Information technology as a tool for public participation in urban ...

Information technology as a tool for public participation in urban planning: a review of experiments and potentials Malgorzata Hanzl, Institute of Architecture and Town Planning, Technical University of Lodz, Al. Politechniki 6A, 90-924 Lodz, Poland Information technology offers new potentials of citizen participation in urban planning. The essential tasks to achieve with the use of new media are: providing a communication platform which suppresses a barrier of non-professionalism, allowing for distant contacts and enabling participatory process management. The paper contains a review of experiments and prototypes of different IT applications: Participatory Planning GIS, 3D models, communication platforms and computer games. Technology facilitates also collaborative distant work and citizens’ participation in the city database completion. The most cited examples remain experimental. Great potential lies in augmented reality technology, which is currently being tested. ! 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: urban design, user participation, collaborative design, virtual reality, information technology

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ontemporary planning theory evolves towards planning through communication and debate (Healey, 1997). The changes in real urban environment are preceeded by creation of the coherent vision of what is planned. Therefore, the city representation in the citizens’ minds plays an essential role in reshaping real space. The image depends, largely, on real city appearance and on information absorbed from different sources. It is also influenced by visions of designed transformation published in media. As Lynch (1960, p.120) says: ‘In the development of an image, education will be quite as important as the reshaping of what is seen. Indeed, they together form a circular, or hopefully a spiral, process: visual education impelling the citizen to act upon his visual world, and this action causing him to see even more acutely. A highly developed art of urban design is linked to the creation of a critical and attentive audience. If art and audience grow together, then our cities will be a source of daily enjoyment to millions of their inhabitants.’ The perception process is shown in Figure 1.

Corresponding author: M. Hanzl mhanzl@p.lodz.pl

Among the authors who deal with issues of city representation and city spaces are Edward Hall, Kevin Lynch, Choay Franc¸oise, Aleksander Wallis, Bogdan Ja1owiecki, Claude Levi-Strauss, and Umberto Eco. This paper addresses the role of modern information technology in the creation of the city vision. www.elsevier.com/locate/destud 0142-694X $ - see front matter Design Studies 28 (2007) 289e307 doi:10.1016/j.destud.2007.02.003 ! 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain

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Real world

Perception Inner image of the world in one’s mind

Knowledge about environment

Decisions concerning changes Consensus

3D model Multimedia Media

Discussion tools, Opinions gathering, Different techniques of discussion and informing

Figure 1 The role of vision and city models in perception

Vision

Model of vision

process

1

City models e kinds and ways of use

The aim in building city models is to understand and to represent the processes which take place in the city and to support discussion (Guhathakurta, 2002). Models may show current events, the ones which took place in the past or will take place in the future. Models which address the future include elements of visions. The basis for physical planning is a database concerning the city. 3D models, which are easy to read, assist non-professional addressees in understanding complex planning issues. There are various methods of creating them, as well as numerous applications.

The Internet is used as a communication tool in a group decision-making process. The methods were developed in local networks and successfully transferred into global network. The bases for project are real world models and GIS databases (Jankowski and Nyerges, 2001). Geographic Information Systems e georelational databases e is the tabular data set related to geometric objects representing real world objects. Systems are used to gather, store, analyse and represent data. The GIS systems require high level of proficiency of users and thus they are not the most suitable form for planning with public participation. The real participation may take place in more interactive systems, where there is no predefined hierarchy of users, such as chat rooms and internet forums. The other form of communication are virtual worlds. The avatars of users play their roles in virtual scenes. They may communicate, walk and visit virtual world (Evans and Hudson-Smith, 2001). There are also trials to enable avatars to move items in virtual worlds, for example, to construct common spaces. Examples of projects of that kind are rare and function more as experiments, not as real practice. Development of computer tools for

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public participation in urban planning is a subject of interest of a few research centres, PICT e Planning Inclusion of Clients through e-Training e an international research realised within Leonardo Da Vinci EC education programme is an example (Bourdakis, 2004; Stellingwerff and Kuhk, 2004).

2

Presentation of planning information

Tell me, I forget; show me, I remember; involve me, I understand (ancient Chinese proverb) The development of e-society as an effect of new technologies development is connected with accessibility of data concerning planning issues. The text sites, with interaction ensured via references or flash technology, are often insufficient in planning situations where most of data use maps and plans. 2D plan remains legally recognized way of presentation of planning regulation. Information addressed to lay persons should be understandable for people without professional formation.

2.1

3D models network presentation

3D models are presented as static pictures, animations and as Virtual Reality models. The methods of project presentation may be ranked according to growing user interaction. 2D elevations and 3D presentations e photos of a project e allow presentation from assumed points of view. Photos of a model used as WWW illustration are the most conventional form of presentation. Animation allows better perception of the model. It is performed according to scenario and allows perception of chosen scenes. The most effective form of presentation of planning solutions is animated 3D graphics showing building development from a passer-by’s point of view and from a bird’s point of view. User chooses what to see and from which direction e thus such presentation remains interactive. The digital model may be discussed using space and time, project variants and LOD (Level of Details) or LOOP (Level of Object Presentation) which depends on the proximity observer/object (Voigt et al., 2003). This type is represented by VRML presentation or presentations using commercial software. XML language (GML e Graphic Modelling Language) offers possibilities to record 2D or 3D graphics.

2.1.1

VRML

VR models enable unconstrained moving within virtual city and through acquaintance of proposed development. There are a few standards of record of this kind of presentation. The most popular is VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Language) which is being developed for some time. Files may be viewed using simple software accessible as freeware or shareware, or using internet browsers’ plug-in (for instance: freeware browser by Viewpoint, http://www.viewpoint.com/). VRML similarly to HTML sends only scene description as language commands. It fits the requirements of dial up connection with small data transfer. Visualisation takes place on the client’s computer

IT as a tool for public participation in urban planning

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according to commands in the transferred file. VRML files may refer to sound data, to external sites, they enable interaction. Popular modelling software allows exporting files to this format.1

2.1.2

XML

Another method is the use of XML (eXtensible Markup Language). XML is a language for data exchange whose standards are specified by Word Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Data codification in XML consists of two parts: schema describing rules and data. XML allows groups of people for creation of their own tools for data exchange according to users’ needs. Environments like XSLT allow for easier transposing of data between different codifications. JSP technology allows for creation of dynamic or changeable content (Szalapaj, 2003). In the last few years, object oriented technology like JAVA and XML influenced the WWW contents and exchange. Rapid evolution of technology is connected with their applicability within WWW sites. In literature, the role of XML in architectural and urban data transfer is emphasised. Preparing of presentation with the use of XML syntax is possible from modelling software, for example, 3Dstudio MAX. Interactivity and selection of elements for automated generation of simulation may be ensured with the use of JAVA programming language. The geographical information is recorded with the use of GML (Geography Markup Language) which is an XML application (Michalak, 2003). The bases for predefined elements of language are the definitions originated from OGC Abstract Specification. The actual 3.1.1 version of GML was published 18 July 2006 at the OpenGIS Consortium site. GML responds to most ISO standards. The rules for coding the geographical information are specified in ISO 19118 e Geographic Information e Encoding standard worked out by Technical Committee ISO/TC 211 Geographic Information/Geometrics.

2.1.3

Multimedia

Interactive presentation of proposed development is also possible using commercial software. Shockwave of Macromedia Director allows recording 3D files with the possibility of moving within the virtual reality. Qualities: accessibility e plug-in enabling reading Shockwave is joined to Windows XP and preinstalled along with the operating system (after Macromedia Director 8.5 Shockwave Studio Feature Tour, available at www.macromedia.com), texture serving, built in reduction of number of polygons in geometrical models in relation to zoom, collision detection, import of models prepared in a few most popular modelling modules. User interaction is ensured by Lingo programming language, enabling shaping of virtual elements from user’s level like in computer games. It is possible to change future development position or alterations of location of building facades. The data in database may be read by clicking on an object. Information may be different: text, videos, details of chosen object.

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Other software which offers similar functionality was Atmosphere by Adobe, which allowed for moving around with the use of virtual personages.2 It was used for example in the project of regeneration of Park Noerrebro in Copenhagen (Holmgren et al., 2004). Another application is Anark (www.anark. com) used since 1994 for commercial presentation of products. Like other systems its use needs plug-in installation. The presentation and panoramas may use Viewpoint software as well (http://www.viewpoint.com/). For example, in Woodberry Down project by CASA University College London: http:// www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/woodberry, a website providing 3D presentation of different variants of development was delivered (Hudson-Smith et al., 2002).

2.1.4

Other methods of vision presentation

All applications are restricted by data transfer conditions, which remain limited for most users. Thus, in practice the most popular are WWW sites relying on html or php technology with static illustrations showing 2D plans and 3D models of development. Another possibility which does not need fast transfer is animation recorded as gif file, which allows for fluent transition between views. Interaction potential along with fast data transfer is offered by technology Flash by Macromedia. Swift 3D plug-in allows for graphic simulation e in techniques visually similar to comics e of 3D objects (after www.macromedia. com). One of the ways of presentation of static model is fitting it into a photograph of a site where it is to be. An alternative for construction of 3D models of urban areas is the use of film as a background for project (Chen et al., 2003). Software which offers such possibilities is for example Adobe AfterEffects. The technical difficulty which has to be overcome is precise reproduction of camera location when recording for further synchronisation with location of camera to register movement around planned objects.

2.2 Geographical Information Systems 2.2.1 GIS in the network (PPGIS) Participatory Planning Geographic Information Systems serve data with spatial reference to wide audience via the Internet. Common characteristic feature of all PPGIS projects is the use of GIS technology. Data are presented in network with the use of Internet GIS systems: ArcIMS; Autocad MapGuide, PostGIS which enable showing spatial data without a need to install software at the users’ station or with installation of simple plug-in. An example of this kind of sites is www.mapa.lodz.pl. The use of system needs qualifications both to operate an application and to manage the data contents. The data presented in this way include property data, demographic data, investment areas location, master plans, information on cultural and natural heritage. The system may be an interface to access multimedia: VRML panoramas, photographs or video films. The common fault of


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most PPGIS is an interface which often needs proficiency in planning issues to get real access to data. Allowing for data manipulation is a method to get user’s engagement (Geertman, 2001; Han and Peng, 2003). User looks through data and makes decisions about the way of their presentation using tools built in his/her interface. An example is http://www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/newtowns/. The site allows user to show chosen layers of data representing different parameters of sustainable development, and then to measure and combine them to get general indicator, which then may be used to range different centres according to level of their sustainability (Hudson-Smith et al., 2002). Sites providing data without treatment or partly treated such like neighbourhoods’ statistics allow user to download these data, showing them and treatment in software like Office (www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/home. asp). An example is a site presenting actual projects for London suburb Wandsworth. Visitor may verify last decisions and display data on a map (http://www.wandsworth.gov.uk/gis/map/mapstart.aspx). There are also sites accessible for registered users providing data in GIS/CAD format (for example: http://census.ac.uk/casweb). Data may be used by specialists with appropriate software and proficiency. The example of sites which enable users’ comments on different kinds of development for city’s areas is Virtual Slaithewaite Participatory Planning System, Slaithewaite, West Yorkshire, Great Britain (Kingston, 2002), http:// www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/slaithwaite/, worked out by Centre for Computational Geography, Leeds. All former comments may be displayed to facilitate opinion making. There are also examples of mixed use of different systems like SUCoD, http:// sucod.shef.ac.uk, which offers presentation of urban forms of different historical periods (Han and Peng, 2003). 3D visualisation is accessible after choosing plan elements and period of time. System enables user to pose questions and to acquire data, which may be used for further analysis. System makes use of 3D visualisation and GIS. The presentation is prepared with the use of VRML and Java. Cortona VRML Client is required to gain access to model.

2.2.2

Planning Support Systems as a tool for public participation

The Planning Support Systems is a general notion describing software which supports urban planning. The software enables displaying data in forms which are easy to understand by a layperson. The examples are The Community Viz and What if (Brail and Klosterman, 2001). Both applications allow for simulation of future state of a site after introducing parameters describing current state and planning conditions. The basis for analysis is the model of current

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land use. The parameters required to show future state are intensity of development, accepted height of buildings, buildings’ placement on the plot and other conditions that the buildings must fulfil. The software allows to envision land use alternatives and understand their potential environmental, economic, and social impacts. The example is Paint the Town system by Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission (Dieber, 2003). Until July 2003 project was applied in 77 communities and 271 suburbs of Chicago. During meetings in city hall officials and citizens worked over propositions of use of land and the character of development. A tool allowed for prognosis presentation, creation of scenarios and gathering information on local expectations. Paint the Town is a GIS tool used to support discussion. After introducing desired development the system generates feedback information concerning characteristics of future population, habitats and social structure.

3

Games as a tool in physical planning

Games are a tool with great educational potential. They offer great possibilities to generate 3D graphics in real time using hardware support. They enable object manipulation within a scene. The games are the most developed branch of computer graphics: their interactivity decides about educational possibilities. A user is rewarded for practical use of skills like movement coordination, logics, memorising, imagination, problem solving (Hanzl and Wrona, 2004). Games are often perceived as related with violence and developing indifference to human death. Such a negative connotation is, in the author’s opinion, unfounded. There are logic games, strategic games and many other kinds. An example of a typical educational game is Immersive Education by Media Stage, where users play historical persons www.mediastage.net. Another branch is restoring cultural heritage: www.virtualheritage.net (O’Coill and Doughty, 2004). Two games SimCity and Civilization, whose idea is town planning, gained great popularity. SimCity, invented by William Wright, is used in Massachusetts Institute of Technology as one of elements in urban planning education (http://www.geocities.com/edit6100/Task_4/SimCity. html). Similar possibilities are offered by simulations which are constructed for needs of a specific project and basing on modules identical with these used in network games. The games use avatars to communicate with other users regarding simulation at the same time. Furthermore, they allow to introduce changes into virtual environment.

3.1

Game technology as a communication medium

An example of cyberspace basing on VRML are Active Worlds (http://www. activeworlds.com). Active Worlds browser enables access to 3D VRML scenes. Every user is represented by a 3D personage e an avatar. Appearance of a character depends on user’s choice. Active Worlds are a combination of an interactive game with a kind of Internet forum with rich interaction


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possibilities. The biggest virtual world is AlphaWorld e ‘a town-similar world, where every piece of terrain belongs to individually registered user e virtual world inhabitant’. Moving within AlphaWorld is realised on foot e for short distances and by teleportation e for long ones. To move to another place one must write down co-ordinates and the required location is gained. Center of virtual world is in (0,0) point of the co-ordinate system e this is a place where user gets every time after logging into system. ‘Buildings’ development takes place around this point. An example of an experiment with similar functionality is ‘Wired Whitehall’ (Batty et al., 1998). The site allows for ‘visiting’ of the centre of London by choosing points on a plan, which refer to photorealistic panoramas of characteristic places in the town. The site uses mechanisms similar to ‘Active Worlds’. Logged users may speak to each other or use simple gestures of their avatars to communicate. There is a possibility of interaction with objects in a scene e in this respect it differs from AlphaWorld, where construction was possible only within own plot. The trials to move virtual objects independently on property are managed e the idea of experiments is to enable common decisions making in matters of real world development. In case of virtual public space the best place for discussion would be a vision of future development. An example is Electronic Neighborhood e virtual agora prepared with Adobe Atmosphere software allowing for communication and site visiting e used in project of regeneration of surroundings of a Noerrebro Park in Copenhagen by a team of School of Architecture at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (Holmgren et al., 2004). The project was connected with public discussion which took place at public meeting and at internet forum. A photosafari for pupils of local schools was also organised to show environment quality, www.e-kvarter.dk.

3.2

Simulation games

(.) simulation games, using game model, imitate real decision process in conflict situation. The games represent, in less or more formal way, situations accompanying project creation, base on people participation as on an important operational factor, thus allowing for taking into consideration behaviours of design participants in conflict situation. (Wrona, 1981) The earliest games simulated conflicts taking place in a town and applied to allocation of resources. In 1969 Richard Duke, considered one of simulation games inventors, designed a game Metropolis for Lansing City Council, Michigan. Computer was used to find out effects taken by decision makers. In the mid-1970’s in the later version of the game e Metro-Apex computer simulation took central place. A list of over 200 simulation games concerning architecture and urban planning along with comments can be found in Wrona (1981). Changes of planning thought of the beginnings of the 1980’s, going

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away from scientific planning towards developing of communication processes had great impact on the crisis of phenomenon modelling in town scale. Human participation got on importance. Role Playing Games (RPG) became standard technique for conflict solving. Development of computers, software and databases in the next two decades changed both scientific and practical possibilities of computer simulations. At the end of the 1980’s a renaissance of great scale models in spatial planning was observed, despite the fact that in practical situations predictive possibilities of models are questioned. Early simulations and games required access to servers and skills which had been rare. Improved graphics caused simulations and graphics to be not only accessible and absorbing but also intuitive and consequently easy to play. Thus, they may become a form of entertainment. Role Playing Games e RPG are used as sociological technique supporting mediations. The aim is to aid formulate citizens’ opinions during debate. The RPG is a useful tool in consensus building programmes for decision makers and planning professionals. Computer may be used both as a tool for simulation and communication. In order to arrange the process in a reliable way there should be a meeting of all participants at the beginning. Further actions may take place with the use of digital media. The process should be accompanied by periodical meetings and possibility of real contacts to avoid anonymity of participants. The idea of the game is, on the basis of an example of RPG, used in planning for landscape park in Senegal, that people participating exchange their roles. After a period of being responsible for other people’s tasks, consensus was easier to reach. A GIS system was used to present game course (D’Aquino et al., 2003).

4

Collaborative software

New paradigm of social participation in planning assumes collaboration of all interested parties (Innes and Booher 2000; Sanoff 2000). Both citizens and planners become providers and recipients of information. Such collaboration takes place in design groups and in internet systems where users are actively engaged in design process. A rapid development of new ways of use of network has been observed in last few years. A term groupware e software for group work had been introduced for ‘computer-based systems that support groups of people engaged in a common task (or goal) and that provide an interface to a shared environment’.3 It is also called collaborative software, which means software for computer supported collaboration. This group includes tools enabling mutual contacts (for example email or internet communicators: AOL or MSN), process management applications e calendaring, and software which enables creation and managing of information on a website by several users at the same time, used to


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group creating of knowledge bases. There are wiki (WikiWikiWeb, Wikipedia and Everything2) and Slashdot in this group. Great popularity is also gained by interactive forms of group communication: chat rooms and discussion forums. A term social software describes platforms of virtual social contacts, for example social networks like Friendster or Myspace. They allow for informal contacts of a group of people and take a role of traditional public spaces. Deliberation online describes interdisciplinary discussion via the Internet. It includes: consultations, voting, debate, online facilitation e software which enables creation of online communities, dialogue on citizens’ issues via internet forums and chat rooms and also group decision making with the use of software enabling collaboration within working groups. All above-mentioned forms use electronic media in a way which improves mutual understanding of users. According to research on collective intelligence e which means intelligence of a group or of a community4 e group work is not a sum of effects of work of single participants but provides new values, which appears as an effect of collective work. As it was said before communicating of people is accompanied by creation of new values (Kamin´ski, 2002, p.103). A condition of efficiency of these forms of communication is continuous activity of responders and thus reliability of presented information. According to the Metcalfe’s5 law, which states that the more people who use something the more valuable it becomes, the potential of WWW site is related to its popularity. Techniques for public participation in planning: charette, synectic session, Brainstorming and Buzz Session, take-part workshop, scenario method, simulation games or RPG (Wrona, 1981, p.57) may be successfully used within net participation, with the use of groupware.

5

Net participation typology

Different kinds of online participation may be ordered in analogy to the ladder of citizens’ participation by Susan Arnstein.6 The lowest step of the ladder describes an utterly passive behaviour and concerns public right to know, while the full interactivity occurs at the top of the ladder as the participation in making decisions. In the schema in Figure 2, devised by the scientists from Leeds, the lowest step is passive supporting of information and the highest one are systems supporting decisions working via the Internet (Jankowski and Nyerges, 2001; Kingston, 2002). The schema devised by the scientists from CASA, London (Figure 3) includes also the design by local society and virtual worlds. Such actions may engage more participants e actors of virtual scenes e than in systems supporting decisions (Hudson-Smith et al., 2002). A new net participation typology has appeared in the last few years (HudsonSmith et al., 2002). Different kinds of participation may use different

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Online services Online discussion forums Communication barrier Online surveys

Figure 2 E-participation lad-

Basic WWW site

der (Kingston, 2002)

Level of communication

Online comments on chosen solutions

1 direction

Increasing participation

PPGIS

2 directions

Making decisions online

Virtual worlds

Figure 3 Broadened ladder of e-participation (HudsonSmith et al., 2002 after Kingston, 2002)

Increasing participation

Virtual project studio Community project system Systems supporting decisions online

Increasing communication

communication channels in the network. There are seven types of receivers and supporters of information (Figure 4). They may exchange their roles. The list contains professionals of planning, professionals of computer science and lay persons. There are IT experts e system designers; urban professionals e people responsible for communication of information in planning; group of professionals e people who are interested in planning and influence urban professionals; administrators, councillors, politicians e groups interested in planning and disposing some knowledge on the subject; politicians e individuals with rights to make decisions; groups of citizens e people sharing common engagement, able to organise and act together and stakeholders e the most often those who are directly touched by the issue. Looking from the point of view of the theory of information a slightly different approach may be assumed with the division for data providers and data users. In a really interactive system users become data providers. In a well functioning system without manipulation the technical functions like preliminary processing of data and data providing should be completed in the background. In the realised systems, these functions remain the most important ones because of the experimental character and status of the prototype of systems.

Online surveys Online discussions 2 directions Communication barrier Online services


1 direction

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Form of communication

Level of communication

Addressees

IT experts

Collaborative software

Cooperation

IT experts

Professionals authors

Games

Discussion

Professionals authors

Professionals milieu

3D VRML/ animation

Voting

Professionals milieu

Officials/Politicians

Forum/chat/ communicators

Opinions

Officials/Politicians

Local organisations

PPGIS

Transactions/ services

Local organisations

Stakeholders

Formularies/email

Education

Stakeholders

Citizens/Groups of citizens

Text/illustrations /downloadable data

Information

Citizens/Groups of citizens

Providers / Senders

Figure 4 Net participation e classification. Schema author after (Hudson-Smith et al., 2002)

6

Augmented reality systems

Augmented Reality (AR) e reality combined with some virtual elements e used for group working, public participation in planning, project consultations. Lonsing (2004) proposes the definition: ‘(.) an augmented reality system generates a composite view in real time. The composition is a combination of a real scene viewed by a user and a virtual scene generated by a computer, where the real scene is submerged with additional information in order to enhance the perception of the user.’ In an aim to get such ‘composition’ a position of an eye must be followed and virtual elements e two or three dimensional e generated in a way as if they were seen from a fixed point. An example of Augmented Reality system is ARTHUR e an Augmented Reality (AR) enhanced round table to support complex design and planning decisions for architects (Fatah gen. Schieck et al., 2004). The system uses wireless devices for vision creation (CV e computer vision). Input data are taken from glasses shaped cameras worn by users during the experiment, and from static camera to catch hands movements. Virtual objects manipulated by users are displayed as stereoscopic visualisation. Use of CAD system (Microstation) allows to shape objects according to needs. Apart from Augmented Reality systems in literature there is also a conception of tangible devices e which function on a basis of touch. An example of such system was constructed in Hong Kong (Seichter and Kvan, 2004). Moving virtual objects is connected with moving real objects e moving boxes on a table causes moving objects in virtual space. Another example of tools of this kind is Illuminating Clay e user changes a model made of clay, which influences changes of

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virtual model (Ishii et al., 2004). MouseHaus Table is an interface for pedestrian movement simulation in a city (Huang et al., 2003). Mobile devices include a video camera, a coloured sheet of paper, scissors and a table with projection. Introducing buildings is achieved by use of models cut out of coloured paper. CAVE is a rectangular room, whose walls, floor and ceilings are screens to display video projection (http://www.evl.uic.edu/paper/CAVE). Sensors verify observer’s position and match display to it. Interaction is possible via joysticks, touch panels or specially designed devices (Wœssner et al., 2004). There may be more than one person inside CAVE at the same time, which allows for discussion and decision making (Voigt et al., 2004). Simulated environment may be displayed at any scale. CAVE enables presentation of variants of planned development. Researches proceeded in laboratory of Faculty of Architecture of Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (Lang and Hovestadt, 2004) concern experimental methods of interaction with model using 3D video record of people taking part in meetings. The holograms of participating persons are displayed in virtual space. User moves which in turn makes his/her hologram move in virtual reality. 3D video technology enables communication between users in virtual space. User may influence virtual environment by pushing appropriate place on a wall which causes moving of an object in 3D space. There are trials to overlap design simulation with real surroundings (Kieferle and Wœssner, 2003). It is done using special markers, which allow for precise location of points in real and virtual space and then matching the two images. User provided with special glasses sees projected development looking at the real place. Superposition of real and virtual world may be seen also at the screen. Switching between variants is enabled via keyboard. Another way is moving sensors on real, reduced scale models of buildings (Kieferle and Wœssner, 2003). Manipulating of models causes changes in virtual world e they may be observed also in CAVE in 1:1 scale. Such device makes working in group much easier. Tabak and de Vries (2003) describe an intuitive device used for shaping of buildings in urban scale which acts in a similar way. Buildings are represented by rectangular boxes. User manipulates objects and system introduces information about proposed position of buildings in interactive way in relation to each other and to surroundings. A project built in this way is displayed simultaneously on screens at three sides of the device. Beside visual simulation of the project including elements which characterise perception: lines of sight of observer, positions of shadows, information on accessibility, silhouette of buildings, the system provides also numeric values: dimensions, area of objects, cubature, estimated costs, objects’ functions and also statistics of above-mentioned parameters.


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Table 1 Use of computer communication in local authorities activities in physical planning: kinds, forms and valorization of communication

Kind of communication

Forms of communication

Type of communication 1

2

3

Informing

Text Text and graphic attachments e bitmaps or pdf files Text and graphic attachments e use of PPGIS

X X X

e e e

e e e

Education

Documents with commentaries Drawing and plan records presented with the use of PPGIS e a form of abstract 3D simulation of planning document Static images representing vision from bird’s or from passing-by person’s point of view. Animations representing vision from bird’s or from passing-by person’s point of view. 3D interactive simulation of proposed development. Education games e interactive presentation of planning documents. The simplest form of interaction is ability to displace within virtual world. Interactive www sites with 2D graphics. Interactive www sites with 3D graphics.

X X

e e

e e

X X

e e

e e

X

e

e

X X

X X

e e

X X

X X

e e

Questionnaires: close e options choosing, or open e answers for questions Survey e a form of voting Opinions, observations or demands sent by email Forms allowing for opinions gathering Competitions Observation and recording of actions and phenomena Voting

e

X

e

e e e e e e

X X X X X X

e e e X X X

Referendum

Mechanism of decision-making voting. It requires authentication of persons taking part in voting to get reliability.

e

X

X

Transactions

Mechanisms enabling arranging issues concerning the participation in planning via the net

X

X

X

Discussion

Chat room e virtual platform of discussion with the use of text messages in Real Time. Synchronic form of communication. Message boards, discussion boards e virtual platform of discussion with the use of text messages. Asynchronic form of communication Expositions connected with discussion Panel discussion e synchronic or asynchronic

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X

X

X

X

Citizens opinions

Cooperation with use of groupware

302

Virtual public space, where users are represented by avatars who may discuss with each other, with professionals and with officials. Common use of application Data conferencing e users may modify common ‘board’. Voice conferencing Video conferencing Electronic meeting system (EMS) e conference system built into a special purpose room (screen, projector, a few computers). Collaborative management tools: Electronic calendar (time management software) e automatically starts events, informs and reminds group members about it,


Table 1 (continued )

Kind of communication

Forms of communication

Project management system e starts, track and monitor project realization, Knowledge management system e collects, organises, manages and allows for sharing different forms of information, Social software e organises social life of a group Collaborative software basing on WWW (UseModWiki, Scoop), or independent software (CVS e Concurrent Versions System, RCS e Revision Control System). This kind of software enables creation of final version of project by a few users simultaneously.

Type of communication 1

2

3

X

X

X

Communication types: 1. one direction, broadcasted by authorities and addressed to citizens; 2. one direction, senders e citizens, addressee e authorities; 3. two directions e both citizens and authorities become senders or addressees of the communication.

7

Conclusions

New information technology offers citizens new possibilities of participation in the planning process. Essential goals and tasks to achieve with the use of new media: 1. Provide communication platform suppressing a barrier of nonprofessionalism 2. Allow for distant contacts 3. Manage a participatory planning process. A detailed list of techniques and computer tools available to use in physical planning is contained in Table 1. Most of the examples of IT use described in literature are still experimental. The projects verify available technical possibilities and do not match real actions connected with social participation in planning. Constraints are an effect of lack of funds, politics of authorities and technical factors: data transfer restrictions or lack of network (Martin et al., 2002). In most cases, the main function of system is the informative one. The restriction of use of 3D graphics is also an effect of costs and time consuming of 3D modelling, and thus difficulties of current updates introduction. Most of examples show how computer tools may be used for visualising the new development and not for constructive process of continuous public participation. Great potential lies in the use of collaborative software and groupware. The applications of this kind may be used in the citizens activity independently from the official authorities actions. The potential of experimental IT tools like Augmented Reality systems opens utterly new ways of non-professional participation in urban planning.


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1. Examples of a few most popular and the oldest models: Glasgow model (Abacus, Department of Architecture, The University of Strathclyde, Glasgow; http://iris.abacus. strath.ac.uk/glasgow); Los Angeles model (Urban Simulation Team, Department of Architecture and Urban Design, University of California, Los Angeles; www.ust.ucla. edu); New York model (Environmental Simulation Center, Ltd., New York; www. simcenter.org/); London model (Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University Central London; http://www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/3dcities/london3d.htm). 2. Adobe gave up the software in December 2004 as it required broad band connection and gained little popularity, after www.adobe.com. 3. ‘Computer-based systems that support groups of people engaged in a common task (or goal) and that provide an interface to a shared environment’, after Ellis, C A, Gibbs, S J and Rein, G (1991) Groupware: some issues and experiences Commun ACM Vol 34, No 1 pp 39e58, after (Hovig and Wium Lie, 1993). 4. WWW sites concerning group intelligence and the use of groupware: http://www.wie.org/collective/resources.asp; http://www.collectivewisdominitiative.org/; http://www.co-intelligence.org/; http://www.thedialoguegrouponline.com/;

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http://www.theworldcafe.com/; http://www.solonline.org/; http://www.openspace world.com/, verified 20.08.2006. 5. Robert Melancton Metcalfe e co-inventor of Ethernet, author of Metcalfe’s Law e after Wikipedia e free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe, verified 18.08.2006. 6. The famous schema by Susan Arnstein was published in 1969: The ladder of citizen participation Journal of Institute of American Planners, Vol 35, No 4 pp 216e240; Fig. p. 216 (Healey, 1997, p.26).


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