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Childcare practices are associated with child nutritional status regardless of socio-demographic background: Findings from the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 2008
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Manuscript ID: Article Type:
Date Submitted by the Author:
bmjopen-2014-005340 Research 25-Mar-2014
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Complete List of Authors:
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Primary Subject Heading:
Nutrition and metabolism, Public health Community child health < PAEDIATRICS, Nutrition < TROPICAL MEDICINE, Epidemiology < TROPICAL MEDICINE
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Keywords:
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Secondary Subject Heading:
Epidemiology
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Amugsi, Dickson; University of Bergen, Health Promotion and Development Mittelmark, Maurice; University of Bergen, Department of Health Promotion and Development Lartey, Anna; Food and Agricultural Organization, Nutrion Division, Economic and Social Department Matanda, Dennis; University of Bergen, Department of Health Promotion and Development Urke, Helga; University of Bergen, Department of Health Promotion and Development
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Childcare practices are associated with child nutritional status regardless of socio-demographic background: Findings from the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 2008 Dickson A. Amugsi1* Email:
[email protected] Maurice B. Mittelmark1
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Email:
[email protected] Anna Lartey2
Email:
[email protected] Dennis J. Matanda1
[email protected]
[email protected]
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Helga B. Urke1
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1. Department of Health Promotion and Development, University of Bergen,
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Norway
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2. Nutrition Division, Economic and Social Department, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy
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*Corresponding author: Department of Health Promotion and Development,
University of Bergen, Christiesgt. 13, 5015, Bergen, Norway. Phone: +4746270992, Fax:+4755589887
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ABSTRACT
Objectives: To examine: (a) the association of childcare practices (CCP) to infant and young children’s growth (height-for–age Z scores, or HAZ), and (b) to establish whether care practices are more important to some socio-demographic subgroups of children compared to others.
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Design: Cross sectional survey Setting: The 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, focused on maternal and child health.
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Participants: HAZ scores were calculated for children aged 6-36 months (393 urban and 794). Their mothers (n = 1,187) reported CCP provided to the child,
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their own education and occupation status, and their empowerment experience.
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Field staff collected data on maternal height/weight, anemia status, household assets using the wealth index, and on household water quality/availability and
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sanitation facilities and practices.
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Results: Principal Components Analysis was used to create a CCP score, combining feeding and preventive health variables: dietary diversity,
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solid/semisolid feeding frequency, breastfeeding status, vaccination status, iron
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supplementation and treatment for intestinal parasites. Regression analysis examined the relationship of CCP to child nutritional status, adjusting for child, maternal and household level factors. The results showed that CCP was a significant predictor of HAZ, after controlling for covariates/confounders at child, maternal and household levels. Children with higher CCP scores had higher HAZ scores. In addition to CCP, child’s and mother’s age, number of children under five, place of resident, maternal weight, and wealth index were also 2 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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significantly associated with HAZ. No statistically significant interactions between CCP and the other independent variables were observed. Conclusions: This study found a significant, positive association between CCP and child growth, regardless of the socio-demographic characteristics of the mother and of the household. This calls for research into the effects on growth of various CCP components, with longitudinal cohort study designs that can
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disentangle causal relationships. Keywords: Care practices, nutritional status, children, Ghana Demographic and Health Survey
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Strengths and limitations of this study •
Use of high quality nationally representative sample to investigate the relationship between childcare practices and nutritional outcomes
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Creation of a composite childcare measure including home care and medical care dimensions
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Cross-sectional survey design, while a longitudinal cohort design would
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•
Lack of variables to measure cultural, socio-political and locality influences on child health
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Introduction The foundational UNICEF framework for child health emphasizes that childcare practices (CCP) are vitally important in promoting child nutrition and health(1). Socio-demographic factors (e.g., parental education and income) are also emphasized in the UNICEF framework, and are consistently found to have a graded relationship with health(2). However, little is known about the degree to
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which CCP are consistently related to child health in the face of the widely differing socio-demographic backgrounds that characterize societies.
Childcare is a complex concept including a range of behaviors and practices of
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care givers that provide the food, health care, stimulation, and emotional support
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necessary for children’s healthy survival, growth, and development (3). As part of CCP, feeding and health care underlie dietary sufficiency and protection from
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disease, which in turn impacts child health, for which physical growth is a critical
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marker (4).
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A robust finding in public health research is that of a graded relationship
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between socio-demographic status (SDS) and health(5). Low SDS translates predictably into lessened food security and reduced access to health care.
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However, even in households with food insecurity due to poverty and poor access to health care, families can optimize the use of the existing resources to promote health (3, 6). This calls for further research to illuminate the relationship between childcare and child health, in economically vulnerable as well as secure households and communities. An ecological approach to such research calls for specification not only of proximal influences on child health 5 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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such as feeding practices, but also consideration of more distal factors such as caregivers’ health literacy, availability of resources such as clean water and sanitary living conditions and accessible health care (7) .
In the Global South1, interventions to reduce child under-nutrition focus often on household food security (adequacy of food availability), without taking into
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consideration the complementary role of quality childcare. This can be seen in most of the nutrition intervention programs in Ghana(8). Yet, food security alone is not enough to improve children’s nutritional status, and the significance of care practices to improving child nutritional status has been documented
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repeatedly (6, 9-16). Despite the fact that quality of childcare has a
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demonstrated role in alleviating child under-nutrition in resource-constrained settings like Ghana, there have been only two Ghanaian studies (of which we are
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aware) that have examined the role of childcare in relation to child nutritional
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status. The pioneering study of Ruel and her colleagues(6) in urban Accra used a
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composite care practices variable (care practice index) to examine the importance of care for healthy child nutrition. The other study, by Nti and Lartey
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(16), was conducted in one rural area; both studies found a significant association between care practices and child nutritional status. However, the
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setting-specificity of these two studies limits the generalizability of their
findings. Addressing this limitation, this paper presents an analysis of the relationship between care practices and child nutritional status in Ghana, using a By ‘Global South’ we refer to parts of the world that are also termed ‘the third world’ and ‘developing countries’ (which may carry pejorative connotations). The Global South is a geopolitical concept including parts of the world located notably in the Equatorial Zone that have colonial pasts, challenging geopolitical conditions, and that are rising in economic, social and political resilience (6). Regions having these conditions are of course found outside the Equatorial Zone.
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national representative sample. The primary objective of this analysis was to examine the influence of CCP on children’s HAZ, controlling for covariates and potentially confounding factors at child, maternal, household, and community levels. The secondary objective was to establish whether care practices were more important to growth in some socio-demographic subgroups of children compared to others.
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METHODS
Data sources
Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data collected in 2008 were used
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for the analysis. These data are in the public domain and available from
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MEASURE DHS website (17). The Ghana Statistical Service and the Ghana Health Service collected the data, using the 2000 national population census as a
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sampling frame. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Ghana Health Service
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Ethical Review Committee.
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The participants were 1,187 children aged 6-36 months (393 urban and 794
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rural) from whom anthropometry data were obtained. This excluded 224 children in the survey from whom complete and in-range anthropometry data
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could not be obtained.
Outcome variable The indicator of child nutritional status was Height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ).
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Childcare practices (CCP) measurement The variables used in creating the CCP score were feeding practices variables and use of preventive health service. The feeding practices variables included dietary diversity score, which was created using 16 food groups: 1) tinned/powder or fresh milk; 2) baby formula; 3) baby cereal; 4) bread, rice, noodles, other made from grains; 5) potatoes, cassava, or other tubers; 6) eggs;
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7) meat (beef, pork, lamb, goat, chicken etc.); 8) dark green leafy vegetables; 9) mangoes, papayas, other vitamin A fruits; 10) other fruits; 11) pumpkin, carrots, squash (yellow or orange inside); 12) liver, kidney, heart, other organs; 13) fish or shellfish(fresh or dried); 14) food made from beans, peas, lentils, nuts; 15)
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oils, fats, butter, products made from them; 16) cheese, yogurt, other milk
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products. Details about the DDS are presented elsewhere (in print). Other feeding variables were frequency of feeding solid or semi-solid food and
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breastfeeding status. The preventive health service variables included; BCG
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vaccination, DPT, Hepatitis B, influenza, polio and measles vaccinations, iron
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supplementation, and use of drugs for intestinal parasites.
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The CCP score was created using the results of Principal Component Analysis (18-20). We employed the regression method, with the components loadings
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adjusted to account for the initial correlations between variables. Since we did not anticipate the relationship between components to be orthogonal, we used the oblique factor rotation procedure. The results were used to create the composite care practices score, treated in subsequent analyses as a continuous variable.
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Other variables used in the analysis: (a) maternal age, height, weight, number of antenatal visits (ANC) education, occupation, anemia level, and parity;
(b), method of disposal of youngest child stools;
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(b) empowerment variables including women’s role in household decision making, opinion regarding wife beating, and attitudes regarding sexual relations with husband;
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(c) household level variables including number of children under 5 years in
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household, Wealth Index, urban/rural place of residence, source of drinking water, religion and type of toilet facilities; and
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(e) the child level variables sex and age (child’s age was transformed into age
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squared and included in regression analyses to account for non-linearity of the age variable (21).
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Some of the variables were recoded. Source of drinking water and toilet facilities
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were recoded according to WHO and UNICEF (22) recommended classifications: ‘improved’ and ‘unimproved’ water and ‘improved’ and ‘unimproved’ sanitation facilities. The disposal of the youngest child stool was recoded into ‘appropriate’ and ‘inappropriate’ disposal methods. Maternal occupation was recoded into ‘white collar’ and ‘agriculture/labor’, and religion into ‘Christians’ and ‘other religions’. For the empowerment variables, three indices were created based on 9 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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the DHS (23) recommended procedure (number of household decision making, opinion regarding wife beating, and justified to refuse sexual intercourse with husband). High scores were coded ‘more empowered’ and low scores ‘less empowered’. The wife beating attitude variable was reversed coded so that a high score corresponded to be more empowered.
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Analytical framework and methods This analysis is framed using the UNICEF conceptual framework in which food, health, and care are posited as the three key pillars influencing child survival, growth and development (1). The model identifies three levels of causes of child
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under-nutrition: immediate (operating at the individual level), underlying
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(influencing household and communities) and basic causes (structure and processes of societies). The model suggests that these causal factors affect child
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nutritional status in a chain-like manner—the basic factors affect the underlying
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factors, which in turn affect the immediate factors, in turn affecting child
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nutrition status. The model was extended by Engle and colleagues (24) and the above levels reclassified broadly as context, resources and care giving. This
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analysis used this framework to structure the hierarchical multiple regression analyses.
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The General Linear Model (GLM) in the SPSS 21 Complex Samples command was used to perform the multivariate analysis. The GLM was used to allow adjustment for survey design effects (sample weight, strata, and cluster). The analysis involved four steps. The first step (model A) contained only the basic characteristics of the mother (age) and child (age and sex), to examine the direct 10 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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effects of these factors on HAZ. The second step (model B) introduced context variables (place of residence and religion) in the model in the presence of the basic factors to establish how the context variables were directly related to HAZ. The third step (model C) introduces resource variables (education, occupation, anemia level, parity, disposal of youngest child stool, household decision making, opinion regarding wife beating, justified to refuse sexual intercourse with
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husband, number of children under 5, wealth index, source of drinking water, type of toilet facilities), controlling for basic and contextual factors. In the final step (model D), CCP score was introduced, controlling for basic, contextual and resource factors. Tests of interactions between the CCP score and other predictor
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variable were undertaken, because previous research has documented that
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children from poorer households and/or those of mothers with less education may be more likely to benefit more from better care practices, compared to
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children of wealthier households or those of mothers with better education(6).
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RESULTS Characteristics of the sample
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Tables 1 and 2 present the descriptive statistics of the sample. The average age of children used in the analysis was about 20 months. The mean Height-for-Age
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Z-score for the sample was little above -1 (-1.09), while that of weight-for-age and weight-for-height Z-scores respectively were lower than -1 (-0.81 and -0.33). The average prevalence of stunting, underweight and wasting were 29.1%, 16.0%, and 11.5% respectively. The average age of the mothers was 28 years. The number of Antenatal visits was relatively low (1.74 visits). Breastfeeding was generally above average in this population (67%). The average frequency of 11 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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feeding the child with solid or semi-solid food within 24hours was 2.59. Immunization rates were high among this population. BCG, which is given at birth, was as high as 94%. Additionally, 87.7% of children older than three months had received all their DPT vaccination and 85.6% received polio 3 vaccinations. For children older than 9 months, 86.7% received measles vaccination. Fewer children in the sample received iron supplement (29.0%).
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The use of drugs for intestinal parasites was low (37.2%), probably because the children in the sample were relatively young. With regards to water and sanitation, 22.2% of this population did not have access to improved source of water and 47% used unimproved sanitation facilities. Also, a high proportion of
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mothers (63%) used inappropriate ways to dispose the youngest child stool.
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Table 1: Characteristics of the sample (N = 1,187), continuous variables
Variables SD
Child age
19,8
8,55
Child Height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ)
-1,09
1,72
Child weight-for-age Z-scores (WAZ)
-0,81
1,3
Child weight-for-height Z-scores (WHZ)
-0,33
1,49
Maternal age (units)
28,18
6,77
Maternal height (units)
1,59
0,07
Maternal weight (units)
58,17
10,83
No. of children U5 in household
1,88
1.00
No. of ANC visits
1,74
0,53
Number of times child ate solid, semisolid or soft food yesterday
2,59
1,32
Dietary diversity score for child
5,92
3,06
N
(%)
600
50,5
587
49,5
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Mean
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Table 2: Characteristics of the sample (N = 1,187) categorical variables
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Characteristics Sex of child
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Male Female
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Still breastfeeding (yes)
797
67,1
Received BCG (yes)
1120
94,5
Received DPT/Hep B/Influenza 3 (yes)
1037
87,7
Received POLIO 3 (yes)
1013
85,6
Received Measles>=9 months (yes)
927
86,7
Taking iron pills, sprinkles or syrup (last 7 days) (yes)
343
29,0
Drugs for intestinal parasites (yes)
438
37,2
Use of preventive health service
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Anemia level (some anemia)
718
61,5
343
28,9
267
23,1
173
15,1
262
22,2
557
47,3
740
62,6
802
67,7
383
32,3
394
33,1
793
66,9
Empowerment Participation in decision-making Low participation
Husband justified in beating wife Less sense of empowerment Wife justified in refusing sex
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Less Empowered
Water and sanitation
Source of drinking water Unimproved
Type of toilet facilities Unimproved
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Disposal of youngest child stool inappropriate disposal practice Religion Christian
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Other religions Place of residence
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Urban Rural
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Bivariate analysis of the association between CCP and HAZ Bivariate analysis was carried out to examine the associations between CCP and child nutritional status. The results show a strong positive association between care practices and child HAZ (P 1,
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and four principal components were extracted that explained 70% of the 7 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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1
variance. No item had a loading less than .4 (20). Therefore, all the items were
2
used to create the composite care practices score, treated in subsequent analyses
3
as a continuous variable.
4 5
Other variables used in the analysis:
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(a) maternal age, height, weight, number of antenatal visits (ANC) education,
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occupation, anemia level, and parity;
(b), method of disposal of youngest child stools;
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(b) empowerment variables including women’s role in household decision
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making, opinion regarding wife beating, and attitudes regarding sexual
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relations with husband;
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(c) household level variables including number of children under 5 years in
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household, Wealth Index, urban/rural place of residence, source of drinking
17
water, religion and type of toilet facilities; and
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(e) the child level variables sex and age (child’s age was transformed into age
20
squared and included in regression analyses to account for non-linearity of the
21
age variable (23).
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22 23
Some of the variables were recoded. Source of drinking water and toilet facilities
24
were recoded according to WHO and UNICEF (24) recommended classifications:
25
‘improved’ and ‘unimproved’ water and ‘improved’ and ‘unimproved’ sanitation 8 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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1
facilities. The disposal of the youngest child stool was recoded into ‘appropriate’
2
and ‘inappropriate’ disposal methods. Maternal occupation was recoded into
3
‘white collar’ and ‘agriculture/labor’, and religion into ‘Christians’ and ‘other
4
religions’. For the empowerment variables, three indices were created based on
5
the DHS (18) recommended procedure (number of household decision making,
6
opinion regarding wife beating, and justified to refuse sexual intercourse with
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husband). High scores were coded ‘more empowered’ and low scores ‘less
8
empowered’. The wife beating attitude variable was reversed coded so that a
9
high score corresponded to be more empowered.
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10
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11
Analytical framework and methods
12
This analysis is framed using the UNICEF conceptual framework in which food,
13
health, and care are posited as the three key pillars influencing child survival,
14
growth and development (1). The model identifies three levels of causes of child
15
under-nutrition: immediate (operating at the individual level), underlying
16
(influencing household and communities) and basic causes (structure and
17
processes of societies). The model suggests that these causal factors affect child
18
nutritional status in a chain-like manner—the basic factors affect the underlying
19
factors, which in turn affect the immediate factors, in turn affecting child
20
nutrition status. The model was extended by Engle and colleagues (25) and the
21
above levels reclassified broadly as context, resources and care giving. This
22
analysis used this framework to structure the hierarchical multiple regression
23
analyses.
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1
The General Linear Model (GLM) in the SPSS 21 Complex Samples command was
2
used to perform the multivariate analysis. The GLM was used to allow
3
adjustment for survey design effects (sample weight, strata, and cluster). The
4
analysis involved four steps. The first step (model A) contained only the basic
5
characteristics of the mother (age) and child (age and sex), to examine the direct
6
effects of these factors on HAZ. The second step (model B) introduced context
7
variables (place of residence and religion) in the model in the presence of the
8
basic factors to establish how the context variables were directly related to HAZ.
9
The third step (model C) introduces resource variables (education, occupation,
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10
anemia level, parity, disposal of youngest child stool, household decision making,
11
opinion regarding wife beating, justified to refuse sexual intercourse with
12
husband, number of children under 5, wealth index, source of drinking water,
13
type of toilet facilities), controlling for basic and contextual factors. In the final
14
step (model D), CCP score was introduced, controlling for basic, contextual and
15
resource factors. Tests of interactions between the CCP score and other predictor
16
variable were undertaken, because previous research has documented that
17
children from poorer households and/or those of mothers with less education
18
may be more likely to benefit more from better care practices, compared to
19
children of wealthier households or those of mothers with better education(6).
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20 21
RESULTS
22
Characteristics of the sample
23
Tables 1 and 2 present the descriptive statistics of the sample. The average age
24
of children used in the analysis was about 20 months. The mean Height-for-Age
25
Z-score for the sample was -1.09 (S.D. = 1.7), while that of weight-for-age and 10 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
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1
weight-for-height Z-scores respectively were -0.81 (S.D. = 1.3) and -0.33 (S.D. =
2
1.5). The average prevalence of stunting, underweight and wasting were 29.1%,
3
16.0%, and 11.5% respectively. The average age of the mothers was 28 years.
4
The number of Antenatal visits was relatively low (1.74 visits). Breastfeeding
5
was generally above average in this population (67%). The average frequency of
6
feeding the child with solid or semi-solid food within 24hours was 2.59.
7
Immunization rates were high among this population. BCG, which is given at
8
birth, was as high as 94%. Additionally, 87.7% of children older than three
9
months had received all their DPT vaccination and 85.6% received polio 3
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10
vaccinations. For children older than 9 months, 86.7% received measles
11
vaccination. Fewer children in the sample received iron supplement (29.0%).
12
The use of drugs for intestinal parasites was low (37.2%), probably because the
13
children in the sample were relatively young. With regards to water and
14
sanitation, 22.2% of this population did not have access to improved source of
15
water and 47% used unimproved sanitation facilities. Also, a high proportion of
16
mothers (63%) used inappropriate ways to dispose the youngest child stool.
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Table 1: Characteristics of the sample (N = 1,187), continuous variables
Variables Mean
SD
Child age
19,8
8,55
Child Height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ)
-1,09
1,72
Child weight-for-age Z-scores (WAZ)
-0,81
1,3
Child weight-for-height Z-scores (WHZ)
-0,33
1,49
Maternal age ( in years)
28,18
6,77
Maternal height (in cm)
1,59
0,07
Maternal weight (in cm)
58,17
10,83
No. of children U5 in household
1,88
1.00
No. of ANC visits
1,74
0,53
Number of times child ate solid, semisolid or soft food yesterday
2,59
1,32
Dietary diversity score for child
5,92
3,06
N
(%)
600
50,5
587
49,5
797
67,1
Received BCG (yes)
1120
94,5
Received DPT/Hep B/Influenza 3 (yes)
1037
87,7
Received POLIO 3 (yes)
1013
85,6
Received Measles > = 9 months (yes)
927
86,7
ev
rr
ee
rp Fo
1 2
ie
3
w
Table 2: Characteristics of the sample (N = 1,187) categorical variables
Characteristics
on
Sex of child Male
ly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
BMJ Open
Female Still breastfeeding (yes) Use of preventive health service
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BMJ Open
Taking iron pills, sprinkles or syrup (last 7 days) (yes)
343
29,0
Drugs for intestinal parasites (yes)
438
37,2
Anemia level (some anemia)
718
61,5
343
28,9
267
23,1
173
15,1
262
22,2
557
47,3
740
62,6
802
67,7
383
32,3
394
33,1
793
66,9
Empowerment Participation in decision-making Low participation
Husband justified in beating wife
rp Fo
Less sense of empowerment Wife justified in refusing sex Less Empowered
Water and sanitation
ee
Source of drinking water Unimproved Type of toilet facilities Unimproved
Disposal of youngest child stool inappropriate disposal practice
ie
ev
rr
Religion Christian
w
Other religions Place of residence
on
Urban Rural
ly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Page 42 of 58
1 2
Bivariate analysis of the association between CCP and HAZ
3
Bivariate analysis was carried out to examine the associations between CCP and
4
child nutritional status. The results show a strong positive association between
5
care practices and child HAZ (Beta = .12, t = 3.73, P 1,
25
and four principal components were extracted that explained 70% of the 7 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
Page 37 of 58
1
variance. No item had a loading less than .4 (20). Therefore, all the items were
2
used to create the composite care practices score, treated in subsequent analyses
3
as a continuous variable.
4 5
Other variables used in the analysis:
6
(a) maternal age, height, weight, number of antenatal visits (ANC) education,
7 8 9
occupation, anemia level, and parity;
(b), method of disposal of youngest child stools;
ee
10
rp Fo
11
(b) empowerment variables including women’s role in household decision
12
making, opinion regarding wife beating, and attitudes regarding sexual
13
relations with husband;
ie
15
ev
14
rr
(c) household level variables including number of children under 5 years in
w
16
household, Wealth Index, urban/rural place of residence, source of drinking
17
water, religion and type of toilet facilities; and
on
18 19
(e) the child level variables sex and age (child’s age was transformed into age
20
squared and included in regression analyses to account for non-linearity of the
21
age variable (23).
ly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
BMJ Open
22 23
Some of the variables were recoded. Source of drinking water and toilet facilities
24
were recoded according to WHO and UNICEF (24) recommended classifications:
25
‘improved’ and ‘unimproved’ water and ‘improved’ and ‘unimproved’ sanitation 8 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
BMJ Open
1
facilities. The disposal of the youngest child stool was recoded into ‘appropriate’
2
and ‘inappropriate’ disposal methods. Maternal occupation was recoded into
3
‘white collar’ and ‘agriculture/labor’, and religion into ‘Christians’ and ‘other
4
religions’. For the empowerment variables, three indices were created based on
5
the DHS (18) recommended procedure (number of household decision making,
6
opinion regarding wife beating, and justified to refuse sexual intercourse with
7
husband). High scores were coded ‘more empowered’ and low scores ‘less
8
empowered’. The wife beating attitude variable was reversed coded so that a
9
high score corresponded to be more empowered.
ee
10
rp Fo
11
Analytical framework and methods
12
This analysis is framed using the UNICEF conceptual framework in which food,
13
health, and care are posited as the three key pillars influencing child survival,
14
growth and development (1). The model identifies three levels of causes of child
15
under-nutrition: immediate (operating at the individual level), underlying
16
(influencing household and communities) and basic causes (structure and
17
processes of societies). The model suggests that these causal factors affect child
18
nutritional status in a chain-like manner—the basic factors affect the underlying
19
factors, which in turn affect the immediate factors, in turn affecting child
20
nutrition status. The model was extended by Engle and colleagues (25) and the
21
above levels reclassified broadly as context, resources and care giving. This
22
analysis used this framework to structure the hierarchical multiple regression
23
analyses.
w
ie
ev
rr
ly
on
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Page 38 of 58
24
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Page 39 of 58
1
The General Linear Model (GLM) in the SPSS 21 Complex Samples command was
2
used to perform the multivariate analysis. The GLM was used to allow
3
adjustment for survey design effects (sample weight, strata, and cluster). The
4
analysis involved four steps. The first step (model A) contained only the basic
5
characteristics of the mother (age) and child (age and sex), to examine the direct
6
effects of these factors on HAZ. The second step (model B) introduced context
7
variables (place of residence and religion) in the model in the presence of the
8
basic factors to establish how the context variables were directly related to HAZ.
9
The third step (model C) introduces resource variables (education, occupation,
rp Fo
10
anemia level, parity, disposal of youngest child stool, household decision making,
11
opinion regarding wife beating, justified to refuse sexual intercourse with
12
husband, number of children under 5, wealth index, source of drinking water,
13
type of toilet facilities), controlling for basic and contextual factors. In the final
14
step (model D), CCP score was introduced, controlling for basic, contextual and
15
resource factors. Tests of interactions between the CCP score and other predictor
16
variable were undertaken, because previous research has documented that
17
children from poorer households and/or those of mothers with less education
18
may be more likely to benefit more from better care practices, compared to
19
children of wealthier households or those of mothers with better education(6).
w
ie
ev
rr
ee
ly
on
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
BMJ Open
20 21
RESULTS
22
Characteristics of the sample
23
Tables 1 and 2 present the descriptive statistics of the sample. The average age
24
of children used in the analysis was about 20 months. The mean Height-for-Age
25
Z-score for the sample was -1.09 (S.D. = 1.7), while that of weight-for-age and 10 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
BMJ Open
1
weight-for-height Z-scores respectively were -0.81 (S.D. = 1.3) and -0.33 (S.D. =
2
1.5). The average prevalence of stunting, underweight and wasting were 29.1%,
3
16.0%, and 11.5% respectively. The average age of the mothers was 28 years.
4
The number of Antenatal visits was relatively low (1.74 visits). Breastfeeding
5
was generally above average in this population (67%). The average frequency of
6
feeding the child with solid or semi-solid food within 24hours was 2.59.
7
Immunization rates were high among this population. BCG, which is given at
8
birth, was as high as 94%. Additionally, 87.7% of children older than three
9
months had received all their DPT vaccination and 85.6% received polio 3
rp Fo
10
vaccinations. For children older than 9 months, 86.7% received measles
11
vaccination. Fewer children in the sample received iron supplement (29.0%).
12
The use of drugs for intestinal parasites was low (37.2%), probably because the
13
children in the sample were relatively young. With regards to water and
14
sanitation, 22.2% of this population did not have access to improved source of
15
water and 47% used unimproved sanitation facilities. Also, a high proportion of
16
mothers (63%) used inappropriate ways to dispose the youngest child stool.
w
ie
ev
rr
ee
ly
on
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Page 40 of 58
11 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
Page 41 of 58
Table 1: Characteristics of the sample (N = 1,187), continuous variables
Variables Mean
SD
Child age
19,8
8,55
Child Height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ)
-1,09
1,72
Child weight-for-age Z-scores (WAZ)
-0,81
1,3
Child weight-for-height Z-scores (WHZ)
-0,33
1,49
Maternal age ( in years)
28,18
6,77
Maternal height (in cm)
1,59
0,07
Maternal weight (in cm)
58,17
10,83
No. of children U5 in household
1,88
1.00
No. of ANC visits
1,74
0,53
Number of times child ate solid, semisolid or soft food yesterday
2,59
1,32
Dietary diversity score for child
5,92
3,06
N
(%)
600
50,5
587
49,5
797
67,1
Received BCG (yes)
1120
94,5
Received DPT/Hep B/Influenza 3 (yes)
1037
87,7
Received POLIO 3 (yes)
1013
85,6
Received Measles > = 9 months (yes)
927
86,7
ev
rr
ee
rp Fo
1 2
ie
3
w
Table 2: Characteristics of the sample (N = 1,187) categorical variables
Characteristics
on
Sex of child Male
ly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
BMJ Open
Female Still breastfeeding (yes) Use of preventive health service
12 For peer review only - http://bmjopen.bmj.com/site/about/guidelines.xhtml
BMJ Open
Taking iron pills, sprinkles or syrup (last 7 days) (yes)
343
29,0
Drugs for intestinal parasites (yes)
438
37,2
Anemia level (some anemia)
718
61,5
343
28,9
267
23,1
173
15,1
262
22,2
557
47,3
740
62,6
802
67,7
383
32,3
394
33,1
793
66,9
Empowerment Participation in decision-making Low participation
Husband justified in beating wife
rp Fo
Less sense of empowerment Wife justified in refusing sex Less Empowered
Water and sanitation
ee
Source of drinking water Unimproved Type of toilet facilities Unimproved
Disposal of youngest child stool inappropriate disposal practice
ie
ev
rr
Religion Christian
w
Other religions Place of residence
on
Urban Rural
ly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Page 42 of 58
1 2
Bivariate analysis of the association between CCP and HAZ
3
Bivariate analysis was carried out to examine the associations between CCP and
4
child nutritional status. The results show a strong positive association between
5
care practices and child HAZ (Beta = .12, t = 3.73, P