Implementing culturally responsive positive behavior ...

Implementing culturally responsive positive behavior interventions and supports in middle school classrooms Narrating the experience o f a young classroom teacher who collaborates w ith an experienced special education teacher to reduce subtle assumptions filled w ith cultural bias, this article reveals im portant implications for managing student behavior in more productive and culturally sensitive ways.

Elizabeth D. Cramer & Kyle D. Bennett

Ms. Bolton is a seventh grade science teacher at Clemmons Park, a diverse urban middle school. In her second year teaching, she has five students with disabilities in her class. She has been agonizing with classroom management issues, and not only for these students. She particularly struggles with Jarvin, DeShawn, and Ruben in her third-period class. The intensity of her challenges demand special attention, both fo r the sake o f her own well-being and fo r the significant implications they create fo r democratic education and fo r middle school ideals that welcome all learners. More than once this year, she has taken her lunch break in tears. She has been looking fo r teaching openings in schools in the nearby suburban district. She also contacted Mr. Jeffries, the special education teacher in her school, to discuss referring the students to special education due to their disruptive behaviors in her class. Mr. Jeffries offered to meet with her and observe her class to see the students’ behavior and to provide suggestions about her teaching.

Unfortunately, the scenario described above captures one often experienced by teachers. For their students, these issues can ultim ately im pede learning needed for success in school and beyond. This article thus provides practical strategies th at align with key beliefs of the Association for M iddle Level Education (AMLE), formerly N ational M iddle School Association. Students from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds in the U nited States continue to

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Middle School Journal January 2015

encounter educational deficits at a high rate due to unequally structured learning opportunities (Losen & Skiba, 2011). Segregation on the basis of race, social class, and disability continues as evidenced by disproportionate representation in special education program s, detention, suspension, and o ther areas of negative attention. U nderachievem ent, or poor perform ance, which often leads to special education referral and placem ent, may also be explained by factors such as the effects of low teacher expectations, cultural differences in students’ and teachers’ behavioral expectations, language differences, and poverty (H arry & Klingner, 2006). These issues may be exacerbated at the m iddle school level in particular due to the developm ental changes th at occur at this time (Johnson, 2005), in addition to the volatility that can accompany adolescence. Black students with (or without) disabilities are m ore likely to be underrepresented in general education settings and overrepresented in m ore restrictive settings (Blanchett, 2009). Furtherm ore, Black students with disabilities are m ore likely to receive disciplinary provisions, with the most racial disparities found in suspensions or expulsions greater than 10 days (Skiba et al., 2008). This is in direct conflict with the essential attribute of “Equitable” (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010), which advocates for every student’s right to learn.

Since the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, Response to Intervention (RTI) models are being implemented nationwide with the intent to promote equity by ensuring that all students receive intensive, systematic, and evidencebased interventions prior to consideration for special education services, including those services required by students with problem behaviors. A branch of RTI dealing directly with students in need of developing more socially acceptable behaviors is called Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS), which works via a multi-tiered model with a heavy emphasis on prevention and teaching strategies (Fallon, O’Keeffe, & Sugai, 2012). PBIS consists of three tiers. Tier one consists of universal supports in the form of evidence-based practices implemented with the entire school population. Roughly 80% of students will respond to these supports and not require additional assistance. Tier two offers more intensive services (e.g., individualized schedule, token system, small group instruction) to students who experience challenges despite universal supports. Approximately 15% of students will respond to tier two interventions. Tier three is comprised of behavior supports implemented with students on an individual level. These supports start with educators and related service providers conducting a functional behavior assessment (FBA) and developing and implementing individualized strategies based on the results of the FBA. Up to 5% of students will respond at this level of intervention. For those who do not respond to intervention at the tier three level, a likely referral for special education evaluation will follow (Overton, 2012). Overall. PBIS has a rich history of helping many students succeed in school; however, some argue that the system may not be as successful as it could be for all students (Vincent, Randall, Cartledge, Tobin, & SwainBradway, 2011). Although PBIS dates back to the early 1990s, the disciplinary rates for students from diverse backgrounds continues to hover at high rates. Vincent and Tobin (2011) reported that black students continue to experience a disproportionate rate of long-term suspensions (>10 days), despite the implementation of PBIS. Although PBIS is thought to be comprised of universal principles that may be culturally indifferent, Vincent et al. (2011) argue that such principles are implemented in school settings comprised of students from CLD backgrounds and thus need to be implemented in a culturally responsive m anner if

all children are to benefit. Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg (2006) point out, “Without consideration of culturally responsive instruction, discipline, and interventions within all stages of the RTI decision making model, there is continued possibility of misinterpretation of student behavior...” (p. 781).

C u l t u r a l l y r e s p o n s iv e P B IS The first stage of this process begins with teachers taking a look at themselves. Educators need to be aware of their biases and own them, despite their subtle and almost invisible natures. They must acknowledge any negative thoughts that they have. Even professionals cannot always prevent such stereotyping, but they can recognize these feelings and preclude them from influencing their actions. One must also develop critical self-awareness of one’s own cultural and educational experiences (Lin, Lake, & Rice, 2008). These experiences shape educators as people and determine their expectations for the students in their classes. Educators who are able to do this can understand that while their experiences are their realities, the same realities do not exist for all of their students. Relatedly, research has shown the significance of developing the awareness that students have had various educational experiences among each other, such as quality of schools they have attended and teachers who have taught them previously (Harry & Klingner, 2006). Research findings have shown that teachers' beliefs about their students will influence student performance (Good & Nichols, 2001). This is particularly critical for middle grades educators as these years are when young adolescents begin to seek support from nonparental adults. Quite simply, students behave better when they perceive their teachers to be supportive, responsive, and caring (Wang & Holcombe, 2010). Unfortunately, as good middle level teachers know all too well, middle school students can begin to show decreased motivation and achievement and are particularly susceptible to teacher beliefs—particulary the negative ones (Haselhuhn, Al-Mabuk, Gabriele, Groen, & Galloway, 2007). Because of the importance of a solid and supportive education for this age group, AMLE’s key beliefs require that middle grades educators, “Value young adolescents and are prepared to teach them.” The essential attribute, “Challenging,” requires teachers to recognize that every student can learn and to hold all students to high expectations (NMSA, 2010).

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Mr. Jeffries and Ms. Bolton met over lunch to discuss his thoughts on the class period he observed. He pointed out to Ms. Bolton that the students she seems to have concerns about all comefrom ethnic backgrounds different than her own. He asked her to consider i f she had possibly had different expectations of and feelings toward any o f her students from the start o f class. Ms. Bolton did acknowledge that the usage o f English among some o f her students did lead her tofeel that they would not be as capable at science. Through talking, she came to realize that she should not have made this assumption and that she did base her grouping and assignment of experiment duties on these assumptions. She decided to change groups and roles every fo u r weeks to eliminate this bias from continuing in the lab projects. Once some o f her difficult students were trusted with more important roles, she noticed more participation in lab experiments and less issues with acting out behaviors in her class.

The school environment is inviting, safe, inclusive, and supportive of all.

students are more likely to succeed academically, actively participate in school, and feel confidence in themselves as students when they feel they are part of a supportive classroom (Wang & Holcombe, 2010). The classroom teacher also will be the primary person giving feedback to students. This feedback should be immediate, positive, and authentic (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008). When corrective feedback is necessary, it should be given with tact and respect. Instructions need to be literal and clear of innuendos, sarcasm, and idioms. Not all students will understand what is meant or intended if teachers are not explicit with what they expect or want. For example, asking a student who is speaking loudly, “Is that how we speak in the classroom?” is not the same as telling a student, “You should speak more quietly when we are in the classroom so we don’t disrupt others who are trying to concentrate.” A student may respond to the teacher’s question and come across as being rude or sarcastic, when in fact, he was trying to answer a question the teacher had posed. Remember, teachers serve as the model of the classroom and as such, set the tone of how to talk with others. This is particularly important as they (perhaps unintentionally) model how to react to sarcasm and how to disagree with others. D uring theirfirst lunch meeting, Mr. Jeffries also pointed

Interactions

Ideally, teachers should create a culture of tolerance and respect in the classroom where all students are accepted and encouraged by the teacher and by each other, regardless of their backgrounds and abilities (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008). Educators can create a culture of respect in which all members of the class—teachers and students—treat each other with dignity, fairness, and wonder. This ideal is aligned with the following key belief: “The school environment is inviting, safe, inclusive, and supportive of all” (NMSA, 2010). AMLE advocates for democratic schools, and AMLE encourages teachers to develop dispositions of compassion for others and be active participants in the school and the larger community. Teachers set the tone as leader of the classroom, and all opinions in the class should be valued and acknowledged. Students should work with various people in their environments—including adults and students—so they are interacting with everyone, not just the people they are most comfortable with. This community of learners (Ladson-Billings, 1995) has been shown as an effective way for individual students to be supported as part of an extended family within this group context. Middle school

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out that he immediately could tell which students were the students o f concern in the class simply by the body language displayed by Ms. Bolton when she was interacting with them. He explained that her whole face changed and her shoulders tensed up. Ms. Bolton realized that i f this was obvious in one class to Mr. Jeffries, this bias was probably something all o f the students in her class had sensed as well. He also encouraged her to give direct but tactful feedback. He pointed out to Ms. Bolton that some o f herfeedback was very unclear, possibly leaving some students confused as to what the expectations were. In fact, the next time Ms. Bolton had to give correctivefeedback toJarvin, she made a point to be as clear as possible while leaving out rhetorical questions and innuendos.

Hom e-school collaboration

Learning more about students’ lives outside of the classroom can go a long way toward successful interactions with students within classrooms (Lin et al., 2008). This We Believe states that the school must actively involve families in the education of young adolescents and include community and business partners (NMSA, 2010). Middle school teachers should take the time to learn about students’ family and home life, as well as the community

in which they live. Students have had differing parenting experiences, exposure to books, and educational materials in their homes (Harry & Klingner, 2006). Knowing about the people in students’ lives will give teachers insight as to the im portant adults to involve in the education process, as well as whom to seek support from when the student is in need. Teachers should be sure to offer multiple opportunities for families to become involved in the classroom. O ne way to encourage family involvement is to ensure that all family m em bers feel valued and welcome in the classroom (Cartledge & Lo, 2006). Educators also m ust m aintain realistic expectations of the level o f homework support that families can provide an d have a contingency plan for students if work is unable or unlikely to be com pleted at hom e (ArcherBanks & B ehar-H orenstein, 2008). Teachers should m aintain family com m unication with a frequency based on student need and family desire. W hile the classroom teacher does not have responsibility to solve all of the problem s families may face, they can serve as a trusted point person who is aware o f com m unity resources to direct families in need. While Ms. Bolton was pleased with many of the improvements in her class after implementing Mr. Jeffries’ suggestions, she still was frustrated with Ruben repeatedly fa iling to complete his homework. When Ruben didn’t turn in his homework fo r the third day in a row, Ms. Bolton called home and fo u n d out that the number on record was disconnected. She then mailed a letter to his house, but still did not hear back from his parents. She asked Ruben’s baseball coach, Mr. Fox, if he knew how to reach them. Coach explained that Ruben’s parents and aunt came to all o f his games. Ms. Bolton decided to attend the next game and met Ruben’s parents and aunt. The aunt was able to translate and explain that the parents felt that

We Believe suggests th at students and teachers be engaged in active, purposeful learning. Further, curriculum should be challenging, exploratory, integrative, and relevant (NMSA, 2010). A lthough the selection of some curricular elem ents might be out of the classroom teacher’s control, teachers have great power to make curriculum relevant to each student. The curriculum should include a multicultural focus on groups that typically have been m arginalized and that may more accurately m irror the student population (Canfield-Davis, Tenuto, Jain, & McMurty, 2011). Such an emphasis would consistently incorporate readings and assignments that include diverse people, language, cultural locations, and heritages as m ain characters, examples, topics, and themes. Additionally, educators should emphasize, in a positive manner, the people, holidays, and events of the culture of the student body throughout the entire school year. For example, teachers can include the accomplishments of multiple civil rights leaders (not just the well-known ones) corresponding to the anniversary dates of historical events, highlight scientific discoveries m ade by individuals of various cultural and ethnic backgrounds, and discuss and celebrate selected holidays relevant to the cultural backgrounds of students in the class. Teachers are encouraged to move beyond the traditional approach of simply highlighting different cultures during pre-selected them ed months. Some argue that Black History m onth and Hispanic Heritage month marginalize the culture of CLD students since an emphasis on diversity should be part of the daily educational context. Such measures can help students better connect to the content of the curriculum and may prevent issues that lead to problem behaviors. D uring another observation in October, Mr. Jeffries noticed

they shouldn’t interfere with school matters since they had not

that Ms. Bolton had a “Famous Hispanic Scientists”bulletin

completed much schooling and were not comfortable speaking

board in her class in honor o f Hispanic Heritage month. He

English. Together, they agreed that Ruben’s parents would

recommended that she change the bulletin board to read “Famous

ensure that he spent time each night on schoolwork. Ms. Bolton

Scientists, ”which she did. The bulletin board now highlights

informed them of the Teacher Helpline that the school district

biographies and photos o f scientists from all different backgrounds,

provided to any students to call in fo r live homework support

including women, those with disabilities, and thosefrom various

from a teacher. The aunt offered her phone number as a contact to use when necessary.

ethnic groups represented in her different classes. Ruben went online on his own tofin d a scientist from his home country of Nicaragua and asked Ms. Bolton to add him to the board.

C u rric u lu m

T he im portance of using an appropriate curriculum th at incorporates students’ interests and experiences can serve as a preventive m ethod th at m inim izes the likelihood of students displaying problem behaviors. This

In s tru c tio n

In an effort to increase the likelihood o f appropriate student behaviors and to m inim ize problem behaviors, the use of evidence-based teaching strategies that

www.amle.org

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incorporate culturally relevant practices is necessary to ensure all students in the class receive appropriate instruction. Several global strategies that are beneficial for students from CLD backgrounds include direct and explicit instruction, cooperative learning groups, and peer tutoring (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008; Fallon et al., 2012). Aspects of direct and explicit instruction include (a) stating expectations and objectives at the beginning of lessons; (b) presenting the information to the students using modeling and demonstration as needed; (c) using scaffolding, or prompting and prompt fading; (d) providing students with opportunities for practice; and (e) using performance feedback. Of particular importance for students from CLD backgrounds is requiring active student response whereby students perform overt academic, social, or other skills that allows the teacher the opportunity to provide immediate feedback, including both supportive and corrective feedback (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008). The use of peer-facilitated instruction also is beneficial for students from CLD backgrounds, and these strategies have been linked to better academic and social outcomes for students (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008; Fallon et al., 2012). Examples include cooperative learning groups and peer tutoring. These strategies give students additional learning opportunities that might not be available when teachers rely solely on group instruction. They also are in line with the key belief of multiple learning approaches (NMSA, 2010). Moreover, they provide an opportunity for students to interact with all members of the class, thereby increasing their experience with people from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008). As such, all students can feel like important and connected members of the classroom while obtaining the support they need to be successful. Mr. Jeffries offered to observe Ms. Bolton again, but this time to focus on her delivery of instruction during a large group lesson. He pointed out to Ms. Bolton that while she had all o f the directions written on the board, she never once read them aloud to students or asked i f anyone needed clarification. Additionally, he recommended that when she is lecturing, she stop periodically and ask the students questions about the topic that she expects the whole class to respond to by writing their answers down on a white board that they hold up fo r her to see. He believed this active student responding would help keep more students engaged in the class, give Ms. Bolton opportunities to provide feedback, and inform Ms. Bolton about content that needed to be explained further i f many students were not able to answer simple queries.

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C la s s ro o m m a n a g e m e n t s y s te m

A classroom management system incorporates multiple elements with an emphasis on preventing problem behaviors, teaching appropriate behaviors, and arranging consequences to increase and decrease behavior. An effective classroom management system based on PBIS will include each of these global components, but the over-arching goal is teaching appropriate and helpful behaviors rather than simply suppressing problem behaviors. Several strategies that merge PBIS classroom management systems and culturally congruent practices follow. Teachers should include curricular objectives on how to be a member of the school’s culture that highlights the shared values of the school by setting aside class time to specifically teach the rules and expectations of classroom and non-classroom settings. These rules and expectations should be developmentally appropriate for young adolescents. Teachers can develop the rules and expectations with the students’ input, discuss with students why certain rules must be present, provide them with a rationale, and clearly state and post the rules containing no ambiguity. Evidence-based strategies can be used to teach rules and expectations such as modeling, role-playing, and providing supportive and corrective feedback. Good teachers also must determine the items that will serve as reinforcers for different students. Teachers should keep in mind that although cultural heritage heavily influences what items will serve as reinforcers, each student has a unique learning history. Thus, students might have reinforcers that are different from his or her cultural group (Sugai, O’Keeffe, & Fallon, 2012). Teachers can use a variety of instruments (e.g., interest inventories, parent questionnaires, direct observation) to determine potential reinforcers and corrective consequences that take into account students’ overall cultural perspectives, as well as students’ individual learning histories. When corrective consequences are necessary, teachers should consider their students’ out of school environments before selecting or administering corrective consequences (e.g., would an out of school suspension increase the likelihood of the student spending time in an environment that encourages additional problem behaviors?), and plan corrective consequences to avoid those that might be reactive and less thought out. As no two children are alike, teachers must consider individually-tailored

corrective consequences as opposed to a “one size fits all” approach. This embraces the essential attribute of “Developmentally Responsive” (NMSA, 2010). The strategies listed above can help teachers establish a classroom with clear expectations, as well as teach appropriate classroom behaviors while correcting problematic behaviors in a culturally responsive manner. Such practices help students learn the shared values of the class and take ownership of their shared responsibilities to engage in successful classroom behavior (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008; Fallon et al., 2012; Sugai et ah, 2012). D uring a fin a l observation, Mr. Jeffries focused on Ms. Bolton’s behavior management system. He pointed out to her that she had an adequate number o f rules that were positively stated. He also complimented her on reviewing these rules with the students and for providing brief demonstrations of exhibiting

Figure 1 C hecklist o f selected CR-PBIS areas fo r m id d le school teachers.

Selected CR-PBIS Areas

Yes

No

Teacher Attitude/Beliefs 1. Be aware o f ow n biases.

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2. A cknow ledge negative th o ugh ts.

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3. Believe all children can succeed.

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4. Be self aware o f ow n cultural experiences.

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Interactions 1. Create a clim ate o f tolerance.

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2. Treat all m em bers o f th e class w ith

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d ig n ity, fairness, and respect. 3. Provide students w ith o p p o rtu n itie s to w o rk w ith m any people. 4. Give feedback th a t is d irect, im m ediate, authen tic, & ta c tfu l.

Home/School Collaboration 1. Learn ab o u t students' lives beyond th e classroom.

the positive behaviors listed. However, Mr. Jeffries did note that

2. U nderstand th a t fa m ily structures vary.

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the items being used as reinforcers seemed to be chosen with very

3. M aintain realistic e xpectations o f the

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little concern given to the students’preferences. Reflecting on Mr. Jeffries’ advice, Ms. Bolton askedDeShawn why he never tried to earn the reward fo r good behavior that she offered, which was a choice o f candy bars. He told her that he didn’t even like chocolate. This prompted her to give a quick survey to her classes tofin d

level o f hom ew ork. 4. M aintain co n ta ct w ith th e fam ilies based on students' needs.

Curriculum 1. M aintain a m u lticu ltu ra l focus m irro ring th e stu d e n t p o p u la tio n .

out what were some o f theirfavorite things. She then expanded

2. A m u lticu ltu ra l focus should be all year.

her reinforcer list to include broader choices including extra time

Instruction

on the computer, time spent reading a favorite magazine brought from home, slap bracelets, pens, and homework passes.

1. Use d ire ct and e xp licit instru ction .

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2. Use active stu d e n t responding and

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perform ance feedback. 3. Use c ooperative learning groups and

Culturally Responsive PBIS Recap The strategies presented throughout this article can help middle school teachers implement PBIS systems in a manner that is responsive to the diversity of cultural, ethnic, and language demographics seen in today’s middle school classrooms. Although this is not an exhaustive list, it does contain strategies that teachers can implement on a regular basis to make a difference in the learning achievement of their students. Again, the foci of these strategies is prevention via establishing positive teacher attitudes/beliefs, fostering effective communication and interactions with and among students and their families, and implementing evidence-based teaching and behavior management strategies that are congruent with culturally responsive practices, PBIS practices, and This We Believe. Figure 1 provides a checklist that teachers can use to assess their implementation of CR-PBIS strategies.

peer tu to rin g .

Management System 1. Emphasize pre ven tion strategies.

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2. Develop rules and e x p licitly teach the m .

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3. Emphasize th e use o f reinforcem ent-based

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strategies. 4. Provide in dividualized corrective consequences.

As the semester drew to a close, Ms. Bolton reflected on the guidance provided by Mr. Jeffries and the positive results seen when she implemented the strategies he suggested. She realized that classrooms are dynamic places— a melting pot o f sorts— that reflect the larger world. She came to understand the reason she took up the profession to begin with: her belief that all students can learn given an environment that supports them as individual learners with unique needs. She now understands that there will be challenges to achieving her goals as a teacher, but they are challenges she willingly accepts.

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Final tho u g h ts The task of providing all students an engaging education remains, and this challenge is particularly difficult in the middle grades as young adolescents are on the cusp of intellectual thought. Because they are forming their identities as students who will or will not go on to successfully complete high school or postsecondary education, their experiences with discipline in the middle grades can form a positive or negative tipping point. We must teach behaviors characterized by respect, possibility, and curiosity. PBIS has a rich and lengthy history of setting up environments that promote positive behaviors and increase academic achievement for most students. Questions remain as to the best manner in which PBIS shoidd be implemented with a diverse student body as some researchers have reported the full benefit of PBIS may not be reaching all students (Vincent et al., 2011). However, answers to these questions are appearing in the literature (see Fallon et al., 2012; Sugai et al., 2012). By incorporating the strategies presented in this article into their classrooms, teachers can incorporate culturally responsive practices into the overall design and management of their classes, thereby potentially extending the benefits of PBIS with all middle school students. R e fe re n c e s

Archer-Banks, D. A., & Behar-Horenstein, L. S. (2008). African American parental involvement in their children's middle school experiences. TheJournal of Negro Education, 77(2), 143-156. Blanchett, W. J. (2009). A retrospective examination of urban education: From "Brown" to the resegregation of African Americans in special education—it is time to "go for broke". Urban Education, 44(4), 370—388. Canfield-Davis, K., Tenuto, P., Jain, S., & McMurtry.J. (2011). Professional ethical obligations for multicultural education and implications for educators. Academy ofEducational Leadership Journal, 15(1), 95—116. Cartledge, G., & Kourea, L. (2008). Culturally responsive classrooms for culturally diverse students with and at risk for disabilities. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 351-371. Cartledge, G., & Lo, Y. (2006). Teaching urban learners: Culturally responsive strategies for developing academic and behavioral competence. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Fallon, L. M., O’Keeffe, B. V., Sugai, G. (2012). Consideration of culture and context in school-wide positive behavior support: A review of current literature. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(4), 209-219.

Good, T. L., 8c Nichols, S. L. (2001). Expectancy effects in the classroom: A special focus on improving the reading performance of minority students in first-grade classrooms. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 113-126. Harris-Murri, N., King, K., & Rostenberg, D. (2006). Reducing disproportionate minority representation in special education programs for students with emotional disturbances: Toward a culturally responsive response to intervention model. Education and Treatment of Children, 29(4), 779-799. Harry, B., & Klingner, J. (2006). Why are so many minority students in special education ? Understanding race & disability in schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Haselhuhn, C. W., Al-Mabuk, R., Gabriele, A., Groen, M., & Galloway, S. (2007). Promoting positive achievement in the middle school: A look at teachers’ motivational knowledge, beliefs, and teaching practices. RMLE Online, 30(9), 1-20. Johnson, C. C. (2005). Making instruction relevant to language minority students at the middle level. Middle SchoolJournal, 37(2), 10-14. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational ResearchJournal, 32(3), 465-491. Lin, M., Lake, V. E., & Rice, D. (2008). Teaching anti-bias curriculum in teacher education programs: What and how. Teacher Education Quarterly, 35(2), 187—200. Losen, D. J. & Skiba, R. (2011). Suspended education: Urban middle schools in crisis. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center. National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author. Overton, T. (2012). Assessing learners with special needs: An applied approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Educational, Inc. Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A. B., Ritter, S., Gibb, A. C., Rausch, M. K., Cuadrado, J., & Chung, C. (2008). Achieving equity in special education: History, status, and current challenges. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 264-288. Sugai, G., O’Keeffe, B. V., & Fallon, L. M. (2012). A contextual consideration of culture and school-wide positive behavior support.Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(4), 197-208. Vincent, C. G., & Tobin, T. J. (2011). The relationship between implementation of school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) and disciplinary exclusion of students from various ethnic backgrounds with and without disabilities. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 19(4), 217-232. Vincent, C. G., Randall, C., Cartledge, G., Tobin, T. J., & SwainBradway, J. (2011). Toward a conceptual integration of cultural responsiveness and schoolwide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13(4) 219—2. Wang, M., & Holcombe, R. (2010). Adolescents' perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational ResearchJournal, 47(3), 633662. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http:// search.proquest.com/docview/762456880?accountid=10901

Elizabeth D. Cramer is an associate professor of special education in the Department o f Teaching and Learning at Florida International University in Miami. E-mail: [email protected]

Kyle D. Bennett is an assistant professor o f special education in the Department o f Teaching and Learning at Florida International University in Miami. E-mail: [email protected]

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