Lori Foster Thompson1 North Carolina State University Greetings TIP readers, and welcome to the newest edition of the Spotlight column! At last, the month of January has arrived, which means it’s time to throw on some shorts and flip-flops, grab your latest issue of TIP, and head outside for a leisurely afternoon in the park. Sound advice, I’d say, for those among us who are (a) gluttons for pain, (b) a wee bit delusional, (c) conducting an introspective experiment examining the effects of frostbite on the cognitive functioning of the North American psychologist, or (d) practicing in Chile, where the average temperatures in January regularly exceed a glorious 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Do the cold winter months have you dreaming of packing your bags and moving your version of I-O psychology to a nice warm climate? If so, this column is for you! This issue’s Spotlight provides an excellent overview of I-O psychology in Chile, which not only boasts warm weather but also offers a unique intellectual climate in which our field continues to thrive.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology in Chile Antonio Mladinic Viviana Rodriguez Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile History and Development of I-O Psychology in Chile Chile has had a long tradition of research and practice in the field of psychology. In 1889, a few years after independence was won from Spain, the government decided to place emphasis on education. For this reason, several prominent German professors were hired and included in the Chilean educational system. These professors introduced psychology in Chile. In 1908, the Universidad de Chile founded El Laboratorio de Psicología (laboratory of psychology). A few years later, the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, as well as other universities, did the same. All of these laboratories were implemented under a strong European and North 1 As always, your comments and suggestions regarding this column are most welcome. Please feel free to e-mail me:
[email protected].
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American influence. Although such laboratories strongly focused on experimental psychology and education, they also began what we might consider the first studies of I-O psychology in Chile. One of these studies was related to the analysis of the “psychological and moral aspects” required for individuals’ success in a variety of occupations. Due to the increasing number of services requested from the Experimental Psychology Laboratory, a larger institution was established at the Universidad de Chile in 1941, called the Institute of Psychology. This institution was set up to foster the development of research in psychology and to create future professional schools of psychology in Chile. During that decade, research in I-O psychology began in Chile. Some of the first issues to be considered included the evaluation of skills in workers, psychotechnical procedures, work conditions and their effects on workers’ health, as well as the production process. In addition, studies were conducted to select people for the army, industries, and large companies during that period (Bravo, 1983). The first schools to grant university degrees in psychology were founded in 1947 at the Universidad de Chile and in 1957 at the Universidad Católica. Since their beginnings, each school included a department of work psychology. The 1960s proved to be a major period of development for I-O psychology thanks to the French professor Jean Cizaketti, who was a specialist in the selection of personnel and professional skills. He formed small groups of psychologists to investigate issues in staff selection and professional guidance. Results were applied in companies and schools (Bornhard, 1992). These advances, along with industrial and mining developments, stimulated developments in the field of I-O (Rodríguez & Villegas, 2007). However, very few psychologists were hired as staff members in these organizations’ human resource departments. Due to the fact that Chile endured enormous economic and political difficulties during the 1970s, things only began to change in the 80s. During this time, important changes in the Chilean economic model occurred. Chile shifted from a centralized economy to a capitalist one. The economy opened up, new financial institutions were created, foreign companies began to swarm into the country, and the service industry as a whole began to develop. These changes didn’t only affect the private sector but also impacted the public sector, resulting in a decrease in the size of organizations and a greater demand for higher production levels. All of this generated a great need in companies for appropriate selection and recruitment procedures as well as staff training, which would endow personnel with the ability to quickly adapt to the new conditions and changing requirements of the market. A large number of I-O psychologists were hired to work in the areas of personnel selection and recruitment, training, organizational development, and human resource management. In 1990, the country welcomed democracy, and changes didn’t cease to increase. Chile grew on average by 6.6% and significantly reduced its levels 64
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of poverty. This allowed more people to access the market, which led to the development of new economic sectors. All of this, in addition to other social changes such as the incorporation of women into the workforce (who currently represent around 40%) and increasing levels of immigration, created a growing demand for I-O psychologists. In this socioeconomic environment that supports professional practices of I-O psychologists in Chile, it is possible to estimate that there are around 1,700 I-O psychologists in our country within a total of 11,000 psychologists belonging to all disciplines. This estimate makes I-O psychologists the second most abundant type of specialist after clinical psychologists in Chile (Colegio de Psicólogos de Chile, 2007). Regarding the work that I-O psychologists develop, the following areas stand out: individual assessment and selection, organizational consulting, training and marketing studies, development of work teams, and interventions in organizational development. Specifically, training activities are oriented towards supervisors and middle management, and they focus on developing work team leadership and decision-making skills. In addition to this, I-Os provide training for workers in need of a diverse variety of skills, especially within the sales area (Morales, Díaz, Scharager, & Sziklai, 1989). In terms of hierarchy within organizations, it has been observed that psychologists frequently reach managerial positions (Makrinov, Scharager, & Molina, 2005). Education, Research, and Publications As previously mentioned, psychology began as an academic discipline by the end of the 1940s at Universidad de Chile. The two aforementioned universities that developed this academic program were the only ones that offered such a degree until 1981. After that year, new universities offering degree programs in psychology were established. Today, there are 45 universities that provide 118 programs towards a major in psychology. Psychology is a professional career, which is why only courses related to this discipline are offered from the first year of the selected program. In general, the successful completion of 4 years of study will grant students a bachelor’s degree. The goal of the fifth (and in some cases sixth) year of study is to prepare students with basic tools to develop professional skills in applying a specific area of psychology. Around 20% of students pursue I-O. This professional training prepares students to incorporate themselves into the work market. Graduate programs haven’t been developed as much due to a shortage of faculty with graduate education. Only recently have Chilean universities received professors with doctorate degrees from North American and European universities. Difficulties not only arise from the lack of local master’s and doctorate programs, but also from the fact that there is great demand for The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist
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I-O psychologists in the work market, which makes academic careers in psychology less attractive. Nevertheless, several master’s programs in human resource development have been created, which have provided professionals with further training. Many such programs have been jointly developed with business schools. At the same time, in 1990, the Universidad Católica de Chile established the first doctorate program in psychology, which has allowed more students to merge formal academic studies with solid training as researchers in I-O. This program has been favored by Chilean public policies, which have focused on granting scholarships for career development and promoting the expansion of professionals dedicated to faculty work and research in academic fields in hopes of supporting the development of scientific knowledge in Chile. Increases in the number of academic researchers in the area of I-O psychology, especially at the School of Psychology at Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, have helped to elevate grant funding from Fondecyt (our National Science Foundation), which has contributed to an increase in the development of research lines, as well publications and international exchange. Some issues that are currently under analysis are occupational mental health, organizational justice, work–family balance, and the assessment of women leadership within organizations. However, the spread of such local research projects has been restricted due to the lack of journals not only dedicated to I-O but to any area of psychology. Therefore, most research is published outside of the country. The only magazine that has managed to remain active over the course of 15 years is the journal PSYKHE (indexed in SCIELO, PsychInfo), which belongs to the School of Psychology at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and through which the most recent advances in psychological research in the country are relayed. This magazine incorporates articles from many different specialties in psychology including I-O. In fact, in 2002 a special edition was published dedicated entirely to I-O psychology in Chile. Professional Organization The institution that represents the professional scope of psychology in Chile is the Colegio de Psicólogos de Chile, A. G., which has existed legally since 1968 and has 3,500 members. Membership is not compulsory since 1980 and in fact no more than 35% of psychologists are members. Among those, most are clinical psychologists, who benefit from this institution due to the fact that it facilitates accreditation processes. Within the Colegio de Psicólogos, the Sociedad Chilena de Psicología Organizacional (Chilean Society of Organizational Psychology) was established in 1985 with the aims of expanding I-O psychology in Chile and providing a meeting place for professionals in this area. Unfortunately, it no longer exists, forcing organizational psychologists (especially those aiming towards academic work) to 66
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become solely members of international societies for organizational psychology, such as SIOP. The Future of I-O Psychology in Chile Chile has not only grown economically in the past few years, but it has also undergone important social, political, economic, and cultural changes. Psychology in general and I-O psychology in particular have been influenced by these changes. Up to this date, I-O psychology has helped contribute solutions to current problems and issues. However, more emphasis must be placed on I-O as a science in order to develop and incorporate it in a way that will allow us to respond on more solid grounds to the challenges of the future. We think we are moving in the right direction. Concluding Editorial So there you have it—everything you need to know about I-O psychology in Chile as you scrape the ice off of your car windows and contemplate your migration to South America. As you can see, great progress has occurred within a relatively short period of time, providing hope for a future where our profession continues to grow and expand within Chile’s evolving political, economic, and social landscape. References Bravo, L. (1983). El origen de la investigación psicológica en Chile. In Las ciencias sociales en Chile. Santiago: Corporación de Promoción Universitaria. Bornhard (1992). ¿Qué publican los psicólogos chilenos? Revisión de las publicaciones en revistas científicas. 1944–1988. Tesis para optar al Título de Psicólogo. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Colegio de Psicólogos de Chile (2007, November 9–10). La situación laboral del psicólogo en Chile. Ponencia VII Congreso Nacional de Psicología, Santiago. Makrinov, N., Scharager, J., & Molina, L. (2005, May). Situación actual de una muestra de psicólogos egresados de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Psykhe, 14(1), 69–77. Morales, M., Díaz, R., Scharager, J. & Sziklai, G. (1989). Campo y rol ocupacional del psicólogo. Informe Final Proyecto Fondecyt. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Rodríguez, M., & Villegas, J. (2007). Historia de la investigación científica de la psicología en Chile. Volumen II. Psicología Clínica, Psicología educacional y Psicología Organizacional. Publicaciones Facultad de Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Central. Santiago, Chile.
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