narrow a specialization too soon, to the detriment of the students' general scientific ... Master's degree than for an equivalent period of experience in industry -.
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EDUCATION: THE THE POST-GRADUATE POST-GRADUATE SCENE SCENE INITIATIVES IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION:
R.W.H. Sargent* Sargent* R.W.H. THF THE RACKGROHND BACKGROUND
Post-graduate Post-graduate activity activity covers covers research, research, full-time full-time advanced advanced courses courses leading to a higher degree or diploma, and short courses on specialized specialized subjects. subjects. Let us start by considering full-time courses, which nowadays normally of study study beyond beyond aa Bachelor's Bachelor's degree, degree, and and lead lead to to the the award award require one year of Suchcourses courses are are more more widespread widespread in in science science and and Master's degree. degree. Such of a Master's engineering, and the need for for them them arose arose from from the the recognition recognition that that the the traditional British bachelor's bachelor's degree degree could could no no longer longer take take the the student student to to the "frontiers of knowledge" over a sufficiently broad front. An earlier answer to this problem was the introduction of more specialized (so-called "single degrees, and and "single subject") subject") honours degrees to replace broader general degrees, the specialized Master's course was seen as a further means of avoiding too narrow a specialization specialization too too soon, soon, to to the the detriment detriment of of the the students' students' general general scientific education. education. Of course, this basic issue of breadth versus depth affects all phases of the education process, process, and and it it is is particularly particularly important important for for engineering, engineering, natural and and social social sciences, sciences, quite quite which requires a mix of mathematics, natural apart from the issue of what what constitutes constitutes aa "properly "properly educated educated man". man". However However we are here concerned only with the impact of postgraduate study study on on the the problem. problem. In of the the Robbins Robbins Report Report (1), (1), whose whose basic basic tenet tenetwas was"that that In the aftermath of higher education should be be expanded expanded so so that that courses courses of of higher higher education education are are available for all those who are qualified qualified by by ability ability and and attainment attainment to to the universities universities received strong support pursue them and who wish to do so so", support - , the through both the University Grants Committee (UGC) and the Science Research Council (SRC) to build up Master's Master's courses. courses. Industry Industry however however was was not not impressed, impressed, suspicious suspicious that most of those taking the courses were graduates wishing to hide the mediocrity of their first degree under the Master's Master's label. label. In In their their recruitment recruitment policies they therefore gave less credit for a Master's degree than for an equivalent equivalent period period of of experience experience in in industry industry -thus able students students to to attend attend the the courses courses and and thus removing the motivation for able ensuring eventually confirmed! confirmed! ensuring that their suspicions were eventually Industry in the the specialized specialized instruction instruction in in Industry was nevertheless interested in and as as the the economic economic screw screw particular particular areas areas embodied embodied in some of the courses, and tightened tightened in in the seventies, the committees of the Science Research Council became more and more concerned with "industrial relevance", withdrawing extensions of first their - merely extensions their recognition recognition of those courses which were "merely degree those courses courses which which did did not not produce produce degree courses", and eventually also of those significant significant numbers numbers of British graduates going straight into British British industry. industry. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, the number of studentships made available was no
** Department Department of of Chemical Chemical Engineering, Imperial College, Prince Consort Road, 2BY. Road, London SW7 2BY.
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longer enough enough to to sustain sustain even even the the recognised recognised courses, courses, so so the thepolicy policywas was longer inevitably inevitably self-defeating self-defeating -- the the number number of of home home students students on on Masters' Masters'courses courses was was reduced reduced to to vanishing vanishing point, point, and and the the SRC SRC ceased ceased to to have have any any significant significant influence on on the the courses courses offered. offered. influence The The SRC SRC was was concerned concerned only only with with the the provision provision of of studentships, studentships, and and the the major resources resources for for running running the the courses courses came came via via the the UGC. UGC. The The criticisms criticisms of of major post-graduate education education contained contained in in the the Third Third Report Report of of the theExpenditure Expenditure post-graduate Committee Committee (2) (2) were were therefore therefore aa more more serious serious threat threat to to developments. developments. This This report advocated advocated aa "rationalization "rationalization of of postgraduate postgraduate courses courses and and research", research", report and and recommended recommended that that "taught "taught courses courses should should be be orientated orientated towards towards the the needs needs of of post-experience post-experience students", students", that that "new "new ways ways should should be be sought sought to to enable enable post-experience students students to to do do postgraduate postgraduate research", research", and and that that post-experience "pre-experience students should should be be discouraged discouraged from from doing doing postgraduate postgraduate pre-experience students research or or non-vocational non-vocational courses, courses, but but encouraged encouraged to to take take vocational vocational research taught courses courses leading leading to to qualifications qualifications which which are are aa pre-requisite pre-requisite for for entry entry taught to aa career". career". The The terms terms "experience" "experience" and and "career" in in these these recommendations recommendations to refer only only to to experience experience and and careers careers in in industry, industry, the the needs needs of of other other refer sectors, including including Government Government research research and and the the universities universities themselves, themselves, sectors, being completely completely ignored. Finally,they theypointed pointedout outindustry's industry's reluctance reluctance being ignored. Finally, their employees employees for for the the periods periods necessary necessary to to gain gain aa higher higher to release their and asserted asserted that that aa large large part part of of the the demand demand for for specialized specialized degree, and instruction was better better met met by by short short courses. courses. day in in their their White White Paper Paper (3) (3) almost almost Fortunately, the Government of the day completely They set set out out three three broad broad objectives objectives for for completely rejected rejected the the Report. Report. They postgraduate education education as as follows: follows: postgraduate i) i)
The training of men and and women women in in the the skills skills and and attitudes attitudes required required to to meet the future needs of industry and commerce, the professions, the of course, course, the the higher higher education education institutions institutions public services and, of themselves ("manpower needs"). needs").
ii) ii)
The satisfaction of the demand demand from from students students who who are are qualified, qualified, suitable a first first degree degree ("individual ("individual suitable and keen to proceed beyond a demand"). demand").
iii) still under under training, training, iii) The contribution which research students, while still make as aa manpower manpower resource resource to the advancement of knowledge or to the make as research ("institutional demand"). demand"). research capability of an institution ("institutional They related mainly mainly to to home home students, students, They also also pointed out that, whilst (i) related there there were were other other objectives objectives related related to to overseas students, including aid for developing developing countries, countries, improvement improvement of international relations, and building up up good good will will amongst amongst people people who who will will one one day day be be in in aa position position to to buy buy British British goods. They went went on on to to discuss discuss the the difficulties difficulties in assessing longer-term goods. They longer-term manpower manpower needs, needs, and and rejected rejected the the oversimplified view that research training is mainly vocational vocational needs. needs. is nonvocational nonvocational while while taught courses fulfill mainly Finally, Finally, they they pointed pointed out out both both advantages advantages and disadvantages of a period of industrial industrial experience experience before before undertaking undertaking postgraduate studies, and concluded that that "the "the content content and and balance balance of of postgraduate postgraduate training, training, in in all its complexity, complexity, are are best best left left to to the the autonomous autonomous interaction interaction of of the the institutions institutions themselves, themselves, the the award-making award-making bodies bodies and and the the employers", employers", commending commending the the higher needs of of the the higher education education sector sector on on its its record of responsiveness to "the needs economy economy and and of of society society as as a whole".
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In In 1980 the Finniston Report(4) Report(4) recognized recognized the the need need for for some some engineers engineers to be educated to a higher higher level level than than was was possible possible in in the the standard standard first first degree course, putting the emphasis emphasis on on the the nature nature of of the the education education rather rather The Report Report than on on the the acquisition acquisition of of additional additional specialized specialized knowledge. knowledge. The than stated that "there is a need for aa cadre cadre of of engineers engineers combining combining technical technical capabilities with the personal potential potential for for leading leading others others both both in in the the development of advanced technology technology and and the the management management of of engineering engineering operations ... We envisage this this stream stream providing providing around around one-quarter one-quarter of of future They proposed proposed aa four-year four-year course course leading leading to to future qualified engineers". They Master of Engineering Engineering (MEng) (MEng) to to provide provide the the majority majority of of this this cadre, cadre, but but said said that there should also be available post-graduate post-graduate and and post-experience post-experience courses to upgrade some of those those who who had had taken taken aa shorter shorter first first degree degree course course (specifically (specifically their their proposed new BEng course). course). The The Report Report also also noted noted the the unsatisfactory situation situation concerning concerning the the use use made made of of one-year one-year Masters' Masters' courses by home students; it recommended that most existing existing MSc MSc courses courses be be discontinued, with the "restructured "restructured and and reoriented" reoriented" material material being being absorbed absorbed into into the latter phases of the new MEng courses, "although there will will still still be a continuing need need for for aa number number of of specialist specialist one-year one-year or or shorter shorter courses courses TheEngineering EngineeringCouncil, Council, in particular particular technologies technologies or or applications". applications". The in formed formed as a result of the Finniston Finniston Report, Report, endorsed endorsed the the general general principles principles of the Report in its Policy Policy Statement Statement (5), (5), but but suggested suggested that that MEng MEng students students should form about 20% of the engineering student student population population or or 16% 16% of of the the engineering graduate graduate output. output. The Finniston Report Report does does not not have have much much to to say say about about the the role role of of academic research, contribution to to culture culture and and the the prosperity prosperity of of research, either as a contribution the country or as a means of education. It disagrees disagrees with with the the claim claim in in the the Baker Report (6), produced produced by by the the Fellowship Fellowship of of Engineering, Engineering, "that "that relations relations between research workers in in academic academic institutions institutions and and industry industry are are not not close close enough, leading to a situation where much much research research is is carried carried out out without without input beneficiary", but but endorses endorses the the view view of of that that report report input from the ultimate beneficiary", that "engineering research should should be be considered considered as as the the combination combination of of new new scientific discovery with the the practical practical design design and and development development of of aa real real product or process of proven, or potentially likely, likely, utility. utility. Involvement Involvement by industry is essential at all stages of research, development development and and design design TheFinneston Finneston report report did did not not recognize recognize academic academic research research as as valid valid ..." ...- The engineering experience for registration registration purposes, purposes, but but stated stated aa preference preference for for the the MEng graduate to return to the university "to proceed to an based research of engineering-based research degree" degree" following following his his qualifying qualifying period of engineeringTheyrealized realizedthat that qualified qualified engineers engineers in in experience experience in in industry. industry. They industrial employment employment would would not not willingly willingly return return to to student student levels levels well-paid industrial of remuneration, and recommended recommended the the introduction introduction of of teaching teaching fellowships fellowships to to combine research and teaching responsibilities, responsibilities, carrying carrying salaries salaries commensurate with with previous previous earnings. earnings. Most of the external external support support for for academic academic engineering engineering research research comes comes from Science and and Engineering Engineering Research Research Council) Council) and and from the SRC (now renamed the Science since the creation of a separate separate Engineering Engineering Board Board within within SRC SRC in in 1969, 1969, they they have also placed increasing increasing emphasis emphasis on on "industrially "industrially relevant" relevant" research, research, schemes to to promote promote industry-university industry-university with the creation of a number of schemes These include include "Cooperative "Cooperative Awards Awards for for Science Science and and collaboration. collaboration. These Engineering" (CASE awards), awards), for for aa joint joint project project in in which which SERC SERC provides provides aa studentship and the company makes a bonus payment to the student and an additional "training support support grant" grant" to to the the university, university, "Cooperative "Cooperative Grants" Grants" in costs and and in in return return acquires acquires in which a company pays part of the research costs the intellectual property property rights rights arising arising from from the the research, research, the the creation of
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Directorates, which take a more pro pro-active - active role in determining the research programmes funded through them, and the Teaching Company Company schemes, schemes, not not strictly research, but designed to effect technology transfer from universities to industry. industry. universities to Over this period, several reports reports appeared appeared on on the the theme theme of of universityuniversityindustry Report (7) (7) and and the the industry collaboration, for example the joint ACARD/ABRC Report Second Report of the House of Lords Select Select Committee Committee on on Science Science and and Technology (8), and there has been a substantial increase in directly funded contract research in universities. Indeed there is is now now aa growing growing feeling feeling in in industry industry that the process has gone too far, and that there is some danger of killing For example, example, aa killing off off the the goose goose that that lays lays the the golden goldeneggs. eggs. For consultant's report to Harwell (9) (9) giving giving the the results results of of aa wide-ranging wide-ranging survey of industrial R and D needs, reported that "there is widespread concern among industrialists that the the pressures pressures on on universities universities for for 'relevance', 'relevance', and and the the need need they they face face to earn money to alleviate financial hardship, has dangerously eroded eroded the the amount amount of of basic basic research research being being undertaken They added added that that "universities "universities were were seen seen as as the the undertaken or or proposed". proposed". They correct location for 'basic research' (in appropriate areas) rather than for applied research and development, for which many consider consider them them unsuited". unsuited". In In aa recent recent Policy Policy Statement on Engineering Research in Universities (10), detailed analysis analysis (10), the the Engineering Engineering Professors' Professors' Conference (EPC) make a detailed Theyconclude conclude that, that, if if funds funds could could be be made made of of the the issues issues involved. involved. They available, the number of full-time full-time engineering engineering research research workers workers (i.e. (i.e. students and research assistants) in universities could be increased from the present level of about 6000 to 8000, 8000, and and that that these these numbers numbers would would still still not meet the potential need. need. They They point point out out that that home home engineering engineering research research students cannot be recruited at current SERC studentship levels, which offer little more than a third of the effective nett remuneration of a new graduate in industry, and and suggest suggest that that research research students students should should be be paid paid as as research assistants, assistants, which which would would go go some some way way to to redressing redressing the the balance. balance. On this basis, they estimated that the costs of specific research support (above the UGC basic funding) funding) would would amount amount to to £120M £120M per per annum annum (at (at 1983-4 1983-4 prices). Arguing that universities had a special responsibility to undertake .indertake "long "long term term applied applied research, research, of of the the kind kind which which provides 'enabling technology' which is notexpected expected to toproduce producecommercially commercially exploitable exploitable technology' or which is not
results for at least five years", years", they they suggested suggested that that two-thirds two-thirds of of the the research should be in this category. The £80M per annum required is to be compared with the total SERC support support of of £51M £51M for for university university engineering engineering research in 1983-4, which of course included much support for other kinds of research activity. Nevertheless, they concluded that that £80M £80M would would represent represent aa fairer fairer share share of SERC SEPC support for engineering, still proportionally less than for remainder might might come come from from other other Government Government for science, and that the remainder Departments and industry. They pointed out that this represents a relatively insignificant shift in the overall R & D expenditure expenditure of of these these bodies, which would would be be highly highly cost-effective. cost-effective. Comment and Conclusions Conclusions We thus have aa plethora plethora of of issues issues to to consider: consider: face of of industry's industry's - Should we persist with one-year MSc courses in the face indifference condemnation)? indifference (or indeed condemnation)? dealing with with advanced advanced topics? topics? - Are short courses a better vehicle for dealing universities and and professional professional institutions institutions - What are the relative roles of universities in area? in this area?
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- Is Is MEng MEng the the right right formula for producing the elite cadre of engineers for industry? industry? - Does PhD research represent a valuable valuable form form of of post-graduate post-graduate training? training? - Have we got the balance right in in university university engineering engineering research? research? changes of of university university structures structures required required to to meet meet today's today's - Are more radical changes needs? needs? It It is a commonly held belief that traditionally university scholars concerned themselves mainly with research and scholarship, and that the teaching activity was confined to teaching undergraduates, with the the conferment of a degree denoting denoting aa final final seal seal of of approval approval and and eligibility eligibility to to join the community of scholars. In fact fact post-graduate post-graduate teaching teaching existed existed from from the earliest times, with the the award award of of higher higher degrees degrees such such as as Master Master of of Arts Arts or Master of Divinity, Divinity, and and even even doctorates doctorates were were awarded, awarded, not not for for research, research, but on the basis of advanced advanced study study tested tested by by examinations. examinations. It It was was not not until until the late nineteenth century that British British universities universities considered considered the the acceptance of "original research", presented in the form of a thesis, as a higher degree, degree, and and although although the the PhD PhD had had existed existed in in qualification for for aa higher qualification Germany since the early nineteenth nineteenth century, century, it it was was only only in in 1917 1917 that that aa conference of all British universities universities recommended recommended its its introduction introduction into into Britain Britain "Co to be be awarded awarded after after aa period period of of not not less less than than two two years years whole-time advanced study study or or research. research."work devoted to advanced Post-graduate teaching was in fact fact aa vital vital function function for for the the university, university, for the teaching teaching of of new new material, material, using using for it provided a testing ground for the students who were already capable of critical evaluation evaluation and and constructive constructive They thus thus played played an an essential essential role role in in the the consolidation consolidation of criticism. They criticism. research findings into an accepted accepted and and organized organized body body of of knowledge. knowledge. This This function function is no less important to universities today, and indeed indeed is is often often the the means of introducing new new subject subject areas areas or or even even new new disciplines. disciplines. Chemical Chemical engineering itself started as a field for postgraduate study, and the one-year postgraduate "conversion" "conversion" courses courses for for chemists chemists and and other other engineers engineers played an important role in its its development development as as aa discipline discipline in in this this country. country. Computing science provides a more recent example of the same process, process, and and control engineering is still thought of of as as aa largely largely postgraduate postgraduate activity. activity. Short courses are indeed a more flexible vehicle for dealing with specialist topics, but in some cases cases considerable considerable background background material material is is required, while in others difficult concepts are are involved involved which which take take time time to to absorb and master. Advanced control ideas provide an excellent example for for each of these categories. Thus one must retain retain aa flexibility flexibility of of approach, approach, and there remains a place for for some some longer longer full-time full-time courses. courses. People People will will is use and apply only only material material which which they they thoroughly thoroughly understand, understand, and and it it is illusory to to suppose suppose that that working working engineers engineers can pick up new ideas and and illusory concepts, and become sufficiently confident in in their their use, use, by by merely merely spending spending course. a few days on a short course. The Government White White Paper Paper (3) (3) in in setting setting out out the the need need for for training training in in attitudes, and the Finniston Report in advocating a four-year skills skills and attitudes, MEng course course to to educate educate an elite cadre of engineers, both touch on a deeper issue. and if if aa student student Issue. Attitudes Attitudes and ways of thought take time to develop, and is objective observation observation and and critical critical is to develop an instinctive habit of objective appraisal of facts and ideas, he needs time to think think on on his his own own and and time time for for discussion With all all the the discussion with with his his teachers teachers and andhis hisfellow fellowstudents. students. With pressures date, or or to to broaden broaden the the pressures to to add add new new material material to keep courses up to date, students' education, this becomes increasingly increasingly difficult difficult within within the the compass compass of a three-year course. And if a student is in any case going to spend four
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years in the university, it is obviously sensible to plan from the beginning a coherent coherent course course spanning spanning the the whole whole period. period. This This provides provides more more than than adequate justification for a four-year four-year MEng MEng course, course, without without having having to to venture onto the doubtful doubtful ground ground of of assessing assessing the the potential potential for for leadership leadership and devizing devizing courses courses intended intended to to develop develop such such potential. potential. One One would would hope hope that the development of such a discipline of the mind would would be be aa basic basic objective in all post-graduate work, and indeed it it is is exactly exactly this this which which justifies the "Master's" "Master's" title title for for the the MEng MEng course. course. The introduction of the PhD was a major innovation, innovation, creating creating aa large large corps of research workers in the universities which which greatly greatly expanded expanded the the scope for research of all kinds, irrevocably tilting the balance of emphasis However, However, as as an an towards research and and the the acquisition acquisition of of new new knowledge. knowledge. in the the examination of universities' regulations will will reveal, reveal, the emphasis emphasis in examination of universities' regulations asessment of a PhD is still on on scholarship scholarship rather rather than than research research -- new new discoveries take second place to critical critical evaluation evaluation and and appraisal. appraisal. Thus Thus carrying out a PhD project is is much much more more than than aa training training in in research research skills skills and techniques. It may indeed indeed involve involve aa great great deal deal of of advanced advanced study, study, not not only in researching the relevant background, background, but but also also in in gaining gaining mastery mastery in in new subject areas which may turn out to be be relevant. relevant. It It is is also also an an exercise exercise in in management, in the planning and execution execution of of aa complex complex project project within within aa given timescale, but without a deadline which which might might otherwise otherwise provide provide an an excuse for not pursuing a line line of of enquiry enquiry to to its its conclusion. conclusion. Above Above all all it it is discovers himself, himself, and and comes comes to to know know is an experience in which the student discovers his limitations. limitations. his abilities and his In addition, most universities universities now now also also require require advanced advanced study study in in aa broader range of courses than those strictly strictly required required for for the the project project itself. Thus it is a comprehensive and relatively itself. relatively expensive expensive training, training, but but one which we should be prepared prepared to to afford afford for for our our most most able able students, students, kind of of career career they they choose choose to to follow. follow. whatever kind All this of course ignores the by-product by-product of of the the PhD PhD study, study, the the results results of the research, and here here the the PhD PhD has has also also proved proved its its worth. worth. The The opportunity it affords of working with able young people with fresh, keen minds is one of the the most most exhilarating exhilarating aspects aspects of of academic academic life, life, and and the the supervisor-student partnership provides an appropriate balance of of experience experience and knowledge against enthusiasm enthusiasm and and the the urge urge to to question question and and examine examine everything anew. everything anew. On the nature of the research itself, I do do believe believe that that the the universities have a prime responsibility responsibility to to carry carry out out the the longer longer term term research, for it is that which contributes most to improved understanding and the extension of the corpus of knowledge. The direct involvement of industry industry in all phases of university research, as advocated by by the the Baker Baker Committee, is clearly unrealistic, but it is necessary necessary for for engineering engineering academics to involve themselves in the whole range of of research research and and development, collaborating with industry as appropriate, for it is only in that way that they will gain a proper perspective of what is really worth doing. doing. As chairman of the working party which produced the EPC report, I stand stand by its analysis and its its conclusions. conclusions. However, However, although although the the required required shift shift in be insignificant, insignificant, II am am well well aware aware of of the the in R & D expenditure may be considerable shift in in attitudes attitudes required required to to bring bring this this about! about!
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