Improving Educational Programs for Students with

Improving Educational Programs for Students with Autism in Rural Schools: A Preliminary Program Description of the Montana Autism Education Project Cheryl A. Young-Pelton Montana State University Billings

Doug Doty Montana Autism Education Project

Abstract The Montana Autism Education Project (MAEP), that started in 2010, aimed to: (a) increase teacher knowledge of Evidence-Based Practices (EBPs), (h) provide on-site technicai assistance and peer-to-peer collaboration, (c) develop sustainable support for teachers across Montana, and (d) develop interagency collaboration between the project and various stakeholders. Preliminary evaluationfocusedon three categories: (a) consultant visits, (b) trainings, and (c) video training via Internet technology. Analysis of data suggests that MAEP helped improve teachers' ability to implement quality educational programs for students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), especially in rural areas and in schools located on or near Indian reservations. Future directions for statewide efforts are highlighted.

Students diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display significant challenges in social-communication or social interaction deficits and restricted, repetitive behaviors and interests (Lord &. Jones, 2012). The number of students clinically diagnosed with ASD has risen dramatically to 1 in 50 children or 2% of the total population (Centers for Disease Control, 2013). ASD is not particular to race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or region (Hart & Malian, 2013); however, it has been documented that children in underserved areas or those who are ethnically or racially diverse are diagnosed later and with less precision than children who are not racially diverse (Mandell et al., 2009). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 states: Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a child's educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences" (IDEA Regulations, 34 C.F.R § 300.8[c][ll[il). Local school evaluation teams, which may consist of the parents, the child's teacher, and other qualified professionals, such as a school psychologist or a special educator, determine special education services for students who qualify under the category of autism. The identification of evidence-based practices (EBPs) for students with ASD has been greatly improved through scientific examination and meta-analytic studies (National Autism

Center, 2009; Odom, CoUett-Klingenberg, Rogers, & Hatton, 2010; Simpson, 2005). Well-trained teachers can research, identify, select, and seek training for an EBP to help a student with ASD acquire new skills and/or reduce behavioral challenges. Developing implementation fidelity for these EBPs remains the key to successful outcomes (Odom, Cox, & Brock, 2013). Litigation has been noted as an underlying reason for some states' interest in developing EBPs for students with ASD. Costs to school districts and state departments of education for educating students with ASD have increased dramatically as well as for resolving legal disputes on behalf of students with ASD, especially when educational methodology is found to be lacking. Because of these rising costs, statewide prevention efforts and educational assistance teams for students with ASD have becotne necessary (White, 2012). Educational programming has largely been left up to educators since 1982 when courts settled the dispute of Board of Education vs. Rowley (Yell, 2006). In this case, the court defined "Free and Appropriate Public Education" (FAPE), including the decision that the educator determines what is appropriate and must provide 'meaningful benefit' to the student. Due to the specialized methods and EBPs necessary for individualized educational treatment of students with ASD, the number of cases in litigation has been overrepresented by this disability group (White, 2012; Zirkel, 2011). Services for students with ASD tend to be less abundant and more challenging in rural areas (Murphy & Ruble, 2012). In regard to access to healthcare, medical services, and early intervention services for ASD, families living in large rural communities are extremely challenged to find adequate

Authors' Note Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Cheryl Young-Pelton ([email protected]) or Doug Doty ([email protected]).

Rural Special Education Quarterly -f Volume 32, No. 3—pages 24-32-f ® 2013 American Council on Rural Special Education Reprints and Permission; Copyright Clearance Center at 978-750-8400 or www.copyright.com

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providers (Edwards, Gallagher, & Green, 2013). In regard to school-age special education, rural school principals have reported that students with ASD are in the disability category for which competent professionals and adequate educational services are most often difficult to find (Dadisman, Gravelle, Farmer, & Pétrin, 2010). Research conducted in Kentucky by Pennington, Horn, and Berrong (2009) found that school and community services in rural areas were reported to have fewer highly trained personnel for students with low incidence disabilities (e.g., autism specialists, special educators, speech therapists), when compared to the available number of providers in urban areas. In another Kentucky study noting similar rural to urban disparities of limited availability of services for students with ASD in rural areas. Murphy and Ruble (2012) reported that parents of children with ASD seemed to be moderately satisfied with the education provided to their children. This study did not account for non-responders and lower-income, less educated families; however, their results confirmed a disparity in terms of ease-of-access in finding a physician or other professional trained in ASD. In rural areas, finding a suitable provider was more problematic (Murphy &. Ruble).

Program Structure This article describes efforts of one state education agency, the Montana Office of Public Instruction (OPI), to enhance educational programs for students with ASD in

Montana, a large, mostly rural state in the Northern Rockies and Great Plains region of the United States. OPI finances the Montana Autism Education Project (MAEP) with IDEA Part B funds. The funds cover the annual salary (12-month) for one Project Coordinator, including travel. They also cover $200,000 for a budget that pays for materials, training, and a part-time consultant. The goals of the MAEP are to: (a) increase district-level knowledge of educational practices for students with ASD using interactive video training, (b) provide on-site technical assistance and peer-to-peer collaboration, (c) develop sustainable groups across Montana of on-site or regional educators who can educate students with ASD and provide technical assistance to other school districts, and (d) develop interagency collaboration between OPI and school districts, part C providers, the state human services agency, parent organizations, and institutions of higher education. A large part of the project's effort is invested in providing trainings, technical assistance, and outreach. A conceptual design of the project is presented in Figure 1.

Location of the Program Montana is the fourth largest state in the U.S. in square area, but is one of the lowest in population density at fewer than 7 persons per square mile. The time it takes to travel from one population center to another is sometimes too much for one day. For example, it is 780 miles, or almost

Figure 1. Conceptual Design of the MAEP showing structure and processes. SEA provides funding;

j

budget 3nd an

;i

AUTISM PROJECT

i

COORDINATOR (PC)

PC conducts outreach and advises agencies, schools, and administrators of the project goals.

SEA set priority

PC receives requests

Evaluations from

and assigns

workshops, TA visits,

workshops, TA visits,

and technology are

and outreach to consultants Í

analyzed and goals revised accordingly.

PC researches and assigns technology tools for professional development on advanced skills.

Note: SEA = State Educational Agency, PC = Project Coordinator, TA = Technical Assistance.


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Figure 2.

13 hrs of continuous driving by car, from Troy in the Northeast corner of the state to Alzada in the Southeast corner. Figure 2 provides an overlay of Montana on the Eastern U.S. to demonstrate the breadth of Montana's size. State size and the number of vast uninhabited areas create instances of rural isolation. In addition, when considering travel during the winter months (November to March), ice and snowstorms combine with dangerously windy conditions to create extremely hazardous roads. Alternatives to site visits, such as online training technology, are innovative solutions that decrease driving time and prevent dangerous situations for state employees, especially during winter months.

State of Montana overlay on the Eastern U.S.

Beneficiaries of the MAEP Schools that provided educational opportunities for students with ASD have been the primary beneficiary of the MAEP, typically including teachers, paraprofessionals, other school personnel, related services providers, and administrators. Secondary beneficiaries of the project were the students with ASD, as well as their parents, siblings, a n d / o r caregivers. Some of the schools and students who benefitted from the MAEP were located on or near Indian reservations. Montana is home to 12 tribes of American Indians with 7 reservations located around the state. In 2011-12, Montana's OPI reported serving 16,530 American Indians/Alaska Native students, which was almost 12% of all students. Some schools are comprised of mostly American Indian students. In 2011-12, 75 of Montana's 826 schools were comprised of 50% or more American Indian children (OPI, 2012). The American Indian population adds to cultural, linguistic, and ethnic diversity as well. Montana is considered a rural state. In this program description, schools were reported rural if they met the U.S. Census Bureau Locale Code 6, 7, or 8. The descriptions of the locale codes include 1. Central City of a Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA) or Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) with population of 250,000 or more 2. Central City of a CMSA or MSA but not designated as a large central city 3. Place within the CMSA or MSA of a large central city 4. Place within the CMSA or MSA of a mid-size central city 5. Place not within a CMSA or MSA but with population of 25,000 or more and defined as urban 6. Place not within a CMSA or MSA with a population of at least 2,500 but less than 25,000 7. Place not within a CMSA or MSA and designated as rural 8. Place within a CMSA or MSA designated as rural (National Center for Education Statistics, 2003) In Montana, there are only seven population centers where the number of residents meets criteria in categories 4 and 5 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). Categories 6, 7, and 8 typically have been considered rural by other authors who have published papers focusing on rural issues (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy, &. Dean, 2005; Beeson & Strange, 2003; Murphy & Ruble, 2012). 26

Key Components The essential elements of the MAEP are drawn from the program's four goals stated earlier in this article. Much of the MAEP effort is centered on dissemination of information, training, and professional development. The key components are described in further detail in the following sections.

Video Training and Technology Several technology-based companies were researched with regard to the provision of video training and technology for educators implementing EBPs for students with ASD. With the advent of two major publications on EBPs for students with ASD (i.e.. National Autism Center, 2009; Odom et al., 2010), technology-based companies began highlighting techniques and providing demonstrations of these EBPs. The company first selected for use by the MAEP was the New York based. Rethink Autism (2013; www.rethinkfirst.com). MAEP purchased contracts for schools to view videos produced by Rethink Autism, which demonstrated how to teach many skills using EBPs and also provided troubleshooting techniques for common challenges that might be encountered during a skill acquisition process. After the first year with Rethink Autism, the MAEP project coordinator made a decision to use the additional service of Autism Training Solutions (www.autismtraining solutions.com) to meet the professional development needs of teachers through video training. The decision to utilize Autism Training Solutions (ATS) was mainly based on the promise of additional feedback from the company that could be used for both evaluative purposes and accountability for individual and school accounts. ATS proposed to conduct two user surveys per year to assess how those participating in training received the technology and how the technology was used. McCuUoch and Noonan (2013) investigated the application of knowledge gained from ATS online professional development videos in the specific skill of teaching a child with ASD to make mands (i.e., requests) in a special education setting. They found that paraprofessionals who were trained

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Table 1. List of topics: Autism training solutions—Training library Aligned with National Autism Center EBPs?

Aligned with National Professional Development Center on ASD EBPs?

Reinforcement

Yes

Yes

Behavior Reduction

Yes

Yes

Antecedent Interventions

Yes

Yes

Instructional Control

Yes

Yes

Consequence Interventions

Yes

Yes

Functions of Behavior

Yes

Yes

Verbal Behavior

Yes

Mand Training

Yes

Intensive Trial Teaching

Yes

Discrete Trial Instruction

Yes

Yes

Naturalistic Teaching Strategies

Yes

Yes

Imitation/Mimetic Behavior

Yes

Teaching Verbal Imitation/Echoics

Yes

Receptive Language/Listener

Yes

Topic

Responding Recording Behavior BC-MAPP Graphing and Progress Evaluation Ethics and Clients' Rights Intro to ASD Intro to Asperger's Syndrome Toilet Training Visual Support Strategies

Yes

Direct Instruction Relationships, Sexuality, and Safety Sources: Advanced Training Solutions (2013), National Autism Center (2009), National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders (2013)

through ATS to use EBPs in teaching mands learned the neeessary skills in a cost-effective, efficient manner outside of the school day. The ATS video library contained over 2,000 clips covering more than 40 hrs of training and instruction. In regard to EBPs, the following videos were aligned with the National Autism Center's (2009) list of EBPs: Reinforcement, Behavior Reduction, Antecedent Interventions, Instructional Control. Consequence Interventions, Eunctions of Behavior, Verbal Behavior, Mand Training, Intensive Trial Teaching, DisRural Special Education Quarterly

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crete Trial Teaching, Naturalistic Teaching, Imitation/Mimetic Behavior, Teaching Verbal Imitation/Echoics, and Receptive Language/Listener Responding. Some of these topics also were determined to be EBPs by the National Professional Development Center on ASD. Video topics and their alignment with two EBP documents are shown in Table 1. Video training on the Internet allowed participants to seek topics based on immediate need and interest. Training activities generally included watching a video exemplar or multiple video clips demonstrating the components of the

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Figure 3: Montana Regions I-V.

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topic or skills and then taking a quiz on the topic to assure a minimum level of comprehension was attained. ATS did not offer online data recording and/or evaluative services for specific client goals.

On-Site Technical Assistance MAEP hired a select group of experts as short-term (i.e., part-time) employees who were to provide consultation with schools and on-going assistance, as needed. The project coordinator also served in this capacity. Requests for site visits made by principals and/or teachers were usually received via email or phone contact, and the project coordinator then would contact one of the MAEP consultants to make a school site visit. Most school site visits involved a pre-visit consultation by phone or email where the consultant asked the teacher to describe the student and context in need of assistance. Some complex cases involved transmission of electronic IEP and evaluation records so the consultant could read through present levels, goals, and other issues prior to the visit. Each site visit was usually completed in one instructional day; the consultant would: (a) observe the student in their natural environment, (b) analyze the educational program, and (c) make recommendations to the school team prior to exiting the school. A detailed technical assistance written report followed each visit. In addition, the school administrator may have requested training for the whole faculty and staff, or they might have smaller, targeted groups of faculty and staff members participate in training from the MAEP consultant.

Develop Regional Outreach Montana is divided into five regions according to the 28

; Rooseveft

Comprehensive System of Personnel Development (CSPD), part of the OPI State's Personnel Development Grant (SPDG). This regional division is indicated in Figure 3 (opi.mt.gov/Programs/CSPD/index.html#gpml_4). Since technical assistance personnel already had been hired, the MAEP project coordinator developed personnel development training "teams" comprised of personnel with the following areas of expertise: (a) Region V—two consultants (retired elementary special educator and high school special educator); (b) Region IV—one consultant (retired preschool special educator); (c) Region III—one consultant (university faculty BCBA-D); and (d) Region I-two consultants (school psychologist and speech/language pathologist). Region II has not yet developed a technical assistance team, but professionals from the other regions provided training. Outreach included regional training on topics of interest to schools and districts. Technical assistance personnel were sometimes asked to plan and conduct the workshops. The project coordinator also planned several presentations for teacher organization meetings and conferences to promote activities of the MAEP.

Interagency Collaboration The MAEP was developed to enhance positive relationships with agencies including the state-wide parent advocacy organization, Parents Let's Unite for Kids (PLUK). MAEP also intended to deepen an already existing relationship with Disability Rights Montana, a group that provides legal support for parents in mediation with local districts and the state education agency. The project coordinator also planned to attend meetings and share ideas with school district administrators. Part C providers. Health and Human Services agency

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Figure 4. Consultant visits to schools for trainings and technical assistance.

Consultant Visits to Schools 20 18 •o 16

I 14

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5

6

7

8

4

2010-2011

5

6

i?

8

4

2011 2012

5

6

1 7

8

2012-20 13

School-Year and Locale Code (Urban to Rural) Note: Locale Codes were determined as 4 = a mid-size city; 5 - population of 25,000 or more and defined as urban; 6 : a population of at least 2,500 but less than 25,000; 7 = Place not within a CMSA or MSA and designated as rural; and 8 : Place within a CMSA or MSA designated as rural.

Figure 5. Schools/districts awarded technology contracts for video training.

0 5

6

7

School Type by Locale Codes (Urban to Rural) Note: Locale Codes were determined as 4 = a mid-size city; 5 = population of 25,000 or more and defined as urban; 6 : a population of at least 2,500 but less than 25,000; 7 = Place not within a CMSA or MSA and designated as rural; and 8 : Place within a CMSA or MSA designated as rural.


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Table 2. Technology survey results Question How comfortable were you with using an online training program to learn?

Range

n of responses

Mode

1 though 5, 5 = Very comfortable

51 responded,0 skipped thjs question

Mean

SD

4.59

.83

1 = Not at all comfortable With the information I learned in this training, I can provide special education services to students with autism spectrum disorders at the following level:

48 responded, 3 skipped this questions

1 though 5, 5 = Expert 4 = Advanced 3 = Average

3.54

.54

This method of online training was effective helping me to learn new information.

48 responded, 3 skipped this question

1 though 4, 4 = Extremely effective 3 = Effective

3.38

.70

Note: Combined results of Fall and Spring (2012-2013) ATS surveys of four selected questions

administrators, institutes of higher education, and regional education organizations.

Evaluation Data According to OPI Child Count Data, the number of students with ASD across the state increased from 642 in 2009, to 950 in 2012, representing a 48% increase over the first 3 years of the MAEP. These students are located around the state and their numbers are in proportion to the general education population; however, higher instances of students with ASD are found in metro areas (OPI, 2013). Preliminary evaluation data focused on three categories: (a) video training via Internet technology, (b) on-site technical assistance visits, and (c) regional training and outreach. Interagency collaboration was not included with this preliminary evaluation due to limited resources. A survey of agency stakeholders will be utilized in future evaluations.

Video Training and Technology Rethink Autism (RA) was selected for its utility in 2011 as an online video training technology, but efforts to increase use of this program were suspended because MAEP was unable to evaluate how teachers used the technology. In 20112012, MAEP paid for 10 RA accounts for schools, and retained five of those accounts in the following year. Advanced Training Solutions LLC (ATS, 2013) was adopted in 20122013, and 26 schools were awarded technology contracts for 30

professional development. Schools considered rural (i.e., Locale Code 6, 7, or 8) were twice as likely to request the online video training as schools located in towns and cities (i.e., 17 rural, 8 urban). A summary of participating schools according to Locale Codes who participated in ATS survey is shown in Figure 5. Advanced Training Solutions, LLC conducted a survey of users in fall and spring of the 2012-2013 school year. Users completed 39 surveys in the fall and 12 surveys in the spring. The results of the surveys showed overall satisfaction with ATS and a level of confidence in participants' ability to provide EBPs as demonstrated in the videos. See Table 2 for selected survey items and results. Open-ended responses from the ATS survey described the participants' confidence and ability to implement strategies and techniques demonstrated in the videos. One participant requested more depth on some of the intervention videos, writing, "It's difficult to understand some of them from only a short video." Another participant requested more school-based examples. When asked, "What part of the (video) training was the most helpful and why?" participants responded positively about the videos. For example, one participant said it was helpful to see the same child with ASD under different scenarios, concepts, and challenges. Participants also liked having the ability to repeat the scenarios as many times as they needed in order to really 'get it.' It was evident from the open-ended responses that the participants

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felt the online video training was worth their time and effort to learn EBPs. However, it should be noted that MAEP was unable to verify skills and abilities of participants in regard to fidelity of EBP interventions because MAEP resources prohibited this type of follow-up investigation.

On-Site Technical Assistance MAEP hired six technical assistance professionals who consulted with schools on educational programming for students with ASD. Technical assistance consultants lived in a variety of regions and worked with the project coordinator via distance technology, phone, and email. They were hired based on experience and formal training. Consultants ranged from a retired preschool special education teacher to college-level faculty. Each of the consultants had, at a minimum, a master's degree. Only one part of the state (Region II) did not have a technical assistance consultant, but professionals from the other regions provided consultation, as needed, in that area. A review of school site visits for trainings and consultations over the past 3 years is presented in Figure 4. To measure the rural or urban nature of the school, the U.S. Census Bureau Locale Code system was used. The graph shows the number of schools visited by MAEP staff (project coordinator or consultants). Locale codes for identifying schools ranged from 4 (e.g., a school in a city the size of Billings) to 8 (e.g., a school on an Indian reservation). In Year 1 of the project (2010-2011), MAEP staff visited a total of 23 schools: (a) eight 'city' schools, (b) eight schools in small towns, and (c) seven rural schools. In the third year of the project, MAEP staff visited a total of 43 schools, with 20 of those schools designated rural. Overall, technical assistance consultations to schools increased by 87% from Year 1 to Year 3, Technical assistance to schools that were far removed from metro areas increased. Nearly 10% of all consultant visits were made to schools on or near Indian Reservations, and requests for technical assistance to these schools increased over time. In Years 2 and 3, schools designated as rural were visited more often than metro-area schools, and these visits increased from 7 visits in Year 1 to 18 visits in Year 3, representing a more than 150% increase.

Regional Training and Outreach MAEP technical assistance personnel were asked to be part of training 'teams' who developed and presented workshops on the following topics: (a) ASDs (general information), (b) Autism for Administrators, (c) Asperger's Syndrome, (d) Behavior Interventions for Students with Autism, (e) iPad Apps for Students with ASD, and (f) Functional Behavior Assessment. These workshops were held in a variety of locations and were generally 1-2 days in length. On some occasions, MAEP provided 'scholarships' for teachers to attend trainings offered by non-MAEP personnel (e.g.. Picture Exchange Communication System or PECS Basic and Advanced, Video Modeling). For these workshops, MAEP paid for registration, and, in some instances, travel expenses. The project coordinator and some MAEP providers at regional and state conferences made presentations designated as 'outreach' and usually were limited to breakout sessions of 1-2 hrs in length. Rural Special Education Quarterly

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The number of workshops, presentations, and scholarships to attend workshops increased from Year 1 to Year 3. In 2010-2011, only three ASD trainings were organized by the MAEP. Subsequent school years were recorded as follows: (a) 35 trainings in 2011-2012 and (b) 37 trainings in 2012-2013. Overall, since the start of the project, 102 trainings have been provided where the MAEP led a presentation, sponsored a presentation, or provided scholarships for teachers to attend workshops. Most workshops were evaluated using a standard evaluation form that participants were asked to complete immediately following the training session. Overall, evaluations measured the participant's perceived value of topics presented, presenter's effectiveness in conveying content, and satisfaction with the training conditions. Results of these workshop evaluations were used to plan future workshops and were not included in this program evaluation.

Program Outcomes Montana schools have seen a 47% increase in the number of students with ASD during the MAEP's 3-year existence. During that time, the project has provided 100 schools with technical assistance visits, 103 workshops/presentations, 15 annual accounts for online technical training/consultation through RA, and 51 online video training accounts through ATS. A major limitation in this program evaluation is in the self-reporting of data by participants in ASD training, whether it was offered through online technology, face-toface workshops, or technical assistance visits. Likewise, limited resources of MAEP must be acknowledged. MAEP is a statewide project with one full-time employee and six shortterm (part-time) consultants. It was neither feasible nor reasonable for MAEP to measure fidelity to EBPs. However, there may be opportunities to conduct 'spot-checks' or otherwise measure ASD programs for EBPs during scheduled visits to schools for other purposes, such as compliance monitoring. This may become a future goal of the project. At the time of this manuscript, MAEP has not crossreferenced students identified with ASD with participation by teacher and staff in MAEP training and technical assistance. Creating a comprehensive list of students/schools with training aims would be a desirable goal for the future. In the future, evaluative measures should include student outcomes, not just teacher's skills and abilities to implement EBPs. Now in its third year, MAEP measures and evaluates data from consultant visits, workshops, and online training in a variety of structured, semi-structured, and open formats. In the future, the project coordinator would like to streamline and standardize current evaluative processes to further analyze training evaluations. In addition, the project coordinator would like to develop online evaluations for consultation visits and training scholarship recipients. Another consideration for the future is to increase the breadth of evaluation to outcomes for secondary beneficiaries of MAEP (parents and/or caregivers, and families). All evaluative data would then provide sufficient evidence to the project coordinator and officials from OPI so they determine future MAEP goals with enhanced efficiency. Program outcomes from the first 3 years of the project show an increasing trend in providing services to rural

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these students with appropriate pedagogy and EBPs in order to provide effective, cost-efficient, and reliable educational experiences. Meeting the needs of a vast, expansive state where pockets of highly isolated schools/districts exist, and where differences in culture and language play a significant role in professional development needs, has become possible through the use of traveling consultants, online training, and outreach efforts from the MAEP.

schools. At the same time, MAEP has maintained levels of service to small cities and towns. This preliminary evaluation is an indication that dissemination of Information, training efforts, positive relationships, technical assistance, and other project benefits have helped teachers feel competent implementing EBPs for students with ASD. As the number of students identified with ASD continues to increase dramatically, schools must meet the needs of

References Advanced Training Solutions LLC. (2013). Autism training/or schools. Retrieved from http://www.autismtrainingsolutions.com/autism-training-school-benefits Arnold, M. L., Newman, ]. H., Gaddy, B. B., & Dean, C. B. (2005). A look at the condition of rural education research: Setting a direction for future research. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(6), 1-25.

National Autism Center. (2009). National standards project; Findings and conclusions. Retrieved from http://www.nationalautismcenter.org/ National Center on Education Statistics. (2003). Common core of data: Identification of rural locales. Retrieved from Institute of Education Sciences at http:// nces.ed.gov/ccd/rural_locales.asp

National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders. Beeson, E., & Strange, M. (2003). Why rural matters 2003: The continuing need for every state to take action on rural education. Journal of Research in Rural (2013). Tlie NPDC on ASD and the National Standards Project. Retrieved from http:// autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/content/national-standards-project Education, 18(1), 3-16. Odom, S. L, CoUet-Klingenberg, L., Rogers, S., & Hatton, D. (2010). EviCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Changes in prevalence dence-based practices for children and youth with autism spectrum disorders. Preof parent-reported autism spectrum disorder in school-aged U.S. children; 2007 to venting School Failure, 54, 275-282. 2011-2012. National Health Statistics Report, 65. 1-12. Retrieved from http:// www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsrO65.pdf Odom, S. L., Cox, A. W, & Brock, M. E. (2013). Implementation science, professional development, and autism spectrum disorders. Exceptional Children, 78, Dadisman, K., Gravelle, M., Farmer, T., cSi Pétrin, R. (2010). Grow your own 233-251. and other alternative certification programs in rural school districts. National Research Center on Rural Education Support, June Issue. 1-9. Retrieved from http:// Office of Public Instruction. (2012). Montana American Indian student achievewww.nrcres.org/NRCRES%20GYO%20Issue%20Brief.pdf ment [data report]. Retrieved from http://www.opi.mt.gov/. Edwards, N. M., Gallagher, R A., & Green, K. B. (2013). Existing and proPennington, R., Horn, C , & Berrong, A. (2009). An evaluation of the differposed child find initiatives in one state's part C program. Rural Special Education ences between big city and small town special education services for students with Quarterly, 32(1), 11-19. low incidence disabilities in Kentucky. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 28, 3-9. Hart, J. E., & Malian, I. (2013). A statewide survey of special education direcRethink First (2013). Why rethink autism.' Retrieved from h t t p : / / tors on teacher preparation and licentiate in autism spectrum disorders: A model for www.rethinkfirst.com/ahoutus/whyrethink.aspx university and state collaboration, international Journal of Special Education, 28. 1-10. Simpson, R. L. (2005). Evidence-based practices and students with autism specIDEA Regulations, 34 C.F.R. § 300 (2006). trum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Dei'elopmental Disabilities, 20, 140-149. Lord, C , & Jones, R. M. (2012). Annual research review: Re-thinking the U.S. Census Bureau. (2013). 2010 Census Urban and Rural Classification classification of autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,and Urban Area Criteria. U.S. Department of Commerce [data filel. Retrieved from 53, 490-509. doi: 10.1111/j.l469-7610.2012.02547.x http://www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/urban-rural-2010.html Mandell, D. S., Wiggins, L. D., Carpenter, L. A., Danieis, J., DiGuiseppi, C , White, M. L. (2012). An analysis of school district demographic and dispute factors Durkin, M. S Kirty, R. S. (2009). Racial/ethnic disparities in the identification affecting services for students with autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved from ProQuest of children with autism spectrum disorders. American Journal of Public Health, 99. Digital Dissertations. (UMI 3511104)

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McCulloch, E. B. &. Noonan, M. J. (2013). Impact of online training videos on the implementation of mand training by three elementary school paraprofessionals. Education and Training in Autism and Dei;elopmental Disabilities, 48, 132-141. Murphy, M. A., & Ruble, L. A. (2012). A comparative study of rurality and urhanicity on access to and satisfaction with services for children with autism spectrum disorders. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 31(3), 3-11.

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Yell, M. L. (2012). The law and special education {3"' ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Zirkel, P. A. (2011). Autism litigation under the IDEA; A new meaning of "disproportionality." Journal of Special Education Leadership, 24, 92-103.

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