indian journal of

ISSN 0304-5250

INDIAN JOURNAL OF

ECOLOGY Volume 42

Number 1

June 2015

THE INDINA ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Indian Journal of Ecology (2015) 42(1): 9-15

Manuscript Number: 1990 NAAS Rating: 4.47

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Indigenous Ethnomedicines and Victuals of Malayans: An Indigenous Population of Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India K. Muhammed Nizar, S. Gopakumar, Vikas Kumar* and R. Ajeesh Department of Forest Management and Utilisation College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur-680 656, India *E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: An ethnobotanical study of the indigenous Malayan population of Peechi–Vazhani Wildlife sanctuary, Kerala revealed that they utilize 81 species of plants which included trees (29), herbs (15), climbers (16) and shrubs (21), distributed in 74 genera and 41 families. Drink or decoction made out of plant parts were observed as the most common mode of intake, while leaves were the common plant part used as medicine. Majority of the plants were used as anti-lacerative (11) and anti-diarrheal (10) agents. Despite rice continuing as their staple food, Malayan victuals included fruits (8 spp.), seeds (4 spp.), tubers and rhizomes (5 spp. each) and another 6 species used for their leaves. This study highlights the need for recording the local ecological knowledge of indigenous communities, which will help us formulate plans aimed at multiple-use-forestry. Key Words: Ethnomedicine, Malayan tribes, Peechi –Vazhani, Traditional knowledge; Victuals, Western ghats, Wildlife sanctuary

The importance of traditional and local ecological knowledge in biodiversity conservation is reflected by Article 8(j) of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD), which states that the knowledge and practices of indigenous and local communities relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity should be respected, preserved and applied [Anonymous, 1993]. Among nearly 45,000 plant species reported in India, about 7,000-8,000 species are considered medicinal and used by village communities, particularly tribal communities, or in traditional medicinal systems, such as the Ayurveda [Dubey et al., 2004; Abu-Rabia., 2005]. Traditional medicinal plants are of interest now, as herbal preparations are increasingly being used in both human and animal healthcare systems [Offiah et al., 2011; Elufioye et al., 2012; Vikas et al., 2014a]. The knowledge of plants and their uses is getting increasingly restricted to the older generation in these communities. In Peechi-Vazahni Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala state, India (Figure 1), resides the Malayans who are an indigenous group with a dark to dark brown complexion and short stature and have two sub-tribes, Nattu Malayan and the Konga Malayan [Encyclopaedia of Dravidian Tribes, 1996]. Several tribal welfare schemes have “modernized” the indigenous people resulting in the erosion of their indigenous knowledge which their ancestors had orally passed on through centuries. Considering the values of indigenous knowledge for a biodiversity rich nation like India, the present article attempts to document the traditional knowledge of the indigenous Malayan population residing inside the Peechi–Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerela, India.

s r e b m e M r o F

MATERIAL AND METHODS The forest area of the 125 km2 Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary (10026' N and 100 40' N longitudes 760 15'

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E and 760 28' N) has a dominant vegetation of moist deciduous species while the semi-evergreen species are confined to the higher reaches. Malayans with a thorough knowledge of the therapeutics and ability to identify the plants were selected as key informants with the help of the tribal elders (> 45 years), who knew well about the surrounding cultivated and wild plants in forests, their local names, parts used, preparation of herbal medicine, mode of administration, dose and uses in different ailments and diseases. Likewise to document

Fig. 1. Map showing the study site

K. Muhammed Nizar, S. Gopakumar, Vikas Kumar and R. Ajeesh

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detailed information on religious practices, members related with 'religious rituals' were separately approached. From the females, information regarding their diet and the different kinds of plants with food value was collected. The traditional healers or medicine men were approached by the help of local people after thorough rapport building and were interviewed informally in focused interviews with open ended questions. The interviews were focused on the most prevalent disorders among the folks as the chances of existence of a curative herbal formulation for a common or prevalent malady were always felt high. The compositions and disease specific nature of the formulations were cross checked with other respondents. The contact details of the respondents were also recorded for future need and reference. The disorder specific ethnomedicinal formulations collected during the years 2010-2013. Focus was held on collection of complete formulation for the treatment of a particular disorder rather than to record medicinal uses of a

single plant and parts thereof. The local names of the plants were recorded. The plants were spot identified and later identification was done by using the Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala, Part 5 [Easa, 2003], Biodiversity documentation for Kerala, Part 6 [Sasidharan, 2004], The Flora of Kerala [Daniel, 2005], Flowering Plants of Kerala [Nayar et al., 2006], Checklist of the bryophytes of Kerala, India [Manju et al., 2008] and Flowering Plants of Kerala – Version 2.0. DVD No. 14 [Sasidharan, 2012] and with the help of plant taxonomists. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The present study revealed that Malayans use 81 plant species for treating and healing the diseases in their traditional way. Among these 81 species, there were trees (29 spp.), shrubs (21 spp.), climbers (16 spp.) and herbs (15 spp.) (Table 1-4). The 81 ethno-medicinally valuable plant species belonged to 74 genera and 41 families and included

s r e b m e M r

Table 1. Ethno-medicinally important climbers used by Malayans

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Sr. No.

Scientific name

Family

Uses

1

Abrus precatorius L.

Fabaceae

Decoction of dried seeds is taken ora lly to induce abortion and also used in tuber-culosis, painful swellings.

2

Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib.

Mimosaceae

Bark is used for washing the hair. Seeds for cough, bronchitis and in the treatment of menstrual disorders.

3

Aristolochia indica L.

Aristolochiaceae

Fresh juice of the leaves is a popular antidote to snake poison. The leaves and bark are used in bowel complaints of children, diarrhoea and in intermittent fever.

4

Asparagus racemosus Willd

Lilliaceae

The roots of plant are considered to be effective as antispas-modic, aphrodisiac, antidiarhoeal, antidy-sentiric, blood purifier, and also in night blindness, kidney problems.

5

Caesalpinia bo nduc (L.) Roxb.

Caesalpiniaceae

Oil expressed from the seeds is locally applied over pimples. Decoction of the endosperm is considered effective against vomiting and bleeding.

6

Caesalpinia crista L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Oil expressed from the seeds is locally applied over pimples.

7

Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb. ) Lam.

Combretaceae

The leaves are bitter, astringent, anthelmintic, depurative, diaphoretic and febrifuge. They are useful in intestinal worms, leprosy, malarial fever, dysenter and vomiting. The fruits are useful in jaundice, y ulcers and skin diseases.

8 9 10 11

o F

Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Menispermaceae Colebr

Paste of s tem is applied on the forehead in severe headache

Cyclea peltata (LAM.) Hook.F. & Menispermaceae Thomson

The tuberous roots of this plant along with a little salt are used to treat stomach pain.

Entada rheedii Spreng.

Rice gruel prepared in the decoction of the endosperm of the seed is taken with coconut peels in joint pain

Mimosaceae

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae

Syrup made with an infusion of the roots is used to make a Sherbet, and is served at most small refreshment shops in South India.

12

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.

Fabaceae

Blocking effect of King Cobra venom at neuromuscular junction is removed by the aqueous extract of the seeds.

13

Naravelia zeylanica DC

Ranunculaceae

Inhalation of fresh-crushed root removes common cold; bathing in water boiled with the leaves removes joint pain (rheumatism).

14

Piper betle L.

Piperaceae

Expectant mothers, who chew betel quid, during pregnancy, significantly increase adverse outcomes for the baby. Chewing areca nut and betel leaf is a remedy for bad breath.

15

Piper longum L.

Piperaceae

Decoction of dried immature fruit and the root is extensive ly used in acute and chronic bronchitis.

16

Tylophora tetrapetala var. tetrapetala

Asclepiadaceae

Outer skin of stem applied as a paste over body to repel leeches

Indigenous Ethnomedicines and Victuals of Malayans

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Table 2. Ethno-medicinally important herbs used by Malayans Sr. No.

Scientific name

Family

Uses

1

Achyranthes aspera L.

Amaranthaceae

2 3

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f. ) Wall. ex Nees Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Boerhavia diffusa L. nom. cons.

Lilliaceae Acanthaceae

Root of a single plant boiled with one glass of milk, reduced to half and taken as a single dose in mentally retarded people. Leaf pulp or juice is applied over burns Whole plant decoction is taken to cure fever

Butea monosperma (Lam. ) Taub. Capsicum annuum Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud. ) Will.Watson Desmodium gange ticum DC Eclipta prostrat a (L.) L.

Fabaceae

Leaves used to foment the pubic abdominal regions to cause a free flow of urine. Decoction of one whole plant in two glasses of water is taken thrice a day for one week or may continue for 14 days or 21 days depending upon the intensity of difficult in urination (may be for Kidney stones) Bark decoction is used for cleaning an open boil or other wounds.

Solanaceae Apocynaceae

Leaf paste mixed with salt is applied over the wounds in dog bite. Decoction of white flowers and leaves is taken for loose motion.

Hipoxidaceae

Dried tubers sliced (ten plants) is stirred in 2 to 3 glass raw cow’s milk and the thick mucilage is taken for yellow urine (jaundice). Sold to the flavouring and perfumery industries

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. Ex Wight Rauvolfia serpentin a (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Ruta chalepensis L.

Asteraceae

4 5

6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15

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Scrophulariaceae Nyctaginaceae

Poaceae

s r e b

Fabaceae

Whole plant used as Antipyretic.

Aster aceae

Leaf juice applied to infection between toes Leaf juice applied to eyes for eye diseases

Apocynaceae

Sold to ayurvedic medical shops

m e M r Rutaceae

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Hot infusion of leaves taken as a remedy in case of constipation.

Fig 2. Ethno-medicinally important plant families

Fig 3. Usage pattern of the ethno-medicinal plants

Fig 4. Pharmaceutical application of different plant species


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seventy eight dicotyledons , three monocotyledons and one gymnosperm (Table 1-4 ). The maximum species (3) was represented by Caesalpinia and Terminalia genus, followed by Albizia, Ficus and Piper (2) species with each genus. Fabaceae (10.98 %) with 9 species was the largest plant family, followed by Apocynaceae (6.10 %) with 5 species (Figure 2). For regular usage, the most frequently used plant part (Figure 3) were the leaves (24 spp.) followed by, root (14 spp.), bark (10 spp.), seed (7 spp.), fruits (5 spp.) and wood (4 spp.). In some cases, more than one plant part from the same species were observed to be used for the treating a diseases (eg. Syzygium cumini (bark & fruit) and Catharanthus roseus

(flowers & leaves). Modes of consumption of formulations also varied. The most common method of consumption was decoction (23 species), followed by paste (18), fresh juice extract (13), crushed mixture (6), massage oil (4), ointment (3), fruits (2), and tablet form (1). Malayans were observed to be traditionally using these medicinal plants in various ways. A majority were used as anti-lacerative (11), followed by use as anti-diarrheal (10), anti-dermatosis (7), anesthetic (6), anti-inflammatory (5), anti-ophitoxaemia (4), anti-pyretic (4), anti-diabetic (3), arthralgia (3), diuretic (3), astringent (2) and anti-bacterial as Cassia fistula, anti-helmenthic as Datura stramonium, anti-

Table 3. Ethno-medicinally important shrubs used by Malayans

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Sr. No.

Scientific name

Family

Uses

1

Adhatoda beddome Clarke

Acanthaceae

Juice of leaves mixed with one hen's egg and one or two pinches of black pepper powder is taken in empty stomach in early morning for relief from any type of cough .

2

Baliospermum montanum (Willd.)

s r e b m e M r Euphorhiaceae

Salted rice gruel prepared in the root decoction is used against block in anus (acidity) .

3

Bambusa bambos

Poaceae

Leaves are used as abortifacient in early conception by tribal women. Paste or ash of roots is used locally in skin disorders, ringworm infection and dermatoses. Fruits are useful in fat metabolism and obesity.

4

Barleria pratten sis Sant.

Acanthaceae

Whole plant paste is applied externally to treat paralysis.

5

Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton

Asclepiadaceae

Paste prepared with the milky juice of the plant along with the ginger and red chillies are applied over the wounds in dog bite.

6

Carica papaya L.

Caricaceae

Latex is applied locally to remove pimples.

7

Citrus aurantifolia Swingle

Rutaceae

Fruit juice is used for healing of wounds.

8

Cycas circinalis

Cycadaceae

Raw seed is poisonous, but after being cut into thin slices, dried, then steeped in water for a few minutes and dried again, it becomes edible. It can be used as a sago.

9

Datura stramonium L.

Solanaceae

Juice of 5 -6 leaves with milk is taken for (vayaru kadi) expelling worms

10

Dolichos trilbies Linn

Fabaceae

Decoction of the whole plant with the powder of two black pepper is taken for swelling of any part of the body

Helicteres isora (L.)

Sterculiaceae

Used as ingredients in other medicine. Fruits used for intestinal problems

Hibiscus hispidissimus Griffith

Malvaceae

Used for making a dish it is consumed in the time of fever

Ixora coccinea Linn.

Rubiaceae

Flowers along with goat droppings boiled in coconut oil and applied externally against sk in diseases

Lantana camara L.

Verbenaceae

Leaves are used to treat cuts, rheumatisms, ulcers, tetanus, malaria, cancer, chicken pox, asthma, ulcer, swelling, high blood pressure, bilious fever.

11 12 13 14

o F

Lantana oil is used in the treatment of skin, itches, as an anticeptic for wounds. 15

Murraya Koenigii L. Spreng.

Rutaceae

Leaf paste with a little salt is applied over the wounds in dog bite

16

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Plumbaginacea e

Cup of fresh cow milk is stirred with a piece of the root and taken internally to stop pregnancy.

17

Pseudarthria viscid L.

Fabaceae

The root is one of the Dasamoola in Ayurveda. It is used to treat ulcer, hepatic disorders, bronchitis, helminthiasis, piles, strangury, asthma, cardiovascular diseases, nerve disorders, snake bite etc.

18

Ricinus communis L.

Euphorbiaceae

Sold in ayurvedic medical shop

19

Salacia reticulata Wight

Hippocrateaceae

Drinking water is prepared by boiling the plant and is used to cure girdle pain

20

Strobilanthes ciliat us Nees

Acanthaceae

Leaves made in to a paste and used for swellings in the body.

21

Thottea siliquosa Lamk

Aristolochaceae

Roots are used in the treatment of many diseases like diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, ulcers. The whole plant is used against snake bite.


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Table 4. Ethno-medicinally important tree species used by Malayans Sr. No.

Scientific name

Family

Uses

1

Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth .

Fabaceae

Bark powder mixed with honey is taken for relief of (valivu) asthma.

2

Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth.

Mimosaceae

The bark of the tree is useful in ulcers, leprosy, skin diseases, cough, bronchitis, diabetes and burning sensation.

3

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

Apocynaceae

Bark decoction given t o nursing mothers to increase breast milk.

4

Anacardium occidentale L.

Anacardiaceae

Shell oil applied over corns and warts.

5

Annona squamosa L.

Annonaceae

Macerated leaf pulp is locally applied for painful joints.

6

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Meliaceae

Decoction of the inner bark with honey is taken for yellow urine (jaundice) and as antidiabetic with some other specific plants.

7

Caesalpinia sappan L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Used for making drinking water and also helpful to solve problems in menstrual function.

8

Canarium strictum Roxb.

Burseraceae

Fume of the dried resin extracted from this tree repels mosquitoes and purifies air.

9

Careya arborea

Lecythidaceae

Bark made in to a paste and is applied around the wound of snake bite.

10

Cassia fistula L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Leaf paste is applied over the affected parts in leprosy.

11

Cocos nucifera L.

Arecaceae

Paste of charcoal with turmeric is applied over skin problems caused by centipedes.

12

Ficus hispida L.F.

Moraceae

Leaves used as cattle feed after delivery.

13

Ficus religiosa L.

Moraceae

Milky juice is externally applied over the swelling in neck region.

14

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Verbenacea e

Roots posses antipyretic activity.

15

Holarrhena pubescens

Apocynaceae

One handful of crushed seeds boiled with two glasses of water, reduced to half the quantity and the decoction is taken thrice a day for a week along with honey for loose motion with blood content.

16

Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken

Flacourtiaceae

Seed paste is applied over skin infections and used for covering of wounds (dressing).

17

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr .

Anacardiaceae

The whole parts are giving it to med ical shop.

18

Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre

Magnoliaceae

Root (10 cm) is used into a paste with black pepper and taken after menstruation for three continuous days for preventing pregnancy.

19

Mangifera indica L.

Anacardiacea e

Dried tender leaf powder or their ash is stirred in water and taken for frequent urination.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Fabaceae

Root bark applied over joint swelling.

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Fabaceae

Hardwood is used for making a drink and is used for back pain.

Santalum album L.

Santalaceae

Paste made with rice water is applied on the forehead against headache.

Sapindus trifoliatus

Sapindaceae

Fruit is used for stomach ache.

20 21 22 23

o F

s r e b m e M r

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Auct. N on L. 24

Stereospermum colais (Buch.-Ham. Ex Dillw.) Mabb.

Bignoniaceae

Bark is sold in the ayurvedic medical shop.

25

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

Myrtaceae

The leaves and bark are used for controlling blood pressure and Wine and vinegar are also made from the fruit.

26

Terminalia arjuna

Combretaceae

Bark is used for urinary problems.

27

Ter minalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Combretaceae

Fruits are used in the popular Indian herbal rasayana treatment triphala.

28

Terminalia tomentosa (Roxb.Ex DC.) Wight & Arn.

Combretaceae

A decoction of the bark is taken internally for intestinal problems

29

Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br.

Apocynaceae

To get relief from toothache, seven leaves of this tree are chewed like betel leaf

gingivitis.


14

protozoal as Tylophora teteapetala, anti-ulseric as Ficus hispida, contaceptive as Magnolia champca, fumigant as Canarium strictum, hepatoprotective as Curculigo orchioides, as an inducer of barest milk (Alstonia scholaris) and as tranquilizer (Achyranthes aspera) (Fig 4). Indigenous knowledge of victuals We also observed that Malayan tribes consumed many wild plants including vegetables, tubers, fruits and seeds. We catalogued twenty four edible plants which highlighted their knowledge and dependence on the wild food sources. They use different parts of plants, including fruit, seed, leaves, tuber and rhizomes (Table 5). Most Malayans now prefer to consume rice than wild fruits and tubers. But still, fruits (35 %) constitute a major food item. Malayans also displayed considerable knowledge on the

distribution of various tubers in the Peechi forest, which they collected according to their consumption requirement. To ward off the toxicity of some of the edible tubers they consume, they boil it. The recorded diets consist of 22 species, distributed in 21 genera and 15 families. Among that, trees (11), shrubs (5), herbs (5) and only one climber was recorded (Fig 5). In India, scientists, natural resource managers and policy makers are working to recognize the non-wood values of forests (George and Shinaraju, 2002; Vikas et al., 2014b). This is more important as, the “orally transmitted” traditional knowledge, like what the indigenous populations, Malayans, in our case, possess, are swiftly eroding due to the influx and influence of “mainstream culture”. This traditional wisdom not only provides information about the various values of even

Table 5. Important edible parts and their used by Malayans

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Sr. No.

Scientific name

Family

Specific use

1.

Baccaurea ourtallensis

Euphorbiacea e

Fruits are edible and eaten as special food. The mature fruit is also used to pickle by the tribal people.

(Wight) Müll.Arg

s r e b m e M r o F Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels .

Myrtaceae

Mixture of fruit j uice and powder of inner bark taken as an antidote for vegetable poisoning.

Spondias mombin L.

Anacardiaceae

Unripe fruits are pickled and ripe fruits are eaten as such.

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.

Moraceae

Fruits are consumed as such; seeds are u sed to make curries.

Mangifera indica L.

Anacardiaceae

Ripened fruit consumed as such, unripe mangos are pickled.

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa

Rutaceae

Fruits are roasted and eaten.

Phyllanthus emblica L.

Euphorbiaceae

Consumed as such, and mature fruits are pick led.

Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.

Moraceae

Fruits are edible; seeds are roasted in oil which is served as special food.

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn. ) Roxb.

Combretaceae

Seeds consumed after frying.

Bumbusa bambos

Poaceae

Seeds are powdered and used to make different food items.

Tamarindus indica L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Seeds are consumed as such, also to make curries.

Cycus circinalis

Cycadaceae

Seeds are powdered and used to make different food items.

Hibiscus

Malvaceae

The leaves are added wit h other vegetables to increase flavour. Outer covering of the fruit is also used to make a dish called “sammanthi”

Phyllanthus niruri L.

Euphorbiaceae

Leaves and stem tender stems are used as vegetable because of its medicinal value.

Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC

Rutaceae

Leaves are used as vegetables.

Cycas circinalis

Cycadaceae

Young leaves are boiled in the water to remove the toxic substances and then made to Cu rries.

17.

Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.

Moringaceae

Leaves used as vegetable.

18.

Boerhavia diffusa L. nom. cons.

Nyctaginaceae

Leaves used as vegetable.

19.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Zingiberaceae

Used as such and also added in different food preparations.

20.

Amorphosphallus

Araceae

Rhizome is boiled in the water, also made into curries

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Hispidissimus Griffith

14. 15. 16.

paenonflodium 21.

Curcuma longa L.

Zingiberaceae

It is added with curries and chuttnies.

22.

Coloca sia esculenta (L.) Schott

Araceae

It is a commonly boiled in the water wi th salt and chilli powder and served as special food.

23.

Dioscorea opposita Thunb.

Dioscoreaceae

Consumed leaves after boiling in the water with a paste of Chilly and oil.


15

Fig 5. Different species in the diet of Malayans

some hitherto undiscovered or unaccounted wild species, but also provides indirect clues to the potential application of these species in answering many lingering questions regarding human health and nutrition. Our study further highlights the urgent significance of documenting the location specific ethnobotanical information associated with resident indigenous populations (irrespective of their population size) scattered in our country's forested landscape. Studies similar to the one we undertook also provides valuable basic information about the biological richness of a particular forest area, which can be made used to refine or re-define existing forest management strategies and concepts, while preparing working plans. Such information is also valuable in the context of the concept of multiple-use-forestry, which is now gaining widespread acceptance in tropical forestry establishments. From the present study, it is evident that the Malayans depend upon the wild plant resources for their personal medical care; in order to supplement their requirements, it is suggested that the potential medicinal plants could be cultivated in their backyards/kitchen gardens. It is hoped that the information gathered from the indigenous community will provide further lead in developing new herbal formulation.

Easa P 2003. Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala. Part 5: Pteridophytes. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi.

Encyclopaedia of Dravidian Tribes 1996. The International School of Dravidian Linguistics, St. Xavier's College, Thiruvananthapuram, Vol. II, 246-251. George V J and Shivaraju B 2002. Management Plan PeechiVazhani Wildlife Sanctuary (2002 to 2012). Government of Kerala, Forests & Wildlife department.

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