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Research Article
Improving User Experience for Passenger Information Systems. Prototypes and Reference Objects —SIMONE WIRTZ
AND
EVA-MARIA JAKOBS
Abstract—Research problem: This study explores how established patterns, means, and services influence the users’ first experience when encountering a novel self-service application. The application (DB Cairo) is a passenger information system for public transportation running on mobile phones. Research questions: Is the users’ first experience with the application influenced by established communicative patterns, means, and services? Are they used as reference objects? Which attributes of the application are relevant? Is there a leading reference object (prototype)? Do reference objects vary depending on the personal factors age and gender? Literature review: Little is known about user experience in first contact situations regarding passenger information systems. For our investigations, we used a theoretical framework combining Linguistic Evaluation Theory, Prototype Theory, and Linguistic Genre Theory: Evaluations are regarded as an integral part of user experience. Evaluation is conceptualized as an act where a subject evaluates an object with a certain purpose at a certain time by comparing it with other objects. Every object has various attributes—some are relevant for the evaluation, and others are not. Communication quality is seen as a crucial complex attribute for the evaluation of communicative applications. Methodology: We conducted a qualitative study: Data from two user test series with thinking-aloud protocols and retrospective interviews were analyzed with qualitative content analysis procedures. The participants were male and female, age 25–35 or 55–65, mobile-phone users, and multimodal travellers. The tests were conducted in a laboratory with a computer-based mobile-phone emulator. Results and conclusions: Results show that the participants explore the application by comparing its attributes with attributes of reference objects. Reference objects vary depending on attributes of the application. Regarding topic-related attributes, participants rely on established artifacts, which form a topic-related multimedia network. Within this network, the website of German Railways functions as prototype. Age- and gender-specific differences were not detected. The findings indicate that research into user experience and development practice could benefit from reconstructing and analyzing topic-related artifacts. Limitations of the study were a small sample size, the test location, and environment. Future challenges are the investigation of influencing factors and the development of new methods/tools for data collection in field studies. Index Terms—Communicative quality, Evaluation Theory, mobile passenger information systems, prototypes, public transport user’s first experience.
INTRODUCTION
Our technical environments are rapidly changing. Users are nearly monthly confronted with new information and communication media. In this paper, we discuss how users experience these new technologies with respect to communication patterns and interface design. In this context, an interesting question would be to investigate what happens when new media and applications are placed on the market. How do users perceive novel applications? Are they open to novel patterns of content and interface realizations or do they prefer familiar, proven communicative patterns and means of services? And if they do so, how and what can we learn from established formats concerning
Manuscript received June 13, 2012; revised February 28, 2013; accepted March 25, 2013. Date of current version May 20, 2013. The authors are with the Textlinguistics/Technical Communication, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen 52062, Germany (email:
[email protected];
[email protected]). Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. IEEE 10.1109/TPC.2013.2257211 0361-1434/$31.00 © 2013 IEEE
the creation of positive user experiences? We discuss these questions by regarding self-services such as travel apps for mobile phones and user tests of the novel travel app Deutsche Bahn context aware intermodal routing (DB Cairo). “Deutsche Bahn” is the German federal railway company and “Cairo” is the project in which the app was developed. Every day, millions of people use public transportation on their way to work, to meet other people, or to experience new places and landscapes. In doing so, they are interested in reliable travel-related information, buying tickets without loosing time, punctual trains, and a safe journey (such as [2]). Innovative self-service apps, such as passenger information systems, can support them in a new way by combining features and functions of different services in one application. New developments in routing technologies (such as improvements of positioning systems) allow the user to access information (timetables, delays, or the route to a certain platform) depending on time and location of usage.
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The decision for using such new applications depends not only on benefits, but also on costs such as learning to handle a new app [3]. The elderly especially have problems when being confronted with such apps. They are familiar with well-established services and related well-established patterns of information and communication practices. In the case of rail traffic, these patterns and practices have been developed within more than 100 years, shaped by the experiences and expertise of millions of railway officials. Novel travel applications compete with these well-established topic-related communicative media and patterns as well as with other apps. In online stores, interested users can find a broad range of topic-related applications, but with a smaller functional range, such as Touch&Travel for electronic tickets or TimeTabler for route planning. Passenger information systems go one step further by combining services of the whole travel scenario. They accompany passengers through the journey—from door to door. They allow planning a journey, buying tickets, informing the user about delays, offering him or her alternative routes, finding the way to a certain platform and similar tasks. In the current study, we focus on such a multifunctional application called DB Cairo. In the interdisciplinary project Cairo, experts of different disciplines (psychology, technical communication, computer sciences, industrial partners1) develop new concepts of Cairo for passenger information systems and the corresponding application for mobile devices (DB Cairo). The technical innovation concerns the routing; it combines yet existing technological possibilities in an intelligent way to allow an individual, context-specific (location- and time-related) information of the passenger [4], [5]. To this end, the routing system combines static data (stations, timetables) with dynamic data (delays, changes in timetables) to an intermodal routing service. It also considers different ways of public transport (such as train, bus, tram) and provides information about walking distances. The application DB Cairo is novel because it supports travelers in a context- and time-sensitive 1InnoZ—Innovationszentrum für Mobilität und gesellschaftlichen Wandel GmbH, HaCon Ingenieurgesellschaft mbH, DB AG, DB Vertrieb GmbH, DB Rent GmbH, Verkehrsverbund Berlin Brandenburg GmbH (VBB)
Fig. 1. Emulated mobile phone with main menu (functions mentioned top-down: connections, information about locations, departure boards, take me home, settings, help).
way. When a problem, such as a delay, occurs while passengers are already on their journey, the application can suggest alternative routes considering the passenger’s current position and different means of transport. Another innovative aspect is the combination of functions. Beside functions concerning the organization of a journey with public transport itself (such as searching for connections, booking of tickets, departure timetables), the application offers additional features such as information about points of interest (restaurants, public institutions, hotels), maps (city maps, maps of railway stations), and access to the services Call a Bike and Rent a Car. The Take me Home function guides users from their current position to a defined home. In the dialogue settings, the application can be personalized (font size, language, time, global positioning systems (GPS), and internet configuration, hometown). The application DB Cairo runs on mobile phones and other mobile devices. In the project, the beta version of the application was run on a computer-based mobile-phone emulator, which simulates a standard mobile phone with keypad. (See Fig. 1.)2 The application has been developed in iterative cycles, continuously integrating usability tests focusing on communicative patterns and linguistic means. Besides the optimization of 2Terms
used in the application are italicized hereafter.
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DB Cairo our research interest was focused on design challenges which arise with the complexity of functions and content for applications such as this. For instance, during the development process, one has to decide on either developing new representation patterns or adapting and integrating patterns familiar from the usage of established media. This paper proposes that this decision has an influence on the users’ first impression which, in turn, can be one of the important factors for a successful product introduction. The present study is guided by the following research questions: RQ1. Is the users first experience with the application influenced by established communicative patterns, means, and services? Are these patterns, means, and services used as reference objects (existing artifacts the application is compared with) in initial contact situations? RQ2. Which attributes of the application seem to be relevant for the user? How are these attributes related to the attributes of reference objects? RQ3. If the application is compared with more than one reference object: Is there a leading reference object (such as a certain communicative format which serves as prototype)? Are certain reference objects more important than others? If so, why? RQ4. Do reference objects vary depending on personal factors such as age and gender? In the following sections, we present the literature review focusing on the theoretical framework that grounds our research and the methodological design we used to investigate the research questions mentioned before. The main results of our study are described and discussed. This paper concludes with theoretical and practical implications of the results, a discussion of limitations of the present study, and prospects for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW In this section, we reveal the underlying theoretical framework of our study and explain how we selected research for this review. Then, we present an overview of related work dealing with user experiences and/or passenger information systems. Afterwards, the perspective on user experience we take is described. In this perspective, evaluations are an integral part of experiences in first contact situations. Then, we discuss aspects of the evaluation of communicative means, in detail:
the Evaluation Theory framework of Sandig [6] and Ripfel [7], prototypes and reference objects, attributes and measurements in evaluation processes, and, finally, communication quality as an essential evaluation attribute of communicative means. Theoretical Orientation Our work is based on action-theoretical-oriented Linguistic Genre Theory and Evaluation Theory combined with a cognitive approach to user experience. In detail, we build upon the Linguistic Evaluation Theory framework by Ripfel [7] and Sandig [6] and Linguistic Genre Theory (such as [8] and [9]), which are both informed by the prototype theory of Rosch [10]. Regarding the user experience approach, we follow Hassenzahl’s [11], [12] experiential perspective on user experience. How Literature Was Selected To identify related work, the ACM Digital Library and the IEEE Xplore Digital Library were searched using the following keywords: public transport, passenger information system, user experience, usability, and mobile applications. For the theoretical framework, an approach combining different (primarily) linguistic theories was used because the object of interest (passenger information system) is a linguistic object by nature (an application with a specific communicative purpose and substantial linguistic elements) and because we seek access to evaluation processes through utterances of users. As different studies in different domains and concerning different research objects (for example, large-scale technologies [13], community-based open innovation contests [14], e-business platforms [15], and business media [16]) have proven, the Evaluation Theory framework supports access to users’ opinions, evaluation criteria, and systems of values. Related Work Research papers that deal with passenger information systems mostly focus on technical aspects, such as the theoretical modeling and technical implementation of context information (Eichler et al. [17] or Brossard, Abed and Kolski [18]). Others focus on the system description of certain applications (such as Liikka et al. [19] describing KAMO or García et al. [20], presenting a yet unnamed system). Only a few studies regard passenger information systems in relation to themes, such as user experience or user acceptance. In the study of Zografos, Androutsopoulos, and Spitadakis [21], the
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authors present an online passenger information system (ENOSIS) for delivering personalized multimodal trip planning services through the integration of wireless and web-based communication technologies. [The application provides] real-time travel information throughout the entire life cycle of an interurban trip. [21] The system services and related stakeholder requirements were verified by an integrated methodological framework involving system/ assessment categories (such as technical performance), adequacy, socioeconomic impacts, and user acceptance. The category “user acceptance” was investigated with an interview study. A main finding was that qualitative features of the system (such as quality and sufficiency of information-presentation and trip-service planning acceptance by the users) are crucial for the user acceptance of the new system. Foth and Schroeter [22] introduce a research approach offering opportunities to enhance the experience of commuters in all aspects of their journey (planning, waiting at the bus stop, payment, the time after the journey). The focus of the approach is to make the travel experience more enjoyable and meaningful by the innovative combination and interaction of technologies, such as mobile devices and urban screens, real-time data and sensor networks, social media and Web 2.0. The approach includes four stages: immersion, design prototyping, usability testing, and impact evaluation. This paper shows interesting perspectives for future research but does not provide empirical results. Caulfield and O’Mahony [2] have conducted a study to investigate travellers’ preferences for media and information sources (such as internet, mobile phone, or call center) in different stages of a journey and collected data with a web-based survey about the users’ requirements concerning the information provided. They report that respondents rated the following items as important aspects of travel information provided via mobile phone: “news on public transport disruption,” the “provision of real-time information,” and the “cost of information.” However, the services that Caulfield and O’Mahony examined were based on text messaging, and apps were not regarded. None of the mentioned work explicitly regards users interacting with a mobile passenger information system in an initial contact situation with the aim to explore users’ experiences. User Experience User experience is a widely discussed research topic [23]. However, there is
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still no general consensus what is meant under the notion of “user experience.” Approaches and models of user experience differ depending on the disciplinary background of researchers, interest in the subject, methods, and perspectives. In the present study, we focus on an “experiential perspective” on user experience [7]. Following Hassenzahl and Tractinsky, this perspective conceptualizes experience as a: unique combination of various elements such as the product and internal states of the user (e.g., mood, expectations, or active goals), which extends over time with a definitive beginning and end. [7, p. 94] In an experiential perspective, user experience can be investigated with respect to the process of building up an experience and/or the experience as a result of the process. The process and its result may be shaped by the interplay of many interacting bundles of factors, including user-related factors (such as goals) and context-related factors (such as domain of usage, other products, and users’ experiences with them). In this paper, we focus on information and communication applications and the process of building up a first impression in an initial contact situation. We assume that evaluations are an integral part of this process. To get access to these evaluations, we suggest an integrative framework, bringing together insights from cognitive (Prototype Theory [10]) and linguistic theories (primarily: Evaluation Theory [6], [7]; communicative patterns approach [8], [9]; and communicative usability approach [3], [24]). Fig. 2 gives an overview of our approach to investigate first user experiences including the keywords and concepts, which will be explained in the following sections. Evaluation of Communicative Means Our approach to investigate user activities, such as perceiving and evaluating communicative means, adapts linguistic theories of Sandig [6]. Evaluation Theory: Sandig, following Ripfel [7], conceptualizes the process of evaluation as an act in which a subject (such as a user in a first contact situation) evaluates an object (such as DB Cairo) with a certain purpose (like whether to use DB Cairo or not) in a certain moment (such as in 2012) [6], [13], [25]. The subject evaluates the object by comparing it with other objects (reference objects) as a whole or in parts (such as app features such as
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Theoretical framework overview.
the representation of train connections). Every evaluation object has lots of attributes (such as form attributes, color, or functional attributes). Depending on the person and the purpose of the evaluation, some attributes of the object are relevant for the evaluation and others are not (such as functions of the app but not the color of the emulator). Relevant attributes are measured based on measurements and scales (such as completeness of travel information; high versus low). According to Sandig, measurements are time, culture, and group specific and can vary individually, depending on personal values, experiences, and attitudes [6]. Verbal explications of judgments (phrases such as “It seems to be complete” and “It looks like ”) can be used to reconstruct attribute-related reference objects, measurements, and scales. The Evaluation Theory of Sandig is influenced by central assumptions of the prototype theory of Rosch [10], [26], [27], for instance, by stating that certain attributes of the evaluation object are more relevant than others and by assuming that
examples (such as DB Cairo) of a class (such as travel applications) usually are compared with the best representative of the class—the so-called prototype. Prototype and Reference Objects: Following Sandig, we assume that the evaluation of applications is guided by mental prototypes in the sense of Rosch [10], [27]. Humans categorize and judge items applying different types of reasoning: “reasoning using logical structures and reasoning from reference point cases” [27, p. 73]. According to Rosch, a reference point is “a stimulus or model that other items are seen or judged ‘in relation to’” [27, p. 74]. A prototype represents the most suitable and typical example of its class. It either contains the most or the most important attributes of a category. A prototype can be the representation of average values of attributes or a representative that frequently occurs [28], [29]. With respect to artifacts, a prototype is not necessarily an actually well-designed example, but maybe a market leader and, therefore, familiar to users and preferred by them. Bucher, for example, has shown that users evaluated portals of a given domain (travel) by
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Fig. 3.
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Travelling by train: media and communicative formats per step of journey [1].
comparing them with a certain portal (Amazon.com) of a different domain (book stores) [30], [31]. Portals with a similar design received positive comments. In this study, we intend to identify the prototype and other reference objects DB Cairo is compared to. One assumption is that novel interactive products, such as DB Cairo, are compared with topic-related alternatives (other products users can apply to achieve their goals in a given context). This perspective focuses on the functions of an interactive product. In the Cairo project, we analyzed which media and communicative formats offer information and communication around travelling by train. These media and communicative formats are part of the functional context of DB Cairo [32], [33]. They form a complex dynamic media network, which offers the user a broad variety of communication and interaction means surrounding travelling by train as a well-defined process with different steps. (See Fig. 3.) In every step of a rail journey, passengers can use and combine different media and communicative formats to plan, manage, and conduct their journey
or to obtain relevant information. In the current analysis, an attempt was made to examine whether the media network serves as a basis for comparison and provides a prototype and/or reference objects for the user’s evaluation of DB Cairo. Attributes and Measurements: Since the main function of DB Cairo is to provide the user information, we expect that the communicative design and its quality represent an important attribute for the user. The communicative quality has to be regarded as a complex attribute. (Different aspects of the communicative quality of interactive products are, for instance, discussed in [34]–[38].) Communication Quality: In this paper, we follow the assumption that the communicative quality of an interactive product has a strong impact on the user’s first impression, such as [39]–[41]. The quality of the communicative design is seen as a specific dimension of usability. We call it communicative usability [3], [24]. This perspective on usability is based on text linguistic and pragmatic theories and models as well as comprehensibility research.
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Communicative usability refers to the fact that written and spoken language is one of, if not the most important communication modalities, enabling users to interact with the computer-based artifact [3], [35], [42]. From a linguistic perspective, we presuppose that content, interface, and support tools are designed using communicative patterns. Furthermore, we assume that communicative patterns are conventionalized patterns, which are formed within a discourse community [9], [24], [43]. The members of a discourse community are familiar with these patterns (types); they are part of their communicative knowledge and guide the reception of examples (tokens) and their evaluation. Established communicative patterns contain bundles of prototypical attributes (some obligatory, others optional) of varying importance and realized to varying degrees. These attributes can include a typical verbal act hierarchy and topic structure, patterns of sequencing and structuring, formulating, and visualization as well as typical interactive elements. Communicative patterns include communicative options and alternatives, to be employed according to specific goals and in specific contexts [8], [9].
The communicative quality can, for instance, be judged by the extent to which linguistic means and communicative patterns support users to achieve their goals. We distinguish superordinate and subordinate goals [1], [44], [45]. Superordinate goals motivate users to use the artifact (such as planning a train journey to Cologne). Subordinate goals are often a prerequisite for accomplishing superordinate goals (at the basic level, such as reading and understanding of written or visual represented information, and at a higher level, such as getting an overview of train connections).
Thus, the complex attribute “communicative quality” can itself contain various attributes concerning the terminological, structural, visual, and interactive design that have to be measured with particular regard to the user’s goals. Other possible attributes that could be relevant for the user’s evaluation of DB Cairo are the price of the app or technical attributes, such as performance, running speed, file size, and error rate. In the empirical study, we explore which attributes (focusing on communicative attributes) are relevant to the users’ evaluation of DB Cairo and if the choice of reference objects for comparisons varies depending on the type of attribute.
METHODOLOGY The research design described in the following section was originally developed to detect usability problems of the novel app and to optimize it in iterative cycles. A first analysis showed that the data also provide insights into users’ evaluations in a first contact situation with a novel passenger information system. Thus, the data were reanalyzed, guided by the following questions: RQ1: Is the users first experience with the application influenced by established communicative patterns, means, and services? Are these patterns, means, and services used as reference objects in initial contact situations? RQ2: Which attributes of the application seem to be relevant for the user? How are these attributes related to the attributes of reference objects? RQ3: If the application is compared with more than one reference object: Is there a leading reference object? Are certain reference objects more important than others? If so, why? RQ4: Do reference objects vary depending on personal factors, such as age and gender? This section starts with the choice of the research methodology, followed by a description of the participants, the user test tasks, and the steps in which the data were collected as well as the procedures of the data analysis. Finally, the credibility and trustworthiness of the data are discussed. Choice of Research Methodology The findings reported in this paper are based on user tests with thinking-aloud protocols [46] and retrospective interviews conducted in 2009–2010 at RWTH Aachen University. To examine and improve DB Cairo, we applied a multimethod approach, combining the usability tests with cognitive walkthroughs and surveys. In the current study, we exclusively use data from the user tests and retrospective interviews with the aim to identify attributes and reference objects mentioned in a first contact and interaction situation. User tests were chosen to gain insights into the usage of the app with potential “real” users. Thinking-aloud protocols allow us to explore which attributes and reference objects are mentioned during a first interaction by the participants themselves. The analysis of spontaneous verbal comments gives access to evaluation processes without influencing the participants. The retrospective interview data complement the data from the user tests. The user tests were conducted in a laboratory rather than in the field to exclude distracting factors. Because of its explorative character due to the relatively
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small number of participants 12 , the results of the current study are based on qualitative data analysis (qualitative content analysis according to Mayring [47]). Participants In the tests, versions of DB Cairo were tested in two test series. In order to identify age- and gender-specific differences one series was run with male participants 6 [33], another with females 6 , and both test series were conducted with two age groups (younger: 25–35 years; older: 55–65 years). Predefined selection criteria for participants were: age (younger: 25–35 years; older group: 55–65 years), gender (first series: male; second series: female), mobile-phone usage, and an at least occasional usage of different means of transport including railway. The participants were recruited with a recruitment letter that was distributed amongst acquaintances, in senior citizen centers, and on bulletin boards at the university. People who expressed their willingness to participate in the study filled in a screening questionnaire for demographic data, data concerning their mobile-phone usage, travelling behavior, and public transport usage. Afterwards, in each series, six participants were selected who matched the predefined criteria. The present study was exempted from ethical approval under the guidelines of our institution. All participants consented in writing to the recording of audio and video data and the usage of the anonymized data for research purposes only.
tasks in both series were comparable in complexity, type and scope and covered basic functions of the passenger information system. The participants had to conduct the tasks in a laboratory with a computer-based simulation of a mobile phone running the application DB Cairo (on Java ME Platform SDK 3.0). The emulated mobile phone (see Fig. 1) makes an impression of a normal mobile phone with keypad but it has to be operated with a computer’s keypad and mouse. To ensure clarity and comprehensibility of the test tasks, they were tested and validated through a pretest ( 5; male participants aged 25–35) conducted by students of a master seminar in usability research. The pretest led to minor modifications of the tasks. How Data Were Collected The user tests were conducted in the typical steps described in the literature, see, for example, [48]. Participants were welcomed by the experimenter and briefly informed about the purpose and object of the study, the course of the test session and the data collection (which data are collected, how are they collected, and what are they used for). Following this, they signed the consent form. We conducted the first phase of data collection as follows: (1)
(2)
Tasks The tests series are using topic-related scenarios. In the first series, the participants were asked to plan a weekend in Berlin with DB Cairo, whereas in the second series, they were asked to plan a journey to Cologne and its surroundings. The tasks fit to initial contact situations. They prompt the participants to explore the application in order to fulfill a superordinate goal (planning a journey). The test tasks were sequenced according to their difficulty: starting with easy tasks and increasing difficulty in the following tasks. In the first test series, the tasks were: (1) changing font size, (2) searching for a railroad connection, (3) searching for a Call a Bike station, (4) adding a return, and (5) searching for a railroad connection with stopover. In the second series, the tasks were: (1) retrieving the main menu, (2) searching for a railroad connection, (3) checking departure platform and punctuality, (4) searching for a restaurant, and (5) searching for a railroad connection with a defined departure time. The
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(3)
(4)
Before the actual test session started, participants were asked to perform a small task (set the alarm on a real mobile phone) to practice the think-aloud method and get used to it. At the beginning of the test session, the participants received the scenario and the test tasks on index cards. They were instructed to read them aloud, conduct them one after another, and comment spontaneously on what they were thinking and doing, and why they were doing it. During the test sessions, the participants were recorded with a video camera capturing behavior, gestures, and facial expressions. The screen was recorded by screen recording software (Camtasia Studio). The participants’ verbal comments were audio-recorded. An experimenter observed the tests and took notes. After the user test, a retrospective interview was conducted. In this interview, the participants were first asked to describe their impression of DB Cairo.
In the second phase of data collection, participants were interviewed guided by a semistructured questionnaire with one closed and six open questions. The questions covered the following
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themes: positive or negative experiences during the tests with (1) the handling, (2) the (menu) structure, (3) the visual design, and (4) formulation and naming of application elements. Furthermore, the participants were asked to make proposals for optimization and give an overall evaluation of the app (measured on a scale from 1 to 10 with a rating of 1 as “very bad” and 10 as “very good”). The interview closed with the question if the participants intended to use the app in the future. The retrospective interview was also audio-recorded. All audio and video data were transcribed and anonymized. How Data Were Analyzed The transcribed data were analyzed with qualitative content analysis procedures proposed by Mayring [47]. The material was sighted and coded by three researchers in two stages: In the first stage, the entire material was coded for the usability studies. The coding scheme was developed in an iterative process: categories were partly applied deductively (based on the theories and insights described in the communication quality section) and partly developed inductively (close to and out of the material). The main categories were: “formulation and naming,” “structure,” “interactive elements,” and “visual elements.” In the second stage, the material was coded and lead by the research questions of the current study. The material was reduced by applying the techniques “summary” and “structuring” [49]: all passages including a reference to another communicative artifact were extracted and categorized. These reference object categories were developed inductively. Ensuring the Credibility and Trustworthiness of the Data The study design was tested in a pilot study (pretest, stated before). To ensure that participants were independent and unbiased, they were recruited with a recruitment letter that only provided a minimum amount of information concerning the test and the test object and did not name the application. None of the participants could have come into contact with DB Cairo prior to the user tests because they were run before the app was released for the public. Thus, data were definitely collected in a first contact situation and mirror first experiences and evaluations. The category system was developed iteratively; three coders analyzed the material.
RESULTS In this section, the results of our study are described. First, the participants are profiled regarding demographic characteristics, mobile-phone usage, and travelling behavior. Following this, we describe the relevant attributes of DB Cairo and reference objects used by the participants in detail. The section about reference objects and the prototype summarizes the aforementioned reference objects and demonstrates the existence of a prototype. Finally, the influence of the personal factors age and gender is regarded. The results are illustrated with quotes from the user tests and the retrospective interviews. For a better understanding, completions are added in spare brackets, like in the following example: Ex. 18: I do that [journey planning] only on the Internet. There you are guided. Here it is similar. I: You mean the website of the railway company? Yes, German Federal Railway. (f58 R) “Ex. 18” stands for “example 18.” Personal attributes of the participants are coded as follows: gender (f—female, m—male), age—numerical age, such as 58. TA stands for a quote from the thinking-aloud protocols whereas stands for a quote from a retrospective interview. indicates Interviewer. About the Participants In the first test series, all participants 6) were male. The younger participants in this series were between 26 and 29 years ( 27.7 years) old, the older participants between 57 and 62 years ( 59.3 years). Two of them worked at the university as doctoral candidates, one as a scientific assistant, one was employed as a mechatronics technician, one as a teacher, and one was retired (former technician). All participants owned a mobile phone but the usage frequency varied slightly: the younger participants used their mobile phone daily or several times a week whereas two older participants stated to use theirs several times a week and one less than once a month. They stated that they used mobile phones for the following purposes: making phone calls (all participants), texting (all younger, but only one older participant), setting the alarm clock (all except one older participant), taking pictures (two of the younger participants), and playing games (one younger participant). Overall, the participants can be characterized as regular mobile-phone users—though the younger ones tended to use their mobile phones more frequently. Concerning their travel behavior, the participants can be
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characterized as multimodal users, using different means of transportation: they all owned a car but also used public transport including railway. All of them stated to travel by railway only for private purposes (for journeys, short trips, visiting relatives) but not to get to work. In the second test series, all participants 6) were female. The younger participants in this series were between 26 and 27 years ( 26.7 years) old, the older participants between 56 and 60 years ( 57.7 years). Two of them worked as a teacher (one of them in retirement), one as a clinical supervisor, one as a trainee (journalism), and two were students. All female participants owned a mobile phone and used it frequently (daily or several times a week). Usage purposes were: making phone calls (all participants), texting (all younger, but only one older participant), setting the alarm clock, and using the calendar and playing games (all only mentioned by the younger participants). Thus, the female participants can also be characterized as regular mobile-phone users—though the younger ones tended to use more functions on their mobile phones than the older ones. Furthermore, their travel behavior was comparable to that of the male group: all female participants owned a car and, in addition, used occasional means of public transport including railway (multimodal traveller). They mainly used means of public transport in their private life for journeys, short trips, and visiting relatives. In contrast to the male group, the younger females also stated using public transport to get to work. Overall, the participants of both test series are comparable in their characteristics concerning age, mobile-phone usage, and travel behavior. Originally, we intended to conduct the studies with larger samples ( 10 for each study), but it turned out to be very difficult to find older participants who matched the predefined criteria (specifically the criterion “mobile phone usage”) and were willing to participate in the study. Thus, the number of participants had to be reduced to have an equal number in both age groups. Role of Reference Objects in Initial Contact Situations The participants’ first experience with DB Cairo seems to be influenced by other communicative patterns, means, and services. The participants used these reference objects to compare the new application with artifacts and related communicative patterns they are obviously familiar with. The comments and responses indicate that some of the artifacts are regularly used by the participants, as the following quote shows:
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Ex. 1: It [the sequence in the connection search] was as I expected. That may be because I often use the bahn.de program [website] to look up something. (m59 R) Some of these artifacts have a long communication history (such as time tables) and others are comparatively new (such as navigation systems). Mostly, the artifacts are part of the mobility domain “travelling by train;” some artifacts are situated in other mobility domains such as “travelling by car.” Another result is that the mentioned reference objects form a “framework” for evaluation: The participants used references to other artifacts to explain and give reasons for a positive or negative evaluation of certain attributes of DB Cairo. Within the framework, a certain artifact functioned as prototype. Evaluation Attributes and Related Reference Objects During the tests and the retrospective interviews, the participants commented on different attributes of DB Cairo, such as functions, communicative patterns, and features of the simulated technical environment (mobile phone). Most of the comments concerned topic-related functions. In many cases, the participants compared attributes of the app with attributes of other artifacts as reference objects. The reference objects varied depending on the focused attributes. Topic-related attributes were primarily discussed in comparison to attributes of other topic-related artifacts, such as the website of the railway company, navigation systems, and ticket machines. Mobile device-related attributes were predominantly mentioned in relation to attributes of mobile phones and text messaging. In the following text, we describe the mentioned attributes of DB Cairo and reference objects used by the participants in detail. The description starts with topic-related attributes followed by mobile device-related attributes. Topic-Related Attributes: The participants commented on the quality and quantity of topic-related functions and information and/or representation-related attributes, such as structure, design, or naming. The most frequently mentioned attribute was the availability of topic-related functions (such as planning a travel route). The participants named functions they miss and require. They explicitly explained that they know these functions from other media. In this context, the participants mentioned reference objects from a broad range
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of travel-related media, such as the website of the railway company, navigation systems, ticket machines, timetables, route planners, and Google Earth/Maps: Ex. 2: In route planners you have this [function] ‘last jobs’ or something like that. Last destinations. Yes. (m62 R) Ex. 3: All right, ‘Take me Home’, connection to your home. That’s similar to the navi[gation system] where you enter your home once. (m62 R) Ex. 4: ‘Departure boards’ [name of a function in DB Cairo], I suspected these are the different timetables. Like they are put up at the station. (m28 R) A 26-year-old male repeatedly commented on the function to add a stopover in the connection search. His comments indicate that he referred to the function as well as to its naming (see also Ex. 13)
information they know from the website. On the website, the main stations of big cities such as Berlin, so called meta stations, as well as smaller stations are named in the list for starts and destinations. The app lists only meta stations. In the statement below, a participant expresses the assumption that the list can be improved by using patterns from the DB website. This allows two interpretations: The DB website patterns are seen as “the better solution” or the participant prefers familiar patterns of structuring, naming, and listing stations: Ex. 9: The list of starts and destinations could be enhanced. For example, if you click ‘BERLIN’, there should be a sublist to choose which specific station I want to arrive at. Like I know it from the website of the railway company. (m26 R)
Ex. 5: ‘Via’, I know that from the ticket machines. (m26 TA)
One participant had difficulties in finding specific information (the number of a departure platform) that was required to solve one of the test tasks. In the retrospective interview, he argued that the information was also missing on the DB website:
The same participant described in another statement several functions he demands referring to route planners as well as to Google Earth and Google Maps. The latter have considerably more functions than conventional route planners.
Ex. 10: In principle—but that’s also not available on the Internet on bahn.de—it would be easy if there would be [displayed] ‘transfer once’ and ‘so much running time’ and ‘platform five’. (m59 R)
Ex. 6: I would like to have a search function, so I can enter for example ‘Castle Charlottenburg, Berlin’, and the program can retrieve a map such as you know it from an Internet map, from a route planner. And that it shows me, where is this place in Berlin and I have the possibility like in Google Earth or Google Maps, for example, to define this as start or destination. (m26 R)
An example such as this shows that participants’ comments have to be analyzed carefully. In fact, the “missing” information mentioned before was available on the website as well as in the application.
A second topic-related attribute respondents named was the availability of certain topic-related information, such as ticket prices, running time, platform, or necessary transfers. The availability of information was discussed with reference to the railway company’s website and to timetables, sometimes related to structural design decisions. Ex. 7: [connection overview] it would be nice if at least the prices would be displayed. (m28 R) Ex. 8: It would be interesting, if the timetables with the routes—like they are at every bus stop—would be available within the map. (m28 R) Another example shows that respondents demanded the same content and the same detailed
Structural Aspects, such as topic structure or sequencing, were only discussed in relation to the DB website. The participants recognized structural similarities between DB Cairo and the website and pointed out that this similarity pleases them. The participants commented on the global structure of the application as well as on the sequencing of information in comparison to the website. Ex. 11: That’s like the website of the railway company or from KVB [local transport company in Cologne]. It’s structured similar. (f27 R) Ex. 12: It [the sequence in the connection search] was as I expected. That may be because I often use the bahn.de program [website] to look up something. (m59 R) Another frequently mentioned topic was the quality of formulation and naming. Participants commented on the naming of topic-related functions. They
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referred to topic-related media and applications such as the DB website, navigation systems, and ticket machines. Ex. 13: ‘Via’, I know that, as I said, from the ticket machines or from the Internet. (m26 R) Ex. 14: For example this ‘POI’, I know that from my navigation system. (m26 R) In some cases, the participants acted as “experienced media users,” for instance, when they criticized the adaptation of terms from other electronic applications because they were concerned that these terms might be unfamiliar to many customers. Ex. 15: This abbreviation, POI, I know it incidentally because I often occupy myself with navigation systems, but I think 95% of the people do not know that POI stands for point of interest in this context. (m26 R) The participant referred to the fact that abbreviations like POI are topic-, app- and technology-type-specific [50]. Typically they are used in navigation systems on small screen devices. In general, concerning the linguistic design of the application, the participants demanded familiar, precise, distinct, consistent, and specific naming and formulations. Moreover, they did not like foreign (English) terms (such as “done”) as well as technical terms (such as the “map cache”). Respondents commented on interactive elements, such as operational elements and input fields. They were compared with interactive elements of the DB website: Ex.16: I would expect that a field appears down there after I inserted it [departure time], as on the DB website. (f26 TA) The participants wished perceivable operational elements and input fields preferably designed according to familiar patterns from the DB website. Whenever these criteria were not met, participants showed displeasure and judged negatively. An attribute that received fewer comments was the visual design of the application. A female participant commented repeatedly on the “look” of DB Cairo by comparing it with the design of the DB website. Ex. 17: It looks exactly like the website of the railway company. (f26 TA)
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Ex. 18: I think this software was developed for somebody who also uses the normal website of the railway company because of its appearance. It looks like it [the website]. (f26 R) The visual design seemed to affect the first impression but not as strong as expected. Single attributes, such as icons or highlighting, were commented on but not in relation to other objects. The participants demanded comprehensible, unambiguous, and labeled icons and criticized indeterminate and incomprehensible highlighting. Finally, one female participant commented on the way, the user is guided through the application. Again, she saw similarities to the website of the railway company: Ex. 19: P: I do that [journey planning] only on the Internet. There you are guided. Here it is similar. I: You mean the website of the railway company? P: Yes, German Federal Railway. (f58 R) Device-Related Attributes: The application DB Cairo has been designed to run on mobile phones and other mobile devices. The participants commented on the handling, which means acting via the mobile-phone keypad. Mostly, the participants compared the handling of the app in the emulator with attributes of their own mobile phone. For example, some wished for predictive text technology (T9) or commented on key functions they had to use for specific actions: Ex. 20: All right, I have to do that with the ‘OK-key’, not with the ‘back-key’ as you normally know it from mobile phones. (f26 TA) Besides, they referred to mobile phones when technical problems occurred (long loading times, system crashes). Some female participants mentioned text messaging as a reference object. They equated it with mobile phones and how text input is handled there. Ex. 21: There are start and destination. There [entry field] flashes the cursor. Now I can enter something there. Most likely I have to do that like a text. I’ll try that. (f26 TA) Reference Objects and Prototype As the results show, the participants referred to different communicative formats and media while exploring the new application.
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DB Cairo in comparison to the website of the railway company www.bahn.com.
They referred most often to the website of the railway company (see Fig. 4, right side). The DB website functioned as a prototype for travel-related information systems. In this context, it represented the key medium of the topic-related media network around travelling by train (compare Fig. 3). Using the novel app, the participants expected to find the same or at least similar functionality, content, and communicative patterns as on the DB website. The utilization of patterns known from the website tended to lead to a positive evaluation; differing patterns were evaluated negatively. Ex. 22: I was positively surprised that it does not differ from the website of the railway company. That’s to say the program is in this respect pretty good that if you travel by train—rare or regularly—you don’t have to get used to another menu. (f26 R) In second place, respondents mentioned navigation systems. Navigation systems were especially referred to when users talked about two specific functions: Take me Home and (show me) Points of Interest (POI). In third place, mobile phones were commented on—however, exclusively in case of device-related attributes as described before. Overall, the participants mentioned further reference objects, such as route planner, timetable, counter, ticket machine, directory, text messaging, and Google Maps. Most of the reference objects—website, ticket machine, timetable, counter—are part of the dynamic media network described before. The network elements particularly determined the user’s expectations and judgments
concerning functions and content, and their representation. In all comments, the participants referred to written communication. Verbal communication patterns (such as announcements or conversations with railway employees at the station) were not mentioned. Moreover, the assumption that users compare DB Cairo with other travel-related apps could not be verified. The participants did not comment on other mobile-phone applications (neither topic-related nor others). Influence of Age and Gender As mentioned previously, the study had an explorative character. The number of participants was too small to seriously investigate how personal attributes of the participants, such as age or gender, may influence their view on novel applications, such as DB Cairo. Nevertheless, we were also interested in detecting tendencies that indicate age- or gender-specific differences with respect to the usage of reference objects. As far as we can say, the personal factors age and gender tended to have no impact on the choice of the prototype. All participants—women and men, older and younger people—equally often referred to the DB website. Thus, the DB website seems to be the prototype in the best sense of the word. In second place, they compared the passenger information system to navigation systems. Slight differences concern the mention of specific reference objects: Only women stated text messages as a reference object whereas only men referred to route planners and services such as Google Maps. Younger participants referred to
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partly other communicative formats and media than older participants, such as ticket machines and counters.
CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK This section presents conclusions based on the empirical data described before. The major findings, implications for research and theory, as well as implications to practice will be summarized and discussed. Finally, the limitations of the present study are described and future research prospects are outlined. Conclusions The results indicate that novel applications are perceived against the background of established media and communicative formats. The choice of reference objects differs depending on the type of attributes. Topic-related attributes of the novel application are compared with attributes of representatives from networks of alternative topic-related communicative formats and media. In the case of established networks of topic-related alternatives, the first impression of a novel application is influenced by sets of standards established by representatives of the network. One representative of the media network functions as the prototype, others serve as reference objects and sources of comparative rules for certain attributes. Systemor technology-related attributes of the novel application (such as handling) are compared with attributes of representatives of the same technology type, such as the handling of mobile phones. Other studies, such as first impression studies with open innovation platforms, confirm these findings [51]. Encountering a novel application, such as DB Cairo, participants rely on patterns they are accustomed to. They transfer knowledge about established artifacts and related attributes to new applications. This finding shows that users experience and judge new technologies by making analogies—at least in initial contact situations. Implications for Research and Theory: The results indicate that user experience research with regard to communicative formats/products should include research into functional contexts and alternative established topic-related media (networks). Reconstructions of these contexts and networks should be part of future investigations of novel types of applications (or other products) with a communicative purpose. Furthermore, the
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study shows the importance of a participatory approach continuously integrating users into research: Insights into the relevance of topic-related communicative formats and media for the evaluation of a certain communicative format/product can only be gained from users themselves. The identification of prototypes is of major importance. They have the strongest influence on user’s experience in initial contact situations. In the case of the tested DB Cairo application, the DB website seems to be the prototype of topic-related media. Users are accustomed to the DB website; they know and use it for planning and organizing purposes as a travel information source. One may argue that comparisons to the website in order to emphasize shortcomings of the application are not evidence for the status as a prototype. But the participants also used the website as a reference object for positive evaluations (compare Ex. 22). Communicative patterns that are utilized on the website appear to evoke feelings of familiarity and satisfaction. Other reference objects were brought in by the participants when they referred to certain attributes that are less important for the website or to attributes concerning a special activity or travel phase. In particular, the comments concerning functions and their availability reflect that the application combines functions that support the passenger through the whole travel scenario. These functions are usually spread out over many different media. Consequently, the participants orient themselves toward a broad range of media and related communicative patterns. Viewed in this context and against the background of trends, such as media convergence and mashups, it is likely that users are guided by more than one reference object when they evaluate new applications in general. An interesting question deals with the impact of personal user attributes, such as age and gender, or the membership in a certain technology generation. For instance, Sackmann and Weymann assume that the way we experience technologies is influenced by earlier experiences, especially experiences with innovations in everyday life technologies, which have coined the social life during our youth [52], [53]. Because of the small number of participants, the influence of personal factors could not be investigated in a quantifying manner. In further studies, the influence of personal factors (such as gender and age) on user experience of novel technologies should
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be investigated with respect to trends, such as demographic change and a longer life expectancy. Aging does not mean that older users are no longer interested in new generations of technologies or are not able to handle them [54]. Otherwise, studies partly indicate that people 75+ are rarely interested in novel technologies and applications. They tend to reject the costs of new technologies in terms of financial costs as well as mental effort [55]. Implications to Practice: The novelty of applications, such as DB Cairo, is a result of the scenario-based combination of functions. The success of such applications depends on the realization of the underlying scenario and on successful user guidance through it. In addition, it depends on a thorough integration and implementation of well-established, familiar, and accepted patterns for the representation of functions and content. A substantial prerequisite for the design process is the identification of these patterns and the examination of their best representatives in the sense of prototypes. The analysis of reference objects could especially be beneficial in early product development stages: it could help developers and designers anticipate the expectations of potential users. Therefore, the design process should include a careful analysis of well-established alternative media and media networks as well as the identification of prototypes and related communicative patterns. Users of mobile passenger information systems in public transport act in a complex topic-specific network of media and communicative formats. The implementation of familiar communicative patterns can be beneficial for a positive first impression and facilitate the acquisition for the users in initial contact situations. It should be considered whenever the restrictions of the mobile phone application, such as a small screen for displaying information, allow it. Self-services—as part of media networks—require terminological, structural, and visual harmonization. In the process of harmonization, designers should be aware that users of new technologies and applications develop their evaluation criteria from different reference objects—primarily from topic-related already established alternative media and communicative formats. Limitations Our test series were conducted in a laboratory with a computer-based emulation of a mobile phone. Another limitation concerns the computer-based emulator. It does not allow natural
physical handling of the application (keystroking). Maybe this test feature had some influence on the experience and statements of the participants. Such a test setting may form associations with the internet to produce other outcomes. Due to the small number of participants and their characteristics, the results are not generalizable. The participants of the present study represent only a part of the potential target groups of DB Cairo and of mobile passenger information systems in general. Other interesting groups are commuters, beginners in mobile phone and/or public transportation usage, or users who only travel with public transport. They differ in their travel behavior and, in doing so, in their needs to be supported by passenger information systems. Thus, the results of this study have to be compared with the results of further studies with other target groups. Suggestions for Future Research Future research should investigate the relations between communicative patterns within topic-specific networks of communicative formats as well as the relations between these patterns, evaluations, user, object, and context characteristics more intensely. Interesting questions deal with the influence of further factors on the choice of reference objects and prototypes: Does the choice of reference objects depend on the input device (smart phone, tablet) or input modality (such as gestures), the topic (other mobility types such as travelling with bus, car sharing, renting a bike), or the cultural background of users? If so, are the chosen reference objects rather topic related or device related? What happens if different mobility types are combined in one app and are equally represented? Do users choose different reference objects for each mobility type? A major challenge for future research is the development of methods to facilitate data collection in field studies. To investigate user experience in natural situations and environments (such as platform, bus stop, on the bus/train and similar locations), methods and tools are needed which enable researchers to observe and record interactions through the whole travelling process (possibly methods from other research fields such as focused ethnography. (See [56].) In addition, it has to be examined if and how the findings can be transferred to and exploited for other research fields, such as innovation research.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The interdisciplinary project Cairo was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology. The authors would like to thank Shirley Beul for her support during the conduction of the
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studies as well as Rieke Jakobi and Pablo Hunger for their help in the data collection and preparation. The authors would also like to thank the guest editors of this special issue, the Editor-in-Chief, and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and constructive feedback.
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Farkas, Principles of Web Design. New York: Longman, 2002. [40] J. C. Redish, Letting go of the Words: Writing Web Content That Works. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier, 2007. [41] J. Nielsen and H. Loranger, Prioritizing Web Usability. Berkeley, CA, USA: New Riders, 2006. [42] G. W. Strong, “New directions in human-computer interaction: Education, research, and practice,” Interactions, vol. 2, pp. 69–81, 1995. [43] C. Bazerman, “Speech acts, genres, and activity systems: How texts organize activity and people,” in What Writing Does and How it Does it: An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices, C. Bazerman and P. Prior, Eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2004, pp. 309–340. [44] C. Sauer, “Visualisierung inbegriffen: Textüberarbeitung und Umgestaltung,” in Schreiben in den Wissenschaften, E.-M. Jakobs and D. Knorr, Eds. Frankfurt, Germany: Lang, 1997, pp. 91–106. [45] L. Lentz and H. P. Maat, “Functional analysis for document design,” Tech. Commun., vol. 51, 2004. [46] C. Lewis and J. Rieman, “Task-centered user interface design: A practical introduction,” 1993. [Online]. Available: http://hcibib.org/tcuid/tcuid.pdf [47] P. Mayring, “Qualitative content analysis,” Forum: Qualitative Social Research, vol. 1, 2000. [48] J. Nielsen, Usability Engineering. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1993. [49] F. Kohlbacher, “The use of qualitative content analysis in case study research,” Forum: Qualitative Soc. Res., vol. 7, 2006. [50] E.-M. Jakobs and M. Ziefle, “What’s the problem: Age or technology?,” presented at the Int. Conf. Health Care Syst., Ergonom.Patient Safey, Straßbourg, Germany, 2008. [51] C. Digmayer and E.-M. Jakobs, “Innovationsplattformen für Ältere,” in Sprache und Kommunikation im Technischen Zeitalter. (Reihe “Age of Access”), M. Schwarz-Friesel and K. Marx, Eds. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter, 2012, pp. 143–165. [52] R. Sackmann, “Generations, inter-cohort differentiation and technological change,” in Elderly People in Industrialised Societies, H. Mollenkopf, Ed. Berlin, Germany: edition sigma, 1996, pp. 289–308. [53] R. Sackmann and A. Weymann, Die Technisierung des Alltags. Generationen und Technische Innovationen. Franfurt am Main/New York: Campus, 1994. [54] D. E. Chisnell, J. C. Redish, and A. Lee, “Designing web sites for older adults: Expert review of usability for older adults at 50 web sites,” AARP, Washington, DC, USA, Feb. 1, 2005. [55] E.-M. Jakobs, K. Lehnen, and M. Ziefle, Alter und Technik: Studie zu Technikkonzepten, Techniknutzung und Technikbewertung älterer Menschen. Aachen, Germany: Apprimus, 2008.
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[56] G. Melles and E.-M. Jakobs, “Testing the integration of smartphone-enabled ethnography with design,” presented at the “Integration, Interaction, Innovation, Immersion, Inclusion” Annu. Conf. Australian Comput.-Human Interact. Special Interest Group, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, Nov. 26–30, 2012. Simone Wirtz is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in Textlinguistics and Technical Communication at RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany. She is Advisor of the study program Technical Communication, RWTH Aachen University. Her research interests focus on social media, particularly social networking sites, usability research, (hyper-)textlinguistics, age, and technology.
Eva-Maria Jakobs is a full professor of Textlinguistics and Technical Communication, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany. She is Director of the Institute for Industrial Communication and Business Media and leads the study program Technical Communication. Her research interests are technical communication, textlinguistics, electronic media, usability research, age and technology, and writing at work. She is a member of the RWTH HCI Center.
