Indigenous knowledge on the exploitation and ...

ISSN 2449-8866

Current Life Sciences

Research Article

Indigenous knowledge on the exploitation and utilization of medicinal plants by the Thengal Kachari tribe of Jorhat district, Assam, North-east India Liza Handique Bhattacharyya*1, Pranaba Nanda Bhattacharyya2 1

Silviculture and Forest Management Division, Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat 785001, Assam, India Mycology and Microbiology Department, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, Tea Research Association, Jorhat 785008, Assam, India *Corresponding author: Liza Handique Bhattacharyya; E-mail: [email protected]

2

Received: 18 July 2016; Revised submission: 22 September 2016; Accepted: 29 September 2016 Copyright: © The Author(s) 2016. Current Life Sciences © T.M.Karpiński 2016. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited.

chemicals and pharmacological studies; ThengalKacharis.

ABSTRACT The Thengal-Kacharis are one of the small ethnic communities belonging to the Indo-Mongoloid race with mythical ancestry. They are the present inhabitants of Jorhat, Golaghat, Dibrugarh, NorthLakhimpur, Dhemaji and Karbi Anglong district of Assam. The people of this community have thriving knowledge on common diseases as well their remedial therapies with the traditional use of different parts of natural herbals like roots, leaves and shoots etc. With the indigenous knowledge acquired, the Thengal-Kacharis are confident to treat patients suffering from different serious ailments. The present survey attempts to explore the application of some native medicinal plants traditionally used by the Thengal Kacharis to cure different ailments. The data generated in the study reports the ethno-medicinal properties of fifty nine different plants belonging to thirty eight different families the scientific knowledge on which would further help to lead phytochemicals and pharmacological research as well drug designing. Keywords: Drug designing; Ethno-medicinal properties; Indigenous medicinal plants; Phyto-

1. INTRODUCTION North-east region in India is one of the important parts of mega biodiverse region [1] as it has been bestowed with diverse region specific endemic plants. The state of Assam is considered as the floristic gate way of North East India [2]. Assam is also known as the active hub of biological gene pools [3]. Assam, lying in the north eastern part of India is inhabited by a large number of tribal populations, with their unique way of life style, traditions, dialects and cultural heritage. The greater tribal population of Assam can be broadly divided basically into two distinct categories such as the hill tribes and the plain tribes. Among the hill tribes of Assam, Chakma, Dimasa, Garu, Hazong, Kuki, Karbi, Maan, Mizo, Hmar, Naga etc. are notable while the major plain tribes of Assam are presently consisted of Rabha, Mising, Deori, Tiwa, Sonowal, Mech, Bodo etc. Thus, with extensively diversified tribal and ethnic groups and rich biological resources, Assam, N.E. India represents as one of the veritable emporiums as well as an important

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venue for indigenous knowledge research hub. As far N. E. India is concerned, a large number of plants with ethno-medicinal value effective against wide range of diseases have been reported [4-6]. The Thengal-Kacharis are one of the small ethnic communities belonging to the IndoMongoloid race [7] with mythical ancestry. They are a clan of the Bodo-Kachari ethnic group and considered as one of the ancient inhabitants of Assam, rich in cultural as well as aesthetic history [8]. They are the present inhabitants of Jorhat, Golaghat, Dibrugarh, North-Lakhimpur, Dhemaji and Karbi Anglong district of Assam. The people of this community have good thriving knowledge on several common diseases as well their remedial therapies with the traditional use of different parts of natural herbals like roots, leaves and shoots. Since time immemorial, the Thengal-Kacharis have been practicing their unique indigenous system to diagnosis and treat a large number of disease conditions such as fever, cold, cough, headache, body ache, stomach disorder, bronchitis, wounds, injuries, snake bit, dog bit, skin disease, scabies, termination of pregnancy etc. From their long-term of practical experience, the Thengal Kachari could realize that the naturally caused diseases may be cured easily with the use of medicines from native sources. The applications of magico-religious therapy system [9] among the tribes are also popular. According to the herbal practitioners, certain disease like pox, snakebite, etc. are believed to be supernaturally caused and modern medical aid is considered as quite ineffective in treating these ailments. The Thengal community has strong faith on herbals [10] to cure of various human ailments. However, the knowledge on most of the ethno-medicinal plants used by the Thengal Kachari have still remained unexplored, the scientific exploitation and utilization of which seemed to be important to generate a base line data on diverse ethno-medicinal plants used by the community as well to contribute maximum in modern drug discovery and drug designing purposes. The present survey attempts to explore indigenous medicinal plants traditionally used by the Thengal Kachari tribe to cure different ailments. Scientific documentation of indigenous knowledge through survey of ethno-medicinal properties of native plant

specimens are important for the conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources extensively used in human welfare. The current investigation might be helpful in preserving the rich indigenous knowledge traditions of Thengal Kacharis of this part of Indo-Burma mega biodiverse region about treatment of diverse human ailments. The data generated in the study would further assist the medical practitioners in scientific investigations related with phyto and pharmacochemical research to discover the potentiality of these plants and plant parts as drugs. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Habitat exploration and data collection The present survey was conducted in three different villages such as thengal gaon, tamulbari gaon and gajpuria gaon of Jorhat district, Assam. The study area lies in between 76°42/49.41//E latitude and 9°42/49.41//E longitude. Frequent and intensive field visits for the entire course of investigation were carried out in the study locations (thengal gaon, tamulbari gaon and gajpuria gaon respectively) and information was, thus, attained about the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants such as the local names of the plants, parts used in curing the disease condition (fresh/dry), methods of medicine preparation, dose requirement, route of administration etc. During the present investigation, information on about 60 different medicinal plants used against diverse ailments was gathered through speaking with local people or by accompanying with them in field. The voucher specimens for each species was collected in quadruplicates, that were carefully tagged with field collection numbers after making a critical observation on their habit, habitat, colour, odour of flowers, phytoassociation, occurrence and frequency of distribution and other relevant ecological features that cannot be discerned from dried herbarium specimens. The specimens were identified in accordance with “Flora of Assam” (1915-35) and using regional floras and recent monographs using the salient features and carefully recorded in field notebooks and the information on usage was compared [11-15].

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The medicinal plants mentioned in the present survey are instantly available form of medication for the aboriginal people. The Thengal Kasari tribe has been using the indigenous plant species in a crude form to cure various ailments. Active compounds produced during secondary metabolism are usually responsible for the biological properties of the crude extracts of some economically important plant species used throughout the globe for various purposes, including treatment of infectious diseases [16]. Table 1 depicts the diversity and ethnomedicinal importance of several ethno-medicinal plants used by the Thengal Kacharis of North east India. The present study accounts a total of 59 angiosperm plant species belonging to 56 genera of 38 families. Out of the 38 families recorded, the families like Zingiberaceae (6.80%), Lamiaceae (6.80%), Rutaceae (5.10%), Apocynaceae (5.10%) and Acanthaceae (5.10%) represents dominance. The plant specimens with significant ethnobotanical applications are only identified and recorded in the present investigation. A similar approach on indigenous knowledge system (IKS) pertaining to utilization of medicinal plants by the Sonowal Kachari tribe of Dibrugarh district in Assam, N.E. India has been made [17] who recorded a total of 33 species of medicinal plants belonging to 29 families. Leguminosae family was recorded as the most dominant plant family in their investigation. The percentage distribution of different plant families are represented in Fig. 1. Out of sixty flowering plants, 13 are recorded as trees, 23 are shrubs, 18 are herbs and 6 are climbers and stragglers. The medicinal utility of plants among the ethnic communities of Tinsukia district of upper Assam was documented [5]. Herbs, shrubs and trees were the dominant category of plants in their investigation. Table 2 provides the general description about the nature of certain collected plant species. The identified plants have got enormous attention in pharmacology and pharmacognosty for

their extensive health benefits. The plants may be utilized singly or in combination for the treatment of more than 30 different ailments. The maximum number of plants used for a particular aliment can possibly show the prevalence of the ailment in the area. Antimicrobial activity of crude extracts of some Indian medicinal plants against a number of pathogenic microorganisms has been observed [18]. During the investigation, the workers have clearly mentioned the indigenous uses of selected plant species against different diseases. Various plant parts, such as roots, shoots, leaves, flowers and seeds of more than 11 different sp., stem of 16 spp., rhizome of 01 sp., fruits of 05 spp. and entire plant of 01 sp., are used for the treatment of different human ailments and usually through oral administration. The survey corroborates to earlier findings [2, 19] who too mentioned the traditional uses of ethno-medicinal plants collected from Disoi valley reserve forest of Jorhat District, (Assam) and North Cachar Hill district (Assam). CONCLUSION The present study is important since the knowledge on the ethno-medicinal uses of most of the plant species used by the Thengal Kachari tribe of Jorhat district, Assam, N.E. India were previously untapped and, therefore, not being properly reported. The observation emanating from the study accounts that medicinal plants play an important role in providing primary health care to the rural people of the Thengal Kachari community. Complete documentation of the medicinal plants utilized by the Thengal Kacharis is still far from the point of completion. More comprehensive scientific explorations and research needs to be carried out to draw the complete picture of traditional use of indigenous plants of this geographically significant region of Indo-Burma Mega Biodiversity Hot Spot. The present survey is also essential to prevent the erosion of oral intangible culture and document a dying cultural heritage of global scenario.

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Table 1. Checklist of ethno-medicinal plants used by the Thengal Kachari tribe of Jorhat district, Assam, North-east India. Sl. Assamese Botanical name Family Part used Uses No. name Underground Cold and cough, pneumonia, Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae Boch 1. rhizome fever, physiological disorder Aegle mermelos Leave and Leaf juice is a tonic, fruits edible Rutaceae Bael 2. (L.) Correa fruits and used in dysentery Ageratum conyzoides Gendhali Leaves and Asteraceae Cuts and wounds 3. L. bon tender shoot 4.

Allium cepa L.

Amaryllidaceae

Piaj

Bulb

Stimulant

5.

Allium sativum L.

Amaryllidaceae

Naharu

Bulb

Cough and bronchitis

Xanthorrhoeaceae

Sal kuori

Leaves

Zingiberaceae

Tora goch

Rhizome

Amaranthaceae

Matikanduri

Tender shoot

Thelypteridaceae

Bihlongoni

Leaves

Possesses insecticidal properties

Acanthaceae

Kalmegh

Entire plant

Stomached tonic, hair growth

Thymelaeaceae

Sasi

Meliaceae

Mohaneem

Plantaginaceae

6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Alpinia nigra (Gaertn.) B.L.Burtt Altermenthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Ampheneuron opulantum (Kaulf.) Holtum. Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Calotropis gigantean (L.) W.T.Aiton Cannabis sativa L. Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & C.H.Eberm. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Clerodendron glandulosum Coleb. Clerodendrum serretum L. Commelina benghalensis L. Costus speciosus Koen ex. Retz. Curcuma longa L.

Fever, anti-inflammatory, burns and skin diseases Rheumatism, posses stomachic and stimulant properties Used as vegetable for constipation

Infected woods Leave and fruit

Oil extracted from wood is effective in skin disease

Brahmi

Whole plant

Effective in memory

Crassulaceae

Dupor tenga

Leaves

Kidney stone

Apocynaceae

Akon

Leaves

Latex used in burning wound

Cannabaceae

Bhang

Leaves

Narcotic

Lauraceae

Tezpat

Leaves

Whooping cough

Apiaceae

Bor manimuni

Leaves

Anti dysentery

Verbenaceae

Nephaphu

Leaves and tender shoot

High blood pressure

Verbenaceae

Dhopat tita

Leaves and tender shoot

Commelinaceae

Kona simolu

Roots

Zingiberaceae

Jom lakhuti

Roots and rhizome

Used in febrile and catarrhal affection As an antidote to snake bite, eye diseases Jaundice and anti-diabetic

Zingiberaceae

Halodhi

Rhizome

Juice blood purifier

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Skin disease

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24.

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Convolvulaceae

Akashilota

Whole plant and seed

Extract used after menstruation for permanent sterility of women

25.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Poaceae

Dubori bon

Tender shoot

Used as tonic

26.

Datura metel L.

Solanaceae

Dhatura

Leaves

Various pain and swelling

Euphorbiaceae

Sijoo

Leaves

Latex useful in swelling of nails

Leguminosae

Makhioti

Leaves and flower

Insect repellent

Malvaceae

Joba phool

Flower

27. 28.

Euphorbia neriifolia L. Flemingia involucrata Benth. Hibiscus rosasinensis L.

30.

Justicia adhatoda L.

Acanthaceae

Tita bahek

Root, bark and leave

Useful in epilepsy and menorrhagea Useful in cough, asthma, ague and phthisis

31.

Lasia spinosa L.

Araceae

Seng mora

Tender leaves

In uric acid treatment

32.

Lawsonia inermis L.

Lythraceae

Jatuka

Leaves

Lamiaceae

Boga durun

Tender leaves

Lygodiaceae

Kopow dhekia

Leaves, roots

29.

33. 34.

Leucas linifolia (Roth) Spreng. Lygodium flexuosum L.

Extract use as hair, nail, skin dying and curing dandruff and certain skin disease Loss appetite, digestion and snake bite Fever and some other intestinal disorders

35.

Mentha arvensis L.

Lamiaceae

Podina

Leaf

Stomach disorders

36.

Mimosa pudica L.

Fabaceae

Lazukilota

Whole plant

Body inflammation and pain during urination

Rutaceae

Naroshingha

Oleaceae

Sewaliphool

Lamiaceae

Tulsi

Leaves

Cough and cold Leave eaten as sour and remedy for dysentery Juice is used diarrhoea and rheumatism Used for vermicides and also remedy of cough

37. 38. 39.

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack Nyctanthes arbourtristis L. Ocimum sanctum L.

Leaves and roots Leaves and flower

Root juice is useful in pains Leaf juice is used for fever.

40.

Oxalis corniculata

Oxalidaceae

Bor tengeshi

Leaves and roots

41.

Paederia foetida L.

Rubiaceae

Bhedailota

Tender leaves

Acanthaceae

Titaphul

Inflorescence

Phyllanthaceae

Amlokhi

Fruits

Anaemia, Jaundice, poor appetite

42. 43.

Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus L. Phyllanthus emblica L.

44.

Piper nigrum L.

Piperaceae

Jalook

Entire plant

Pneumonia

45.

Rauvolfia serpentine (L.) Benth. ex Kurz

Apocynaceae

Sarpagandha

Root

Used in snake bite and insomnia

46.

Ricinnus communis L.

Euphorbiaceae

Era goch

Leaves

Paste used in rheumatism and muscles pain

Poaceae

Kuhiar

Fabaceae

Ashok

Stem bark

Used in uterine infection

47. 48.

Saccharum officinarum L. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd.

Effective in stomach problems

49.

Solanum torvum Sw.

Solanaceae

Vekuri

Fruit

Effective in cough

50.

Stephania elegans Hook. f. & Thoms.

Menispermaceae

Tubukilota

Leaves

Effective in pain

51.

Tegetes erecta L.

Asteraceae

Narji phool

Leaf

Cuts and wounds

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52.

Teminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.

Combretaceae

Arjun goch

Bark

Juice is used an tonic and ailment of heart disease

53.

Terminalia catappa L.

Combretaceae

Silikha

Fruit

Stomach disorders

Menispermaceae

Sagunilota

Leaves

Stomach disorders, other intestinal problems

Apocynaceae

Nayntora

Leaves

Antidiabetic

54. 55.

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. & Thomson Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don

56.

Vitex negundo L.

Lamiaceae

Posotia

Leaves

Headache, abdominal gas and pain, fever, toothaches, asthma, cough.

57.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Solanaceae

Aswagandha

Root

Useful in cough and weakness

58.

Zanthoxylum sp.

Rutaceae

Tezmoii

Stem and bark

Tooth ache mouth, alcher

59.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Zingiberaceae

Ada

Rhizome

Cold, cough and stomach ache.

Figure 1. Percent occurrence of ethno-medicinal plants used by Thengal Kachari tribe.

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Table 2. General description of certain ethno-medicinal plants used by the Thengal Kachari tribe of Jorhat district, Assam, North-east India. Sl. Botanical name Description of the plant No. Aloe vera is a stem less or very short stemmed succulent plant growing up to 60-100 cm tall, spreading by offsets. The leaves are thick and fleshy, green to gray-green, with some Aloe vera varieties showing white flecks on their upper and lower stem surface. The flowers are 1. (L.) Burm.f. produced in summer on a spike up to 90 cm, each flower being pendulous. Aloe vera leaves contain phytochemicals like acetylated manners, polymanners, anthraquinoine cglycosides, enthrones and various lactine. It is commonly known as five-leaved chaste tree. It is a large aromatic shrub with quadrangular, densely whitish, tomatoes branchlets. It is an erect shrub or small tree Vitex negundo L. growing from 2-8 m in height. Its leaves are digitate, with five lanceolate leaflets. Casticin, 2. isoorientin chyrsophenol D, luteolin, p-hydroxybenzoic acid and D-fructose are the principal constituents of the leaf juice. Azadirachta indica is a fast growing evergreen tree that can reach up to 15-20 m tall and Azadirachta 3. indica A. Juss. sometimes even up to 35-40 m. Solanum torvum is a bushy, erect and spiny perennial plant. The plant is usually 2 or 3 m Solanum torvum in height. The shrub usually has a single stem at ground level, but it may branch on the 4. Sw. lower stem. The stem bark is gray and nearly smooth with raised lenticels, The fruits are barriers that grow in clusters of tiny green spheres that look like green peas’. It is an erect, annual, foetid herb, 30-60 cm in height. Leaves broadly ovate, crenate and Ageratum hairly. Inflorescence is a terminal corymb. Flowers pale blue, and in small head. It contains 5. conyzoides L. friedelin, sterol, B-sitosterol, stigmasterol, hydrocarbons, coumarin, flavonoides, caryophyllene, quercetin, kaempferol as active compounds. A tall evergreen tree. Leaves 5-8.7 cm long, linear, lanceolate. Flowers are small, greenish Aquilaria arising laterally from the younger branches. Capsules are 3.7-5 mm, ovate-cuneate, slightly malaccensis 6. compressed. Wood contains chromone, ageroterol, 1.7-0xaporphine, liriodenine and two Lamk. msesquiterpenes, gamelofuran and agarol. Stem bark contains two cytotoxic compounds. It is a slender leafless, greenish-yellow, epiphytic, twining annual flowering plant. Cuscuta reflexa Capsules are small and depressed-globose. The plant contains flavonoides, 7. Roxb. hydroxycinnamic acid, coumarins and flavonoids. Leaves are pinnately compound, leaflets variable, usually obliquely ovate, obtusely Murraya acuminate and cernulate. Flowers are small, white with terminal coryombs. Leaves contain paniculata 8. tannins, resin, glucosides, koenigin, koemine, koenidine and mahanine. Bark contains (L.) Jack girinimbin and murrayanine. Flowers contain large number of mono and sesquiterpinoides. It is a medium sized tree. Leaves with 4-6 pairs of leaflets, oblong to lanceolate. Inflorescence corymbose. Flowers fragrant yellowish to red. Bark contains haematoxylin, Saraca asoca tannins, catechol, catechin, epicatechin, a crystalline galactosidese, a ketosterol, a 9. (Roxb.) Willd. saponion, an organic calcium salt, an organic substance containing iron and a large number of minerals. It is an evergreen dense shrub, up to 2m high. Flowers are white, 2-liped, with auxiliary Justicia adhatoda pedunculate spikes. Capsule 18 mm long, clavate. Quinazoiline alkaloids, l- vasicinone, L. 10. adhatodine, vasicolinone, vasicoline, vasicolinin, vasicinol, anisotine and 3-hydroxy anisotine have been isolated from the leaves. It is small or medium sized dicidous tree, armed with many axillary, straight, strong, long spines, leaves 3- foliolate, rarely 5-foliolate. Flowers greenish-white, in short auxiliary Aegle mermelos panicles. Fruit large and globose with woody rind. Fruit pulp contain carbohydrates, 11. (L.) Correa proteins, minerals, vitamins, essential oil, alcohols, ester, terpene, marmesin, scopoletin and tannins. Leaves contain alkaloids, mermalosins and agelenine. Roots contain scoparone, scopoletin

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12.

Allium cepa L.

13.

Cannabis sativa L.

14.

Costus speciosus Koen ex. Retz.

15.

Lasia spinosa L.

16.

Euphorbia neriifolia L.

17.

Lawsonia inermis L.

18.

Ocimum sanctum L.

19.

Paederia foetida L.

20.

Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus L.

21.

Piper nigrum L.

22.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban

23.

Commelina benghalensis L.

An annual herb. Stem underground and modified in to small disc. Leaves are radical long and cylindrical. Flowers arranged in terminal umbel inflorescence borne on a long leafless scape. Principal constituent of onion is an essential oil. Containing various sulphur compounds. It contains carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, polyphenols. A tall, erect annual herb, usually 1-1.15 m high. Leaves are usually 7.5-20 cm in diameter, serrate, palmatinerved. Flowers are small, axillary and dioecious. Cannabis yields 421 different chemicals. Flowering tops contain more than 60 cannabinoids that are responsible for narcotic and psychotominetic properties of cannabis. An erect rhizomatous herb, with long stout, leafy stem. Leaves are 15-30 cm long, subsessile, spirally arranged. Flowers white, and arranged in terminal red spike. Rhizomes contain saponins, diosgenin and tigogenin, ß-sitosterol glucoside, essential oil and Bis-(2ethylhexyl) phthalate. A stout, intensely prickly marsh plant, with creeping rootstock. Leaves long petioled, 1545 cm long, sagittate, segments lanceolate. Spathe 20-35 cm long, spirally twisted above the spadix. Spadix about 2.5 cm long, scarlet. A small tree, Stems cylindrical with pairs of tipulars spines from tubercles. Leaves alternate, fleshy, glabrous, oblanceolate. Flowers in involucres, bisexual. Frequent in hilly areas. A much-branched shrub. Leaves are small, elliptic, acute or obtuse. Flowers white and arranged in large terminal pyramidal panicled cymes. Capsule globose. Various aliphatic constituents, terpenoids, sterols, naphthoquinone derivatives, phenolic constituents, tannins, coumarins, xanthones and flavonoids have been reported as the Chemical Constituents of this plant. Roots contain a sterol, lawsaritol. α-ionone and β-ionone represents as the chief constituents in the flowers. Woody aromatic herb. Leaves 2.5-5 cm long, elliptic-oblong, obtuse or acute, entire or serrate, pubescent on both sides. Flowers in raceme, corolla 4 mm long, purplish. The plant contains alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, triterpene, saponins and citric, tartaric, ursolic and malic acids. It is an extensive, foetid climber. Leaves are opposite, ovate or lanceolate, acute or cuspidate, 2.5-3.8 cm in long. Flowers are violet, shortly pedicelled in slender tricholomous often in scorpioid paniculate cymes, about 15 cm long; corolla funnelshaped. Leaves are rich in carotene and vitamin C and also contain high amount of protein consisting of arginine, histidine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, cystine, methionine and valine. An evergreen shrub up to 2.4 m in height, Leaves is oblanceolate, elliptic-oblong, acute or acuminate, entire. Flowers in terminal elongated, thyrsoid panicles, up to 30 cm long, corolla tubular, curved, orange or brick red villous. Capsule 3.8 cm long, linear-clavate. Leaves contain β-sitosterol, lupeol and betulin. A stout, glabrous, long climber, thickened at the nodes. Leaves coriaceous, 10-18 cm long, broadly ovate, acuminate and glabrous. Fruit globose, 6 mm in diam. Major constituents of the fruits are alkaloids like chavicine, β-methyl pyrroline, piperine, piperidine, depentine and piperovatine. A slender creeping herb. Leaves with long petiole, Flowers in fascicled umbel, consisting of 3-4 pink, small, sessile. Fruit ovoid, hard, flat. The plant shows the presence of alkaloids, glycosides, sterols, tannins and sugars. It also contains small amounts of resin, tannin, saponins, anthraquinone glycosides, sterols, sitosterol, essential oil, fatty oil, sugars. It is a slender dichotomously branched creeping herb, 60-90 cm long. Leaves are 2.5-7.5 cm long, ovate or oblong. Flowers blue in funnel-shaped spathes. Capsule 6 mm long, pyriform, membranous. It contains alkanols, n-octacosanol, n-triacontanol, n-dotriacontanol, sterols, stigmasterol, ß-sitosterol and campesterol.

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24.

Lygodium flexuosum L.

A slender and graceful, climbing fern. Fronds stipitate-pinnate with the pinnules, pinnate or variously lobed, all serrulate, sori protruding from the margin. Roots contain flavonoids, quercetin and pentahydroxyflavone-3-O-rutinoside.

25.

Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.Ham.) T.Nees & C.H. Eberm.

It is an evergreen shrub. Leaves alternate, infrequently opposite. Leaf blade with primary veins, papery to leathery, surface glabrous or variously pubscent. Inflorescence appears when mature leaves are present. Flowers bisexual. Tepals dicidous or persistent.

Hibiscus rosasinensis L.

It is an ornamental shrub. Leaves ovate- lanceolate, more or less acuminate, irregularly serrate. Flowers large, axillary, solitary, corolla 7.5 cm in diam. Plants contain β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, taraxeryl acetate and cyclopropane compounds and their derivatives. Flowers contain cyanidine diglucoside, flavonoides and vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid.

26.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION LB contributed in field work, collection and identification of medicinal plants, the manuscript preparation and literature review associated with this research article. The final manuscript has been read, carefully scrutinized and compiled by PNB. The final manuscript has been read and approved by both authors. TRANSPARENCY DECLARATION

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