Incorporating Choice and Preferred Activities Into ...

CHOICE AND PREFERENCE

Incorporating Choice and Preferred Activities Into Classwide Instruction LEE KERN AND TALIDA M . STATE, LEHICH UNIVERSITY

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t is often said that the best intervention strategies prevent problem behaviors from starting in the first place. Two preventative strategies that teachers can use are choice making and incorporating preferred activities into classwide instruction. Not only do these strategies avoid problem behaviors, but teachers also find them easy to use in their classrooms. For example, very simple choices, such as allowing children to choose the order that books are read during story time or giving students the opportunity to select the type of writing instrument they use to complete an assignment, can often eliminate problem behaviors (e.g., Dunlap et al., 1994; Moes, 1998). Incorporating preference into activities sometimes requires a bit more teacher planning up front, yet it has been reported by teachers as fairly simple to use (Kern, Bambara, & Fügt, 2002). Because choice and preference work to prevent behavior problems, they fall into a category called "antecedent interventions." That is, they are used when behavior problems are not happening. Antecedent interventions are ideal for many reasons. One is that because they prevent problems, teachers do not have to deal with behavior that can disrupt the entire classroom or may even be harmful. Also, when students are doing what they are supposed to be doing, instead of having behavior problems, they do not miss important learning. In addition to preventing problem behavior, choice is important for another reason. Providing opportunities for choice making helps teach students to become self-determined individuals. Many have argued that such opportunities are essential for

providing the experiences necessary to guide an individual's later performance when they encounter important life choices (Stowitschek, Laitinen, & Prather, 1999). Furthermore, the opportunity for choice making is one dimension of a good quality of life (Felce & Perry, 1995). That is, having choices is an important part of feeling satisfied with life. This is especially important for students with emotional and behavioral problems (EBD) because research has shown that both students with EBD and their parents rate their quality of life significantly lower across domains (e.g., general quality of life, self, relationships, and environment) than students without EBD (Sacks & Kern, 2008). Thus, it is critical to identify strategies to improve the life quality of students with EBD, and choice is one such approach. In this article, we begin by discussing why choice and preference are effective for reducing problem behavior. Next, we describe procedures and strategies for using choice and preference in classroom practice, along with examples for classroom implementation. Finally, we address commonly asked questions that teachers often ask when deciding to use choice and preference. Effectiveness of Choice and Preference There are many examples of the ways that choice and preference have been used to reduce problem behaviors. For instance, choice has been used within different academic subjects, such as mathematics, science, social studies, reading, and language arts. Furthermore, choice and preference have been applied

across many types of academic assignments, including textbook exercises, worksheets, math word problems, writing exercises, and teaching money skills. Choice and preference interventions work to reduce the problem behaviors of almost every population of students, including students with emotional and behavioral problems, students with developmental disabilities, and students without disabilities. It would be easy to think that offering choices and preferred activities reduces problem behavior because students are able to select and engage in work and activities that they consider enjoyable. In other words, when students get to choose their activities, they choose activities they like, and activities that are reinforcing naturally lead to better student behavior. Reinforcement alone, however, does not seem to fully explain the way that choice works to improve behavior. Research findings suggest that other mechanisms are involved. For example, studies have shown that choice can reduce problem behavior, even when students have to choose nonpreferred (or moderately preferred) activities. Specifically, in studies by Bambara, Ager, and Koger (1994) and Vaughn and Horner (1997), individuals were required to engage in low or moderately preferred tasks. Both studies found that providing choices increased ontask behavior and decreased problem behavior for some of the participants. The behavioral improvements when completing nonpreferred activities suggests it is not just about the activities they chose. Other studies have looked at choice of sequence when completing tasks. Even when students only get to choose the order of nonpreferred WlNTBR 2 0 09

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Table 1

E.WMPLIHSOF CIIOICIH-MAKING OPPORTUNITIES

Examples Area of Choice

Elementary Age Students

Drawing letters on colored paper versus tracing letters on personal boards Order to complete writing spelling words, spelling Choice of task sequence word sentences, spelling, spelling work crossword Colored crayons versus pencil Choice of materials Choice of whom to work with Peers, teacher, older peers Floor, reading mat, individual desk, chair Choice of place to work During current period, next period, next day Choice of time to complete work Choice of task/activity

activities, but still must complete them, there are reductions in challenging behavior. For example, in a study by Kern, Mantegna, Vorndran, Bailin, and Hilt (2001), students were required to complete three nonpreferred tasks that typically caused problem behaviors. When the students could decide the order that they completed the tasks, problem behaviors were reduced (some quite dramatically) and/or engagement was increased. Again, given they had to complete all of the tasks, the embedded opportunity for choice, rather than the options selected, seem to account for the behavior improvements. Thus, preference of tasks or activities alone does not seem to explain why choice works to reduce problem behavior. There are two other theories about the way that choice might work. One theory says that there might be something innate in all of us that makes us like to have choices, and liking choices has helped us to survive. For example, animals that like to live in places with a lot of different food sources are more likely to survive if food were to become scarce. So it is possible that our desire for choice rests within us and is important for continued survival. Another theory about how choice might work is that we learn, over time, that when we have choices, we can get exactly what we want. This is important because our preference for 4

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one thing over another can change. So, when we have the opportunity to choose, we can select the item that we most want at the time. In this way, we learn to like having choices. If choice does work in these ways, it explains why it is so effective for problem behavior. In fact, many times choice has an enormous impact, especially with students with EBD. This might be because everyday choices begin to be taken away when children and adolescents exhibit behavior problems, as teachers try to gain control. In general, students with behavior problems have very few opportunities to engage in choice making. In the end, reducing opportunities for choice might work against teachers' attempts to eliminate behavior problems. Also, the home lives of children with EBD may leave them without feelings of control as they commonly experience a variety of home problems. This may cause or exacerbate problem behaviors. For these reasons, choice and preferred activities are likely to be very effective interventions and also well matched to the needs of students with EBD. Implementation Approaches and Examples Choice Choice has been used in limitless ways in classroom settings. Nearly every opportunity in which teachers

Secondary Age Students

Interviewing ornithologist versus writing a paper on birds Order to complete science, literature, i chemistry homework i Handwriting versus typing j Peers, teacher, study hall supervisor I Individual desk, hallway, library I During current period, next period, next day

make decisions about how, when, or where an activity will take place can be translated into a student choice. Table 1 provides an overview of the types of choice that can be used classwide. { The general steps for teachers to use to incorporate opportunities for choice making in instruction are described in Figure 1. First, teachers need to figure out what type ofi choices they are willing to offerj in their classrooms (Step 1). This dan be done by creating a menu of choices, considering the examples in Table 1. Then, when they are planning ' lessons, they can refer to their choice menu (Step 2). The next step (Step 3) is to determine what types of choices are appropriate for the lesson they are planning. For example, if the activity requires sustained silent reading, the choice of who to work with would not be an option, but the choice of which story to read would fit the lesson nicely. Step 4 includes determining where choice would best fit into the lesson. Many times, teachers make choices available throughout the lesson, such as j allowing students to (a) choose the activity, (b) decide whether they want to change the activity during the lesson, (c) select the materials to complete the lesson, and (d) determine whether they want to, work alone or with a partner. The next step (Step 5) is to incorporate choices, as predetermined, into the lesson.


Figure 1 S'rei's I-OK U S I N G CIIOICIH IN TIIK C U V S S R O O M

Steps for Using Choice in the Classroom 1. Create a menu of choices you would be willing to provide your students (Examples of choice categories can he found in Tahle 1). 2. Look through your choice menu hefore planning your lesson. 3. Decide what types of choices are appropriate for your lesson. 4. Decide where choice-making opportunities fit hest in your lesson. 5. Incorporate the choices you decided as appropriate in your lesson plan. 6. Provide the choices as planned while delivering the lesson.

Finally, Step 6 is actually providing the choices while delivering the lesson. Teachers often find an added step useful, which is to obtain student feedback about the activities and choices. This helps for future planning. Perhaps the most frequent application of choice making has been choice of the task to complete. For example, students may be asked which of two or more alternative tasks they want to complete. This form of choice making was used as part of an intervention package in a study by Kern and colleagues (2002). Intervention was implemented classwide in a middle school classroom serving students with EBD. Six boys, aged 13 to 14 years, served as participants. Choice was used during science class, which was associated with high rates of off-task and destructive behavior (e.g., aggression, disruption, property destruction, leaving the class without permission). At the onset of the lesson, students were provided a choice of two activities (e.g., conduct an experiment or review for test;

watch recycle video or begin little experiment). After a class vote, the option receiving the majority of votes was conducted that day. If the lesson included multiple group activities, the students were again provided a choice in the same manner as the initial activity. This type of choice, combined with individual choices throughout the lesson and highinterest activities, resulted in large increases in engagement and eliminated destructive behavior. Another application of choice is providing students the opportunity to select the sequence of tasks they will complete. We demonstrated that this approach was effective with a 7-yearold boy, Danny, who was diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (Kern et al., 2001). When asked to complete academic activities (e.g., math worksheets, flash card practice, and cut-and-paste activities), Darmy engaged in almost constant problem behaviors and refused to complete just about any of his work. When Danny was given a choice of the order in which he completed these three tasks, problem behaviors

were reduced to near-zero levels, and engagement increased to almost 100%. This approach is easily adaptable to classwide implementation. For example, when independent activities are assigned, students can select the sequence of completion from an array of activities. Similarly, during study time, the order homework or other assignments are completed can be selected by the student. Choice of materials to complete a task also is a successful approach for promoting appropriate behavior. This procedure also was used by Kern and colleagues (2002) with middle school students during science in the aforementioned study. For example, during test preparation, students could choose whether to study using flash cards or fill-in-the-blank worksheets. Another example of an opportunity to select materials was used during student projects. Students followed the path of an object (e.g., plastic bottle, glass jar) from manufacture through recycle. Students could select the material (i.e., object) to follow. This type of choice also resulted in student WINTER

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Figure 2

S T E P S FOR INCORPOR/VTING PREFERENCE IN CUVSSROOM ACTIVITIES

Steps for Incorporating Preference in Classroom Activities 1. Conduct a preference/interest assessment tailored to the corresponding activity or academic subject (examples of preference inventories can be found in Figures 3 & 4). 2. Tbink about wbat you know about your students' preferences and interests. 3. Cboose and personalize activities according to your students' interests and preferences. 4. Conduct tbe activities as planned. 5. Collect ongoing information from your students to furtber inform you on tbeir preference for future activities.

behavioral improvements. Research has shown that very simple material choices, such as what type of writing instrument to use (e.g., Moes, 1998) or whether to complete work on a computer or language master (e.g.. Kern, Childs, Dunlap, Clarke, & Falk, 1994) can reduce behavior problems and increase student engagement. Additional ways that choice can be implemented in the classroom include choice of when, where, or with whom to complete a task. Choice of timing can be an effective way to embed choice during instruction. Providing students with a choice of when to complete an assignment (e.g., in the morning or afternoon) can be an option when timing is flexible. The scheduling of daily subjects or lessons could be a classwide choice. Another choice is where work is completed. Some students might find working in isolation more productive compared with working in areas surrounded by peers. Other choices may include working on the floor or in an isolated cubical as a preferred work place. Allowing students to select which peers they work with is another 6

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effective way to implement choice. Students generally find that they can work and study most effectively with particular peers who have similar work habits, styles of learning, and rates of acquisition. Thus, when guided correctly, allowing them to choose a peer or group of peers for assignments, projects, or study is both motivating and may improve work and study performance. Preference

Incorporating areas of student interest or preference into the curriculum content can render mundane academic activities Inherently reinforcing and has been demonstrated to increase student engagement and decrease problem behavior. This strategy differs from choice in that the teacher selects the ways that student interests are infused in lessons, activities, and assignments. Figure 2 describes the steps to follow to incorporate students' interests and preferences into instruction. To begin, teachers must have an understanding of what it is that their students find interesting (Step 1). In

middle and high schools, teachers may see more than 100 students in a given day, spending a limited j amount of time with each. Thus, becoming familiar with student preferences becomes nearly impossible. In these situations, preference assessments can be used. These can be open ended by having students make a list of their interests, hobbies, and preferred recreational activities. In the classroom setting, particularly in subject matter courses, it may be difficult to accommodate the infinite number of student interests. In such situations, preference assessments may query student preferences among a limited number of options. Figure 3 provides an example of a restricted preference assessment for a high school literature class. Figure 4 provides an example of a similar type of restricted preference assessment for middle school social studies assignments. In elementary schools or settings with small-size classrooms (special education), teachers become familiar with their students' interests by spending time with them throughout the day. Thus, teachers may already


Figure 3 E.NAMPLIHOI-A PKIHPBKI-NCIH ASSISSSMHNTFOR HIGH SCIIOOL LITIHKÍVTURI: C U S S

BRANDON HIGH SCHOOL Literature Class Preference Assessment

Please indicate your order of preference for the type of stories listed below, beginning with "]" to indicate most preferred. History Fantasy

Legend Memoir Allegory Science fiction Suspense Poetry Adventure Comics Classics Mystery True life

know about their students' preferences (Step 2). After students preferences are identified, activities can be selected or personalized based on those preferences (Step 3). For example, a writing assignment might require a student to describe his or her pet. Step 4 is simply conducting the lessons or activities as planned.

Subsequently (Step 5), teachers can collect ongoing information about their students' preferences for planning future activities. Because preferences change over time, it is important to periodically reassess student preferences. This can be done by readministering preference assessments or obtaining feedback from students to make sure the

activities continue to be interesting, meaningful, and relevant. As with choice, there are numerous ways that student interest can be incorporated into activities and assignments. For example, as part of the previously described package implemented by Kern et al. (2002), high-interest activities were identified by the classroom teacher WINTER

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Figure 4

EXAMPLE OF AN INTEREST ASSESSMENT FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES C U S S

SOCIAL STUDIES Mrs. Bowman Ninth Grade

Please indicate your order of preference, beginning with "V to indicate the most interesting assignment you would like to complete: Explain the importance and consequences of civil right movements in America. Explain the contributions different social movements hove made to our democracy. Conduct independent research to identify resources relevant to civil rights. Explain how lessons learned from historic struggles apply to emerging civil rights challenges that face our country. Provide examples of civil rights outstanding political figures and summarize their achievements. I

based on his familiarity with the students, his observations of tasks associated with high engagement, and student-generated preference lists. These were regularly included in lessons. For instance, during a lesson on pollution, students identified pollution sources in their own neighborhoods. This made the rather generic pollution lesson personally interesting, relevant, and meaningful. An example of the specific steps the teacher used to plan this lesson is provided in Figure 5.

In another study, the daily homework assignments of 22 middle school students were revised to increase completion rate (Hinton & Kern, 1999). Homework involved practice completing multistep word problems, which consisted of 8

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generic textbook questions. Areas of student interest were included in the problems, while keeping the mathematical content, which was practice with fractions. For example, a modified problem read: Eight of Roberto's friends want to go to a movie; however, he doesn't have a car. Later, he found that Benjamin has a Corvette, but it seats only two people. Write a fraction to show the number of seats in the Corvette and the total number of people. Roberto's friend, Janixa, has an Explorer, which has two big seats that can seat a total of four people. Write a fraction to show the number of seats in the Explorer and the total number of people. Are the two fractions you just wrote equal? Add the fractions to see if everyone will be able to go. (p. 233)

The problem included names of the students in the classroom ahd something of interest, cars. These modifications increased homework completion rates from an average of about 60% to nearly 100%. ! Another example of the positive effects of using students' preferences and interests to modify assignments can be seen in a study by Clarke and colleagues (1995). First, assessments were conducted to identify assignments associated with high levels of problem behavior and to determine students' individual preferences and interests. For j example, for one of the students, problem behaviors occurred during matching and drawing activities. To identify areas of student interest, the teacher had discussions with the student and his parent. They

BeyondBehaviof


Figure 5

E X A M I M J H O F I N C O K P O K A T I N G C I I O I C H A N D PRHI-IÍRHNCI: IN A S C I E N C I - L H S S O N

Mr. Franklin wanted to incorporate student choice and preference in his Science lesson on recycling. In order to do so, he followed the steps below; Before the lesson • Before planning his lesson on recycling, Mr. Franklin conducted a survey with his students and asked them what they would be interested to learn more about. •

Based on his prior observations and Interactions with his students, he knew that his students enjoyed hands-on experiments, and activities that relate to their everyday lives.

•

He also knew of students who loved using technology rather than paper and pencil tasks.

•

He considered his material resources (e.g., available computers, physical space, staff, and time) and developed his lesson accordingly.

During the lesson • At the onset of the lesson on recycling, he presented students with a choice of two different activities (i.e., develop a recycling survey, plan a recycling program). •

He then had the students vote as a class on what activity they wanted to pursue that day. The option receiving the majority of votes could be conducted that day. Another option could have been to divide the students in two groups according to their preference.

•

He made the content relevant to the students by giving them the option of writing a recycling plan for their classroom or neighborhood, developing their own questions for the survey or browsing the Internet to search for other surveys available to use as an example.

•

He further allowed the students to choose to work into groups, pairs, or individually on the voted activity.

•

After the students decided on the activity and the working formation, he encouraged them to choose the manner of completion and the materials needed. For example, the students could handwrite the survey/recycling plan on recycled paper or type it on the computer.

End of lesson • He asked the students to select one take-home project to be completed by the end of the unit (i.e., creating and monitoring a compost pile, creating a resource notebook with domestic recycling materials and local units that recycle them, or write a persuasive speech to promote the establishment of a recycling program in their school or community). •

He asked students to anonymously write on a piece of paper what parts of the lesson they enjoyed the most and why.

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identified a particular TV show that interested him. This information was then used to modify the assignments while keeping the instructional objectives that focused on beginning writing skills. The student was still required to draw connecting lines; however, at the end of the tracing activity, an outline of his favorite character from the TV show was produced. In another example, one student exhibited problem behaviors during handwriting activities. His passion for Nintendo games was identified and incorporated in his writing assignments. He was still expected to copy sentences in manuscript, but the content of the sentences was taken from Nintendo game booklets. These modifications resulted in reduced levels of problem behavior and higher rates of desirable behavior for each student. Work completion also increased when students worked on assignments they considered interesting. These activity modifications took place during individual seat work, so they could be used classwide, although the content of the modifications for students may differ. Rather than using preference by incorporating student interests, another strategy is to make sure activities are meaningful or functional. This was done in a study by Dunlap, Foster-Johnson, Clarke, Kern, and Childs (1995). Assignments were modified so that assignment completion resulted in an outcome that was meaningful and also included the student's interests. Specifically, Jill exhibited problem behaviors during handwriting activities. At the same time, her teacher observed that she enjoyed activities that were helpful to others. Thus, she modified the handwriting assignment by keeping the instructional objective the same (i.e., to demonstrate the correct use of letter formation and spacing) but made sure the activity resulted in a highly desirable outcome for Jill. So, Jill used her handwriting period to copy four to five cursive sentences 10

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that were later laminated and used by students in another classroom for their handwriting assignment. Jill was sure to complete her work, writing very neatly, knowing that this would be helping other students. At the same time, her problem behaviors were eliminated. Although incorporating student interests and preference takes planning, it is a highly effective method of increasing engagement and motivation while decreasing problem behavior. The process can be made easier by the variety of assessments teachers have at their disposal. These range from administering teacher-made student interest inventories to simply observing students and identifying activities or modalities they prefer. A number of studies have illustrated ways that preference can be incorporated into lessons and assignments, and limitless additional alternatives can be generated with a bit of teacher creativity. Commonly Asked Questions Providing opportunities for choice and preference sometimes raises teacher questions and concerns about authority in the classroom. One question that often arises is, 'Tf I give my students choice, will it reduce the control I have?" There is no research indicating that incorporating choice and preference in daily instruction has a negative effect on either student behavior or teacher-student relationships. On the contrary, according to Jolivette, Wehby, Canale, and Massey (2001), providing students with opportunities to choose enables them to better control their environment and, as a consequence, can lead to more predictable studentteacher interactions and more frequent positive attention and feedback from teachers. This should result in improvements in studentteacher relationships and rapport. In essence, providing students with opportimities to make choices allows them to choose items and activities

that are reinforcing to them. In ! addition, many students enjoy the choice-making opportunity, regardless of what they choose. ¡This motivates them to engage in desirable behaviors and should ultimately improve their relationship with their teacher and their attitude toward school. A second commonly asked question is, "How can teachers provide choice and preference without interfering with provision of required academic content?" Academic content can and should be maintained while incorporating choice and preference in lessons and activities. Many examples mentioned in this article illustrate how incorporating choice can be accomplished without neglecting content instruction. For example, a teacher can incorporate choice and maintain academic rigor by presenting the students with a dhoice of three different writing | assignments. All three assignments can be taken from the required curriculum and be identical in length and difficulty but varied in content (e.g., spelling lists, fill-in-blanks missing vocabulary words, grammar and punctuation exercises) or response format (e.g., oral response, typing on computer, handwriting, group work, individual work). Almost all choice and preference strategies can be used while maintaining curricular content. A third important question IS, "Are incorporating choice and preference feasible interventions for teachers, including those in general education settings?" A research review on studies implementing choice and preference, conducted by Morgan (2006), concluded that teachers considered these interventions feasible and easy to implement in the classroom. Furthermore, research showed that choice can be implemented as an effective intervention with students educated in general education classrooms, without significant I modifications to ongoing instruction


or existing classroom structure (Powell & Nelson, 1997). Although choice and preference are viewed as simple interventions, it takes some time to preplan how to incorporate choice and preference during instruction. In the end, it is well worth the time, especially because teachers of students with EBD spend a considerable amount of time dealing with problem behaviors. This time could be used more effectively to prevent problems by planning how to make choices available and incorporating students' preferences into activities. After teachers become familiar with their students' preferences and types of choices they can provide, incorporating choice and preference becomes quite simple and natural. In conclusion, assessing students' interests and preferences and incorporating those into instruction and assignments, as well as providing students with opportunities to make choices, has been shown to have positive effects on both students' behavior and academic performance. Furthermore, they are beneficial for students in later life, in preparation for important decision making. These interventions may require some planning, but overall, teachers rate them as fairly easy to implement. Teachers will find these strategies well worth the little . effort when they see behavioral improvements in their students.

REFERENCES Bambara, L. M., Ager, C, & Koger, F. (1994). The effects of choice and task preference on the work performance of adults with severe disabilities. ¡oiinml of Applied Behavior Analysis,

27, 555-556.

Clarke, S., Dunlap, G., Foster-Johnson, L., Childs, K. E., Wilson, D., White, R., et al. (1995). Improving the conduct of students with behavioral disorders by incorporating student interests into curricular activities. Behavioral Disorders, 20, 221-237.

Dunlap, G., dePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Wright, S., White, R., et al. (1994). Choice making to promote adaptive behavior for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. Joiirnat of Applied Behavior Analysis,

27, 505-518. Dunlap, G., Foster-Johnson, L., Clarke, S., Kern, L., & Childs, K. E. (1995). Modifying activities to produce functional outcomes: Effects on the problem behaviors of students with disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 20,

248-258. Felce, D., & Perry, J. (1995). Quality of life: Its definition and measurement. Research in Developmental Disabilities,

16/51-74. Hinton, L. M., & Kern, L. (1999). Increasing homework completion by incorporating areas of student interest. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 231-241.

Jolivette, K., Wehby, J. H., Canale, J., & Massey, N. G. (2001). Effects of choice-making opportunities on the behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 131-145.

Kern, L., Bambara, L., & Fogt, J. (2002). Classwide curricular modification to improve the behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27,

317-326. Kern, L., Childs, K., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., & Falk, G. (1994). Using assessmentbased curricular intervention to improve the classroom behavior of a student with emotional and

behavioral challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 7-19.

Kern, L., Mantegna, M. E., Vorndran, C. M., Bailin, D., & Hilt, A. (2001). Choice of task sequence to increase engagement and reduce problem behaviors. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 3-10.

Moes, D. R. (1998). Integrating choicemaking opportunities within teacherassigned academic tasks to facilitate the performance of children with autism. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 23,

319-328. Morgan, P. L. (2006). Increasing task engagement using preference or choice-making: Some behavioral and methodological factors affecting their efficacy as classroom interventions. Remedial and Special Education, 27,

176-187. Powell, S., & Nelson, B. (1997). Effects of choosing academic assignments on a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,

30,181-183.

Sacks, G., & Kern, L. (2008). A comparison of quality of life variables for students with emotional and behavioral disorders and students without disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 17, 111-127.

Stowitschek, J. J., Laitinen, R., & Prather, T. (1999). Embedding early selfdetermination opportunities in curriculum for youth with developmental disabilities using natural teaching incidents. Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education, 21,

15-26. Vaughn, B. J., & Homer, R. H. (1997). Identifying instructional tasks that occasion problem behaviors and assessing the effects of student versus teacher choice among these tasks. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 299-312.

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