Siakas Kerstin V., Georgiadou Elli (1999). Process Improvement: The Societal Iceberg, European Software Process Improvement Conference, EuroSPI '99, Pori, Finland, 25 - 27.10, pp. 25-37 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Process Improvement: The Societal Iceberg Kerstin V. Siakas 2,1 and Elli Georgiadou1 1 University of North London School of Informatics and Multimedia Technology 2-16 Eden Grove, London, N7 8DB Tel.: + 44 171 753 3142, Fax: + 44 171 753 7009 E-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected] 2 Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki, Department of Informatics, P.O. Box 14561 ,GR-54101 Thessaloniki, Greece Tel.: +30 31 791296, Fax: +30 31 799152 E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract Information Systems (IS) are integrated systems for providing information to support operations, processes, management analysis and decision-making functions in an organisation [1]. The IS area is characterised by rapid technical change and innovation. In recent years there has been a shift in IS from technological to managerial and organisational issues. This shift has led to increased interest in how environment and innovation interact. In software quality improvement efforts there has also been a shift from technical to managerial, organisational and people issues concentrating on the process rather than on the product. It is widely accepted that emphasis has to be placed on process quality as a means of achieving product quality. In this paper, we investigate the characteristics of IS from the managerial and social viewpoint identifying the societal elements, their interacting and their effects on information.
1. Introduction IS are socio-technical systems [2] of which information technology is one aspect. They can be thought of as integrating an infrastructure and the various systems, which make use of that infrastructure [3]. IS are meaningful only when they are considered within a context. The distinction between a software system and an information system is that software is limited to the development process of a software system, while an information system is seen to be the organisational context in which software is used [4]. If we accept this distinction software quality means development process quality leaving out the usage of software, while IS quality will stress product
quality assessed by the usage of software in an organisational context. Due to the multidisciplinary character of IS a discussion about the necessity of a societal viewpoint in these days of globalisation of the software market, virtual global enterprises and cross-cultural teams follows with emphasis on software quality and process improvement.
2. The Societal Perspective The globalization of industries has caused the contextual boundaries of IS research and practices to include the societal context. IS departments face many challenges in today's rapidly changing and highly competitive global environment. The need for compatible standards and procedures within the global network is obvious. Greater attention to national factors, like national culture, economic structure, political and legal environment and nations' infrastructures, is being given in recent years. The study of societal context enables researchers and practitioners to improve their understanding of the impact information technology on society as well as the influence society has on the development and use of information technology. Aspects of societal environment have been found to be important especially in transnational context [5, 6]. Understanding these aspects enables IT managers at multinational organisations to operate more appropriately in countries other than their own. In figure 1 the IS Research Domain is shown.
Societal Environment
Organisational Environment
Societal Environment
Information System
Social System
Technical System
Fig. KVS_EG. 1: The IS Research Domain adapted from Traut et al. There are two views on managing information technology (IT) in a global context. One view proposes that managing IT in a global context is largely the same as managing IT in a domestic context. The other view proposes that there are differences depending on cultural aspects, different business and legal environments, different languages and varying technology availability [7]. Some researchers have found that in professions like software engineering the professionals will converge and become more similar to one another because of the universal technology and the consequent
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creation of jobs, education and training influencing not only skills but also attitudes [8, 9, 10, 11]. On the other hand the successful information system, the evaluation and the maintenance are dependent on user acceptance. There is evidence of national cultural differences and the influence of national culture on organisational culture should be taken seriously. Different researchers have identified how cultures vary. The most notable is Hofstede [12]. Culture is according to Hofstede's definition: "the collective programming of human mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from those of another". His research was carried out in 50 different countries and resulted in a position on four dimensions for each country. The consideration of cultural differences and their effects on IS construction and use is an extremely important issue in the research of international IS. The authors believe that an information system can be successful only when organisational culture is taken into consideration and, if the information system is developed or used in a global context then, the national culture has to be taken into consideration as well.
3. Quality of IS IS Quality includes the requirement of the business organisation, the users and the IT personnel [13]. IS quality is divided into Business Quality, IS Use Quality and IS Work Quality. Business Quality measures the profitability of software investments from the whole organisation’s point of view. IS Use Quality is in the interest of all system users, who can be on managerial or operational level, internal or external. IS Work Quality covers the performance level of managing, developing, maintaining and operating IS. Software Quality is usually limited to the development of Software System, while Informations System Quality is seen in the organisational context, where the use of Software is stressed [4]. Because of the underachievement of IS, the over-emphasis on technology has in recent years shifted to take human, organisational and social contexts more into consideration [14]. The quality of IS in general, and software systems in particular, derives from the Total Quality Management (TQM) philosophy, which emphasises customer satisfaction, organisational change and continuous process improvement. Different process oriented quality models, like ISO9001 and process maturity evaluation models also called process capability models, like CMM, Bootstrap and SPICE (ISO-15504) have been developed. Process capability is defined as ability of a process to achieve a required goal [15]. It measures how well a process is managed to achieve its purpose and the organisation's objectives. These models emphasise the implementation of a managed and controlled development process, as well as a process for services necessary to support both the development and use of software. The focus in all these models is on the assessment of the overall technical capability of an organisation. [15]. In 1998 SPICE became the ISO software process assessment standard called ISO15504. The ISO15504-standard combines different methodologies and it is linked with the ISO12207 standard, which provides a framework for software processes. People Capability Maturity Model (P-CMM) [16,17] is an attempt to consider people-issues. P-CMM focuses on three interrelated components namely people, process and technology. The motivation for P-CMM is to improve the ability of software organisations to attract, develop, motivate, organise and retain the talent needed to continuously improve software development capability. Software is in the heart of most modern businesses. Business success depends on the quality, the cost and the timeliness of the software they use. In order to have a
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systematic approach to software quality, a software quality management system should be introduced according to the needs of the organisation, and knowledge should be effectively and explicitly managed. The Total Quality movement emphasises that better knowledge of the process will lead to increased productivity as well as higher product quality. Total quality is necessary but not sufficient in today’s global economy. New organisations, which go beyond total quality and focus on world competitiveness and future success, are beginning to emerge. These are referred to as learning organisations. They use a knowledge-based approach that focuses on predicting and creatively solving problems by analysing the root causes of problems the first time they appear. The problems are prevented from recurrence by learning how to learn [18].
4. Organisational change The market driven reason for implementing a software quality management system will require an organisational and cultural change in the organisation. The iceberg metaphor shown in figure 2 can be used to depict the contrasting aspects of organisational life.
Formal Organisation • Goals and strategy • Structure, standards and procedures • Products and services • Management and Financial resources Informal Organisation • Values, attitudes and beliefs • Leadership style and behaviour • Organisational culture and norms of behaviour • Power, politics and conflicts • Informal groupings
Fig. KVS_EG. 2: The organisational iceberg [20] The visible part of the iceberg, shows the formal aspects of an organisation while the informal aspects of an organisation hide under water. The informal part is the greater part of the organisational iceberg and will act to help or hinder an organisational process of change. It often leads to resistance to the change process. The view of organisations existing as systems of interrelated elements operating in multi-dimensional environments is becoming widely accepted. The mnemonics PEST [21] and STEP [22] for example refer both to the Political, Economic, Technological and Socio-cultural factors that influence organisations in their structures, strategies, management process and means of operating including technology and individuals [23]. Figure 3 shows the relationships of the different factors that have to be taken into consideration when implementing a change strategy.
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External Political/legal
Structure Environment
External Technology Environment
Management process
Strategy
Technology
Individual roles& culture
External Socio-cultural Environment
External Economic Environment
Fig. KVS_EG. 3: Adapting to change [24]
In order to overcome resistance to process change the software process, the business process, organisational culture and the technology must be understood and managed. The Organisational Development (OD) approach, which is an umbrella term for a set of values and assumptions about organisations and the people within them, together with concepts and techniques, is thought to be useful for long-term organisation-wide change [22]. The OD approach cares about people and believes that people at all levels throughout an organisation are individually and collectively both drivers and engines of change. OD is a process by which behavioural knowledge and practices are used to help organisations achieve greater effectiveness, productivity, and improved product and service quality. The focus is on the process and on improving the organisation's ability to assess and to solve its own problems. It aims to improve the total system, the organisation and its parts in the context of the larger environment that impacts upon them [24]. The success of an OD approach lies in the capabilities of those who act as change agents or champions. A characteristic of an OD process is that it has recognisable phases with activities that help the organisation to move through these phases. In figure 4 basic assumptions of OD as a model for change are shown. Company
Problem solving Decision making
Ongoing Planned long term
GOALS USER BEHAVIOUR
Climate for change
TOTAL ORGANISATION GROUPS/TEAMS
change agents
MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT VALUE SYSTEM
Interdependence Humanistic Experimental Learning Group Process Open Techniques Relationships
Change Attitudes Action Research
Fig. KVS_EG. 4: Basic assumptions of OD adapted from Senior [22]
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The OD approach to change is entirely in line with the Total Quality Management approach, according to the entire organisation, management commitment and the long-term perspective, extending the approach by regarding people in general as social beings, who form formal and informal groupings as a part of the organisation's functioning. For a group to be effective, all members should share in problem solving and working to satisfy both the task and group members' needs [22].
5. Attitudes for changes in process improvement To enable the improvement of the software process more attention should be given to individuals in the organisation. The success or the failure of organisational change depends to a high degree on executive open-mindedness toward change and understanding of how individuals and groups function [25]. This is especially important in the increasing globalisation of markets and businesses. Many lessons have to be learned from social and management sciences. Social Science Research involves investigating all aspects of human activity and inter-activity Contemporary Social Research is according to Orlikowski [26] a large range of research perspectives that operates concurrently. Such perspectives are the disciplines concerned with human phenomena such as anthropology, psychology, sociology and their applied fields of administrative science, education, industrial psychology and industrial sociology. Land [27] argues that IS essentially are social systems of which information technology is one aspect and that the study of IS is a multidisciplinary effort.
Cultural values and Software Quality Management The globalising trend in recent years has resulted in more cross-national studies. Being a global organisation implies having a universal culture. For the past few decades there has been an important debate about convergence or divergence of work values. International organisations have tried to understand the diverse value system of their multinational structure. The objectives of the multinational organisations are to create a universal culture in the whole organisation and to integrate multi-domestic operations with individuals who hold opposed work related values [28]. The authors are investigating how culture influences the implementation of Software Quality Management Systems, aiming to develop a model, which will take culture into consideration for successful implementation of Software Quality Management Systems. There is evidence that national culture influences management practices and multinational enterprises need to adapt to the national cultures in which they operate in order to achieve high business performance [12, 31]. If a multinational organisation is going to be a truly global organisation the diverse individual work values must converge and be integrated into common set of values to create a universal corporate culture [28]. Results from a pilot study carried out in a large Scandinavian multinational organisation, developing software for own use was reported in the Software Quality Management Conference (SQM) in Seville in 1995 [28]. Another study was carried out in three Greek software organisations. The results were reported in the 5th Software Quality Conference in Dundee 1996 [29].
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The insights gained from these initial studies helped in reformulating the main hypothesis in this research. The hypothesis is: 'Cultural factors intervene in the successful application of Software Quality Management Systems'. Two cultural variables are identified, namely national and organisational culture. Two variables of successful application of Quality Management Systems are identified, namely: 1. The existence of quality oriented management procedures, similar to the procedures identified in Capability Models; 2. The awareness of quality issues amongst the workforce. The main hypothesis can thus be broken down into four sub-hypothesis: 1. 2. 3. 4.
National Culture affects take up of Software Quality Management; National Culture influences awareness of quality issues; Organisational Culture affects take up of Software Quality Management; Organisational Culture influences awareness of quality issues.
In these two pilot studies the CMM self assessment was used to assess the maturity level of the organisations instead of the awareness of quality issues amongst the workforce. Cultural issues were measured and the result was analysed. As a result of these two pilot studies the authors realized that in terms of cultural issues the take up of Software Quality Mangement instead of the quality maturity level is crucial for successful implementation. All proceduers for getting a high score can be in place, but if the workforce does not support them the implementation will not be successful. National Culture will be measured using Hofstede's four dimensions [22]: 1. Power Distance :Power Distance Index (PDI) indicates the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organisations is distributed unequally among individuals. In small PDI countries subordinates and superiors consider each other as existentially equal and decentralisation is popular, while large PDI countries subscribe to authority of bosses and centralisation. 2. Collectivism / Individualism:Individualism indicates the extent to which a society is a loose social framework in which people are supposed to take care only of themselves and their immediate families. Collectivism is a tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups and expect their in-group to look after them. In individualist countries people are supposed to take care of themselves and remain emotionally independent from the group. The dominant motivation is self-interest. In collective societies the concern is for the group. Individuals define their identity by relationships to others and group belonging.
3. Femininity / Masculinity: Masculinity indicates the extent to which the dominant values in a society tend toward assertiveness and the acquisition of things. In masculine cultures importance is placed on assertiveness, competitiveness and materialism in the form of earnings and advancement, promotions and big bonuses. Femininity indicates the concern for people and the quality of life. In
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feminine cultures the concern is for quality of relationships and the work of life, nurturing and social well being. 4. Uncertainty Avoidance: Uncertainty Avoidance indicates the extent to which a society feels threatened by ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them by providing rules, believing in absolute truths, and refusing to tolerate deviance. In weak uncertainty avoidance countries anxiety levels are relatively low. Aggression and emotions are not supposed to be shown and people seem to be quiet, easy-going, indolent, controlled and lazy while in high uncertainty countries people seems to be busy, fidgety, emotional, aggressive and active. All the four dimensions are a continuum between two extremes and only very few national cultures, if any, are wholly at one or the other extreme. The Research Method in the research is a contemporary comparative multimethod using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The quantitative investigation will be a survey collecting hard data by using a postal questionnaire. The results from the questionnaire will be analysed using sophisticated statistical methods. Subsequently, a qualitative method in the form of case studies will be performed in order to address different aspects of the research problem, to confirm the findings from the questionnaire and to test the hypothesis. Depending on the findings a conceptual framework will be developed, which is likely to optimise quality and management initiatives in different cultural and organisational settings. This model will couple cultural and organisational aspects with technical requirements of Software Quality Management Systems to ensure successful implementation.
6. Conclusion By using the Iceberg metaphor we explored the role of informal aspects on the formal aspects of organisations. The globalisation of the software market, virtual global enterprises and cross-cultural teams has caused the contextual boundaries of IS research and practices to include the societal context. We believe that the underachievement of IS depends mainly on the over-emphasis on technology. In recent years emphasis has shifted to take into consideration human, organisational and social-cultural contexts. Quality issues and resistance to change, in particular the degree of resistance influenced by culture were discussed. Many lessons have still to be learned from other sciences due to the great range of research perspectives and the rapid changes in the field. Organisational Development was proposed as an alternative way of empowering capabilities of those who act as change agents or champions. The research about how culture influences the implementation of Software Quality Management Systems was described. A number of hypotheses have been derived. Using Hofstede’s four dimensions of national culture as an underlying discriminator, a revised questionnaire has been designed in order to determine the adoption of quality-oriented software processes and the awareness of them within the workforce. Fieldwork is currently in progress in Greece, Finland and UK.
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