Intelligent transportation systems and parking ...

doi:10.1016/j.cities.2004.01.001

Cities, Vol. 21, No. 2, p. 137–148, 2004  2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Printed in Great Britain 0264-2751 $ - see front matter

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Intelligent transportation systems and parking management: implementation potential in a Brazilian city Marcello Marinho Berenger Vianna*, Licıńio da Silva Portugal and Ronaldo Balassiano Transport Engineering Program, PET/COPPE/UFRJ, Centro de Tecnologia, Cidade Universita´ria, Bloco H, Sala 106, CEP: 21945-970, 68512 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

The problems arising from the gap between demand and supply of parking spaces are becoming increasingly acute in most towns and cities. These difficulties are noted mainly in more densely populated areas that are poorly served by public transportation facilities and where the planning and use of existing areas is inadequate. The importance of controlling parking spaces as an integral element of the traffic and trip demand management process, together with the need to ensure a close-linked conceptual approach, has been defined and defended for quite some time. This paper presents a methodological procedure that underpins the feasibility of implementing an integrated parking system based on telematics resources. This procedure includes the development of a logic architecture for processing and transferring data and information. In order to test the proposed procedure, a medium-sized Brazilian town in the Rio de Janeiro Metropolitan Region—Niteroí—was considered. A specific survey area covering some two square kilometres with a significant number of parking facilities was selected for the analysis. The results expected through the implementation of the proposed system indicate that the resulting benefits would include possibly lower levels of traffic congestion in the area under consideration, while also reducing air pollution.  2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: parking management, ITS, telematics, traffic congestion, air pollution

Introduction

Wall, 2002). This confirms the importance of promoting parking management and control policies that are compatible with the transport planning process and social and economic development. As an integral element of the transportation planning process, parking management is no recent phenomenon, having been defined and defended for quite some time (Jackson, 1973). The study carried out by F.F. Abbott and A.C. Johnson in 1926 (Municipal Administration of the Roman Empire) noted that in Ancient Rome, problems were already being noted with traffic congestion, prompting municipal laws that curtailed the movement of carts and carriages, as well as charging fees for taking up road space by parking (Click, 1996). The current scenario in major urban centres is not very different, but merely more complex, particularly

The problems generated by the lack of parking spaces are becoming more acute in many towns and cities, particularly in more densely populated areas that are already trying to cope with inadequate public transportation facilities, and where the use of the existing areas is not undertaken on a well-planned basis (Valleley, 1998). As a result, users are not serviced properly during their commuting trips, and increased traffic congestion and longer travel times are manifested, in parallel with a poorer quality of life and lower levels of accessibility (Verhoef et al., 1995; Coombe et al., 1997; Miles et al., 1998; Ison and ∗ Corresponding author. [email protected].

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Intelligent transportation systems and parking management: M M B Vianna et al.

the saturation levels of the road system, the shortage of parking spaces and the difficulties of managing them. According to McDonald and Lyons (1996) as well as Vasconcellos (1997), this situation worsened, particularly during the second half of the 20th century, driven by the sharp upsurge in the fleet of private vehicles in circulation. Over the past two decades, significant increases have been noted in the global vehicle fleet, which doubled in its numbers from 1970 through 1990. Current expectations indicate the continuation of this rapid growth, with forecasts estimating the current fleet will double again by 2015 (Click, 1996). This growth may even be higher in some developing countries—in Brazil, for instance, the private vehicle fleet expanded eightfold from 2.6 million in 1970 to around 18.3 million vehicles in 1990. The forecasts issued by the National Traffic Department (DENATRAN) indicate that this fleet may also double by 2005. The rapid expansion of the Brazilian fleet of vehicles may be justified by some key aspects, such as: economic stabilization; radical changes in the social structure (particularly the use of individual vehicles); lack of land use planning; the adoption of a planning model based on road transport (which normally accounts for over 90% of urban commutes) and the lack of investments in high-capacity transport facilities. In addition to the expansion of the fleet and the concentration of work opportunities in central areas, the shortage of parking spaces and poor control over irregular parking have boosted the problems caused by traffic congestion in towns and cities all over Brazil. Most traffic fines issued in Brazilian urban areas are for parking in the wrong place. In the specific case of the City of Rio de Janeiro, based on data issued by the Municipal Transportation Bureau (SMTU), 39.7% of the total number of fines issued during 1999 had been for illegal parking (Vianna, 2000). The study carried out by Axhausen et al. (1994) notes that looking for a space to park may take up to 40% of the total duration of a trip for certain groups of drivers. The fruitless search for parking space may account for over 30% of the traffic on main urban avenues (Allen, 1993). Some studies also underscore the fact that these vehicles spend 90–95% of their useful life parked (Valleley, 1998). The management of automobile parking facilities consequently plays a decisive role in the planning process, and may contribute appreciably to minimizing these problems (Tsamboulas, 2001; VTPI, 2002). This study consequently underscores the importance of adopting integrated parking management policies that ensure not only more rational use of the available parking spaces (evenly balanced supply and demand, bringing in sufficient revenues to cover the costs of maintaining these parking spaces), while also ensuring well-matched performance among road systems, transport facilities and land use. It also presents a methodological procedure that underpins the feasi138

bility of implementing an integrated parking management system based on the use of telematics. In order to test the application of this procedure, a mediumsized town located in the Rio de Janeiro Metropolitan Region—Nitero´ i—was analyzed.

Integrated parking management and telematics A new approach to this topic is starting to appear, which assumes that merely banning cars or encouraging the use of parking facilities with no specific criteria is not enough. Instead, it is necessary to understand these relationships and variables in order to guarantee better use of these facilities, ensuring that parking facilities are viewed as an integral part of the trip generation process. The wide diversity of factors and effects associated with the parking facility management process is shown in Figure 1, which lists the main aspects involved. Parking facilities should be viewed as a system that underpins the exploration of the intrinsic relationships among the various elements influencing the parking process, acting as a link that connects up the means of transport with land use. In order to provide the foundations for this integrated concept, it is necessary to guarantee interaction between users, traffic controllers and other participants in the transport planning process (such as public transport operators and those in charge of parking areas). This interaction should also include sharing the information required to schedule trips and control movements, using the resources offered by technological development. Some services may be rated as crucial when defining an initial outline of this integrated management system. However, in order to ensure their feasibility, the assistance of telematics is crucial, applied to transportation systems in order to develop a concept that may be defined as smart parking (Vianna et al., 1999). In general, this integrated parking management system offers many different benefits, as listed by Gercans (1984) and Allen (1993): 앫 For drivers, it is useful because it helps them locate and select the parking space best suited to their requirements, saving fuel and cutting operating costs, in addition to reducing the amount of time wasted during commutes. 앫 For traffic flows, this system reduces the delays caused by the inefficient search for parking spaces, in addition to increasing the road capacity of the region through reducing line-ups while someone waits for a parking place to become free, keeping roads and crossings free from obstructions. 앫 For transport authorities, this system offers better distribution of demand, in addition to making it easier to control these operations with better data monitoring, simplifying the process of taking decisions and implementing plans.


Figure 1 Parking sub-system and its environment

앫 For transport operators, an increase in passengers carried is expected, due to either the expansion of park-and-ride (P&R) trips, or through modal transfer encouraged through the implementation of more stringent parking control policies and the supply of related information. 앫 For parking managers, this system is interesting because it guarantees the desired occupancy levels in most cases. 앫 For users in general, integrated parking management means more stringent supervision, curtailing illegal parking and helping to reduce traffic accidents. 앫 Within the environmental context, it is also

expected that air pollution levels will drop, in parallel with fine-tuning and enhancing a more appropriate use of urban areas. In the transport sector, the use of telematics is associated with the development of what are known as “Intelligent Transportation Systems” (ITS) with widely varying applications. The main research topics covered by this subject are well documented in several surveys, reported by Nijkamp et al. (1995), Harvey (1996), Sussman (1996), French (1997), Johnson (1997), Mont’Alva˜ o (1997) and Tsopelas (2000). These resources are currently noted in various func139


tional areas, and may also be applied to parking management (Nijkamp et al., 1995). Systems designed to manage parking spaces are also known as parking guidance and information (PGI) systems or advanced parking information systems (APIS), which have already been used for over two decades, initially implemented in Aachen (Germany), during the early 1970s. Over subsequent years, a reasonable expansion was noted in their use, as they grew more popular through their capacity to minimize the problems resulting from traffic congestion caused by the search for parking spaces. More recent studies report the existence of over 50 systems of this type in operation worldwide (Polak et al., 1990; Axhausen et al., 1994; Tsopelas, 2000). In Japan, these systems are being developed jointly with other aspects related to traffic management. The systems provide users with real-time information on road accidents, traffic congestions, traffic flows restraints and the location of parking facilities (Tokuyama, 1996; Giannopoulos and McDonald, 1997; Iwasaki, 1997). One of the projects developed in Japan is the Toyota parking guidance and information service, which is designed to rationalize the use of limited parking facilities (Sakai et al., 1996). In Europe, new surveys carried out from 1990 through 2000 on parking facility management are represented, for instance, by the ADEPT, CAPITALS, CONCERT, FRUIT, GAUDI and ROMANSE projects. Additionally, a wide variety of new services is being introduced, such as the Bosch Signalbau Huber’s parking guidance system and the Frankfurt parking guidance and information system, although their field of action is limited to smaller areas, and they are not fully integrated with other systems (Harvey, 1996; Bossom, 1997; Miles et al., 1998; NPA, 1999). In the USA, parking facility management has been dealt with under the ATIS scheme, researching the interoperability of equipment, linking information protocols and allowing payment through smart cards. In 1996, an experimental system was introduced in St. Paul, MN, known as the Advanced Parking Information System, running on Euro-American technology, whose main purpose is to allow rational parking management, boosting the supply of parking areas available to visitors while reducing traffic congestion (ITS International, 1996). In Brazil, the use of the ITS has been disseminated through a study underpinning the introduction of a National Program for Applying Telematics in Transportation (PNATT), proposing a communications model and drawing up a plan to be adopted nationwide (Borras, 1999). Although there is reasonable consumption potential for these items of equipment, their development and production is still limited. In terms of parking facility management, the use of these systems is still limited, with their application restricted to a few commercial enterprises, where they are used to enhance the operability of stand-alone parking 140

facilities, hampering the introduction of an integrated management plan. Parking facility management systems based on the dissemination of information and guidance on available parking areas have proven useful in the search and selection process, proving their operational feasibility. As equipment has become available at lower costs, in parallel to the drop in the prices of the chips used to manufacture these devices, concerns are now focused on how this integration will be undertaken, while also deciding on the services that may be offered through the use of this equipment.

Potential for using ITS in integrated parking management An analysis of the international experience shows that the use of telematics in integrated parking management is still limited, despite its wide application potential. The success of this proposal is conditional to the way in which the information is employed by the various agents intervening in the management process. Telematics help identify the basic services that are crucial to this system, while also defining specific communications standards. Listed below are some services that may be taken under consideration for integrated parking management, based on the use of telematics (Nijkamp et al., 1995): 앫 Parking guidance: local and regional guidance for drivers on the availability of parking spaces in a given area—including for users of P&R services through the use of panels displaying different messages or radio communications system: dynamic information on parking; guidance on the number and location of parking areas in that zone; driver guidance on parking characteristics; 앫 Strategic road control: control of traffic level and pollution along the roads; assistance in checking and preventing illegal parking; 앫 Management of the available space in a specific zone: monitoring and dissemination of information on parking facilities: monitoring the inflow and outflow of vehicles in the zone; forecast of free parking spaces; control of the availability of parking spaces over the period; prior scheduling or booking of parking spaces; 앫 Operational control of parking facilities: systems designed for parking facility administrators: identification of vehicles and automatic ticket-issuing facilities; payment control equipment; parking facility management—physical, financial and administrative controls. User guidance is possible through disseminating up-to-the-moment information in real time on the location, direction and availability of the parking spaces. The information is generated through the access control schemes for the various units that are interconnected into the system, indicating the occu-


pancy level of the parking facilities to the central control room, where data are processed and treated prior to being transmitted to the users through variable message services (VMS) that are connected by cable. With regard to the strategy used to disseminate the information, two ideological trends are usually noted: descriptive and prescriptive. The descriptive type provides system users with all possible information on parking facilities, allowing them to take their own decisions on where to park, according to their own preferences. In contrast, the prescriptive option limits the amount of information provided to users, curtailing their power of choice and forcing them to follow the orders of the system providers. This limits the options open to drivers, transferring the responsibility for taking decisions to the control system (Polak et al., 1990). Over the past few years, thanks to advances in the field of telematics, new uses have been introduced in the field of parking facility management (Polak et al., 1990; Stathopoulos et al., 1994; Boltze et al., 1994; Maccubbin and Hoel, 2000), particularly: 앫 the possibility of personalized vehicular guidance, directed at a single user through display units fitted inside the vehicle; 앫 the possibility of prior planning for trips through the supply of relevant information on traffic and facilities (integration and parking status); 앫 the development of services booking or scheduling process, which may be ordered before or during the trip, through communication links with highways; 앫 automatic payment and registration through developments in the field of vehicle identification, also allowing access control; 앫 integration with other transportation systems through the development of P&R facilities.

A procedure for implementing an integrated parking facility management system The bibliographic survey reflected the shortage of studies analyzing the measures and steps to be taken under consideration when developing a parking management system. Some discussions are noted on the process of selecting equipment and services (Kobayakawa et al., 1997). Maccubbin and Hoel (2000) developed a methodology for evaluating ITS applications in parking management at change-mode. Other studies contemplate some more specific aspects such as Thompson et al. (2001) who developed a model to determine the optimal display PGI sign configuration to minimize queue lengths and kilometres of vehicle travel. A mathematical program was formulated based on a simple genetic algorithm. The model was limited to off-street parking choices and illegal parking was not incorporated. This proves the need for surveys that will help to define and standardize systems, streamlining their

expansion and avoiding unnecessary expenditures on future adaptations, in addition to ensuring assimilation of the information available to the users. This paper intends to contribute to this process by suggesting a procedural structure to be adopted for the implementation of an intelligent parking system. The proposed structure establishes three separate levels of action: macro, intermediate and micro. At each of these levels, services of interest to the user are defined, together with the information to be made available to them, in addition to data that will be collected and swapped, in parallel to the equipment used by this system (Vianna et al., 1999). In general, the steps shown in Figure 2 should be undertaken in order to implement a parking facility management system. The macro level consists of describing the problem in the broadest terms at the city-wide or regional level, monitoring access roads, general traffic levels and the aggregated availability of parking spaces in each traffic zone. The information brought in through this operation is processed by the town planning and control centres, striving constantly to adapt demands to supply while maintaining environmental and road capacity standards. It is then possible to provide users with guidance on free parking spaces in each of the traffic zones, indicating areas and routes that should be avoided. At this stage, the use of electronic signposting on highways, transmitting information by radio, should also be taken under consideration. The intermediate level—where problems are analyzed for each specific traffic zone—provides users with more detailed information on each parking area (occupancy levels, integrated transportation facilities and fees), in addition to providing directions. The micro level focuses on local conditions and specific parking spaces, providing users with information on free spaces in a certain street or parking area. At this stage, it may well be possible to control local pollution levels and optimize data collection and inspection processes through identifying vehicles that are parked illegally, allowing them to be located, fined and rapidly removed by specialized teams. Taking into account the elements and the nature of the proposed procedure, involving aspects related to the special characteristics of the area to be analyzed, it is important at this stage to consider the possibility of incorporating geographic information systems (GIS) as an efficient tool supporting the development of the different steps of the process. Thill (2000) has pointed out the current flurry of research activity in and around GIS for transportation (GIS-T), as a clear sign of the interest of transportation researchers and other professionals in this emerging technology. Other authors confirm the importance and role of GIS in terms of providing a basis for the development of a framework and principles for sharing transportation data and for real-time integration, manipulation and visualisation of urban traffic data (Thong and Wong, 1997; Dueker and Butler, 2000; Claramunt et al., 2000). 141


Figure 2 Division by levels and implementation procedure

Quiroga (2000) presents a review of issues, procedures and examples of application of GIS technology to the development of congestion management systems. In his study, travel time is used as a robust, easy to understand performance measure. One of the possible applications highlighted by the author is the potential of using GIS in the case of defining appropriate location for P&R lots. Other studies found in the recent literature (Peng and Huang, 2000; Ziliaskopoulos and Waller, 2000) have shown the possibility of designing an integrated system using internet GIS technologies to integrate web serving, GIS processing, network analysis and database management. This integration could be useful in the procedure proposed here.

Definition of the system, indication of the services and equipment used Having completed steps 1, 2 and 3, corresponding to the definition of the project area and the survey of its characteristics; the division of the area into traffic zones with the study of the main routes and traffic flows; and the preparation of the listing of available parking spaces and facilities, it will then be possible to define the services to be made available through the system (see Figure 2). Of particular interest among the wide variety of options are the services shown in Table 1. The identification of the equipment to be used for ensuring the feasibility of the services should also be assessed. In general, the technology needed to operate this system consists of a wide variety of items of 142

equipment that may be analyzed previously, including: automatic vehicle identification (AVI) equipment; closed circuit television (CCTV) equipment, using television cameras monitoring traffic status in the streets; driver information equipment which may be of various types, with the most usual being the variable message signs (VMS) panels; electronic payment devices using electronic, inductive, magnetic or smart card technology; electronic parking meters used to control how long vehicles park in the streets, charging fees and checking availability; and computers (Click, 1996; Sa´ , 1999). It is recommended that the standard equipment and service specifications should always be followed, should some system already have been implemented in the region, in order to ensure easier adaptation. The next step is related to the development of the system communications architecture, defining how the services and equipment will be grouped and interconnected in order to ensure the implementation of the production process in an efficient manner, while also seeking the means that allow nationwide and international standardization of services and systems. In economic terms, the determination of the architecture represents guaranteed savings for future resources, as new applications can be slotted into the main system, eliminating the need to duplicate the communications infrastructure, avoiding unnecessary outlays on adaptation. In the transportation technology area, building up a systematic architecture may foster more rational, efficient and effective development of ITS. In the specific case of parking facilities, its introduction may

VMS (panels)

Equipment

Listing of available parking spaces on and off- 쐌 street, with the possibility of indicating the best route Guidance service for parking facilities, ensuring rapid occupancy of vacant spaces Vehicle identification service through reading number plates, streamlining ticket issue Electronic payment service, streamlining parking fee payment, in addition to reducing error levels in calculating amounts due Vehicle counting service, generating statistical data and obtaining figures on free parking spaces through integrated gate barriers or parking meters Vehicle service and prevention of illegal parking, allowing the area controller to identify the number plates of offending vehicle, issuing fines and mobilizing tow-truck teams in real time with minimum effort Public transportation information service, 쐌 indicating boarding points and preparing car pool lists. Preparation of car-pool lists and dissemination of schedules Parking space booking or scheduling service, in real time or in advance over the Internet or by telephone

Services

Table 1 Links between levels, services and equipments

쐌

CCTV (cameras)

쐌

쐌

AVI (identification)

쐌

Electronic payment

쐌

Electronic parking meters

쐌

Information Kiosks

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

Intermediate (traffic zone level)

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

Computers and Macro sensors (city level)

Levels

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

쐌

Micro (facility level)


143


define how the equipment will be interconnected in order to ensure a steady flow of information from the data collection facilities in the field through to their transmission to the user, providing guidance on vacant parking spaces. In order to build up a complete system architecture, certain procedures should be considered: detailed description of services to be provided, defining all user interfaces and supplementary systems; construction of the logic architecture of the system, defining an effective data transmission chain; construction of the physical architecture for the system, meaning the organization of the equipment interconnections for data transmission; in addition to structuring and developing schemes to be used during the equipment implementation and installation process (NPA, 1999). After analyzing the communication between the system components and defining the layout (schemes, drawings, designs and programs), the equipment is then installed and tested in order to check its suitability. It is important to stress that at this stage some initial inter-exchangeability problems appear, which may indicate that modifications are required to the architectures already defined. It is always a good idea to run pilot trials, partially installing the equipment in order to ensure flawless functioning.

Nitero´ i as the scenario for the implementation of the system Having outlined the procedural structure proposed above, it was decided to test its potential through a case study application. The town of Nitero´ i, in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, was selected. According to CIDE (1998), its population is around 453,285 inhabitants and the main economic activities in the town are concentrated in services and commerce. A significant part of the population travels regularly to Rio de Janeiro (15 km distant from Nitero´ i) where better job opportunities are found (CECITEC, 1996). As in Rio de Janeiro, over the past few years Nitero´ i has been struggling with problems caused by traffic congestion. Data issued by the Local Traffic Department (Detran) shows that the vehicle fleet has been expanding rapidly, up from 154,802 vehicles in 1997 to 170,000 vehicles in 2001. This has saturated the main avenues of the city and worsened the imbalance between parking space supply and demand. Over the past two years, some 64,000 (48%) of the total number of fines issued are for illegal parking. This strengthens the selection of Nitero´ i, as the area for the study. Having selected the study area, the region was divided into 18 traffic zones (see Figures 3 and 4) according to their social, economic and functional characteristics. As we intend to present and discuss the specific characteristics of the process, the Icaraı´ traffic zone was selected for detailed descriptions and characterizations. This selection was based on the importance of this region for the town, as a residential hub with high occupancy levels that cluster some commercial activi144

ties that were initially conceived to meet primary consumption needs, but have expanded to meet the demands of more outlying regions. The data were then surveyed, implementing stages 2 and 3 of the proposed procedure. Covering some two square kilometres, this region has some 5394 parking spaces, of which 2249 are in the street and 3145 are in 21 off-street parking facilities. The functionality of its road structure was also observed, particularly streets with the heaviest traffic flows and the main connection highways. The lack of any origin– destination (O-D) studies limited attempts to establish the precise flow of users from local parking areas. Consequently, this aspect was covered by noting number plates in the parking areas surveyed, most of which came from the oceanfront region of Nitero´ i, other outlying districts and the nearby towns of Sa˜ o Gonç alo and Marica´ , as well as Rio de Janeiro across the bay. No earlier studies are available that could help determine the number of parking spaces needed to meet local demands, which meant that this figure had to be estimated, based on the average number of vehicles per inhabitant. This resulted in a total demand of approximately 23,440 parking spaces, compared to a supply of 5394 spaces (considering on the street and off-street public parking facilities only). Taking private parking facilities in apartment blocks and commercial establishments into account should bring this figure up to meet the total demand. This preliminary analysis highlighted the need to introduce a more modern system that could impose firmer operating controls over parking facilities in the area, including closed parking facility management, controlling the fee-charging process for street parking facilities, transmitting information to users on the availability of parking spaces, stepping up inspection activities along avenues and feeder roads, disseminating information and encouraging the integration of parking facilities with public transportation, and resources to monitoring the system, diagnosing possible future problems in traffic flows and service operations. When stratifying the services, the following aspects were considered: 앫 At the micro level (based on the local surroundings and streets of Icaraı´): access control services counting the number of parking spaces available in real time through the difference between parking capacity and the number of vehicles entering less the number of vehicles leaving, generating statistical data on parking facility occupancy rates; management of street parking facilities, with fees charged through parking meters or automatic machines located on each block; automatic vehicular identification (AVI) services issuing the parking slip; electronic payment facilities using credit cards or electronic tags; information services on the supply of public transportation, with a terminal scheduled for installation on each of these parking facili-


Figure 3 Planning areas of Nitero´ i

ties where users can check the itineraries of the buses running through the region and the nearest boarding points. 앫 At the intermediate level (covering the entire Icaraı´ neighborhood): information services on the facilities available in the sub-zones, including data on the supply of transportation in the area and the boarding points, as well as indicating closed parking facilities through the use of variable message service panels; guard services and prevention of irregular parking along main avenues, using video cameras hooked into a closed circuit television system. 앫 At the general level (city-wide in Nitero´ i): information services on the facilities available in the zones; parking space booking services that reserve a specific space even before the trip begins, or en route; statistical control of the various parking facilities, garage buildings and parking meters, allowing the planning team to adapt more effectively to variations in traffic flows on dense-traffic occasions such as festivals and sport events. The next step requires the definition of how the equipment will be interconnected and the information will be transmitted, presenting the logic architecture of the system in Figure 5. Once the communications protocols have been defined, the equipment is then laid out in a manner that ensures it will meet the proposed objectives, such as the variable message service panels being installed at suitable locations for guiding vehicles from their entry into the town or zone through their destination in a sub-zone. Regular assessment of the results obtained by the operators is also recommended, in terms of user acceptance and benefits obtained through the project.

These aspects should be appraised periodically in order to fine-tune the system.

Conclusions This paper has discussed the importance of adopting transportation policies that foster closer integration between parking facilities and the transport system, underpinning an integrated parking management system based on telematics. Through this approach, areas set aside for parking in urban areas are no longer considered separately from the rest of the system, but are instead analyzed and integrated to the transport system planning process, and the whole road network. Telematics is an efficient tool in this process, helping the coordination and control of the transport system, including parking facilities. This leads to the conclusion that wider use of telematics has the potential for assisting in this process, supporting the implementation of control routines and ensuring more effective management of the available parking spaces through accurate occupancy controls. The use of these integrated systems should be based on the development of procedures guiding the proper implementation of these services, ensuring identification, regulation and standardization. It is also important to define the technological requirements and equipments required for an efficient and integrated operation. Within this context, other studies could well be carried out to meet these demands. This study was developed to exemplify the procedure of implementing a parking management system that supports the improvement of parking area control, keeping an even balance between supply and demand for parking spaces, providing guidance for drivers looking for a parking space, with shorter travel 145


Figure 4 Detail of the bay area region (traffic zones)

times and less interference with traffic flows. It is also intended to endow the system with the facilities needed to reduce urban traffic congestion, with positive economic effects including lower transport costs and possible environmental benefits (mainly less air pollution). It is also important to stress that the adoption of this system will help to standardize these services, generating competitive advantages for public transport operators and the administrators of parking facilities. With a more balanced utilization of the available parking spaces in the area concerned, parking administrators could improve the productivity of the services provided and consequently, their incomes. It also offers the possibility of minimizing the effects of illegal parking through tighter controls and more effective inspection of the activities, in addition to a better management of the parking system, streamlining traffic flows and enhancing safety. However, these assumptions are still theoretical, as few studies have been undertaken in order to quantify these impacts and confirm the real effects of these 146

parking schemes in scientific terms. Within this context, applications and simulations are of much value for their dissemination. In practice, for the Brazilian case, some obstacles may be noted in the process of integrating the different structures that constitute the transport system, requiring specific efforts in order to deal with matters such as: the lack of an integrated transport policy allowing parking facilities to be planned together with the transport system; the fragility of traffic control authorities, which find it hard to implement unified, effective actions, especially those related to inspection and control; the lack of integration among the operators administering offstreet parking which are not always willing to cooperate with the introduction of an integrated plan; the lack of integration between the government authorities responsible for traffic control and the various parking facility operators; the wide variety of conflicting aspects found in the proposed control measures in terms of both users and operators, as well as the implementation and maintenance costs of the


Figure 5 Logic architecture of the proposed system

basic technological devices that are required for the development of integrated systems, in addition to hiring specialized staff. Also, it might be considered that the main barriers to the implementation of an ITS based parking management system are not technological issues but practicalities such as the availability of data and resources. It was clear during the development of the research that there was very little data, studies and models upon which to develop an integrated parking facility management system in Nitero´ i. In terms of strategic transportation planning and technological progress in this sector, it is important to ensure that parking areas will operate in a way that is well adapted to this new reality. Consequently, joint efforts are required among teaching and research institutions, the government and private sectors, in order to overcome difficulties hampering this operating integration, fostering the fast, widespread dissemination and consolidation of the concept of integrated parking facility management. It is also important to stress that the use of these systems and equipments would always be justified, especially when considering the existence of insufficient supply of spaces or the disorderly use of the available ones. It must also be taken into account that in towns and cities where supply is higher than demand, efficient use of parking spaces has not necessarily been demonstrated. This consequently indicates that the implementation of an integrated system is not intended to encourage additional trips to central areas, as might have been thought, assuming that supply would be rationalized and consequently “increased” in virtual terms. To the contrary, it is intended to

ensure a more appropriate use of the existing parking facilities, providing to a larger number of users an easier access to these areas, in parallel to a more rational use of the road network and assigning the public transport system a leading role in the commuting process. In the specific case of Brazilian towns and cities, this project would offer the opportunity to organize the road network in more densely populated areas, serving as an initial step for integrating various traffic authorities and enhancing their potential for taking action, as well as inspecting and overseeing these activities, also ensuring the public interest.

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