. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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The implementation of the following activities would consolidate the National System of Protected Areas (SINAP) with regard to the representativity of coral related ecosystems. Activities: - Gulf of California Zona de Reserva y Refugio de Aves Migratorias y de la Fauna Silvestre Islas del Golfo de California Consolidation of the administrative structure and management plan at two levels: regional (in progress) and specific ones for each site. Needs to be recategorized and redecreed to include marine ecosystems, including coral reefs. Parque Nacional Bahia de Loreto Consolidation of administrative structure. Needs management plan. Parque Nacional Cabo Pulmo Needs administrative structure and management plan. A social participation structure should be defined and established. A project to expand the coverage of Islas del Golfo which will include coral communities is being developed. Further research is needed in order to identify and cover all existing communities around the islands, including those that are covered but not mentioned within the original decree. Some other small areas, yet to be identified may also merit inclusion in the SINAP.

- Pacific Ocean Reserva de la Biosfera Archipiélago de las Revillagigedo Further coordination efforts needed between the Mexican Navy (SEMAR) and SEMARNAP to control touristic activities. Needs management structure and management plan. Zona de Refugio Submarino de Flora y Fauna y Condiciones Ecológicas del Fondo Cabo San Lucas Needs management structure and management plan. No research has taken place, but the area seems to have very limited potential for coral conservation. Would need to be redecreed. Reserva de Caza Cajón del Diablo, Sonora. Needs management structure and management plan. Research is needed to determine its potential for preserving coral and other marine species. Would need to be redecreed. Zona de Refugio para la Protección de Flora y Fauna Marinas Los Arcos, Jalisco Needs management structure and management plan. Research is needed to determine its potential for preserving coral and other marine species. Would need to be redecreed. The following projects to create protected areas that include coral reefs or communities, have been developed to date and are actively being promoted: - Islas Marías, Nay. - Islas Marietas, Nay. - Bahías de Huatulco, Oax. Further research is needed in order to identify all existing coral communities in the Pacific Coast, since some areas yet to be identified may also merit to be included in the SINAP.

-Gulf of Mexico-Veracruz Parque Nacional Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Further coordination efforts needed between the Mexican Navy (SEMAR) and SEMARNAP to control tourism and fishery activities. Needs management structure and management plan. The Northern Veracruz reef system should be declared a protected area and be included in the SINAP.

- Gulf of Mexico-Campeche Bank Zona Especial de Protección de Flora y Fauna Silvestre y Acúatica Los Petenes. Needs management structure and management plan. Research is needed to determine its potential for preserving corals and other marine species. Marine area needs to be redecreed. Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes Further coordination efforts needed between the Mexican Navy (SEMAR) and SEMARNAP to control touristic activities. Needs management structure and management plan. Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Yum Balam Needs management structure and management plan. Research is needed to determine its potential for preserving corals and other marine species. Marine area needs to be redecreed. A project to create a protected area that include coral reefs and communities, called Arrecifes del Banco de Campeche, Camp., Yuc. comprising 920,671 Ha. has been developed and is actively being promoted.

- Caribbean Sea Parque Nacional Isla Contoy Adequate administrative structure and management plan. Fisheries research and impact assessment needed. Tourism impact assessment needed. Parque Nacional Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres Punta Cancun y Punta Nizuc Consolidation of management and administrative structure and management plan needed. Parque Nacional Arrecife de Puerto Morelos Needs management structure and management plan. Should be managed jointly with Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres Punta Cancun and Punta Nizuc. Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel Consolidation of administrative structure and management plan needed. Requires expansion to include the algal micro atolls and shallow patch reefs located in the northern part of the island and the enlargement of the existing polygon to include spur and groove formations that were not included. Parque Natural Laguna de Chankanaab, Quintana Roo. Continue with restoration activities. Reserva de la Biosfera Sian Ka'an Consolidate administrative structure. Establish three marine core zones. Continue studies on sustainable fisheries and reach agreements with fishers to adopt them. Maintain control over the development of tourism activities. Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro Establish management structure and management plan. Enforcement activities badly needed. The following projects to create protected areas that include coral reefs or communities have been developed to date and are actively being promoted: - Arrecife de Cozumel Northern Polygon - 11,109 Ha. Enlargement of Southern Polygon - 1,705 Ha. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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- Arrecifes de Xaman-Ha, Q. Roo Pta Maroma Polygon - 2,024 Ha. Tulum Polygon - 12,044 Ha. - Arrecifes de la Costa Maya, Q. Roo Uaymil Polygon - 23,958 Ha. Majahual Polygon - 6,028 Ha. - Arrecifes de Xcalak ,Q. Roo - 13,340 Ha. Marine 4,037 Ha. Wetland This park would be established adjacent to the Bacalar Chico Marine Reserve in Belize, so management plans should be designed by international cooperation.

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Further research is needed at Arrowsmith Bank in order to identify its conservation values and determine if it merits being included in the SINAP. Presently, this area receives very little human impact, which comes mainly from Isla Mujeres lobster fishermen. Its designation would pose an interesting challenge since it is included within Mexico's Exclusive Economic Zone and not within Mexico's Territorial Sea.

5.3.3 Managing Coral Reef Fisheries Problems: The status and trends of Mexican reef fisheries are a cause of concern. Most coral reef fisheries are either fully exploited or overexploited. Improved conservation and management is needed to insure rehabilitation of overfished stocks, optimum utilization of fisheries resources and preservation of habitats and biological diversity of the reef ecosystem. Specific Goal: To improve fisheries management to optimize resource use and ensure healthy coral ecosystems. Specific Objective: Reduce the impacts from fisheries that promote the degradation of coral reefs and communities, to maintain their uses and benefits to society.

Action CM-7: - Promote sustainable coral reef fisheries practices, balancing potential output to capture effort. Even though coral reefs are some of the most productive marine ecosystems, if measured by total productivity within the system, the net productivity that can be extracted from them without its collapse is very limited, since most of the biomass is permanently circulating within the system. Another important factor to take into account is that on coral reefs there is a permanent competition for the use of substrate, mainly among corals, sponges and algae. In this respect, the overfishing of herbivore fish species turns the table towards the creation of algal reefs. For fisheries this means that the total catch available from coral reefs is limited and that overfishing can have a great immediate impact upon the health of the reef. Although no scientific studies have been oriented to demonstrate the impact of overfishing in coral reefs in Mexico and documentation on the impact of fisheries to reef species stocks is very scarce, empiric evidence suggests that many reef related fisheries might be on decline in some areas. Activities - Consolidate the central and local coordinating mechanisms to ensure participation of the various interest groups in the planning and implementation of fisheries management measures through the legal consolidation of the Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Fisheries Organizational Plans (Ordenamientos Pesqueros) contained within the National Fisheries and Aquaculture Plan 1995-2000, as well as ensure that these measures are integrated in the wider plan for management of the coastal zone. - Develop an experimental participatory Fishery Organizational Plan for the Mexican Caribbean as a complement and utilize the same rationale for justifying the creation of an experimental Integrated Coastal Zone Management Authority for the Mexican Caribbean Coast (See CM-1 and CB-1). - Consolidate, maintain and refine the National Fisheries Register (Registro Nacional de Pesca) for its use on reef fisheries, closely monitor the number of vessels active in the reef fisheries, including information on number of fishermen, vessel capacity, power, gear, operating range and area of operation. - Closely monitor catch rates and species composition of coral reef fisheries, through the refinement of the fisheries statistic information system (sistema de información estadística del sector) in charge of the General Direction of Statistics and Information (Dirección General de Estadística e Informática). - Prohibit fishing practices with proved adverse impacts to coral reefs and communities and promote the use of fishing practices that protect habitat and the structure of fish populations. -Participate in international efforts to manage reef related fisheries such as the International Queen Conch Initiative. - Consolidate the National Institute for Fisheries (Instituto Nacional de la Pesca) to execute research on reef fisheries including biology/ecology, population dynamics and the recruitment of exploited species in coral reef fisheries. Coordinate with and involve other research institutions.

Action CM-8: - Utilize fisheries concessions, permits and authorizations as an important tool for promoting sustainable reef fisheries through site related social and individual appropriation. Fisheries concessions, permits and authorizations (CPA) are the instruments of environmental policy that allow for the management of the "tragedy of the commons" dilemma, where a common use resource will be unavoidably overexploited, unless clear definitions and rules of by whom and how can the commons be used, thus losing their commons status. This is of special importance to coral reef fisheries since many of the organisms are fixed to the substrate and most of the others are territorial or don't move over long distances, at least in their adult stages. Existing permits and authorizations most of the time lack the description of a precise fishing site or are given over too broad an area (i.e. Gulf and Caribbean). This prevents concessionaires and permissionaires from having an incentive for sustainable use of the fishery of a precise site, since they will be able to move to an other site and/or whatever they don't take somebody else will. This situation weakens the potential of CPAs as policy instruments that promote sustainable reef fisheries. Activities: - Consolidate the concession process for Caribbean spiny lobster that has already been initiated. Cooperatives not included in the first phase in Quintana Roo (Chiquilá, Pescadores de Holbox, Cabo Catoche, Isla Blanca, Horizontes Marinos, Patria y Progreso, Del Caribe, Banco Chinchorro and Andrés Quintana Roo) and Yucatan should be included. - Initiate a process to give concessions for queen conch and other conch species to the cooperatives that already have quotas and permits (Langosteros del Caribe, Banco Chinchorro, Andrés Quintana Roo, José María Azcorra and Cozumel) over the same areas given for the lobster concession. Give concessions with no quota and a


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predefined population count and methodology to other cooperatives, to encourage the recuperation of the species to commercial status through supervision and enforcement support from the interested cooperatives. - As existing permits for coral reef and communities related species such as stone crab, marine scale fish, octopus and sharks (D.O.F. 01/10/1990 - Acuerdo que establece un sistema general para la expedición de permisos de pesca comercial por pesquerias) are phased out by expiration, new fishing permits should be given over restricted and clearly specified areas to promote individual or limited collective responsibility over coral reef fisheries and establish the obligation to report catches by species and size. - An independent permit for Hogfish (Boquinete - Lachnolaimus maximus), separate from the one given for marine scale fish, should be established, modifying the permit guidelines contained in D.O.F. 01/10/1990, and given only to lobster and conch concessionaires or permissionaires. Since Hogfish are caught only by diving and harpooning, this measure would result in "dry" fishermen fishing from boats with no diving equipment, hooks or harpoons, and "wet" fishermen that dive for lobster, conch and hogfish. This measure would help reduce piracy practices through the simplification of enforcement activities. - Permits for ornamental fish species should be given based on sound population dynamics studies presented by the solicitant.

Action CM-9: - Strengthen existing fisheries management legislation for its use in coral reefs and communities. Although Mexico has an extensive body of laws dealing with fisheries, some specific modifications and additions need to be implemented in order to adapt to particularities resulting from the specific conditions of reef fisheries outlined in Action CM-7. Activities: - Modify Official Mexican Norm NOM-059-ECOL-1994 that determines status of Mexican species, to include all species of corals within the special protection status. (This is specially important for the genus Antipathes since the species identified by the norm are not the ones present in the Caribbean and perhaps not even in Mexico). - Analyze the convenience and feasibility of modifying the Official Mexican Norm NOM-017-PESC-1994 that deals with recreational fisheries to include more specific guidelines for coral reef and communities related fisheries. - Establish an Official Mexican Norm that specifies the type and scope of studies needed to continue with and determine catch quotas for fisheries such as: * Nassau Grouper and other aggregating species in reproductive aggregating events. * Black Coral species (Antiphates spp.) * Sponge Species - Develop specific guidelines for coral reef and communities related domestic consumption fisheries (pesca de consumo doméstico) as called by Article 58 of the Fisheries Regulations (Reglamento de la Ley de Pesca) to prevent negative impacts from this seemingly innocuous activity, through the establishment of a Mexican Official Norm for coral reefs and communities and/or include these guidelines in the Reef Use Norm (See Action 4)

Action CM-10: - Establish "no take zones" to protect breeding stock, generate increased catches in surrounding areas and enhance the touristic value of coral reefs and communities. "Marine fisheries reserves" or "no take zones" should be established through the designation of core zones within protected areas (based on the Ecological Law) or the establishment of fishery reserves and refuge zones and Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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fishing bans in non protected areas (based on the Fisheries Law), to protect threatened or endangered species, or phenomena such as Nassau Grouper or other species reproduction aggregating sites. Fisheries reserves or bans should be established according to species or zone and should be temporary or permanent. These type of zones should be established in coordination with the fishermen, since over time they can increase catches in surrounding areas and if feasible, alternative employment opportunities based on nature tourism, should be implemented in order to complement the fishermen’s income while the said ifect is noticeable.. Monitoring programs should be an integral part of the no take zones in order to document their effectiveness, of all three of the potential benefits: protecting the breeding stock, generating increased catches in surrounding areas and enhancing the touristic potential of coral reefs and communities to divers. Activities: - Define areas for experimenting with the establishment of no take zones in coral reefs with the participation of local fishermen and communities. - Establish two or three experimental no take zones in coral reef areas where they can be easily enforced (Xcalak, Cabo Pulmo, parts of the Veracruz Reef System, Xamach - Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, etc.). - Establish protocols for community participation in the evaluation of the effectiveness of no take zones.

5.3.4 Managing Threats and Opportunities from Tourism Problems: - Development of tourism activities that negatively affect the health of coral reefs and communities directly through uncontrolled diving activities or indirectly through uncontrolled coastal development. - The development of tourism activities on coral reefs and communities, has not produced revenues that are dedicated specifically to support research and conservation activities. Specific Goal: To achieve sustainable use of coral reefs and communities through the implementation of planned tourism activities that generate social benefits through the creation of employment opportunities and funds to support research and conservation activities

Specific Objective: Reduce the impacts from tourism that promote the degradation of coral reefs and communities to maintain their uses and benefits to society.

Action CM-11: - Promote sustainable tourism based on the use of coral reefs and communities and generate funds toward their conservation through the development of this activity. Coral reefs and communities have a high potential for sustaining touristic activities, either from traditional mass tourism as it can be observed in Costa occidental de Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancun and Punta Nizuc National Park with more than 1,000,000 visitors a year, or from the emerging markets of ecotourism, nature oriented tourism and adventure tourism. National campaigns for promotion of tourism, should include the use of these ecosystems as an important attraction, but should also emphasize their fragility and the necessity of using them carefully.


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Fishermen participation and cooperation in the development of tourist activities in an area, through the reduction of catch effort in coral reef fisheries, is of special importance in order to make these habitats more valuable for tourists by increasing the size of fish and their abundance. The development of tourism activities in coral reefs and communities should be accompanied by mechanisms that allow for the generation of specific funding toward their management. Activities: - Within the context of the Maya World tourism promotion program highlight the concept of the "Maya Reef", stressing the importance of coral reefs as a touristic resource that needs to be responsibly managed. Specific promotional campaigns in the Pacific Ocean resorts, should also include this concept when promoting diving activities. - Include local communities, and especially fishermen, as beneficiaries of touristic infrastructure development and financing programs. - Define specific mechanisms (either voluntary or through fiscal means) that will allow for the generation of specific funds for management of coral reefs and communities derived from their touristic use.

Action CM-12: - Strengthen existing tourism legislation for its use in coral reefs and communities. The Official Mexican Norm NOM-05-TUR-1995 that deals with services provided by dive operators is currently being modified (D.O.F. 20/10/1997). The proposed new version is excludes specifications for diving in areas not included within protected areas, a situation that could potentially affect coral reefs. Instead of "downlisting" these areas the norm should reinforce the responsibility of dive operators in guaranteeing that their clients do not damage the reefs, so penalties derived from the Tourism Law and its Regulations can be applied in addition to those within the Environmental Law. Some specific diving regulations that should be included, are already contained within the Regulations for Diving Services (Reglamento para la Prestacion de Servicios de Buceo, D.O.F. 24/02/92, abrogado) which is no longer in effect. The legal responsibility of dive guides (dive masters) should be clearly defined since they are the people who interact directly with the diver and the reef. This responsibility should be reinforced by modifying the Official Mexican Norm NOM-09-TUR-1997 that establishes guidelines for specialized guides.

Activities: - Reinforce Official Mexican Norm NOM-05-TUR-1995 for coral reef protection through the participatory process established for its modification. (Deadline to provide necessary input to the Nacional Council for Touristic Normalization 19/12/1997) - Reinforce Official Mexican Norm NOM-09-TUR-1997 by establishing legal responsibility for dive guide in case of negligence that causes harm to coral reefs and communities.

5.3.5 Managing Threats from Pollution Problem: Land-based point and non-point pollutants, in particular nutrients and sediment loads, constitute a major contribution to the degradation of coral reefs. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Specific Goal: To reduce through the ICZM process the land-based (point and non-point) sources of pollution reaching the coastal and marine environment of the region, considering the entire watershed and adopting the most appropriate and economically feasible treatment facilities and management practices, in particular for sewage, sediment, and nutrients. Specific Objective: Reduce the impacts from pollution that promote the degradation of coral reefs and communities to maintain their uses and benefits to society.

Action CM-13: - Reduce the threats to coral reefs and communities from pollution, especially from land-based activities. External inputs of pollution such as nutrients, sediments and toxic substances have devastating effects over the delicate natural balance found in coral reefs and communities. In order to achieve positive effects from this strategy an ICZM type of approach that considers threats to coral reefs and communities at the level of the complete watershed needs to be implemented. Activities: - Complete negotiation of the protocol on land-based sources of marine pollution to the Cartagena Convention and MARPOL's Annexes III, IV and V. - Complete "Inventory of land-based pollutants to the sea applying GIS" already initiated by the National Institute of Ecology (INE) and the Navy Secretariat (SEMAR) for the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. - Initiate an inventory with the same methodology for the Gulf of California, the Bahia de Banderas area and the Guerrero and Oaxaca, while the complete inventory for the Pacific Coast is executed. - Identify and evaluate possible sources of non-land-based sources of pollution that may affect the health of coral reefs and communities. - Establish the baseline of environmental parameters for Mexican seas. It is especially important to determine marine currents local patterns in and around coral reefs and communities to evaluate possible dispersal of pollutants. Identify and monitor appropriate bio-indicators. - Provide financial and technical assistance to implement effective existing technologies and management practices for the collection and treatment of sewage. In this context, the best affordable technologies should also be considered if the very best technologies, such as tertiary treatment, are unaffordable. - Implement erosion control practices such as re-vegetation, road paving, sediment screening and soil conserving agricultural practices, where sediments are identified as major threat to coral reefs. - Promote sound application of fertilizers and pesticides, as well as integrated pest management. - Implement pollution prevention strategies to reduce solid waste and industrial pollutants. - Design and implement strategies to prevent and contingency plans to control emergencies derived from oil spills. - Identify and monitor appropriate bio-indicators. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Action CM-14: - Strengthen existing water pollution legislation for its use in coastal and marine habitats. Fragmented and overlapping legislation for managing coastal and marine pollution and its relationship with the adjoining watershed complicate coordination efforts toward the application of the laws. Activities: - Simplify and adequate existing pollution legislation dealing with watersheds, coastal and marine bodies of waters into a comprehensive legislative framework. - Adopt and implement relevant water quality standards such as the ones established by D.O.F. 02/12/1989 no longer in effect (Acuerdo por el que se establecen los Criterios Ecológicos de Calidad del Agua CE-CCAOO1/89), which defined ecological criteria for determining water quality on inorganic, organic, microbiological and radioactive parameters, applicable to protection of aquatic life in coastal and marine waters. - Establish an Official Mexican Norm dealing with specific conditions of sewage discharge in the Yucatan Peninsula subsoil, where karstic geological features pose special problems with nutrient transfer to the fringing reefs.

5.3.6 Enforcing Environmental Legislation Problems: - Fragmented and overlapping policies and legislation for the coastal zone complicate the enforcement of laws and regulations. - Lack of financial resources for the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations. Specific Goal: To consolidate the national capacity for enforcement of coastal zone environmental legislation. Specific Objective: - Build and strengthen the national capacity to effectively enforce the legislative bases that protect coral reefs and communities.

Action CM-15: - Utilize environmental impact assessments and mandatory environmental audits to reduce the threats to coral reefs and communities from fisheries, tourism and pollution. Environmental impact assessments (EIA) have traditionally been considered by economic interests as just another element of the list of numerous pieces of red tape that stand in the way for the development of their businesses. On the other hand cumulative impacts resulting from additive individual impacts are not considered in individual EIS and thus affect the integrity of coral reefs and communities.


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Environmental audits within Mexican Legislation are voluntary instruments to promote self-compliance of environmental legislation. Due to the fragility of coral ecosystems, it would be necessary to establish mandatory environmental audit type mechanisms to evaluate impacts on coral reefs and communities in the operational phase of projects that can affect their integrity. Activities: - Include, as a mandatory requirement on all EIAs for construction and/or development of activities adjacent to, or in the vicinity of coral reefs or communities, the evaluation of impacts during the construction and operational phases of the project to coral communities derived from: * Expected increments of domestic consumption fisheries (pesca de consumo doméstico) and recreational fisheries. * Expected increments of external inputs of pollution to coral habitats such as nutrients, sediments and toxic substances. * Expected increments of tourist visitation to the coral habitats derived from the project. * Expected increments of navigation related activities. Sites where these specific items should be required include: * Eastern Coast of Quintana Roo * Veracruz from Laguna Tamiahua to Barra de Tuxpan and from the north of Veracruz City to Boca del Rio. * Bahia de Banderas, Nayarit and Jalisco * Portions of the coast of the Gulf of California, Guerrero and Jalisco. - Define mechanisms for evaluating cumulative impacts to coral habitats derived from apparently non impacting individual activities, analyzed through individual EIAs. - Stipulate within the conditions (condicionantes) specified in the EIA, mandatory and pre scheduled environmental audits as a tool to evaluate whether expected environmental impacts to coral habitats were correctly estimated and fell within tolerable parameters. - Stipulate within the conditions specified in the EIA, mandatory monitoring and mitigation measures or closure of activities in cases where environmental audits detected negative impacts on coral habitats. Action CM-16: - Consolidate enforcement activities, utilizing the financial potential existing from the use of coral reefs. Even though a very complete body of laws is available in Mexico to protect coastal and marine habitats, including coral reefs and communities, the beneficial environmental impacts that they were meant to produce are not achieved, since enforcement capabilities are extremely limited over such a large and conflictive area. The "polluters pay" principle and its complement "beneficiaries pay", could be used to create a fund that would reinforce the Environmental Attorney’s (PROFEPA) ability to carry out enforcement activities, if open access resources are assigned to groups of clearly identified stakeholders. As an example, if specific groups of fishermen or dive operators were assigned specific areas for their exclusive sustainable use, they would certainly be more willing to pay for the enforcement of their "exclusive rights". This principle is now being experimented in some reef protected areas, and could further be applied to guarantee availability of financial resources for enforcement activities. Activities: - Define, in conjunction with present stakeholders, experimental fund generating mechanisms in specific areas, to support enforcement activities by PROFEPA. - Establish mechanisms to channel funds generated by penalties or fines into enforcement activities.


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- Broaden the scope of successful funding mechanisms and institutionalize them, providing the necessary legislative framework if required. - Gradually integrate fragmented and overlapping policies and legislation for coastal zone management, in parallel with the development of an ICZM strategy for Mexico, in order to simplify the enforcement of laws and regulations. - Provide specific training to PROFEPA personnel to enforce coastal and marine legislation. - Support enforcement activities for the protection of historical heritage in the form of ship wrecks, in coordination with the National Institute for Anthropology and History (INAH) (Laws on this issue also need reinforcement).

5.4 Capacity Building Capacity Building Objectives - Build and strengthen the national commitment and capability both within and outside the government to implement coral reef management actions, through the development of a dynamic, on-going process of comanagement, involving the empowerment of the resource users. - Create and fortify social awareness of the value of coral reefs and communities to provide for wide based support for their conservation, through a change of attitudes and behavioral patterns. - Build and strengthen sustainable financing mechanisms that will permit the implementation of the Program. Capacity Building Strategy: Build and maintain strong social support for reef conservation through the establishment of co-management practices, networks for stakeholders communication, education, public education and the promotion of sustainable financing and technical support mechanisms. Capacity Building Actions: - Co-Managing Coral Reef and Communities Resources CB-1) Experiment with co-management practices, building upon existing consultative participatory bodies such as the Technical Advisory Committees and Planning Committees of protected areas. CB-2) Experiment with co-management practices within the context of the proposed experimental Integrated Coastal Zone Management Authority and participatory Fishery Organizational Plan for the Mexican Caribbean.

- Educating and Informing the Public CB-3) Launch national and local public information campaigns stressing the values that coral reefs and communities provide to society. CB-4) Encourage volunteer, user, private sector and general public participation in reef management. CB-5) Incorporate coral reef conservation into school curricula.

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CB-6) Develop capabilities in public institutions to achieve financial sustainability of the Program. CB-7) Develop capabilities in private institutions and organizations to achieve financial sustainability of the Program.

5.4.1 Co-Managing Coral Reefs and Communities Resources Problem: Traditional public sector approaches to resource management in general, and coastal zone management in particular, have not proven to be as effective as they need to be. Specific Goal: To achieve sustainable development of the coastal zone through a partnership of public and private sectors, resource users, local communities, NGO's, the scientific community and donor agencies. Specific Objective: Build and strengthen the national commitment and capability both within and outside the government to implement coral reef management actions, through the development of a dynamic, on-going process of comanagement, involving the empowerment of the resource users. General Considerations: As in the case of the implementation of an ICZM strategy for Mexico, and in order to advance toward the implementation of a strategy to establish co-management practices for natural resources use in Mexico, small and mid-scale models should be developed, as the first step to gain the experience that would help further definition of a wider ranging strategy. The proposed co-management activities for coral reefs and communities would deal mainly with high prized products or services such as lobster, conch and tourism, which would facilitate the establishment of the necessary participatory forum to communicate, negotiate and develop specific agreements. Action CB-1: Experiment with co-management practices, building upon protected areas consultative participatory bodies such as the Technical Advisory Committees (TAC), Planing Councils (PC) or Advisory Councils (AC). Activities: - Gulf of California Islas del Golfo Consolidation of existing TAC for co-management of fisheries and low intensity tourism. Parque Nacional Bahia de Loreto Consolidation of existing PC for co-management of fisheries and tourism. Parque Nacional Cabo Pulmo Establishment of PC for co-management of commercial and ornamental fisheries and tourism. - Pacific Ocean Reserva de la Biosfera Archipíelago de las Revillagigedo Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Establishment of PC for co-management of commercial and sport fisheries. - Gulf of Mexico Parque Nacional Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano Establishment of PC for co-management of commercial fisheries, low intensity tourism and port activities. Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes Establishment of PC for co-management of commercial fisheries. Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Yum Balam Consolidation of AC for co-management of commercial coastal lagoon and marine fisheries. - Caribbean Sea Parque Nacional Isla Contoy Consolidation of TAC for co-management of the lobster fishery and tourist activities. Experimental comanagement of the Spiny Lobster and the Ballyhoo (Hemiramphus spp.) as bait fish has provided valuable examples. Parque Nacional Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc Consolidation of PC for co-management of low intensity commercial fisheries and high intensity tourism. Parque Nacional Arrecife de Puerto Morelos Establishment of PC for co-management of low intensity commercial fisheries and tourism.

Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel Consolidation of AC for co-management of low intensity commercial and sport fisheries and tourism. Reserva de la Biosfera Sian Ka'an Consolidation of TAC for co-management of commercial and sport fisheries, tourism and coastal touristic development. Experimental co-management of the Caribbean Spiny Lobster has provided valuable experience. Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro Establishment of PC for co-management of commercial conch, lobster and other fisheries and low intensity tourism.

Action CB-2: Experiment with co-management practices within the context of the proposed experimental Integrated Coastal Zone Management Authority and participatory Fishery Organizational Plan for the Mexican Caribbean. (See CM-1 and CM-7). Activities for Action CB-1 and CB-2: - Review and analyze on-going initiatives in co-management in order to document and share experiences and technical data in co-management. - Develop and implement procedures for facilitating co-management of natural resources, including: * Facilitating the formation of stakeholder groups by informing the stakeholder of the value of comanagement and how to implement it. *Providing the scientific data (biological, economic, social, and cultural) necessary to guide the negotiation process, implementation, and review of resource management plans.


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*Preparing a resource management plan, including appropriate legislation, that identifies and/or develops economic alternatives for resource exploitation. - Develop the resources necessary to effectively implement a co-management plan, including the necessary documents and manuals for advertising and training stakeholders, government officials, international and local funding agencies, etc. - Form a pool of regional expertise in co-management available to aid the establishment of coastal zone comanagement (e.g. by providing training). - Disseminate information to all the stakeholders in the co-management partnership in a relevant and appropriate manner.

5.4.2 Educating and Informing the Public Problem: Poor understanding of the value of coastal and marine resources and the impact of human activities on these resources has resulted in environmental degradation throughout the Tropical Americas. Specific Goal: To achieve sustainable management and conservation of coastal and marine resources through targeted education and environmental awareness. Specific Objective: Create and fortify social awareness on the value of coral reefs and communities to provide for wide based support for their conservation, through a change of attitudes and behavioral patterns. General Considerations: Public support is essential for any successful resource management initiative. Public awareness, education and participation programs should play a fundamental role in building such support. Much progress on public awareness of coral reefs has been made in Mexico, although this has happened through negative media campaigns attacking the construction of the Puerta Maya cruise ship pier at Cozumel. On the positive side, this has raised national public awareness of the value and fragility of coral reefs. Having gained public attention, a unique opportunity exists to broaden public education and participation efforts, in order to encompass more issues and propose practical solutions. Informed reef users are more likely to voluntarily comply with regulations. Enhanced appreciation and understanding among decision makers, the private sector, and local residents will lead to active involvement and other tangible contributions to reef management. Public constituency development strategies can be more effective if they are planned globally but implemented at the local level. In order to achieve broader participation in issues dealing with coral reefs and communities, the public education and awareness component of the National Program should be designed and coordinated through an ad-hoc Subcommittee formed within the framework of the National Committee for Conservation and sustainable use of Mexican Coral Reefs and implemented through networks created specifically to develop and invigorate the following Local Coral Reef Initiatives: - Gulf of California and Northern Pacific Coral Reef Initiative: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit and Jalisco. - Mexican Southern Pacific Coral Reef Initiative: Guerrero and Oaxaca. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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- Gulf of Mexico Coral Reef Initiative: Veracruz, Campeche and Yucatan in collaboration with US coral reef initiatives. - Mexican Caribbean Coral Reef Initiaive: Quintana Roo within the framework of the Mesoamerican Coral Reef Systems Initiative. The educational and public awareness component of the National Program should be lemented with support from the Center for Education and Training for Sustainable Development of SEMARNAP (Centro de Educación y Capacitación para el Desarrollo Sustentable - CECADESU) and the Northwest, Occidental and South Southeast Environmental Educators Networks (Redes Regionales de Educadores Ambientales del Noroeste - RREANO, Occidente - REAW y Sur Sureste - RREAS de México). CECADESU works at the national level, REA works in the Gulf of California and REAW in Nayarit and Jalisco, where the Gulf of California and Northern Pacific Coral Reef Initiative should be implemented and RREAS is active in the geographic area that covers the Mexican Southern Pacific, Gulf of Mexico and Mexican Caribbean (active at this moment) Coral Reef Initiatives. The National Program proposes three actions to implement this specific objective: expanded public awareness campaigns, support for action groups, and school curriculum development.

Action CB-3: Launch national and local public information campaigns stressing the values that coral reefs and communities provide to society. Large segments of the general public and selected target groups are now aware of the value of Mexico's coral reefs and communities as a result of the extensive sensationalistic media coverage of recent years. Information and public participation campaigns which have largely focused on the physical damage caused to reefs by tourist related uses will need to be oriented to reinforce the favorable context for coral reef management. Broadened national educational campaigns will help sustain media, public and political attention on the most urgent reef protection issues. Local information campaigns should reach target groups such as fishermen and businesses, using the most appropriate communication techniques and networks. These efforts will set the stage for demonstrations in reef management, and enhance voluntary compliance with regulations of the National Program. At the national level, the information campaign should disseminate increasingly more focused information on the impacts of coastal development on coral reefs. In addition to addressing current threats, educational messages should include the prevention of damage from pollution and solid waste disposal. Brochures, booklets, and media coverage should be directed at specialized audiences such as resource users, tourism businesses, and the industrial sector. The Secretariats of Tourism (SECTUR) and Environment Natural Resources and Fisheries (SEMARNAP), national news media, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) should be directly involved in implementing the campaign. Technical assistance and funds should be made available for organizing educational events and producing materials at the state and municipal levels. Educators at local universities, and research centers, NGOs and local governments will be responsible for establishing priorities and appropriate themes for these local campaigns. Activities: - Identify the relevant target groups to be addressed and involve them in the educational process. - Conduct diagnostic studies of public awareness activities to determine those methods which have resulted in behavioral change such as policy and institutional changes, conservation by resource users, pollution control/mitigation by industry sector, etc.


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- Develop a targeted and strategic educational program to enhance media effectiveness in communicating coastal issues to the general public. - Develop programs aimed at improving public education and awareness of policy makers, fishermen, farmers, school children, developers, tourism interest and other groups whose activities impact coastal and marine resources. - Prepare educational materials relating to coral reefs and associated ecosystems targeting the general public.

Action CB-4: Encourage user, private sector and general public participation in reef management. Community organizations, special-interest groups, and the private sector have an inherent interest in becoming involved in some aspects of coral reef management. There is a need to encourage public participation so that these efforts are effective and directed toward priority issues. Local Coral Reef Initiatives should help create cooperative partnerships among government and community groups, universities, and the private sector, to enable the active participation of the Mexican people in reef management initiatives. These partnerships will take the form of joint ventures, corporate donations, volunteer action, and other ways of mobilizing people and funds for conservation. Technical assistance, documentation, and assistance in locating funds should be provided to community groups, NGOs, and other organizations wanting to take an active role in reef management. Technical assistance should include short-term training, public workshops, extension and advisory services for organizing cleanup campaigns, installing and maintaining mooring buoys and signs, production of educational materials and their application, planning reef-watch programs, volunteer visitor surveys, restoration of national park facilities, support of local school events and outings, fund-raising events, diver safety training and other field operations. Information brochures, maps, and other documentation should be made available to volunteer groups. This measure will gradually create a context and means that favor volunteer public action in support of the National Program through Local Coral Reef Initiatives. Active public participation in the practical aspects of reef management is expected to create a sense of local and national stewardship. By developing new skills and knowledge within special interest groups, this measure is also likely to reduce demands on government staff and funds. Activities: - Provide the public with the necessary tools and technologies to affect public policy and resource use practices which may be detrimental to coral reefs and communities. - Develop educational packages for key economic and political sectors to demonstrate the economic benefits of selected coastal resources conservation measures, as well as cost effective management practices and technologies to minimize land-based sources of marine pollution. - Inform the public of the crisis facing the coral reef systems in general and the fisheries in particular and solicit active participation in fisheries management strategies.


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Action CB-5: Incorporate coral reef conservation into school curricula. There is a keen interest among educators to add environmental topics such as coral reefs and other coastal habitats into school curricula. These topics are timely and offer excellent opportunities for multidisciplinary classroom activities. Over time, this measure will give educators practical experience in incorporating environmental education topics into formal curricula. Innovative and relevant classroom activities will help to give youth a sense of national pride in their natural heritage and to generate interest in resource management careers. SEMARNAP and the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP) should assess the feasibility of adding coast-related topics including coral reefs into the science and social studies curricula at the primary and secondary school level.

Activities: - Compile and evaluate existing coral reef educational materials and translate applicable materials. - Develop hands-on and activity-based local teaching materials on marine and coastal resources for inclusion in primary and secondary school curricula and ensure their effective application through the State Education Systems (Sistemas Educativos de los Estados). - Involve teachers in testing teaching materials by integrating them into lesson plans. - Provide technical assistance and documentation to teachers.

5.4.3 Sustainable Financing Problem: Management of coral reefs and associated ecosystems is hampered by a lack of adequate financial resources and difficulties in accessing them. There are inadequate national and regional capabilities to develop and implement financial strategies for ICZM and its related components. Specific Goal: To improve the national capacity to generate and access funds for managing coastal resources on a sustainable basis. Specific Objective: Build and strengthen sustainable financing mechanisms that will permit the implementation of the Program. General Considerations: Just as natural resource use should be environmentally sustainable to meet long-term objectives for improving human welfare, conservation efforts should be financially sustainable to ensure long term environmental protection and continuous benefits. Concern about the sustainable financing of conservation has grown with the realization that identifying solutions to problems is not enough. Actions must be initiated and sustained through continuous investments until conservation objectives are met. Traditional financing, such as public sector support, is generally not a viable option for long-term conservation. Governments alone are unable to provide full support for conservation and sustainable use efforts. While start-up costs for establishment of conservation efforts are often forthcoming, economic uncertainty and competing demands on public budgets limit the level of investment Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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for operations and maintenance. Shifting political support for the environmental agenda can prevent long-range planning required for the sustainable management of coral reefs and communities. Financing conservation efforts requires mixed strategies that involve combinations of approaches and partnerships. This may include a mix of grants and loans, new approaches to revenue generation, the development of public-private partnerships, greater participation from nongovernmental organizations and community based co-management arrangements that build local incentives. Sustainable financing for coral reefs and communities conservation applies not only to areas where they are present; it must also encompass efforts outside these areas, where the bulk of development activities affecting the productivity and health of coral reefs and communities take place. In order to build the partnerships that will facilitate obtaining the necessary funds to implement the National Program, it is important to clearly identify and quantify economic benefits (expressed in $) and values that coral reef resources provide to Mexican society in general and particularly to the national economy. This information will enhance the capability to increase financial support from public and private sources. Action CB-6: Develop capabilities in public institutions to achieve financial sustainability of the National Program. Activities: General - Identify and quantify economic benefits and values that coral reef resources provide to Mexican society in general and particularly to the national economy, in order to demonstrate a case for financial support from public and private sources. - Improve coordination among different levels and agencies of governments and with NGOs, the private sector and other relevant organizations to identify and access funds. - Provide training and technical assistance to environmental management agencies in the design and implementation of revenue generating programs.

Fiscal Resources - Utilizing hard data on the present and potential revenue generating potential of coral reefs and communities, promote an increment of fiscal resources in the national budget dedicated to coral reef research, conservation and management.

International Loans - Identify funding opportunities attached to international loans, such as Word Bank/GEF grants covering "incremental costs", derived from development projects that adopt environmental protection measures in addition of, or with higher standards, to the ones normally required. - Identify sources of "softer" loans to cover costs related to the development of the infrastructure, that will allow for the conservation of coastal resources, such as sewage and water treatment systems for coastal communities adjacent to coral reefs and communities.


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Taxes and Fiscal Rights (Derechos) - Facilitate development of revenue generating opportunities from marine protected areas services such as entrance and user fees, concessions, etc. and define mechanisms to channel resulting funds towards reef conservation efforts (Destino Específico). - Establish a tax on all diving equipment sold or brought into Mexico and channel resulting funds towards reef conservation efforts. - Establish mechanisms to channel funds generated by penalties or fines into enforcement activities and institutionalize them to consolidate PROFEPA's role in supporting the National Program. Bioprospection - Define in conjunction with CONABIO the national guidelines for developing bioprospecting activities in Mexico.

Action CB-7: Develop capabilities in private institutions and organizations to achieve financial sustainability of the National Program. Activities: General. - Improve coordination among national and international NGOs, regional entities, the private and social sector and other relevant organizations with the government, to identify and access funds. - Encourage the creation of dedicated environmental funds for research, management, and capacity building.

Nongovernmental Conservation and/or Development Organizations. - Strengthen national, regional and local NGOs to enable them to effectively participate in the National Program, by expanding the availability of financial resources. - Provide training and technical assistance to environmental and/or development organizations in the design and implementation of fundraising programs.

Research and Academic Institutions. - Promote increased financial support for research institutions, with a special emphasis on the Mexican Pacific and supporting long range monitoring programs. - Promote the Mexican Research and Monitoring Agenda internationally, to attract foreign scientists who can access international resources in support of the National Plan.

Social and Private Sectors - Provide training and technical assistance to grassroots social organizations, in the design and implementation of programs, that will allow them to finance the development of reduced impact resource use practices. - Create and consolidate trade organizations interested in the conservation and rational use of the reefs used in connection to their touristic activities, through an "adopt a reef" type of strategy. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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- Create a system of "green" (or blue) certification to identify touristic establishments that adhere to "reef safe" guidelines. - Define in conjunction with present stakeholders experimental fund generating mechanisms in specific areas, to support enforcement activities by PROFEPA and supervision by INE. - Create creative partnerships among the Mexican Government, pharmaceutical companies and the local people, to explore the income generating potential of bioprospecting.

5.5 Research and Monitoring Research and Monitoring Objectives: - Obtain the scientific bases that will permit the effective conservation and sustainable management of reef resources and associated environments. - Define protocols and prioritize sites for monitoring the effects of natural and human impacts and their synergies on coral reefs and communities. - Establish the framework for interinstitutional and interdisciplinary collaboration to achieve the goal of the national strategy. Research and Monitoring Strategy: - Obtain the scientific knowledge needed to manage coral reefs through the support of research and monitoring programs and by establishing networks for coordination and cooperation among research institutions and the other actors involved. Research and Monitoring Actions: - Establishing a National Research and Monitoring Agenda RM-1) Develop a research and monitoring agenda for the Pacific Ocean. RM-2) Develop a research and monitoring agenda for the Gulf of Mexico. RM-3) Develop a research and monitoring agenda for the Caribbean Sea.

- Coordinating Research and Monitoring Efforts RM-4) Establish a National Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee (N-STAC) as recommended by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), within the framework of the National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Reefs.

5.5.1 Establishing a National Research and Monitoring Agenda Problems: Ability to manage coastal resources in Mexico is hampered by: - Limited local sociological, economical, and ecological understanding. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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- Poor knowledge of fundamental aspects of coral reef biology/ecology and sociology/natural resource economics. - Incomplete use of available knowledge due to poor dissemination and lack of information and data-sharing networks. - Perceived low value of research and monitoring by funding agencies, policy-makers, and the public at large. Specific Goal: To utilize research and monitoring to facilitate better management of coastal and marine resources. Specific Objectives: Research - Obtain the scientific bases that will permit the effective conservation and sustainable management of reef resources and associated environments. Monitoring - Define protocols and prioritize sites for monitoring the effects of natural and human impacts and their synergies on coral reefs and communities. General Considerations: The following Actions contain a series of recommendations aimed at making research and monitoring on Mexican coral reefs and communities more efficient. These general recommendations are intended to balance the amount and type of research in different geographic regions and among different topics that we consider to be priorities in order to have a more complete and accurate knowledge of the reef structures in Mexico. We also emphasize topics that should be considered in order to develop conservation and sustainable use of resources in different areas. The development of a research and monitoring agenda will improve understanding of coastal resources: the natural ecosystem, the interaction of human activities with it, and each other and will provide information and data to help develop useful guidelines and options for resource managers and decision makers. The economic importance of coral reefs can not be excluded from a coherent conservation plan. Many communities depend on resources provided by the reef such as fish, lobster, conch, black corals and tourism. Therefore research concerned with the sustainable use of these resources should be encouraged. Besides research directly oriented towards conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs, a point equally important but frequently underestimated is that of basic research. This is research directly related to the biology of the different organisms in the coral reef but with no intended application in the short or long term to its conservation or sustainable use. Excluding this kind of research from the list of priorities will have negative long term consequences; the accumulation of basic knowledge is frequently the source of unexpected applications and the scientific and economic strength of a country has been shown to be highly dependent on the existence of a strong basic research program. It is important to balance efforts and resources among research oriented to conservation, and sustainable use and basic knowledge. Another research issue that has been traditionally neglected is that pertaining to the archaeological exploration of historical heritage in the form of ship wrecks, many of which are found within coral reef ecosystems.


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Action RM-1: Develop a research and monitoring agenda for the Pacific Ocean. Very few countries, if any, have so many coral reef formations in two different oceans. Reefs from the Pacific Ocean had been underestimated until very recently (26 publications on this region before 1989 and 39 since that year). One reason for this is that they were relatively unknown since they are not easily accessible from the coast and they are not as conspicuous (emergent) as those in the Atlantic. Recent efforts by institutions in Baja California and Oaxaca have shown that Pacific coral communities are more important than previously thought. Despite their great effort in the last few years, the lack of information on these communities is still enormous when we compare it with the Atlantic. Even though these coral communities may not present the same degree of structural development as the ones in the Atlantic, this does not make them less important since they might be equally or more sensitive to disturbances by development along the coast, such could be the case on the Oaxaca coast near to Huatulco, where a relatively recent tourist development is taking place. It is for this reason that more research should be focused on the study of Pacific coral communities in order to raise the level of information to that of the Atlantic. Accomplishing this would give Mexico the unique opportunity to develop a global strategy to study coral reefs in two Oceans. The huge benefits derived from this would be reflected in conservation, sustainable use and basic research since these aspects would be more efficiently accomplished. Researchers would have access to a data network on reefs of very different characteristics. Special efforts should be made to have a complete inventory and description of Pacific structures since many may have not even been documented. The extension of the Mexican Pacific is enormous and great portions may have not been properly surveyed.

Action RM-2: Develop a research and monitoring agenda for the Gulf of Mexico. The first formal studies on Mexican reefs were done in the Southern Veracruz Reef System. These structures have been known in greater detail longer than any others in the country. Most of these structures are relatively distant from the coast; however, they have been subject to disturbance and exploitation for a longer time, since the Gulf coast has been developed for centuries. Despite this, these structures are still relatively healthy. The structures of the Northern Veracruz Reef System, has had less attention than the one in the south. Even though they are smaller, their importance should not be underestimated. A good reason to encourage research on these structures, for which even base line information is not complete, is that similar structures in nearby USA waters have been better studied. Therefore this area is a gap to be filled in order to have valuable information on all systems in the Gulf of Mexico. Since many organisms are shared, research should be encouraged on the same taxa studied in the Caribbean Sea. A long history of research has accumulated significant amounts of data that are catalogued in the bibliography of this report. This should be useful to researchers in all geographic regions in order to make their work more comparable with that of others and to join efforts to optimize resources and information to develop global strategies for reef conservation and use. It should be noted that a general consensus exists, regarding the negative effects of widespread redundant scientific collecting activities from marine biology students field activities, specially in the Southern Veracruz Reef System. A monitoring program for the Veracruz Reef Systems should be established, designed to detect the effects resulting from land based inputs of nutrients and sediments or impacts from toxic substances, due to their location in the vicinity of important ports such as Veracruz and Tuxpan, and within the direct influence of the Atoyac, Jamapa and Tuxpan rivers. Fisheries within these areas should also be closely monitored. Due to the existence of a long history of research in the Southern Veracruz Reef System, a monitoring program in this area would be


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important to establish a Mexican data base of natural and human impacts to coral reefs, which would enable valuable comparisons and global applications. The Campeche Bank structures have also been the focus of studies for a long time; however, they have not had the same amount of attention and, contrary to other regions, it seems to be decreasing (44 publications before 1989 and only 20 since that year). This is most likely due to the fact that they are far away from the coast and, therefore, it is more costly and complicated to work there. Efforts and resources in the Campeche Bank should be focused to balance and acquire base-line information comparable to that available from the Caribbean and the Veracruz Reef Systems. Despite not having this information, the establishment of a monitoring program should not be delayed in this area, with a special emphasis on offshore oil exploration and transportation related impacts.

Action RM-3: Develop a research and monitoring agenda for the Caribbean Sea. Most of the research on Mexican reefs has been done in the Caribbean. This should not be a reason to stop or underestimate the importance of continuing efforts to do further research on these structures. On the contrary, having solid base-line information represents a great opportunity to better understand coral reef dynamics. It is for this reason that monitoring and follow-up research should be encouraged in this area. Of special interest are areas that now are, or will be, under some environmental stress. By this, we mean any kind of human-originated factors such as touristic and urban development within the context of a karstic drainage system. The creation of the Cancún-Tulum Touristic Corridor has triggered some research, since environmental impact assessments are required before developing in a coastal area, which in this case includes reef ecosystems. The amount of information generated by this mechanism could become important, if it is not considered just as a prerequisite for development, but as a valuable tool to prevent and monitor impacts on the reef that would diminish the touristic appeal and potential of the area. Contrary to reef structures in other geographic areas in Mexico, Caribbean reefs are, for the most part, very close to the shoreline (in many parts less than 1 km). This makes such structures especially sensitive to development on the shore. Although we identified in this review more publications from the Caribbean reefs, than for any other area, this work is mainly recent (99 publications before 1989 and 191 since that year). Therefore, contrary to other areas, like the Gulf of Mexico (123 publications before 1989 and 73 since that year), we do not have enough information through time to make accurate predictions or assess long term cycles that could take place on these reefs. It would be a mistake to make decisions assuming that we have complete information on the dynamics of these structures. For these reasons and since the area concentrates a large amount of coral reefs monitoring projects, it is important to integrate existing individual efforts into an efficient monitoring research program, where information is systematically collected with increasingly commensurable protocols (respecting each protocol's individual requirements), utilizing the ample array of existing uncoordinated monitoring efforts already taking place in the Caribbean Sea by various institutions such as: - Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologia UNAM - High resolution CARICOMP methodology being applied in one station at Puerto Morelos. Monitoring of coral transplants at Chancanab, Cozumel. -Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. - Moderate resolution Belt Quadrat methodology in five stations Puerto Morelos (1993), Akumal (1993 and 1995), Yuyum (1992 to 1997), Punta Pájaros (1992 and 1995) and Chahuay (1993). Low resolution Reefkeeper methodology on three stations in Punta Cancun, Punta Nizuc and Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres (1996).


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-Parque Nacional Arrecife de Cozumel - Low resolution Reefkeeper methodology on four stations, two at Paraiso, and one each on Cardona and Colombia (1996). -Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Avanzados CINVESTAV-IPN Lineal transects, bioindicators and permanent monitoring sites, supported by photographic and video recordings, to monitor effects on the coral structures from the construction of a cruise ship pier and coral transplants at Arrecife Paraiso Cozumel. Aerial and underwater photography at Akumal. -Centro Ukana I Akumal - Low resolution Planetary Coral Reef Foundation methodology at Akumal. -Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Alabama - Monitoring impacts of CALICA port. The taxa that should be especially looked at are those that are most likely to reflect environmental changes in the system (e.g. scleractinians, gorgonians, fish and algae). Most of the research that has been done on these reefs already has accumulated base-line information on these taxa, which makes even more valuable to develop a monitoring system like the one proposed. Activities for Actions RM-1, RM-2 and RM-3: Research - Complete basic inventories of coral reefs and communities and associated ecosystems in Mexico, especially in the Pacific Ocean, the Northern Veracruz Reef System, the Campeche Bank and Arrowsmith Bank. - Conduct interdisciplinary research on natural variation in the system, on human impacts, and on synergies between them. -Conduct research on the sustainability of current reef based fisheries and document their impact to species stocks and coral reefs and communities. - Conduct research on the oceanographic aspects of the system, with an emphasis on marine current patterns, since existing information on this important is very scarce. - Conduct research in the natural and social science disciplines, including research on economic valuation and cost-benefit analysis. - Conduct archaeological and biological research on ship wrecks, through the coordination of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia -INAH). - Conduct interdisciplinary research, development and demonstration on the mitigation of human impacts, for example: * Primary management and treatment of sewage for karstic regions. * Low-cost secondary and tertiary treatment of sewage. * Watershed management and control of sedimentation. * Fishery improvements by gear changes, no-take zones and determination of sustainable levels of coral reef resource use. * Guidelines for managing impacts derived from touristic, recreational and commercial navigation and port activities.

Monitoring - Utilizing basic inventories and present and foreseeable threats, design and establish a unified and coherent monitoring strategy for Mexican coral reefs and communities, based on the mechanisms and site selection criteria established by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), such as the following proposed components: Low Resolution Monitoring Sites Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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* Cabo Pulmo and Bahia de Loreto National Parks and other sites in the Pacific Ocean with coral reefs or communities widely used by tourism. - Pacific Ocean * Isla Contoy, Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres-Punta Cancún-Punta Nizuc (extremely degraded), Puerto Morelos, Playa del Carmen, Akumal, Tulum, Xcalak, Paraiso, Cardona, Colombia and other reefs widely used for tourism. - Caribbean Sea. Moderate Resolution Monitoring Areas *Gulf of California, Nayarit-Jalisco and Guerrero Oaxaca - Pacific Region (diversity and environmental conditions gradient). - Pacific Ocean *Northern Veracruz Reefs (low diversity reefs at geographic extremes and subject to a variety of human impacts) and Campeche Bank (remote reefs). - Gulf of Mexico *Quintana Roo coast (high diversity reefs subject to a variety of human impacts, mainly tourism and urban development at different intensities, some sites with continuous monitoring data), Cozumel (windward and leeward reefs present) and Banco Chinchorro (remote windward and leeward reefs) - Caribbean Sea High Resolution Monitoring Sites *Gulf of California (reefs and communities at geographic extremes) and Oaxaca sites to be determined. - Pacific Ocean * Southern Veracruz Reef System (reefs subject to a variety of human impacts and experiencing a range of land runoff). - Gulf of Mexico * Puerto Morelos (site with continuous monitoring data within the CARICOMP network). - Caribbean Sea - Utilize monitoring methods for biophysical parameters recommended by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) and presented in the Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources (Eds. English, Wilkinson and Baker). - Engage the collaboration of resource users, scientists, and managers, as appropriate and feasible, in monitoring coral reef resources. - Monitor key critical parameters for adaptive management including biological, physical, chemical, social, economic, and cultural parameters. - Improve statistical reporting mechanisms on reef fishi and other species stocks, catches, and investment trends. - Improve statistical reporting mechanisms on touristic use of coral reefs and communities. - Ensure that research and monitoring results, and their implications, are made known to the public.

5.5.2 Coordinating Research and Monitoring Efforts Problem: Lack of coordination among different institutions and individuals developing coral reefs and communities research and monitoring programs, prevent rational use of scarce human and financial resources. Specific Goal: To improve coordination and information sharing between natural and social sciences and within science disciplines.


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Specific Objective: Establish the framework for interinstitutional and interdisciplinary collaboration to achieve the goal of the national program.

Action RM-4: Establish a National Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee (N-STAC) as recommended by the GCRMN, within the framework of the National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Reefs. Coral reef research in Mexico can be characterized as the result of individual or small group efforts within a very limited range of large institutions. This has permitted the development of an important body of research, but with the lack of wider ranging research networks, has not allowed for the development of a cadre of researchers as large and synergetic, as the one needed to cover research on the rich and diverse coral resources present in Mexico. On the other hand, most of the research has come from the biological sciences, with scarce participation from the physical sciences and little participation from the social sciences. The fact that the reefs presently provide important resources to human populations and that these populations represent the most significant threat to coral reefs, demands an interaction between the natural and social sciences in order to develop a coherent research agenda that contemplates simultaneously economic, social, political and scientific perspectives. An efficient exchange of information between institutions, organizations and individuals working on Mexican coral reefs and communities should be promoted, since this lack of communication between different groups makes efforts less efficient. A common tendency in Mexico is for professionals to concentrate on existing large and important institutions, which already provide greater support for research. Despite obvious individual advantages of this strategy, in the global perspective this centralizes and makes research less efficient. This is why researchers should distribute themselves among different institutions, reinforcing the weaker ones. This would optimize resources and make reef structures more accessible to different research groups along the country. State universities in Mexico other than UNAM and IPN have only recently began to develop research of the same, or sometimes higher, quality than that developed by these two large institutions. Also, the emergence of non governmental organizations concerned with research and conservation should be encouraged. The advantage of collaborating with foreign scientists should also be stressed. Opportunities for reef research in other countries may be scarce, and enough baseline information already exists in Mexico to attract scientists from other countries. Mexico can benefit greatly from offering opportunities to foreign scientists to come and work in Mexican reefs, not only for the information obtained through the work, but for the training they could provide to Mexican students and professionals that would collaborate with them. Scientists from other countries frequently have access to resources that we do not have in Mexico and by creating collaboration networks we would also gain access to these resources.

Activities: - Expand the scope of the informal scientific network that has been formed for the Caribbean Sea within the National Committee for Conservation and Sustainable use of Mexican Reefs, with regard to the Mesoamerican Coral Reef Systems Initiative, to include institutions and researchers working in other parts of Mexico to integrate the N-STAC as recommended by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN). - Within the N-STAC and in order to make it more operative, establish well balanced Local Advisory Boards for research, monitoring and management for the Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.


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- Nominate Mexican scientists from the N-STAC to promote and participate in the Caribbean Tropical Americas Regional STAC. Within the context of the N-STAC and the Local Advisory Boards: - Define the Mexican Coral Reefs Research and Monitoring Agenda, with the participation of different disciplines (biologists, oceanographers, sociologists, economists, archaeologists, lawyers, etc.), stakeholders (fishermen, touristic services providers, coastal communities) and different agencies and levels of government (Federal, State and Municipal). - Implement through the Internet an efficient communication network among Mexican and foreign reef scientists, establishing a newsgroup-format Internet list especially devoted to Mexican coral reefs and communities. (Collect electronic addresses of author list in the review) - Promote increased support for research institutions throughout the region and for communication networks that facilitate monitoring, research and management initiatives. - Enhance human resource development in science, and promote an informal network to support personnel dedicated to resource administration, education and enforcement through technical assistance and training. - Promote the Agenda in academic institutions in order to engage students in coral reefs and communities related studies. - Provide infrastructural support for research activities, through the optimal use of existing facilities (wider use of INP-CRIP and UNAM field stations to nonaffiliated researchers) and equipment (wider use of research vessels and Navy ships). - Reinforce existing national and regional mechanisms, organizations for research, management and dissemination of scientific information among countries utilizing common resources, utilizing as a starting point the Mesoamerican Coral Reef Initiative and broadening its scope and reach. - Promote the Mexican Research and Monitoring Agenda internationally, to attract foreign scientists and support them with the use of existing infrastructure and the collaboration of Mexican students that would gain experience through their participation. - Coordinate activities with the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, CARICOMP and Reefcheck.


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6. References Aguilar-Perera, A. y W. Aguilar-Dávila. 1993. Cuadernos de Divulgación, 6: Banco Chinchorro. Último refugio en el Caribe Mexicano. 1era Edición. CIQRO, Chetumal, Quintana Roo, México. 35 pp. Aguilar-Perera, A., W. Aguilar and T. Camarena. 1994. La agregación reproductiva de mero Epinephelus striatus en la costa Sur de Quintana Roo, México. En: Sian Kaán Serie Documentos. No. 2, 1994. Amigos de Sian Ka’an (eds.). 42-48 pp. Ardisson, P.L., A. Cuevas-Jimenéz, J.J. Durán-Nájera y D. Castillo-Fernández. 1997. Assessment of the status of Mexico´s coral reef, Phase II: Overview of existing methodologies for the assessment of coral reefs. Commission for Environmental Cooperation. 48 pp. Parque Nacional Costa Occidental de isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc. (in prep.). Programa de Manejo del Parque Nacional Costa Occidental Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta Nizuc. Bayer, F. M. 1961. The Shallow Water Octocorallia of the West Indian Region. Martinus Nijhoff. The Hague, 373 pp. Bezaury, C. J., A. Mösso and D. Gutiérrez. 1996. Estrategias para la Conservación de Áreas Costeras y marinas para México. Draft. UICN/CNPPA/ Amigos de Sian Kaán. Montreal, Canadá. 45 pp. Brañes, R. 1994. Manual de derecho ambiental mexicano. Fondo de Cultura Económica. Mexico. 792 pp. Bright, T.J., G.P. Kraemer, G.A. Minnery and S.T. Vida. 1984. Hermatypes of the Flower Garden Banks, Northwestern Gulf of Mexico: a comparison to other Western Atlantic reefs. Bull. Mar. Sci. 34(3):461-476 pp. Britton, J.C. and B. Morton. 1989. Shore Ecology of the Gulf of Mexico. University of Texas Press, Austin. 376 pp. Cairns, S.D. 1982. Stony Corals (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa, Scleractinia) of Carrie Bow Cay, Belize. Smith. Contrib. Mar. Sci. 12:271-302 pp. Carricart-Ganivet, J.P. y G. Horta-Puga, 1993. Arrecifes de coral en México. pp 81-92. En: Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. S.I. Salazar-Vallejo and N.E González (eds) Com. Nal. Biodiversidad and CIQRO, México, 865 pp. Carricart-Ganivet, J.P y A. Beltrán-Torres, 1996. Lista de corales pétreos (Hydrozoa: Milleporina, Stylasterina; Anthozoa: Scleractinia) de aguas someras del Banco de Campeche, México. Rev. Biol. Trop., 44(3)/45(1):619622. Castañares L.G. and L.A. Soto. 1982. Estudio sobre los corales escleractinios hermatípicos de la Costa Noreste de la Península de Yucatán, México. I. Sinopsis taxonómica de 38 especies. (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinea). An. Inst. Cienc. del Mar y Limnol. Univ. Nal. Autón. México., 9 (1): 195-344 pp. CITES. 1995. Appendices I, II and III to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. U.S. Department of the interior/U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Department of Interior. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Clark, J.R. 1996. Coastal zone management handbook. Lewis Publishers. 694 pp. Used in Coastal Management chapter (5.3.1) ( not cited within the document) CCA-Comisión para la Cooperación Ambiental. Directrices para la presentación de peticiones relativas a la aplicación efectiva de la legislación ambiental conforme a los Artículos 14 y 15 del Acuerdo de Cooperación Ambiental de América del Norte. Montreal, Canadá. 14 pp. Cortés, J.N. 1986. Biogeografía de corales hermatípicos: El Istmo Centro Americano. An. Inst. Cienc. Del Mar y Limnol. Univ. Nal. Autón. México. México 13 (1): 297-304. Crespo-Romero, P. M. 1991. Impacto de un huracán en la composición específica y disposición espacial de Gorgonaceos en una región del arrecife de Puerto Morelos, Q. R. Tesis Profesional Fac. de Ciencias. UNAM. Mexico. 44 pp. Cruz-Santabalbina, J. R. 1986. Diagnosis de la pesquería del caracol marino Strombus gigas Linnaeus (1758), y alternativas para el resurgimiento de sus poblaciones en Quintana Roo, México. Tesis Profesional. Fac. Ciencias. UNAM. Mexico. 88 pp. Chávez, E.A. 1994. Los recursos marinos de la Península de Yucatán, p. 1-12. In: A. Yáñez-Arancibia (Ed.). Recursos Faunísticos del Litoral de la Península de Yucatán. Universidad Autónoma de Campeche. EPOMEX Serie Científica, 2. México. 136 pp. Chávez, E.A. and E. Hidalgo. 1989. The human impact on the Coral Reef environment in Mexico. Proc. Workshop Mexico-Australia Mar. Sci. 81-86. pp. Chávez, E., E. Hidalgo and M.A. Izaguirre. 1985. A Comparative Analysis of Yucatan Coral Reefs. Proc. 5th. Int. Coral Reef Congr., Tahiti, 2; 74-80. 1985. Domínguez, V. J. and H. Herrera. 1993. Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano SAV, Manual de Procedimiento de Acceso, Parque Marino Nacional. Secretaría de Marina. Mexico. 21 pp. Done, T., J. Ogden and W. Wiebe. 1995. Coral reefs In: H.A. Mooney, J., J. Lubchenco, R. Dirzo and O.E. Sala (eds), Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Ecosystem Analysis. In: Heywood, V.H. and R.T Watson (eds), Global Biodiversity Assessment. UNEP/Cambridge University Press. 1140 pp. Durán-Nájera, J.J. 1991. Anidación de la tortuga blanca, Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) (Testudines: Cheloniidae), en Isla Contoy, México. Rev. Biól. Trop., 39(1):149-152. Durán-Nájera. J.J. 1990. Nesting of three species of sea turtle in the Northeast coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. In: Richardson T.H., J.T. Richardson and M. Donell (Compilers), Proceedings of the tenth Annual Workshop on sea turtle Biology and Conservation, Feb. 1990. 29-35 pp. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFSSEFC. 278- 286 pp. Fenner, D.P. 1991. Effects of Hurricane Gilbert on Coral Reef, Fishes and Sponges at Cozumel, México. Bulletin of Marine Science 48: 719-730. Ferré-DÁmaré, A.R. 1985. Coral Reef of the Mexican Atlantic: Review. Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti, 1985, Vol. 2 Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Ferré-DÁmaré, A.R. 1995. Prospección ecológica de los arrecifes coralinos de los Cayos Arcas y Triángulos, Campeche, México. Impacto ambiental de una década de actividades de la industria petrolera. Sian Kaán Serie Documentos No. 4. Amigos de Sian Kaán, A.C. Mexico. 40-48 pp. de Fontaubert, A.C., Downes, D.R, and Agardy, T.S. 1996. Biodiversity in the Seas: Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity in Marine and Costal Habitats. IUCN Gland and Cambridge. vii+ 82 pp. García, G. and D. Gutiérrez. 1996. Monitoreo de arrecifes coralinos en el Caribe Mexicano. Res. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panamá, Panamá. 217 pp. García, G, and R.M. Loreto. 1997. (in prep.) Caracterización de arrecifes Coralinos de la Isla Cozumel. Informe Final. Amigos de Sian Kaán, A.C. México. García, G., M. Lara and R.M. Loreto. 1997. Caracterización de Arrecifes de la Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro. (Reporte Preliminar Correspondiente a la Campaña de Campo del 21 de Abril al 13 de Mayo de 1997). Bases para el Manejo de la Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro. Amigos de Sian Kaán, A.C. Mexico Gil, H. R. 1988. Biología y Conservación de las tortugas marinas en el litoral central de Quintana Roo, México. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service/SEDUE. 83 pp. Gil, H.R. and E. Miranda. 1990. La tortuga de Carey Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766) en Isla Holbox, Quintana Roo durante 1990. PRONATURA /INP/CRIP Puerto Morelos. México. 39 pp. Gómez López, P. and G. Green. 1984. Sistemática de las esponjas marinas de Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo, México. An. Inst. Cienc. del Mar y Limnol. Univ. Nal. Autón. México, 11(1):65-90 pp. Gutiérrez-Carbonell, D. and García-Beltrán, G. 1996. Coral Reef Subregions whithin the Mexican Caribbean. 8th Int. Coral Reef Sym. Abstracts. June 24-29, 1996, Panamá City, Panamá. Gutiérrez, D., Camarena-Luhrs, T. and García-Beltrán, G. 1995. Arrecifes Coralinos de Quintana Roo. Puerto Aventuras-Punta Petempich. Reporte final. Biocenosis, A.C./Amigos de Sian Kaán, A.C. México. Gutiérrez, D., Lara, M., Padilla, C., Pizaña, J., García G., Loreto, R.M. and T. Camarena. 1995. Caracterización de los arrecifes coralinos en el Corredor Cancún-Tulum, Quintana Roo, México. Sian Kaán. Serie Documentos No. 4. Amigos de Sian Kaán, A.C. México. 3-34. Gutiérrez, D., García Sáez, C., Lara, M., Padilla, C., Pizaña, J., Macías, R., Bezaury, J.E. AND A.C. Cintra.1993. Arrecifes Coralinos de Sian Kaán. Caracterización y Propuestas para el Manejo. Reporte final. Biocenosis, A.C./UNAM/Amigos de Sian Kaán, A.C. México. 120 pp. Horta-Puga, and J.P. Carricart-Ganivet, 1993. Corales Pétreos Recientes (Milleporina, Stylasterina Y Scleractinia) de México. pp. 66-80 En: Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. S.I. Salazar-Vallejo and N.E. González (eds.). Com. Nal. Biodiversidad and CIQRO, México, 865 pp. Hooten, A.J. and M. E. Hatziolos. 1995. Preface. Sustainable Financing Mechanisms for Coral Reef Conservation Proceedings of a Workshop. ESD Proceedings Series No. 9. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 116 pp. (Used in Sustainable Financing chapter (5.4.3), not cited within the document )


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Humann, Paul. 1993. Reef Coral Identification. 1st. Edition. New World Publications, Inc. Jacksonville, FL. 239 pp. Ibarra, E. 1997. Análisis de la Diversidad de Gorgonaceos en los Arrecifes del Área Centro Norte de Quintana Roo, México. Tesis, Fac. Ciencias, UNAM. Mexico. 54 pp. ICRI. 1995. Consultation on Costal Resource Management in The Tropical Americas. 15 pp. . ICRI Workshop. 1995. International Coral Reef Initiative Workshop Final Report: The Silliman University Dumaguete City, The Philippines. 64 pp. Internet: http://www.cca.cca.org. 1995. Homepage Comisión para la Cooperación Ambiental. Jordán, E. 1980. Arrecifes Coralinos del Noreste de la Península de Yucatán: Estructura Comunitaria, un Estimador del Desarrollo Arrecifal. PhD Tesis. CCMyL, UNAM. México. 118 pp. Jordán, E. 1993. Atlas de los Arrecifes Coralinos del Caribe Mexicano. Parte 1: El Sistema Continental, CIQRO, Chetumal Q Roo, Mexico.110 pp. Jordán, E. 1993. El ecosistema Arrecifal Coralino del Atlántico Mexicano. Vol. Esp. (XLIV) Rev. Soc. Mex. Hist. Nat. 157-175 pp. Jordán, E. and E. Martin. 1987. Chinchorro: Morphology and Composition of Caribbean atoll. Atoll Res. Bull. No. 310. Octubre 1987. Jordán, D. 1989. Coral reef studies in México. Pages 29-35 En: E. Chávez, editor. Workshop Australia-Mexico on Marine Science. CINVESTAV-IPN, Mérida, Mexico. Jordán, D. 1989. Gorgonian Community Structure and reef zonation patterns on Yucatan Coral Reefs. Bulletin of Marine Science, 45(3): 678-696. Kenyon, J. 1984. Black coral off Cozumel. Sea Front 30:267-269. Kornicker, L,S., F. Bonet, R. Cann & Ch.M. Hoskin. 1959. Alacran Reef, Campeche Bank, Mexico. Contr. Mar. Sci. Univ. Texas 6:1-22. Lara, M., C. Padilla and R. Muñoz. 1994. Valoración Ecológica de la Comunidad Bentónica de Isla Contoy. Programa de Manejo. SEDESOL, Amigos de Sian Kaán, A.C. México. Lara, M., C. Padilla, C. García and J.J. Espejel. 1992. Coral Reef of Veracruz Mexico I. Zonation and Community. Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, 1992, Vol. 1. Leyte, G. 1996. Importancia Biogeográfica de las Comunidades Coralinas de Oaxaca. Memorias del 1er. Encuentro Regional Sobre Investigación y Desarrollo Costero: Guerrero, Oaxaca y Chiapas. UMAR. Oaxaca, México. 12 pp. Leyte, G. 1996. Zonas Coralinas de las Costas de Oaxaca. 1er. Encuentro Regional Sobre Investigación y Desarrollo Costero: Guerrero, Oaxaca y Chiapas. Memorias, UMAR, Oaxaca, México. 12 pp. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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López, E. and T. Pérez. 1996. Comunidades Coralinas de Bahía de Banderas. Memorias del 1er Encuentro Regional Sobre Investigación y Desarrollo Costero: Guerrero, Oaxaca y Chiapas. UMAR, Oaxaca, México.13 pp. López-Herrera, M. 1992. Diagnosis Taxonómica de las Esponjas de las Estructuras Arrecifales de Antón Lizardo y Puerto de Veracruz. Tesis. Fac. Ciencias, UNAM. México. 88 pp. Morales, J.J. 1987. Réquiem para la foca monje. Contenido. Noviembre 1987. México. 61-64 pp. Muzik, K. 1982. Octocorallia (Cnidaria) from Carrie Bow Cay, Belize. Smith. Contrib. Mar. Sci. 12: 303-310 pp. Orr, K. 1985. La vida de la langosta espinosa. Cuadernos de Sian Kaán. Amigos de Sian Ka’an (eds.) 16 pp. México. Osorio-Tafall, B., and M. Cárdenas. 1945. Sobre las esponjas comerciales de Quintana Roo y una enfermedad que las destruye. Ciencia Mex. 6: 25-31. Poder Ejecutivo Federal. 1995. Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 1995-2000. Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público. México. 177 pp. Poder Ejecutivo Federal. 1995. Programa de Pesca y Acuacultura 1995-2000. Secretaría del Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca. México. 96 pp. Ray C.G., B.P. Hayden and R. Dolan. Development of a biophysical coastal and marine classification system. In: McNeely J.A. and K.R. Miller. (eds), National Parks, Conservations and Development. The role protected areas in sustaining society. World Coverage of Protected Areas. International Union Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 39-46 pp. Reyes-Bonilla, H. 1993. Biogeografía y Ecología de los Corales Hermatípicos (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) del Pacífico de México. pp 207-222 En: Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. S.I. Salazar-Vallejo and N.E. González (eds.). Com. Nal. Biodiversidad and CIQRO, México, 865 pp. Reyes-Bonilla, H. and M.P. Hernández Cortés. 1990. Comparación del efecto de la erosión natural y artificial sobre la estructura del arrecife de Cabo Pulmo, B.C.S. Res. VIII Cong. Nac. Oceanog., U.A.S., Mazatlán, Secc. Geolog. Mar., México. 30 pp. Reyes, J. y J.R. Saenz. 1989. Sistemática y algunos aspectos Ecológicos de los corales Scleractinios de Isla Contoy, Q. Roo. México. Tesis, ENEP Iztacala, UNAM, México. 98 pp. Rodríguez-Martínez, R.E. 1993. Efectos de un ciclón en la estructura comunitaria de corales escleractinios. B. Sc. Tesis. Universidad Autónoma de México, México, D.F. ENEP, Iztacala. Secretaría de Gobernación. 1981. Las Islas y su Régimen Jurídico. México. SEMARNP/INE/CONABIO 1995. Reservas de la Biosfera y otras Áreas Naturales Protegidas de México. Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Comisión Nacional Para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad, México. 159 pp.


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SEMAR/SEMARNAP/SCT/SECTUR/NAFINSA/EDO. DE CAMPECHE/EDO. DE QUINTANA ROO/EDO. DE VERACRUZ/EDO. DE YUCATAN. 1997. Convenio de Concertación para construir el Comité Nacional para la Conservación y Uso Sustentable de los Arrecifes Mexicanos. México. 11 pp. Sánchez, A.J. and A. Raz-Guzmán. 1992. Arrecifes y Comunidades Coralinas. Tomo 2 Instituto Nacional de Geografía, UNAM/Atlas Nacional de México. Sistemas de Información Geográfica, S.A. Mexico.iv,9.3 Snedaker, S., Clark, J.C. and Olmstend,I. 1991. The Status of Biodiversity in Quintana Roo, Yucatán. Division of Marine Biology and Fisheries, The Rosentiel School of Marine and Atmospheric. University of Miami, Florida, USA. 37 pp. Squires, D.F. 1959. Results of the Puritan-American Museum of Natural History expedition to Western Mexico, 7. Corals and coral reefs in the Gulf of California. Bull Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 118(7):367-432. Thailand Costal Resources Management Project.1991. A National Coral Reef Strategy for Thailand Vol. 2 Policies and Action Plan. Thailand Crmp/USAID.-ONEB.-URI.76 pp. (Used in (5.1) Goals and General Objetives, (5.3) Coastal Management and Related Institutional Policy and Legal Issues, and as the Framework for (5.4.2) Educating and Informating the Public not cited within the document). De la Torre-Alegría, R. 1978. Coral negro: Un recurso o una especie en peligro. Proc. Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 31: 158-163. Tunell, J.W. Jr. 1992. Natural versus human impacts to southern Gulf of Mexico coral reef resources. Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, 1992, Vol. 1. IUCN/ Laboratory University of Guam Marine/International Society for Reef Studies. 300-306 pp. UNEP/IUCN. 1988. Coral reefs of the World. Volume l: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K./UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya, x1vii + 373 pp., 38 maps. United Nations. 1983. Convention for the protection and development of marine environment of the wider Caribbean region. Protocol Concering Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region. New York. 25 pp. United Nations. 1990. Conference of plenipotentiaries concerning specially protected areas and wildlife in the winder Caribbean region. Final Act. Kingston, 15-18 January 1990. UNESCO. 1997. Global Coral Reef Monitoring. Network/IOC/UNEP/IUCN/. Strategic Plan. 10 pp. Veron, J.E.N. 1993. Biodiversity of reef corals: Is there a problem in the Indo-Pacific centre of diversity?. 365-370 pp. In: Proceedings of Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs. Health, Hazards, and History. University of Miami. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. 420 pp. Wilson, E.C. 1990. Mass mortality of the reef coral Pocillopora on the south coast of Baja California Sur, México. Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 89:39-41. World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1992. Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth´s living resources. Chapman and Hall, London. xx + 594 pp.


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ANNEX Bibliographic Information The following is a list of references on Mexican coral reefs and associated fauna. We tried to find all available references, however, the criteria to include or exclude a reference were sometimes hard to apply. We tried to obtain the abstract or full text when we could, since the tittle was not always enough to decide if the reference should be on the list. Although we revised it as much as we could, in the time given for its completion, we know that further revisions may improve it. We intend to continuously correct it and update it, hopefully with the help of other professionals working in this field. The list is divided in four sections, the first one, Bibliographical Review, includes all scientific publications (papers, chapters, theses and symposia presentations) and reports found; all in alphabetical order. The second section, Bibliographical Review by Region and Topic, includes the same references, now arranged according to geographical area and the topics addressed by them; since many references may deal with more than one region or topic, they may be repeated in different subsections. Also, a few references from the first section may not be listed since they could not be attributed to one specific region or topic The third section, Popular Literature, includes non-technical or non-scientific publications. The fourth section, Popular Literature by Geographic Region, is a selection of the literature in the previous section which includes those articles that deal with specific regions, arranged accordingly. Persons wanting to include publications, or who have comments on this list should contact: Mexican Coral Reef Bibliographical Review Editor Amigos de Sian Ka’an A.C. Apartado Postal 770 Cancún, Quintana Roo 77500 México Fax: (98) 87-3080 E-mail: [email protected]


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Bibliographical Information Section 1 General Bibliographical Review Scientific publications and technical reports

189

Section 2 Bibliographical Review by Region and Topic

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Caribbean Sea Ecology General Descriptions Taxonomy Conservation Economic Importance Geology Gulf of Mexico Ecology General Descriptions Taxonomy Conservation Economic Importance Geology Campeche Bank Ecology General Descriptions Taxonomy Conservation Economic Importance Geology Pacific Ocean Ecology General Descriptions Taxonomy Conservation Economic Importance Geology Section 3 Popular LIterature Review

221 221 230 232 235 237 240 241 241 246 248 253 254 255 255 255 256 257 258 259 259 260 260 263 263 264 264 264

265

Section 4 Popular Literature by Geographic Region

Caribbean Sea Gulf of Mexico Campeche Bank Pacific Ocean


270

270 272 273 273

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Section 1 Bibliographic Review Scientific publications and technical reports 543 references Acero, P. A. 1985. Zoogeographical implications of the distribution of selected families of Caribbean coral reef fishes. Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti. 5:433-443. Acévez-Jiménez, A. 1992. Aspectos biológicos de Abudefduf saxatilis (Linneaus, 1758) (Pisces:Pomacentridae) Arrecife Punta de Hornos, Veracruz, México. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz. 52 pp. Aguayo, C. E. J. 1978. Sedimentary environments and diagenesis of a cretaceous reef complex, Eastern Mexico. Anales del Centro de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 5:83-140. Aguayo, S. M. 1966. Contribución al conocimiento de los copépodos de la zona arrecifal de Veracruz, Veracruz (Sistemática y distribución). B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. 74 pp. Aguilar-Perera, A., and W. Aguilar-Dávila. 1993. Banco Chinchorro: Arrecife Coralino en el Caribe. pp. 807-816 in S. I. Salazar-Vallejo and N. E. González, editors. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. CONABIO/CIQRO, México, D.F. Aguilar-Perera, A., and W. Aguilar-Dávila. 1996. A spawning aggregation of Nassau grouper Epinephelus striatus (Pisces: Serranidae) in the Mexican Caribbean. Environmental biology of fishes 45:351-?. Aguilar-Rosas, M. 1990. Algas marinas bentónicas de la Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Ka'an, Quintana Roo, México. pp. 13-34 in D. Navarro and J. G. Robinson, editors. Diversidad Biológica en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Ka'an, Quintana Roo, México. Aladro-Lubel, M. A. 1984. Algunos ciliados intersticiales de Isla de Enmedio, Veracruz, México. Anales del Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 55:1-59. Alcolado, P. M., D. Bone, P. Bush, J. Cortes, J. Garzon-Ferreira, R. Laydoo, H. A. Oxenford, J. Rian, J. Singh, J. Tschirky, F. Ruiz, S. White, and J. Woodley. 1993. Status and recent history of coral reefs at the Caricomp network of Caribbean Marine Laboratories. pp. 73-79 in S. R. Smith and J. C. Ogden, editors. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs, Health, Hazards and History. University of Miami. Rosenthiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, Florida, USA. Allen, R. L. 1982. The reptant decapods of Enmedio and Lobos coral reefs, southwestern Gulf of Mexico. M.Sc. Thesis. Corpus Christi State University, Corpus Christi, Texas. 65 pp. Alvarez-Cadena, J. N., M. E. Islas-Landeros, and E. Suárez-Morales. 1996. A preliminary zooplankton survey in a Mexican Caribbean eutrophic coastal lagoon. Bulletin of Marine Science 58:694-708. Alvarez-Cadena, J. N., E. Suárez-Morales, and J. A. McLelland. 1996. Observations on the Population Dynamics of Sagitta hispidaconant (Chaetognatha) in a Tropical Lagoon System of Northeast Yucatan (Mexican Caribbean). Gulf Research Reports 9:197-204. Alvarez-Guillén, H., M. C. García-Abad, M. Tapia-García, G. J. Villalobos-Zapata, and A. Yañez. 1986. Prospección Ictiológica en la zona de pastos marinos de la laguna arrecifal en Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo, Verano 1984. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 13:317-336. Andrés-Otero, A. 1984. Caracterización de una comunidad coralina. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 80 pp. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Lozano-Alvarez, E. P. 1994. Análisis del estado de la pesquería de la langosta Panulirus argus en el Caribe mexicano. Pp. 43-55 in A. Yañez-Arancibia, editor. Programa EPOMEX-Serie Científica: Los recursos litorales de la Península de Yucatán. Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campeche. Lozano-Alvarez, E. P., and F. Negrete-Soto. 1991. Pesca exploratoria de la langosta Panulirus argus con nasas frente a la Bahía de Ascensión en el Caribe Mexicano. Rev. Invest. Mar. (Cuba) 12:261-268. Lozano-Alvarez, E. P., and F. Negrete-Soto. 1992. Pesca exploratoria de langostas por fuera las bahías de La Ascención y Espíritu Santo en la Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Ka'an. Informe final a la Asociación de Amigos de Sian Ka'an, A.C, 14 pp. Lozano-Alvarez, E. P., P. Briones-Fourzán, L. Santarelli, and A. Gracia. 1982. Densidad poblacional de Panulirus gracilis Streets y P. inflatus Bouvier (Crustacea: Palinuridae) en dos áreas cercanas a Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, México. Ciencia Pesquera 3:61-73. Lozano-Alvarez, E. P., P. Briones-Fourzán, and J. González-Cano. 1991. Pesca exploratoria de langostas con nasas en la plataforma continental del área de Puerto Morelos, Q. R. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 18:49-58. Lozano-Alvarez, E. P., P. Briones-Fourzán, and F. Negrete-Soto. 1993. Occurence and seasonal variations of spiny lobsters Panulirus argus (Latreille, 1804), on the shelf outside Bahía de la Ascensión, Mexico. Fish. Bull. 91:808-815. Lozano-Alvarez, E. P., P. Briones-Fourzán, and F. Negrete-Soto. 1994. An evaluation of concrete block structure as shelters for juvenile Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus argus. Bulletin of Marine Science 55:351-362. Negrete-Soto, F. 1988. Aspectos poblacionales de la langosta Panulirus guttatus en el arrecife de Puerto Morelos, Q. Roo. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 63 pp. Negrete-Soto, F. 1995. Crecimiento de postlarvas y primeros estadios juveniles de la langosta Panulirus argus (Latreille, 1804) en cautiverio. M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. Osorio-Tafall, B., and M. Cárdenas. 1945. Sobre las esponjas comerciales de Quintana Roo y una enfermedad que las destruye. Ciencia Mex. 6:25-31. Padilla-Ramos, S. A. 1995. Características biológicas y análisis de la pesquería de langosta Panulirus argus (Latreille) en Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Padilla-Souza, A. C. 1992. Estimación de tamaños poblacionales y patrones de movimiento en poblaciones de Strombus gigas en Quintana Roo, México. M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D. F. 75 pp. Pérez-Espinosa, P. 1993. Estudio preliminar sobre la depredación de postlarvas y primeros estadíos juveniles de la langosta espinosa Panulirus argus (Latreille, 1804) en la región de Puerto Morelos, Q. R. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Xochimilco. Ramos-Aguilar, M. A. 1992. Busqueda de alimento y regreso al refugio de la langosta Panulirus argus en la Bahía de la Ascención, Q. R., México. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. Sánchez-Segura, M., and E. Jordán-Dahlgren. 1996. Xcaret coral reef aquarium: An educational and scientific project. Res. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p175. Solís-Ramírez, M. J. 1965. Recursos pesqueros del territorio de Quintana Roo, México. I. Xcalac y Banco Chinchorro. Contribución del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Biológico-Pesqueras 11:15 pp.


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Solís-Ramírez, M. J., and E. A. Chávez. 1986. Evaluación y régimen óptimo de pesca de pulpo en la Península de Yucatán, México. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 13:1-18. Valle-Esquivel, M. 1994. Crecimiento de Strombus gigas en Xel-Ha, Quintana Roo. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F.

Caribbean: Geology 13 references Aguayo, C. E. J. 1978. Sedimentary environments and diagenesis of a cretaceous reef complex, Eastern Mexico. Anales del Centro de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 5:83-140. Back, W., B. B. Hanshaw, J. S. Herman, and J. N. Van Driel. 1986. Differential dissolution of a pleistocene reef in the ground-water mixing zone of coastal Yucatan, Mexico. Geology:137-140. Bonet, F. 1967. Biogeología Subsuperficial del Arrecife Alacranes, Yucatán. Boletín del Instituto de Geología, UNAM 80:1-191. Boyd, D. W., L. S. Kornicker, and R. Rezak. 1963. Coraline algal micro-atolls near Cozumel Island, Mexico. University of Wyoming, Contr. Geology 2:105-108. Castro, R. 1976. Inscripción de las arenas carbonatadas y de su ámbito submarino al noreste de la Península de Yucatán, México. B.Sc. Thesis. Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, IPN. 74 pp. Folk, R. L. 1967. Carbonate sediments of Isla Mujeres. Quintana Roo. México and vicinity. New Orleans Geological Society Guidebook, Field trip to Peninsula of Yucatan. Mtg. Geol. Soc. Am.:100-123. Merino, M. 1992. Afloramiento en la Plataforma de Yucatán: estructura y fertilización. Ph.D. Dissertation. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. UACPyP, ICMyL. Nolasco-Montero, E., and A. Carranza-Edwards. 1988. Estudio sedimentológico regional de playas de Yucatán y Quintana Roo, México. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 15:49-66. Novak, M. J. 1992. Sedimentology and community structure of reefs of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. M.Sc. Thesis. Utah State University. 96 pp. Novak, M. J., W. D. Liddell, and D. Torruco. 1992. Sedimentology and community structure of reefs of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam 1:265-272. Spaw, R. 1978a. Cozumel Island: stratigraphy and depositional history of upper Pleistocene limestone. Pp. 327 in W. C. Ward and A. E. Weidie, editors. Geology and hydrogeology of Northeastern Yucatan. New Orleans Geological Society. Spaw, R. H. 1978b. Late Pleistocene carbonate bank deposition; Cozumel Island, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc., Trans. 28:601-619. Ward, W. C. 1975. Petrology and diagenesis of carbonate eoleonites of N.E. Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. AAPG Studies in Geol. 2(Belize Shelf carbonatic Sediment, Clastic sediments and Ecology):500-571.


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Section 2 Bibliographical Review by Region & Topic Gulf of Mexico Gulf of Mexico: Ecology 89 references Acévez-Jiménez, A. 1992. Aspectos biológicos de Abudefduf saxatilis (Linneaus, 1758) (Pisces:Pomacentridae) Arrecife Punta de Hornos,Veracruz, México. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz. 52 pp. Aladro-Lubel, M. A. 1984. Algunos ciliados intersticiales de Isla de Enmedio, Veracruz, México. Anales del Instituto de Biología, UNAM 55:1-59. Anonymous. 1971. Estudio preliminar del arrecife de Isla Verde Veracruz, Ver. Reporte de Biología de Campo, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Advisor: J.L. Cifuentes. Anonymous. 1979. Buceo en el estudio de la distribución del bentos profundo en Isla Sacrificios, Veracruz, Ver. Reporte de Biología de Campo, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Advisor: J.L. Cifuentes and Comisión Académica del Equipo de Buceo. Anonymous. 1981. Distribución y abundancia de los moluscos del arrecife de Isla Sacrificios, Veracruz, Ver. Reporte de Biología de Campo, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Advisor: J.L. Cifuentes and Comisión Académica del Equipo de Buceo. Anonymous. 1986. Estudio descriptivo y colecta preliminar de cinco taxa de invertebrados bentónicos en regiones arrecifales del Puerto de Veracruz. Reporte de Biología de Campo, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Advisors: Espejel,J.J., Campos,G. y Lara,M. Anonymous. 1987. Caracterización de las asociaciones de especies de corales Escleractinios y Gorgonáceos y estructura comunitaria de cinco taxa de invertebrados bentónicos conspicuos en regiones arrecifales del Puerto de Veracruz, México. Reporte de Biología de Campo, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Advisors: Campos,G., Berges,G., Lara,M. Anonymous. 1988. Estudios básicos para el establecimiento de recomendaciones de conservación en sustratos bentónicos arrecifales del Puerto de Veracruz, México. Reporte de Biología de Campo, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Advisors: Espejel,J.J., Lara,M. Padilla, C. Anonymous. 1989. Caracterización de los arrecifes coralinos de la sección del Puerto de Veracruz, Ver. Reporte de Biología de Campo, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Advisors: García-Saez, C., Lara,M. Padilla, C., Jácome, L. Arenas-Fuentes, V. 1966. Hidrografía y plancton en el arrecife "La Blanquilla", Veracruz, Veracruz. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. Baca, B. J., T. M. Schmidt, and J. W. Tunnell Jr. 1982. Ixtoc oil in the seagrass beds surrounding Isla de Enmedio. Paper presentation. Simposio Internacional Ixtoc-1, Mexico, June 1982. Beaver, C. R., K. J. P. Seslarzes, J. H. Hudson, and J. W. Tunnell Jr. 1996. Fluorescent banding in reef corals as evidence of increased (organic) runoff onto the Southern Veracruz coral reef complex. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 14. Beltrán-Torres, A. U. 1991. Distribución de zooxantelas y pigmentos fotosintéticos en el coral hermatípico Montastrea cavernosa (Linneo, 1767) en función de la profundidad y zona de colecta en el arrecife La Blanquilla, Veracruz. B.Sc. Thesis. ENEP, Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 85 pp.


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Benson, B. C. 1978. Ecological survey of gasteropoda of Enmedio coral reef, sothwestern Gulf of Mexico. Draft report. Biology department. Corpus Christi State University. Corpus Christi, Texas. 14 pp. Bernárdez-de-la-Granja, A. 1993. Estructura comunitaria de los corales escleractinios del arrecife Chopas, Antón Lizardo, Veracruz. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D. F. 144 pp. Bravo, R. J., and R. J. Camacho. 1989. Contribución al conocimiento sobre la estructura de la comunidad de corales escleractinios en el arrecife "La Blanquilla", Veracruz. B. Sc. Thesis. Los Reyes Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Bravo-Ruiz, J., E. J. Camacho-Ruiz, and J. P. Carricart-Ganivet. 1989. Composición de especies y zonación de corales escleractinios en el arrecife "La Blanquilla", Veracruz. Programa y resúmenes. X Congreso Nacional de Zoología, México, D.F. Britton, J. C., and B. Morton. 1989. Shore Ecology of the Gulf of México. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas. Carricart-Ganivet, J. P. 1993. Blanqueamiento parcial en Porites porites (Cnidaria: Scleractinia) en el Arrecife de Isla Verde, Veracruz, México. Revista de Biología Tropical 41:495-498. Carricart-Ganivet, J. P. 1994. Distribución de zooxanthelas y pigmentos clorofílicos en el coral hermatípico Montastrea cavernosa (Linneo, 1767) en relación con la profundidad y época del año en un arrecife veracruzano. M.Sc. Thesis. ENEP, Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 58 pp. Carricart-Ganivet, J. P., and A. U. Beltrán-Torres. 1994. Relación entre la clorofila y la densidad de zooxantelas en Montastrea cavernosa en el arrecife de Isla Verde, Veracruz, México. Rev. Invest. Mar. (Cuba) 15:191-196. Carricart-Ganivet, J. P., J. Bravo-Ruiz, and E. J. Camacho-Ruiz. 1987. Distribución de algunas especies de corales escleractinios en el arrecife "La Blanquilla", Veracruz. Programa General y Resúmenes. VII Coloquio de Investigación, ENEPI, UNAM. Carricart-Ganivet, J. P., G. Horta-Puga, M. A. Ruiz-Zárate, and E. Ruiz-Zárate. 1994. Tasas retrospectivas de crecimiento del coral hermatípico Montastrea annularis (Scleractinia: Faviidae) en arrecifes al sur del Golfo de México. Revista de Biología Tropical 42:517-523. Caso, M. E. 1974. Contribución al estudio de los equinoideos de México. El género, Tripneustes Agassiz. Morfología y ecología de Tripneustes ventricosus (Lamarck). Anales del Centro de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 1:1-23. Castro-Aguirre, J. L., and A. Márquez-Espinoza. 1981. Serie Científica, 22: Contribución al Conocimiento de la Ictiofauna de la Isla de Lobos y Zonas Adyacentes. Veracruz, México. Instituto Nacional de Pesca, México, D. F. Chávez, E. A. 1996. Sampling design for the study of Yucatan reefs, Northwestern Caribbean. Res. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 36. Díaz-Garcés, J. J. 1966. Estudio preliminar de la sistemática y distribución de la flora marina del arrecife "La Blanquilla", Veracruz. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 89 pp. Echaniz-Hernández, V. 1988. Determinación de los niveles de hidrocarburos en agua, sedimentos recientes y hojas del pasto marino Thalassia testudinum (Köning, 1805) en tres islas arrecifales del Puerto de Veracruz, Veracruz. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. ENEP, Iztacala. 81 pp. Espejel-Montes, J. J. 1991. Aspectos geológicos y ecológicos de la distribución de los escleractinios en los arrecifes coralinos de Antón Lizardo y el Puerto de Veracruz, Golfo de México. M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D. F. 100 pp.


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Gulf of Mexico: Conservation 17 references Anonymous. 1985. Alternativas de manejo para los arrecifes de Veracruz. SEDUE. Dirección General de Flora y Fauna Silvestres, México, D.F. 139 pp. Anonymous. 1987. Evaluación de los corales escleractinios del sistema arrecifal de Veracruz. Secretaría de Marina y Petróleos Mexicanos, 119 pp, Veracruz, Veracruz. Baca, B. J., T. M. Schmidt, and J. W. Tunnell Jr. 1982. Ixtoc oil in the seagrass beds surrounding Isla de Enmedio. Paper presentation. Simposio Internacional Ixtoc-1, Mexico, June 1982. Chávez, E. A., and E. Hidalgo. 1988. Los arrecifes coralinos del Caribe Noroccidental y Golfo de México en el contexto socioeconómico. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 15:167-176. Chávez, E. A., and J. W. Tunnell Jr. 1993. Needs for management and conservation of the Southern Gulf of Mexico. Coastal Zone, Proceedings of the 8th Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management, American Shore and Beach Preservation Association, July 19-23, 1993, New Orleans, 2040-2053. Domínguez-Valdez, J. L., and H. Herrera-Cervantes. 1993. Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano. Manual de Procedimientos de Acceso. Parque Marino Nacional. Secretaría de Marina, Puerto de Veracruz, Veracruz, México.


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Gulf of Mexico: Economic Importance 4 references Chávez, E. A., and E. Hidalgo. 1988. Los arrecifes coralinos del Caribe Noroccidental y Golfo de México en el contexto socioeconómico. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 15:167-176. Domínguez-Valdez, J. L., and H. Herrera-Cervantes. 1993. Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano. Manual de Procedimientos de Acceso. Parque Marino Nacional. Secretaría de Marina, Puerto de Veracruz, Veracruz, México. Pananá-Arce, A. 1989. Experimental en el cultivo de moluscos (Bivalvos y Gasterópodos) de la zona litoral y arrecifal del Puerto de Veracruz. Atlas Oceanográfico Nacional. p. 29.


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Gulf of Mexico: Geology 10 references Espejel-Montes, J. J. 1991. Aspectos geológicos y ecológicos de la distribución de los escleractinios en los arrecifes coralinos de Antón Lizardo y el Puerto de Veracruz, Golfo de México. M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D. F. 100 pp. Folk, R. L., and R. Robles. 1964. Carbonate sands of Isla Perez, Alacran Reef Complex, Yucatan. Journal of Geology 72:255-292. Freeland-Lockwood, G. 1969. Carbonate sediments in elastic environment reefs of Veracruz, Mexico. 54th Annual Meeting, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Freeland-Lockwood, G. 1971. Carbonate sediments in a terrigenous province: the reefs of Veracruz, Mexico. Ph.D. Dissertation. Rice University, Houston, Texas. 253 pp. Lidz, I., and B. Lidz. 1966. Foraminiferal biofacies of Veracruz reefs. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 50:1514-1517. Logan, B. W., J. L. Harding, W. M. Ahr, J. D. Williams, and R. G. Snead. 1969. Carbonate sediments on reefs, Yucatan shelf, Mexico, Part I, late Quaternary sediments. Mem. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 11:1-128. Merino, M. 1992. Afloramiento en la Plataforma de Yucatán: estructura y fertilización. Ph.D. Dissertation. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. UACPyP, ICMyL. Morelock, J., and K. J. Koening. 1967. Terrigenous sedimentation in a shallow water coral reef environment. Journal of Sedimentation and Petrology 37:1001-1005. Novak, M. J. 1992. Sedimentology and community structure of reefs of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. M.Sc. Thesis. Utah State University. 96 pp. Novak, M. J., W. D. Liddell, and D. Torruco. 1992. Sedimentology and community structure of reefs of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam 1:265-272.

Section 2 Bibliographical Review by Region & Topic Campeche Bank Campeche Bank: Ecology 14 references Carricart-Ganivet, J. P., and A. U. Beltrán-Torres. 1993. Zooxanthellae and chlorophyll responses in the scleractinian coral Montastrea cavernosa at Triangulos-W reef, Campeche bank, Mexico. Revista de Biología Tropical 41:491-494. Chávez, E. A. 1996. Sampling design for the study of Yucatan reefs, Northwestern Caribbean. Res. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 36. Ekdale, A. A. 1977. Quantitative paleoecological aspects of modern marine mollusk distribution, northeast Yucatan coast, Mexico. Pp. 195-207 in S. H. Frost, M. P. Weiss and J. B. Sauders, editors. AAPG Studies in Geology. Volume 4. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Espinoza-Carreón, T. L., and M. Merino. 1992. Biomasa fitoplanctónica y afloramiento en la porción oriental del Banco de Campeche. Memorias del IX Congreso Nacional de Oceanografía, Noviembre 1992, Veracruz, Veracruz. Farrell, T. M., C. F. D'Elia, L. Lubbers III, and L. J. Pastor Jr. 1983. Hermatypic coral diversity and reef zonation at Cayos Arcas, Campeche, Gulf of México. Atoll Research Bulletin 270:1-7. Ferre-D'Amare, A. R. 1995. Prospección ecológica de los arrecifes coralinos de los Cayos Arcas y Triángulos, Campeche, México. Impacto ambiental de una década de actividades de la industria petrolera. Sian Ka'an Serie de Documentos 4:40-48. Flores, J. S. 1984. Dinámica de emersión del suelo y sucesión de la vegetación en el arrecife Alacranes del Canal de Yucatán. Biótica 9:41-63. Glynn, P. W. 1973. Aspects of the ecology of coral reefs in the Western Atlantic Region. in R. Endean and O. A. Jones, editors. Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs. Volume 2. Academic Press, New York. Krutak, P. R., and R. Gio-Argaez. 1994. Ecology, taxonomy and distribution of dominant ostracode taxa in modern carbonate sediments, northeastern Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Biológicas 11:193-213. Liddell, W. D., and S. L. Ohlhorst. 1988. Comparison of western Atlantic coral reef communities. Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia 3:281-286. Manzanilla, S., J. Andrews, and W. Andrews. ? Propuesta de creación de un área protegida: el Arrecife Alacranes, Yucatán. PRONATURA, Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán. 44 pp. Millspaugh, C. G. 1916. Vegetation of Alacran Reef. Field. Mus. Nat. Hist. Pub., Bot. Ser. 187/2:421-431. Segura-Puertas, L., and U. Ordóñez-López. 1994. Análisis de la comunidad de medusas (Cnidaria) de la región oriental del Banco de Campeche y el Caribe Mexicano. Caribbean journal of science 30:104-115. Villalobos-Figueroa, A. 1981. Evaluación de los efectos del derrame del Ixtoc 1 sobre la comunidad arrecifal de Veracruz y Campeche. Segundo Informe. Programa Coordinado de Estudios Ecológicos en la Sonda de Campeche, UAM.

Campeche Bank: General Descriptions 18 references Bulanienkov, S. K., and C. García. 1975. Carta de corrientes superficiales de invierno en el Banco de Campeche. Res. Inv. INP/CIP. Cuba:1-26. Chávez, E. A. 1996. Sampling design for the study of Yucatan reefs, Northwestern Caribbean. Res. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 36. Ferre-D'Amare, A. R. 1985. Coral Reefs of the Mexican Atlantic: A Review. Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti. 6:349-354. Folk, R. L. 1967. Sand cays of Alacran Reef, Yucatán, México. Morphology. Journal of Geology 75:412-437. Fosberg, F. R. 1962. A brief survey of the cays of Arrecife Alacran, a Mexican atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin 93:125.


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García, C., and J. Gómez. 1974. Carta preliminar de fondos del Banco de Campeche. Res. Inv. INP/CIP. Cuba:137. García, C., and L. Miranda. 1975. Fondos de la zona oriental del Banco de Campeche (Contoi). CEP. Informe Técnico. Cuba. Glynn, P. W. 1973. Aspects of the ecology of coral reefs in the Western Atlantic Region. in R. Endean and O. A. Jones, editors. Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs. Volume 2. Academic Press, New York. Kornicker, L. S., F. Bonet, R. Cann, and C. M. Hoskin. 1959. Alacran Reef, Campeche Bank, México. Institute of Marine Sciences Publications University of Texas 6:1-22, 171-185. Lara-Domínguez, A. L., G. J. Villalobos-Zapata, and E. Rivera-Arriega. 1990. EPOMEX Serie Científica, 1: Catálogo bibliográfico de la región de la Sonda de Campeche. EPOMEX, Campeche, Campeche, México. Logan, B. W. 1961. Coral reef and bank communities of the Campeche shelf, Yucatan, Mexico. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 68:218. Logan, B. W. 1969. Coral reefs and banks, Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. Mem. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 11:129-196. Marian, M. 1984. Excursion aux iles Alacrans. Bull. Soc. Acad. Brest. II. 91:5-21. Martínez, O. E. 1990. Indice de desarrollo de las especies de escleractinios de la barrera Sur de la Isla Perez, en el Arrecife Alacranes, Yucatán, México. Secretaría de Marina, Dirección General de Oceanografía Naval, 14 pp. Martínez-Guzmán, L. A., and J. L. Hernández-Aguilera. 1993. Crustáceos Estomatópodos y Decápodos del arrecife Alacrán, Yucatán. Pp. 609-629 in S. I. Salazar-Vallejo and N. E. González, editors. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. CONABIO/CIQRO, México, D.F. Merino, M. 1992. Afloramiento en la Plataforma de Yucatán: estructura y fertilización. Ph.D. Dissertation. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. UACPyP, ICMyL. Walsh, D. E. 1962. Wave refraction and energy on Cayo Arenas. M.Sc. Thesis. Texas agric. mech. Uni. Yañez-Arancibia, A., editor. 1994. EPOMEX Serie Científica, 2: Recursos faunísticos del litoral de la Península de Yucatán. EPOMEX, Campeche, Campeche, México.

Campeche Bank: Taxonomy 20 references Bonet, F., and J. Rzedowsky. 1962. La vegetación de las islas del arrecife Alacranes, Yucatán (México). Anales de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, México. 11:15-50. Capurro, A. L., E. A. Chávez, V. Zlatarski, E. Hidalgo, L. Huerta, D. Torruco, M. Garduño, A. Rodriguez, and A. Bonfil. 1984. Atlas de los corales escleractinios de la península de Yucatán. Informe Técnico. CINVESTAV-IPN, Unidad Mérida, Yucatán, México. Carricart-Ganivet, J. P., and A. U. Beltrán-Torres. 1996. Lista de corales pétreos (Hydrozoa: Milleporina, Stylasterina; Anthozoa: Scleractinia) de aguas someras del Banco de Campeche, México. Revista de Biología Tropical 44/45:619-622. Chávez, H. 1966. Peces colectados en el arrecife Triángulos Oeste y en Cayo Arenas, Sonda de Campeche, México. Acta Zool. Mex. 1966:1-12. Escobar de la Llata, F. 1995. Moluscos de la plataforma y talud continental de la Península de Yucatán. M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 71 pp. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Gasca, R., and E. Suárez. 1991. Siphonophores of upwelling areas of the Campeche Bank and the Mexican Caribbean Sea. Hydrobiologia 216:497-?. Gonzáles-Solis, M. A. 1955. Contribución al estudio de los moluscos marinos en la Península de Yucatán, México. Ph.D. Dissertation. Universidad de Barcelona. González-Arreola, C. 1965. Foraminíferos recientes de la Familia Soritidae Ehrenberg, 1839 en el arrecife "Alacrán", Banco de Campeche, Yucatán, México. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 61 pp. Hartman, W. D. 1955. A collection of sponges from the West Coast of the Yucatan Peninsula with descriptions of two new species. Bulletin of Marine Science Gulf. Caribb. 5:161-189. Horta-Puga, G., and J. P. Carricart-Ganivet. 1993. Corales pétreos recientes (Milleporina, Stylasterina y Scleractinia) de México. Pp. 64-78 in S. I. Salazar-Vallejo and N. E. González, editors. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. CONABIO/CIQRO, México, D. F. Huerta, L. M. 1958. Contribución al conocimiento de las algas de los bajos de la Sonda de Campeche, Cozumel e Isla Mujeres. Anales de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, México. 9:115-123. Huerta, L. M. 1961. Flora marina de los alrededores de la Isla Perez, Arrecife Alacranes, Sonda de Campeche, México. Anales de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, México. 10:11-22. Huerta-Muzquiz, L., A. C. Mendoza-González, and L. E. Mateo-Cid. 1987. Avance sobre el estudio de las algas marinas de la Península de Yucatán. Phytologia 62:23-31. Krutak, P. R., and R. Gio-Argaez. 1994. Ecology, taxonomy and distribution of dominant ostracode taxa in modern carbonate sediments, northeastern Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Biológicas 11:193-213. Martínez-Guzmán, L. A., and J. L. Hernández-Aguilera. 1993. Crustáceos Estomatópodos y Decápodos del arrecife Alacrán, Yucatán. Pp. 609-629 in S. I. Salazar-Vallejo and N. E. González, editors. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. CONABIO/CIQRO, México, D.F. Núñez, F. E. 1978. Estudio taxonómico de las esponjas de la Laguna de Términos, Campeche, México. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 140 pp. Rice, W. H., and L. S. Kornicker. 1962. Mollusks of Alacran reef, Campeche Bank, Mexico. Univ. Texas, Pub. Inst. Mar. Sci. 8:366-403. Rioja, E. 1958. Estudios anelidológicos. XXII. Datos para el conocimiento de la fauna de anélidos poliquetos de las costas orientales de México. Anales del Instituto de Biología, UNAM 29:219-301. Segura-Puertas, L., and U. Ordóñez-López. 1994. Análisis de la comunidad de medusas (Cnidaria) de la región oriental del Banco de Campeche y el Caribe Mexicano. Caribbean journal of science 30:104-115. Torruco, D. 19?? Faunística y ecología de los arrecifes del sureste de México. Ph.D. Dissertation. Universidad de Barcelona.

Campeche Bank: Conservation 5 references Anonymous. 1997. Propuesta de ANP, Zonas Arrecifales de Campeche. Descripción y Diagnóstico. CINVESTAV, SEMARNYD.


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De la Cruz-Agüero, G., E. Martínez-Osegueda, and R. F. Muñoz-Chagín. 1993. Propuesta: Zonificación del arrecife Alacranes, Yucatán. Centro de investigación y de estudios avanzados del IPN, Unidad Mérida. 21 pp. Ferre-D'Amare, A. R. 1995. Prospección ecológica de los arrecifes coralinos de los Cayos Arcas y Triángulos, Campeche, México. Impacto ambiental de una decada de actividades de la industria petrolera. Sian Ka'an Serie de Documentos 4:40-48. Manzanilla, S., J. Andrews, and W. Andrews. ? Propuesta de creación de un área protegida: el Arrecife Alacranes, Yucatán. PRONATURA, Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán. 44 pp. Villalobos-Figueroa, A. 1981. Evaluación de los efectos del derrame del Ixtoc 1 sobre la comunidad arrecifal de Veracruz y Campeche. Segundo Informe. Programa Coordinado de Estudios Ecológicos en la Sonda de Campeche, UAM.

Campeche Bank: Economic Importance 2 references Orme, W. A., Jr. 1982. Cayo Arcas: New Oil Port 70 Miles Offshore. R & D México 2:22-25. Sosa-Cordero, E. 1997. Evaluación del recurso langosta Panulirus argus en el Banco de Campeche: Analisis inicial y programa de investigación. Informe final. FAO. Consultoria nacional TCP/MEX/4556 (A). 47 pp.

Campeche Bank: Geology 13 references Aguayo, C. E. J. 1978. Sedimentary environments and diagenesis of a cretaceous reef complex, Eastern Mexico. Anales del Centro de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 5:83-140. Busby, R. F. 1966. Sediments and reef corals of Cayo Arenas, Campeche Bank, Yucatán, México. US Naval Oceanographic Office, Washington, DC, p 58. Cann, R. 1963. Recent calcium carbonate facies of the Northcentral Campeche Bank, Yucatán, México. Ph.D. Dissertation. Columbia University, New York, USA. Folk, R. L. 1967. Sand cays of Alacran Reef, Yucatán, México. Morphology. Journal of Geology 75:412-437. Folk, R. L., and A. S. Cotera. 1971. Carbonate Sand Cays of Alacran Reef, Yucatan, México: Sediments. Atoll Research Bulletin 137:1-35. Hoskin, C. M. 1963. Recent carbonate sedimentation on Alacran Reef, Yucatan, Mexico. Volume 19. National Research Council, Foreign Field Research Program. Hoskin, C. M. 1967. Coral pinnacle sediments, Alacran reef lagoon, México. Journal of Sedimentation and Petrology 36:1055-1074. Hoskin, C. M. 1968. Magnesium and strontium in mud fractions of recent carbonate sediment, Alacran Reef, Mexico. Am. Assoc. Petr. Geol. Bull. 52:2170-2177. Kornicker, L. S., and D. W. Boyd. 1962. Shallow water geology and environments of Alacran Reef Complex. Campeche Bank, México. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 46:640-673. Logan, B. W., J. L. Harding, W. M. Ahr, J. D. Williams, and R. G. Snead. 1969. Carbonate sediments on reefs, Yucatan shelf, Mexico, Part I, late Quaternary sediments. Mem. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 11:1-128.


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Section 2 Bibliographical Review by Region and Topic Pacific Pacific: Ecology 35 references Arizpe, O., and F. Alvarez. 1987. Distribución y abundancia de los corales del arrecife Cabo Pulmo, B.C.S. Memorias del VII Congreso Nacional de Oceanografía, Ensenada B.C., Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, México. Arizpe, O., F. Alvarez, H. Reyes, and F. Sinsel. 1988. Distribución, abundancia y diversidad de la fauna macrobentónica del arrecife de Cabo Pulmo, B.C.S. Resúmenes del I Congreso de la Asociación de Investigadores del Mar de Cortés, A.C. CICTUS, Hermosillo, Sonora, México. Arizpe, O., H. Reyes, A. Villareal, and F. Sinsel. 1992. Cabo Pulmo: The Northernmost Coral Reef of the Eastern Pacific (Gulf of California, Mexico). Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam 2:1239. Bautista Romero, J. J., H. Reyes Bonilla, D. Luch Cota, and S. Luch Cota. 1994. Aspectos generales sobre la fauna marina. Pp. 247-275 in A. Ortega and A. Castellanos, editors. La Isla Socorro, Reserva de la Biosfera Archipiélago de Revillagigedo. Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noreste. Baynes, T. W. 1996. Factors structuring encrusting communities of a atropical rock reef in the Southern Gulf of California. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 14. Brogan, M. W. 1994. Two methods of sampling fish larvae over reefs: A comparison from the Gulf of California. Marine Biology 118:33-44. Carriquiry, J. D., and H. Reyes Bonilla. 1997. Estructura de la comunidad y distribución geográfica de los arrecifes coralinos de Nayarit, Pacífico de México. Ciencias Marinas 23:227-248. Cortés-N., J. 1986. Biogeografía de corales hermatípicos: El istmo centro americano. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 13:297-304. De Alba, C. 1978. Predación de coral por la estrella de mar corona de espinas Acanthaster ellisti (Gray) en el área de Bahía de la Paz. Memorias del I Congreso Internacional de Biología Marina UABCS. 1:45-51. Fischer, R., O. C. Galli, and J. Reither. 1989. Skeletal structure, growth and paleoecology of the patch-reef building polychaete worm Diplochaetetes mexicanus Wilson, 1986 from the Oligocene of Baja California (Mexico). Geobios 22:761-?. Green, G., P. Gomez, and G. J. Bakus. 1985. Antimicrobial and Ichthyotoxic Properties of Marine Sponges from Mexican Waters. 3rd. International Sponge Conference:109-114.


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Holguín Quiñones, O., S. Millie Pagaza, and A. Pérez Chi. 1992. Resultados de las campañas de muestreo de 1991 para el estudio del bentos marino de Isla Socorro, Revillagigedo, Colima, México. Zoología Informa 24:1-20. Ketchum, J. T., and H. Reyes Bonilla. 1996. Biogeography of hermatypic corals of the Revillagigedo Archipielago, Mexico. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 106. Lozano, R. C. 1988. Determinación de las propiedades antimicrobianas e ictiotóxicas de esponjas y ascidias del Golfo de California y Caribe Mexicano. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 77 pp. Medina-Rosas, P., and M. López-Forment. 1996. Diversity of the stony corals from the Island Marietas, Mexico. Res. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 131. Mitchell-Arana, L. M. 1994. Perfil del coral y especies asociadas en La Entrega, Bahías de Huatulco, México. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. ENEP, Iztacala. 74 pp. Montgomery, W. L., T. Gerrodette, and L. D. Marshall. 1980. Effects of grazing by the yellowtail surgeonfish, Prionurus punctatus, on algal communities in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science 30:901908. Murphy, R. C., and J. N. Kremer. 1983. Community metabolism of Clipperton Lagoon, a coral atoll in the eastern Pacific. Bulletin of Marine Science 33:152-164. Ochoa-López, E., and H. Reyes Bonilla. In press. Range extension of Psemmocari stellots (Scleractinia: Siderastreidae) in the Gulf of California. Revista de Biología Tropical 45. Reyes-Bonilla, H. 1990. Distribución, riqueza específica, aspectos biogeográficos y taxonómicos de los corales hermatípicos del Golfo de California. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. ENEP, Iztacala. 127 pp. Reyes Bonilla, H. 1992. New records for hermatypic corals (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) in the Gulf of California, Mexico, with an historical and biogeographical discussion. Journal of Natural History 26:1163-1175. Reyes Bonilla, H. 1993a. 1987 Coral reef bleaching at Cabo Pulmo Reef, Gulf of California, Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science 52:832-837. Reyes Bonilla, H. 1993b. Biogeografía y Ecología de los Corales Hermatípicos (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) del Pacífico de México. Pp. 207-222 in S. I. Salazar-Vallejo and N. E. González, editors. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. CONABIO/CIQRO, México, D.F. Reyes-Bonilla, H. 1993c. Estructura de la comunidad, influencia de la depredación y biología poblacional de corales hermatípicos en el arrecife a (Ellis y Solander), Porites panamensis Verrill y Pavona gigantea Verrill. M.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. ENEP, Iztacala. 169 pp. Reyes Bonilla, H. In press-a. Gorgonáceos y corales pétreos (Anthozoa: Gorgonacea y Scleractinia) del arrecife de Cabo Pulmo, Pacífico de México. Revista de Biología Tropical 45. Reyes Bonilla, H. In press-b. Range extension of Pocillopora damicornis in the Gulf of California. Revista de Biología Tropical 45. Reyes Bonilla, H., and L. D. Calderón-Aguilera. 1994. Parámetros poblacionales de Porites panamensis (Anthozoa: Scleractinia), en el arrecife de Cabo Pulmo, México. Revista de Biología Tropical 42:121-128. Reyes Bonilla, H., and J. D. Carriquiry. 1994. Range extension of Psammocora superficialis (Scleractinia: Thamnasteriidae) to Isla Socorro, Revillagigedo Archipielago, Colima, Mexico. Revista de Biología Tropical 42:383-392. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Reyes Bonilla, H., E. Ochoa-López, and J. T. Ketchum. In press. Riqueza específica y biogeografía de los corales pétreos (Scleractinia), equinodermos (Echinoidea y Asteroidea) y moluscos (Bivalvia y Gasteropoda) de la Isla Clarión. in L. Ladrazo, O. Holguín and A. Ortega, editors. Isla Revillagigedo, México. Estado Actual del Conocimiento. UNAM/IPN/CIBNOR, México, D.F. Robinson, J. A., and D. A. Thomson. 1992. Status of the Pulmo coral reefs in the lower Gulf of California. Environ. Conserv. 19:261-264. Rosado-Bravo, I. H. 1993. Ecología de las comunidades de peces del arrecife rocoso aledaño al litoral de Caleta de Campos, Michoacán, México. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 88 pp. Scott, P. J. B., M. J. Risk, and J. D. Carriquiry. 1988. El Niño, bioerosion and the survival of the east Pacific reefs. Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Australia 2:517-520. Villareal-Cavazos, A. 1988. Distribución y diversidad de peces en el arrecife coralino Cabo Pulmo- Los Frailes. B.Sc. Thesis. Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur. 144 + VIII pp. Wilson, E. C. 1988. The hermatypic coral Pocillopora at Cabo San Lucas, México. Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 87:79-83. Wilson, E. C. 1990. Mass mortality of the reef coral Pocillopora on the south coast of Baja California Sur, México. Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 89:39-41.

Pacific: General Description 10 references Arizpe, O. 1996. El arrecife coralino más septentrional del Pacífico Oriental. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama. p 8. Arizpe, O., H. Reyes, A. Villareal, and F. Sinsel. 1992. Cabo Pulmo: The Northernmost Coral Reef of the Eastern Pacific (Gulf of California, Mexico). Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam 2:1239. Brusca, R. C., and D. A. Thompson. 1977. Pulmo Reef: the only "coral reef" in the Gulf of California. Ciencias Marinas 1:37-53. Carriquiry, J. D., and H. Reyes Bonilla. 1997. Estructura de la comunidad y distribución geográfica de los arrecifes coralinos de Nayarit, Pacífico de México. Ciencias Marinas 23:227-248. Carriquiry, J. D., M. J. Risk, and H. P. Scwarcz. 1988. Timing and temperature record from stable isotopes of the 1982-1983 El Niño warming event in eastern Pacific corals. Palaios 3:359-364. Cortés-N., J. 1986. Biogeografía de corales hermatípicos: El istmo centro americano. Anales del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM 13:297-304. Glynn, P. W., and G. E. Leyte-Morales. In press. Coral reefs of Huatulco, México: Reef development in upwelling Gulf of Tehuantepec. Revista de Biología Tropical. Hanna, G. D. 1926. Expedition to the Revillagigedo Islands, Mexico, in 1925. Part I. General account. Proc. California Acad. Sci. Ser. 4 15:1-113. Holguín Quiñones, O., S. Millie Pagaza, and A. Pérez Chi. 1992. Resultados de las campañas de muestreo de 1991 para el estudio del bentos marino de Isla Socorro, Revillagigedo, Colima, México. Zoología Informa 24:1-20. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Leyte-Morales, G. E. 1995. Zonas coralinas de Bahías de Huatulco. Res. III Congreso Nacional de Zoología. Morelia, Michoacán. Noviembre de 1995. p. 68. Leyte-Morales, G. E. 1996a. The coral communities of Oaxaca, México. VIII International Coral Reef Symposium. Panama, Panama, June 1996. p. 117. Leyte-Morales, G. E. 1996b. Importancia biogeográfica de las comunidades coralinas de Oaxaca, México. Memorias 1er Encuentro Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Sustentable: Guerrero, Oaxaca y Chiapas. López-Uriarte, E., and T. L. Pérez-Vivar. 1996. Comunidad coralina de Bahía de Banderas. Memorias 1er Encuentro Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Sustentable: Guerrero, Oaxaca y Chiapas. Reyes Bonilla, H. 1993. Biogeografía y Ecología de los Corales Hermatípicos (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) del Pacífico de México. Pp. 207-222 in S. I. Salazar-Vallejo and N. E. González, editors. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. CONABIO/CIQRO, México, D.F. Squires, D. F. 1959. Corals and coral reefs in the Gulf of California. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 118:367-432. UNEP/IUCN. 1988. UNEP Regional Seas Directries and Bibliographies. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K./UNEP, Nairobi, Kenia. Page Bros., Norwich, U.K. Villalobos, A. 1960. Notas acerca del aspecto hidrobiológico de la isla. Monografías del Instituto de Geofísica de la UNAM 2(La Isla Socorro, Archipiélago de las Revillagigedo):154-180.

Pacific: Taxonomy 18 references Bastida-Zavala, J. R. 1991. Previous list of the polychaetes (Annelida: Polychaeta) from Cabo Pulmo-Los Frailes Reef, B.C.S., Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science 48:584. Carter, H. J. 1882. Some sponges from the West Indies and Acapulco in the Liverpool Free Museum described with general and classificatory remarks. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 9:266-301. Durham, J. W. 1947. Corals from the Gulf of California on the North Pacific coast of America. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 20:68 pp. Durham, J. W., and J. L. Barnard. 1952. Stony corals of the eastern Pacific collected by the Velero III and the Velero IV. A. Hancock Foundation publications of the University of Southern California 16:1-110. Horta-Puga, G., and J. P. Carricart-Ganivet. 1993. Corales pétreos recientes (Milleporina, Stylasterina y Scleractinia) de México. Pp. 64-78 in S. I. Salazar-Vallejo and N. E. González, editors. Biodiversidad Marina y Costera de México. CONABIO/CIQRO, México, D. F. León-González, M. A. 1990. Dos serpúlidos nuevos para el Pacífico Mexicano y duplicidad opercular en Hydroides crucigera (Polychaeta: Serpulidae). Revista de Biología Tropical 38:335-338. Leyte-Morales, G. E. 1995. Primer registro de Gardineroseris planulata en México. Res. III Congreso Nacional de Zoología. Morelia, Michoacán. Noviembre de 1995. p. 162. Leyte-Morales, G. E. 1996. Importancia biogeográfica de las comunidades coralinas de Oaxaca, México. Memorias 1er Encuentro Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Sustentable: Guerrero, Oaxaca y Chiapas. Leyte-Morales, G. E. In press. La colección de corales de la Universidad del Mar. Ciencia y Mar 1. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Section 3 Popular LIterature 96 references Aguilar, A. 1997a. Banco Chinchorro: An amazing coral reef in the Mexican Caribbean. Miami Herald (Cancún), June 28. Aguilar, A. 1997b. Banco Chinchorro: Oasis pletórico del Caribe Mexicano. La Crónica de Cancún, 28 de junio. Aguilar, A. 1997c. Banco Chinchorro. Miami Herald (Cancún), April 26. Aguilar, A. 1997d. Las agrupaciones de mero en el arrecife coralino del Caribe. La Crónica de Cancún, 8 de septiembre. Aguilar, A. 1997e. Marine fishery reserves: are they effective to protect coral reefs and beneficial for fishermen? Miami Herald (Cancún), July 5. Aguilar, A. 1997f. The Nassau Grouper: An aggregating caribbean fish. Miami Herald (Cancún), April . Aguilar, A. 1997g. Reservas marinas: protección para el arrecife. La Crónica de Cancún, 18 de agosto. Aguilar-Perera, A., and W. Aguilar-Dávila. 1993. Cuadernos de Divulgación, 6: Banco Chinchorro. Ultimo refugio en el Caribe mexicano, 1st Edition. CIQRO, Chetumal, Quintana Roo, México. Alvarez, J. N. 1997. Los peces de los arrecifes de coral. La Crónica de Cancún, 9 de junio. Anonymous. 1994. Toppled platform to become artificial reef in Gulf of Mexico. Oil & gas journal 92:49-?. Anonymous. (1995). Exploring the Great Maya Reef. Part 1. The Mexican Caribbean. Maya World. Where man, nature and time are one. Secretaría de Turismo. 138 pp. Anonymous. 1996a. Cuadernos: The Cruise Ship Pier in Cozumel. SEMARNAP, México, D.F. Anonymous. 1996b. NAFTA council investigates Mexican project. Environmental science & technology 30:433a. Anonymous. 1997a. Conservación y Uso Sustentable de los Arrecifes en México. Logros y Compromisos. International Year of the Reef 1997. Instituto Nacional de Ecología, SEMARNAP, 32 pp. Anonymous. (1997)-b. Sistema Arrecifal del Caribe Mesoamericano. Instituto Nacional de Ecología, SEMARNAP. Anonymous. ? Poríferos: Esponjas. Arrecifes y comunidades coralinas. Vol. 2, IV, Biología marina I. Macroinvertebrados. Atlas Nacional de México. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM. Avilis, and Schmitte. 1997a. The fishes of coastal lagoons in Southern Quintana Roo: their relationship to the reef. Miami Herald (Cancún), July 12. Avilis, and Schmitte. 1997b. Los peces de las lagunas costeras del de Quintana Roo: su relación con el arrecife. La Crónica de Cancún, 4 de agosto. Barba, M. G. 1997a. Como se alimentan los corales. La Crónica de Cancún, 11 de agosto. Barba, M. G. 1997b. How do corals eat? Miami Herald (Cancún), August 30. Basurto, M., and J. Villanueva. 1996. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 7: Los peces comerciales de Sian Ka'an. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Basurto, M. E., and E. Zárate. 1991. La Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Ka'an y su actividad pesquera. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 8:12-14. Basurto, M. E., and E. Zárate. 1995. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 5: El cangrejo moro, pesquería y manejo en la Bahía de la Ascensión, Quintana Roo, México. Amigos de Sian Ka'an , Cancun, Quintana Roo, México. Botello, A. V., G. Ponce-Velez, A. Toledo, G. Díaz-González, and S. Villanueva. 1992. Ecología, recursos costeros y contaminación en el Golfo de México. Ciencia y Desarrollo 17:28-48. Briones, P. 1997a. Camarones, cangrejos y langostas: los animales móviles más abundantes en los fondos arrecifales coralinos. La Crónica de Cancún, 6 de octubre. Briones, P. 1997b. Shrimps, crabs and lobsters: the most abundant mobile animals on coral reef bottoms. Miami Herald (Cancún), October 11. Briones-Fourzán, P. 1988. Reclutamiento de postlarvas de langosta en Bahía de la Ascención. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 2:8-9. Briones-Fourzán, P., and E. P. Lozano-Alvarez. 1992. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 3: La Langosta en Bahía de la Ascensión. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Candela, F., and H. Geiger. 1994. México bajo el mar. Agualarga Editores, México, D.F. Carricart, J. P., and A. U. Beltrán. 1997. Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro. La Crónica de Cancún, 24 de junio. Castello, J. M. 1971. Maravillas del primer parque nacional submarino de México. Contenido 101:18-25. Castorena, V., and M. Metaca. 1979. El coral negro, una riqueza en peligro. Tecnología Pesquera 141:22-27. Erosa, I. 1997. Arrecifes: hogar de las tortugas marinas. La Crónica de Cancún, 13 de octubre. Freshee, R. 1995. Cozumel: Fun, Sun and Great Diving in the Mexican Caribbean. Skin diver 44:158-?. Freshee, R. 1996. 1996 Dive Travel Guide to Cozumel: A Divers' Utopia in the Mexican Caribbean. Skin diver 45:116-?. García, G. 1996. La Poza de Xcalak, una estructura arrecifal única. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 15:16-20. Gutiérrez, D., M. Lara, and C. Padilla. 1991. Los arrecifes coralinos de Sian Ka'an. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 9:12-14. Horta, G. 1997. Lo que cuentan los esqueletos de coral. La Crónica de Cancún, 28 de abril. Jordán, E. 1978. Los Corales. Naturaleza 9:298-306. Jordán, E. 1979. Arrecifes del Caribe. in Gallina and Sangri, editors. Bellezas Naturales de México. INCAFO, Madrid. Kenyon, J. 1984. Black coral off Cozumel. Sea Frontiers 30:267-269. Lara, M., and C. Padilla. 1994. Organismos del fondo marino de Isla Contoy. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 13:18-20. Lewbel, G. S., and L. R. Martin. 1991. Diving and snorkeling guide to Cozumel, 2nd Edition. Pisces Books, Houston, Texas, USA.


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Lorenzo, S., and P. Padilla. 1993. The reef of Cozumel Island. International Filmworks, Inc. Lucas, S. 1984. Chinchorro Banks: Exploring Mexico's graveyard of ships. Skin diver 33:104-105. Macías, R. 1997a. Distinguished members of a coral reef: the bluehead wrasse. Miami Herald (Cancún), July 19. Macías, R. 1997b. Distinguished members of the coral reef: the damselfishes. Miami Herald (Cancún), September 20. Macías, R. 1997c. Perrsonajes distinguidos del arrecife: los peces damisela. La Crónica de Cancún, 29 de septiembre. Macías, R. 1997d. Personajes distinguidos del arrecife: el viejo de cabeza azul. La Crónica de Cancún, 30 de junio. Morales, J. J. 1993a. Introducción a los Ecosistemas de la Península de Yucatán: El mar y sus recursos. Cuaderno de Trabajo, 1st Edition. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morales, J. J. 1993b. Introducción a los Ecosistemas de la Península de Yucatán: El mar y sus recursos, 1st Edition. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morales, J. J. 1997. Introducción a los Ecosistemas de la Península de Yucatán: Los arrecifes coralinos y su importancia, 1st Edition. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morales-Barbosa, J. J. 1995. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 5: Las zonas de repoblación pesquera. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morita, M. 1997. Banco Chinchorro, en Chetumal. Zona de arrecifes y cementerio de galeones españoles y barcos ingleses en este siglo. La Crónica de Cancún, 10 de noviembre. Nauman, T. 1995. Arrecifes coralinos esenciales para el abasto de alimentos pesqueros. El Financiero, 28 de abril. Orr, K. 1985. La vida de la langosta espinosa. Amigos de Sian Ka'an. 16 pp. Ortiz-Monasterio-P., F., and T. Ortiz-Monasterio-G. 1993. Coral peregrino. Biosphere Press, Oracle, Arizona, USA. Palencia, A. L. 1983. Isla Verde: un laboratorio natural. Tecnología Pesquera Enero 1983:20-24. Peregrina, K. 1997a. El universo oculto. La Crónica de Cancún, 14 de abril. Peregrina, K. 1997b. The Hidden Universe. Miami Herald (Cancún), June 14. Pizaña, J. 1997. Los peces coralinos, caleidoscopio viviente. La Crónica de Cancún, 7 de abril. Rauscher, F. 1991. Cruising guide to Belize and Mexico's Caribbean coast including Guatemala's Rio Dulce, 1st Edition. Wescott Cove Publishing Company, Samford, Connecticut. Riviera. 1977. Chinchorro: arrecife de naufragios y piratas. Geografía Universal 4:277-297. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997a. Arrecifes coralinos en peligro. La Crónica de Cancún, 16 de junio. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997b. Coral reefs, tropical forest share economic value. Miami Herald (Cancún), May 17. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997c. La importancia de los arrecifes. La Crónica de Cancún, 27 de enero. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Rodríguez, R. E. 1997d. International Year of the Reef 1997. Miami Herald (Cancún), March 15. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997e. Las poblaciones de tiburón estan amenazadas. La Crónica de Cancún, 12 de mayo. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997f. Los arrecifes y su valor económico. La Crónica de Cancún, 3 de marzo. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997g. Personaje distinguido del arrecife: el coral cuerno de alce. La Crónica de Cancún, 15 de septiembre. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997h. Reefs in danger. Miami Herald (Cancún), July 26. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997i. Shark populations are threatened. Miami Herald (Cancún), July 21. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997j. What is a coral reef? Miami Herald (Cancún), July 19. Rodríguez, R. E. 1997. ¿Qué es un arrecife de coral? La Crónica de Cancún, 10 de febrero. Rosenberg, D. 1992. Diving Cozumel. Aqua Quest Publications, Inc., Locust valley, New York, USA. Saldaña, G. 1997. Los arrecifes: preocupación común. La Crónica de Cancún, 1 de septiembre. Schmitter, J. J. 1997. Los arrecifes coralinos (y la vida en la tierra): evolución bilógica (no creación divina). La Crónica de Cancún, 20 de octubre. Segura, L. 1997a. El dedal y las erupciones de los bañistas. La Crónica de Cancún, 17 de marzo. Segura, L. 1997b. El plancton: universo maravilloso de criaturas microscópicas. La Crónica de Cancún, 26 de mayo. Segura, L. 1997c. Sea bather's eruption in the Mexican Caribbean. Miami Herald (Cancún), May 17. Segura, L., and B. I. van Tussenbroek. 1997a. Do Marine Plants Sting? Miami Herald (Cancún), March 20. Segura, L., and B. I. van Tussenbroek. 1997b. Las plantas marinas urticantes. La Crónica de Cancún, 5 de mayo. Smith, T. 1838. Description of Alacran,and Cay Arenas,in the Gulf of Mexico. Nautical Magazine 7:804-805. Solis-Weiss, V. 1990. Edenes productivos del litoral mexicano: arrecifes coralinos, manglares y pastos marinos. Pp. 421-451 in E. Leff, editor. Medio ambiente y desarrollo en México. Volume 2. Centro de Investigaciones Interdisciplinarias en Humanidades, UNAM, México D.F. Sosa, P. 1997a. Los arrecifes como recurso turístico. La Crónica de Cancún, 31 de marzo. Sosa, P. 1997b. Tourist resource. Miami Herald (Cancún), April 19. Tello, J. L. 1997. Los corales, pequeños arquitectos. La Crónica de Cancún, 19 de mayo. Thorhaug, A. 1981. Biología y manejo de hierbas submarinas en el Caribe. Ambio 10:295-298. De la Torre, R. 1997. Papel de la comunidad en la protección de los ecosistemas arrecifales. La Crónica de Cancún, 2 de junio. De la Torre-Alegría, R. 1978. Coral negro: Un recurso o una especie en peligro. Proc. Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 31:158-163.


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Trench, R. 1997a. Arrecifes coralinos y la simbiosis algas-invertebrados. La Crónica de Cancún, 3 de noviembre. Trench, R. 1997b. Coral reefs and algal-invertebrate symbiosis. Miami Herald (Cancún), October 4. Tussenbroek, B. I. van. 1997a. Arrecifes, pastos y manglares: sus interacciones. La Crónica de Cancún, 24 de febrero. Tussenbroek, B. I. van. 1997b. Coral reefs, seagrasses and mangroves: their interactions. Miami Herald (Cancún), March 24. Tussenbroek, B. I. van. 1997c. Los pastos marinos y la belleza de la costa caribeña. La Crónica de Cancún, 25 de marzo. Tussenbroek, B. I. van. 1997d. Seagrasses and their role in maintaining the beauty of the Caribbean coast. Miami Herald (Cancún), April 12.


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Section 4 Popular LIterature by Geographic Region Popular: Caribbean 55 references Aguilar, A. 1997a. Banco Chinchorro: An amazing coral reef in the Mexican Caribbean. Miami Herald (Cancún), June 28. Aguilar, A. 1997b. Banco Chinchorro: Oasis pletórico del Caribe Mexicano. La Crónica de Cancún, 28 de junio. Aguilar, A. 1997c. Banco Chinchorro. Miami Herald (Cancún), April 26. Aguilar, A. 1997d. Las agrupaciones de mero en el arrecife coralino del Caribe. La Crónica de Cancún, 8 de septiembre. Aguilar, A. 1997f. The Nassau Grouper: An aggregating caribbean fish. Miami Herald (Cancún), April 5. Aguilar-Perera, A., and W. Aguilar-Dávila. 1993. Cuadernos de Divulgación, 6: Banco Chinchorro. Ultimo refugio en el Caribe mexicano, 1st Edition. CIQRO, Chetumal, Quintana Roo, México. Anonymous. (1995). Exploring the Great Maya Reef. Part 1. The Mexican Caribbean. Maya World. Where man, nature and time are one. Secretaría de Turismo. 138 pp. Anonymous. 1996a. Cuadernos: The Cruise Ship Pier in Cozumel. SEMARNAP, México, D.F. Anonymous. 1996b. NAFTA council investigates Mexican project. Environmental science & technology 30:433a. Anonymous. 1997a. Conservación y Uso Sustentable de los Arrecifes en México. Logros y Compromisos. International Year of the Reef 1997. Instituto Nacional de Ecología, SEMARNAP, 32 pp. Anonymous. (1997)-b. Sistema Arrecifal del Caribe Mesoamericano. Instituto Nacional de Ecología, SEMARNAP. Avilis, and Schmitte. 1997. Los peces de las lagunas costeras del de Quintana Roo: su relación con el arrecife. La Crónica de Cancún, 4 de agosto. Basurto, M., and J. Villanueva. 1996. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 7: Los peces comerciales de Sian Ka'an. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Basurto, M. E., and E. Zárate. 1991. La Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Ka'an y su actividad pesquera. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 8:12-14. Basurto, M. E., and E. Zárate. 1995. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 5: El cangrejo moro, pesquería y manejo en la Bahía de la Ascensión, Quintana Roo, México. Amigos de Sian Ka'an , Cancun, Quintana Roo, México. Briones, P. 1997a. Camarones, cangrejos y langostas: los animales móviles más abundantes en los fondos arrecifales coralinos. La Crónica de Cancún, 6 de octubre. Briones, P. 1997b. Shrimps, crabs and lobsters: the most abundant mobile animals on coral reef bottoms. Miami Herald (Cancún), October 11. Briones-Fourzán, P. 1988. Reclutamiento de postlarvas de langosta en Bahía de la Ascención. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 2:8-9. Briones-Fourzán, P., and E. P. Lozano-Alvarez. 1992. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 3: La Langosta en Bahía de la Ascensión. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Implementation of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in Mexico Amigos de Sian Ka'an A.C. / Commission for Environmental Cooperation

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Carricart, J. P., and A. U. Beltrán. 1997. Reserva de la Biosfera Banco Chinchorro. La Crónica de Cancún, 24 de junio. Erosa, I. 1997. Arrecifes: hogar de las tortugas marinas. La Crónica de Cancún, 13 de octubre. Freshee, R. 1995. Cozumel: Fun, Sun and Great Diving in the Mexican Caribbean. Skin diver 44:158-?. Freshee, R. 1996. 1996 Dive Travel Guide to Cozumel: A Divers' Utopia in the Mexican Caribbean. Skin diver 45:116-?. García, G. 1996. La Poza de Xcalak, una estructura arrecifal única. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 15:16-20. Gutiérrez, D., M. Lara, and C. Padilla. 1991. Los arrecifes coralinos de Sian Ka'an. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 9:12-14. Jordán, E. 1979. Arrecifes del Caribe. in Gallina and Sangri, editors. Bellezas Naturales de México. INCAFO, Madrid. Kenyon, J. 1984. Black coral off Cozumel. Sea Frontiers 30:267-269. Lara, M., and C. Padilla. 1994. Organismos del fondo marino de Isla Contoy. Boletín Amigos de Sian Ka'an 13:18-20. Lewbel, G. S., and L. R. Martin. 1991. Diving and snorkeling guide to Cozumel, 2nd Edition. Pisces Books, Houston, Texas, USA. Lorenzo, S., and P. Padilla. 1993. The reef of Cozumel Island. International Filmworks, Inc. Lucas, S. 1984. Chinchorro Banks: Exploring Mexico's graveyard of ships. Skin diver 33:104-105. Macías, R. 1997a. Distinguished members of a coral reef: the bluehead wrasse. Miami Herald (Cancún), July 19. Macías, R. 1997b. Distinguished members of the coral reef: the damselfishes. Miami Herald (Cancún), September 20. Macías, R. 1997c. Perrsonajes distinguidos del arrecife: los peces damisela. La Crónica de Cancún, 29 de septiembre. Macías, R. 1997d. Personajes distinguidos del arrecife: el viejo de cabeza azul. La Crónica de Cancún, 30 de junio. Morales, J. J. 1993a. Introducción a los Ecosistemas de la Península de Yucatán: El mar y sus recursos. Cuaderno de Trabajo, 1st Edition. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morales, J. J. 1993b. Introducción a los Ecosistemas de la Península de Yucatán: El mar y sus recursos, 1st Edition. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morales, J. J. 1997. Introducción a los Ecosistemas de la Península de Yucatán: Los arrecifes coralinos y su importancia, 1st Edition. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morales-Barbosa, J. J. 1995. Cuadernos de Sian Ka'an, 5: Las zonas de repoblación pesquera. Amigos de Sian Ka'an, Cancún, Quintana Roo, México. Morita, M. 1997. Banco Chinchorro, en Chetumal. Zona de arrecifes y cementerio de galeones españoles y barcos ingleses en este siglo. La Crónica de Cancún, 10 de noviembre.


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Popular: Gulf of Mexico 5 references Anonymous. 1994. Toppled platform to become artificial reef in Gulf of Mexico. Oil & gas journal 92:49-?. Anonymous. 1997. Conservación y Uso Sustentable de los Arrecifes en México. Logros y Compromisos. International Year of the Reef 1997. Instituto Nacional de Ecología, SEMARNAP, 32 pp. Botello, A. V., G. Ponce-Velez, A. Toledo, G. Díaz-González, and S. Villanueva. 1992. Ecología, recursos costeros y contaminación en el Golfo de México. Ciencia y Desarrollo 17:28-48. Castello, J. M. 1971. Maravillas del primer parque nacional submarino de México. Contenido 101:18-25. Palencia, A. L. 1983. Isla Verde: un laboratorio natural. Tecnología Pesquera Enero 1983:20-24.


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Popular: Campeche Bank 2 references Anonymous. 1997. Conservación y Uso Sustentable de los Arrecifes en México. Logros y Compromisos. International Year of the Reef 1997. Instituto Nacional de Ecología, SEMARNAP, 32 pp. Smith, T. 1838. Description of Alacran,and Cay Arenas,in the Gulf of Mexico. Nautical Magazine 7:804-805.

Popular: Pacific 1 reference Castorena, V. and M. Metaca. 1979. El coral negro, una riqueza en peligro. Tecnología Pesquera 141:22-27.
