Interactive Learning Environments The impact of adventure video ...

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The impact of adventure video games on foreign language learning and the perceptions of learners a

Hao-Jan Howard Chen & Ting-Yu Christine Yang

a

a

Department of English , National Taiwan Normal University , Taipei , 106 , Taiwan Published online: 30 Jul 2012.

To cite this article: Hao-Jan Howard Chen & Ting-Yu Christine Yang (2013) The impact of adventure video games on foreign language learning and the perceptions of learners, Interactive Learning Environments, 21:2, 129-141, DOI: 10.1080/10494820.2012.705851 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2012.705851

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Interactive Learning Environments, 2013 Vol. 21, No. 2, 129–141, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2012.705851

The impact of adventure video games on foreign language learning and the perceptions of learners Hao-Jan Howard Chen* and Ting-Yu Christine Yang Department of English, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 106, Taiwan

Downloaded by [New York University] at 07:00 05 October 2014

(Received 21 March 2012; final version received 1 April 2012) Several researchers have highlighted the potential of applying adventure video games in second language acquisition; however, few studies have investigated the impact of adventure games on foreign language learning. This study aimed to examine the effects of a commercial adventure video game on foreign language learning and learners’ perceptions toward this game. Twenty-two college students in Taiwan were asked to play an English adventure game BONE. One group was allowed to take notes while playing and the other group was not. After playing, both groups were asked to take a vocabulary post-test. The results indicated that both groups picked up some new words after playing the adventure game, but there was no significant difference between the two groups’ post-gaming performances. To better understand the strengths and weaknesses of using adventure games for foreign language learning, another study was conducted to explore 35 college students’ perceptions toward this adventure game. The results showed that students considered the game helpful in improving their language skills and motivation. Students also reported they enjoyed playing the game because of the intriguing game design. The findings in this study suggest that adventure video games such as BONE can provide useful input to help college students enhance their English listening, reading, vocabulary skills and learning motivation. Keywords: adventure video games; language learning; game design; English as a Foreign Language; learner perception

Introduction The widespread popularity of digital video games increasingly attracted researchers to examine their potential in education. Several researchers (Gee, 2003, 2007; Prensky, 2001) highlighted the great value of video games for education. Recently, a number of studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of various types of video games on second/foreign language learning. For example, deHaan (2005a) conducted a study to investigate Japanese acquisition through a baseball video game. The research results showed that the subject improved his listening and kanji character recognition. Some studies suggested that computer simulation games could provide contextrich, cognitively engaging virtual environments for language learning. For example,

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Ó 2013 Taylor & Francis


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H.-J.H. Chen and T.-Y.C. Yang

Ranalli (2008) investigated the impact of the Sims game on second language vocabulary learning and found that participants made statistically significant improvements in their vocabulary knowledge. deHaan, Reed, and Kuwada (2010) conducted a study on the interactivity of a PlayStation 2 music game to investigate to what degree video game interactivity would help or hinder the acquisition of second language vocabulary. Eighty Japanese undergraduates were paired based on similar English language and game proficiencies. When one subject played an English-language music video game, the paired subject watched the game simultaneously on another monitor. The subjects then were asked to take a vocabulary recall test after the gameplay. Results indicated that both the players and the watchers recalled vocabulary from the game, but the watchers recalled significantly more vocabulary items than the players. The findings highlighted the difficulty of simultaneously paying attention to gameplay and vocabulary learning. In addition to the aforementioned types of digital games, there are several other genres of video games available, such as platform games, strategy games and adventure games. According to Baltra (1990), adventure games are useful tools for developing communicative fluency. In addition, in the website Successful English Learners, Szynalski (n. d.) suggests that adventure games can increase learners’ motivation and help them improve their English listening and speaking skills. Some language teachers might wonder how interactive adventure video games can provide useful input to second language learners. One of the best known second language acquisition researchers, Steven Krashen, has suggested in various papers that extensive reading can facilitate vocabulary learning and the development of various language skills (Cho & Krashen, 1994; Constantino, Lee, Cho, & Krashen, 1997; Krashen, 1994, 1996, 2004; Mason & Krashen, 1997). Similar to extensive reading, it seems that interactive adventure games can provide language input to learners. The game instructions and the dialogues performed by game characters in the target language can create an authentic learning environment for second language learners. This new type of learning environment, however, is very different from traditional language classrooms. Many of the learning opportunities (e.g. the presentation of new vocabulary items) are provided in a more implicit way. Given that game-based language learning is radically different from traditional book-based learning, many research directions can be further explored. The researchers in this study are interested in finding the answers to the following questions. Does playing video games facilitate incidental second language vocabulary learning (Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001; Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 2000, 2010)? Will intentional note-taking while gaming better facilitate vocabulary learning? What are EFL (English as Foreign Language) students’ perceptions toward the design and features of commercial video games? Aiming to investigate the effects and learners’ perceptions of adventure games on language learning, two studies were conducted to answer the following research questions: (1) Will EFL students learn new vocabulary items after playing adventure video games? If so, what factors determine the effectiveness of their vocabulary learning?

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(2) Will students who are allowed to take notes in gaming acquire more new vocabulary items compared to those who do not take notes? (3) Based on students’ perceptions, what other language skills and knowledge can be improved via playing adventure video games? (4) What are the design and features of adventure games that EFL students like most or feel most uncomfortable about?


Methodology Study One Subjects The subjects in Study One consisted of 22 college freshman students from a national university in Taiwan. They were all non-English majors from different disciplines, including education (n ¼ 14), science (n ¼ 2), fine arts (n ¼ 1), technology (n ¼ 2), sports (n ¼ 1), and music (n ¼ 1). Their average age was 19, and 19 were female. Their English proficiency level was at the intermediate level. The subjects were randomly divided into two groups – one group was allowed (but not required) to take notes on unknown words while the other group was not. All the subjects participated voluntarily and were rewarded with NT$300 after the experiment. They all played the game in a computer laboratory setting. Instrument A high-quality, non-educational adventure game called BONE was purchased as the instrument. The game consists of two episodes, BONE 1 and BONE 2, which were produced by a game company in America called TellTale Games (http:// www.telltalegames.com). A non-educational commercial game was chosen because there are currently very few educational adventure games for language learning available. Some might suggest the possibility of developing a self-made adventure game, which better integrates learning and gameplay to ‘‘address educational and entertainment equally’’ (Van Eck, 2006); however, the development of this kind of educational games requires large investment of time and money, and would be very difficult for individual educators. Due to the aforementioned reasons, an existing adventure game is adopted in this study. A suitable game for language learning should provide learners with abundant language input and engaging game design. The BONE game, as shown in Figure 1, allows players to simultaneously hear the dialogues spoken by native speakers and see the English subtitles while playing. The game also includes great graphic/sound effects and motivating game task design. Players can engage in different demanding tasks that require them to closely read the text to solve the puzzles. In addition, the game is easy to operate to less skilled video gamers. Players can use the mouse to operate and complete all the game missions. Because of its abundant language input, its engaging game design, and its simplicity of operation, BONE was chosen as the instrument. Because it would take 7–8 h to complete one episode, only seven sections of BONE 2 was selected in Study One. To facilitate the gaming, a self-made playing guide was prepared, which includes a brief introduction to the main characters, the


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Figure 1.

A screenshot of BONE.

plot outline, a few hints for relatively difficult missions, and the subjects’ temporary goals in the experiment.

Measurement Vocabulary pre-test and post-test. A pre-test and a post-test were developed to measure test-takers’ knowledge of 20 vocabulary items in the game. Test-takers would be required to write the Chinese translations of the targeted English words in the two tests. One point would be given if test-takers gave the correct answer to one test item. Both the pre-test and post-test full scores were 20 points.

Procedures The subjects were first given 15 min to finish the pre-test. After the pre-test, the playing guide and a blank sheet of paper were distributed to the subjects who were advised to take notes, while the other group only received the playing guide. After 1.5 h or having already attained the temporary goal, the subjects had to stop the game and to take the post-test for 15 min. The total length of the experiment was about 2 h. Study Two The first study targeted on learners’ vocabulary gains after using the adventure game; however, due to the time constraint of the experiment, the learners could not


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fully experience the whole game. Thus, in the second study, a group of college students were allowed to fully explore the game in their leisure time. This arrangement also allowed researchers to further investigate EFL learners’ perceptions toward using the adventure game for language learning. Because the students in Study Two were taking a Freshman English course while participating in this experiment, they had opportunities to receive multiple language input from various sources. It would thus be complicated to determine whether their language gains were derived from the classroom input or from playing the video games. Therefore, instead of investigating their language improvements, the second study only focused on learners’ perceptions toward the game. Subjects The subjects in Study Two consisted of another 35 college students from a national university in Taiwan. They all took the same Freshman English course. Nineteen of the subjects majored in liberal arts, 8 in fine arts, and 8 in technology. The average age was 19, and 23 were females. Their English proficiency level was at the intermediate level. The games were assigned as homework. Aside from the game, the subjects received little homework from that English class. Students were asked to install the game on their own computers and encouraged to play the games 1 to 2 h weekly outside of class. Instrument and procedures In Study Two, both BONE 1 and BONE 2 were used as the instruments. Before playing, the subjects were briefly instructed on how to play, and then were given 16 weeks to finish the two episodes. After 16 weeks, they were asked to write a short report about their gaming experience and to complete a questionnaire regarding their perceptions toward the games.

Measurement Short written report. In the short written report, the subjects were encouraged to express their opinions about their enjoyment of the games, the usefulness of the games for English learning, and any comments about their experience. These opinions were analyzed and categorized into the following two aspects: (a) comments on the game content and design, and (b) comments on their improvements in English ability. Questionnaire. A questionnaire was developed to survey the subjects’ perceptions toward the game design of BONE and their language gains after gaming. The first part of the questionnaire consisted of 10 Likert-scale statements. Each of the statement was graded on five scales, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The second part of the questionnaire consisted of the following open-ended questions: (1) What are the design and features that you like most in this game? (2) What are the design and features you do not like in this game? (3) In what way can the game help you improve your English ability?

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Results Study One


Vocabulary pre-test and post-test A Shapire–Wilk Test and an independent samples t-test were conducted to examine the two groups’ pre-test scores. The test results show that both groups’ pre-test scores were normally distributed (see Table 1), and their language proficiencies were at similar levels (see Table 2). Two paired-samples t-tests were then conducted to test both groups’ performances on the pre-test and the post-test to examine if they acquired new words after gaming. The results, as presented in Table 3, show that both the notetaking and non-note-taking group performed better in their post-test (M ¼ 6.27, SD ¼ 3.07; M ¼ 5.91, SD ¼ 1.51) than in their pre-test (M ¼ 4.27, SD ¼ 3.13; M ¼ 4.09, SD ¼ 1.38). There were also significant differences in the two groups’ pre-gaming and post-gaming performances (t(10) ¼ 75.61, p 5 .001, 95%CI[72.79, 71.21]; t(10) ¼ 74.30, p ¼ .002, 95%[7.276, 7.88]). Because this study aimed to examine whether intentional note-taking facilitates vocabulary learning better than incidental learning, both groups’ vocabulary gains were subjected to an independent samples t-test. The result shows no significant difference between the two groups’ vocabulary gains (t(20) ¼ 7.99, p ¼ .746, Table 1.

Summarized results of the Shapire–Wilk Test. Shapiro–Wilk Statistic

df

Sig.

.859 .916

11 11

.057 .285

With note-taking Without note-taking

Table 2.

t-test result of the two groups’ pre-test performances. With notetaking (n ¼ 11)

Pre-test performance

Table 3.

Without note-taking (n ¼ 11)

95% CI

M

SD

M

SD

t-value

df

p

4.27

3.13

4.09

1.38

.18

20

.862

LL

UL

71.97

2.33

Summarized results of the two groups’ pre-/post-gaming performances.

With note-taking Without note-taking

Pre-test (n ¼ 11)

Post-test (n ¼ 11)

M

SD

M

SD

t-value

df

p

LL

UL

4.27 4.09

3.13 1.38

6.27 5.91

3.07 1.51

75.61 74.30

10 10

p 5 .001 .002

72.79 72.76

71.21 7.88

95% CI


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95%[7.134, .97]), indicating that the note-taking group did not outperform its counterpart on acquiring new words. The result is shown in Table 4.


Note-taking performance Based on the amount of notes taken, the subjects in the note-taking group could be further divided into three sub-groups, as presented in Table 5. To further explore the subjects’ note-taking performance, the notes taken by Group A’s and Group B’s subjects were closely examined. The result reveals that the notes taken by these subjects appeared mainly at the beginning sections of the game, and only a small amount of notes were words from the latter sections. This shows a gradual reduction in note-taking frequency throughout the gaming session.

Study Two General perceptions The mean score and the standard deviation of the 10 graded statements concerning the subjects’ perceptions were calculated (M ¼ 3.61, SD ¼ .71). Based on the results, the game was helpful in improving the subjects’ general English ability, listening ability, reading ability, and vocabulary knowledge, whereas the games did not facilitate the learning of speaking, writing, and grammar. As for the game design, students graded the graphic design, the storyline, and the given instructions/hints with high scores. The mean scores and standard deviations of each statement are listed in Table 6. Gains and difficulties in using games in language learning In their written reports, most students indicated that the game helped them improve their listening ability, reading ability, and vocabulary knowledge the most. They stated that the written/spoken input enhanced their listening and reading Table 4.

t-test result of the two groups’ vocabulary gains.

Vocabulary gain

Table 5.

Group A Group B Group C

With notetaking (n ¼ 11)

Without note-taking (n ¼ 11)

M

SD

M

SD

t-value

df

p

2.00

1.18

1.82

1.40

7.33

20

.746

95% CI LL

UL

71.34

.97

The distribution of subject numbers and amount of notes in each sub-group. Number of subjects

Amount of notes

4 4 3

10–14 2–7 0

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Table 6.

Summary of students’ general perceptions of the game.

Statements


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

The graphic design of the game attracts me. The storyline of the game attracts me. The instructions/hints in the game are clearly given. The game helps me improve my English listening ability. The game helps me improve my English speaking ability. The game helps me improve my English reading ability. The game helps me improve my English writing ability. The game helps me improve my English vocabulary knowledge. The game helps me improve my English grammar. In general, the game helps me improve my English ability.

Mean

SD

3.93 3.69 3.76 3.69 3.00 4.14 3.10 3.83 3.17 3.79

.75 .81 .69 .60 .85 .52 .72 .80 .60 .73

comprehension, and some mentioned the increase in reading speed after gaming. Eleven students reported an increase in vocabulary size. In addition to language gains, students also acknowledged some positive influences on learning attitudes. Eight students reported their enjoyment in gaming and enhancement in learning motivation. Some reported the gain of a sense of achievement when they could fully comprehend the game dialogues. Several students mentioned that playing English video games provided them with an all-English environment which forced them to think in English. Although students identified some improvements in English through gaming, they still recognized several language difficulties that hindered their gaming/learning. First, some reported the difficulty in comprehending the fast talking speed of the dialogues and the fleeting subtitles. Other difficulties in language comprehension included a large number of unfamiliar abbreviations and reading in all capitals. In addition, two students reported that their attention was engaged in accomplishing the game missions rather than in acquiring the language. Table 7 summarizes the identified language gains and difficulties. Strengths and weaknesses of the game design Students stated that they liked the gameplay design the most, including the challenging/ diverse game missions, intriguing storyline, multiple routes, and simple operation. Eight students commented that the various challenging missions were engaging, and that they had a great sense of achievement when completing the missions. Seven students reported that the intriguing storyline attracted them to continue playing. Although students showed great fondness for the gameplay design, they also identified some deficiencies. For example, nearly half of the students complained that some of the game missions were too difficult to complete, and that completing these missions took a lot of time. The reported strengths and weaknesses are summarized in Table 8. Discussion Vocabulary gains Both groups in Study One gained some new words after gaming, confirming several studies’ (Baltra, 1990; deHaan, 2005a) claims that video games are potential

Interactive Learning Environments Table 7.

Summary of gains and difficulties in language learning. Language/learning gains

Listening Reading

Vocabulary


Colloquial usage Learning attitude

Others

Table 8.

. Improvement in general listening ability (n ¼ 18) . Improvement in general reading ability (n ¼ 10) . Increase in reading speed (n ¼ 6) . Increase in vocabulary size (n ¼ 11) . Moderate difficulty level (n ¼ 3) . Acquisition of colloquial usages (n ¼ 4) . Enjoyment in English learning (n ¼ 8) . Increase in learning motivation (n ¼ 2) . Sense of achievement (n ¼ 3) . All-English environment (n ¼ 3)

Language difficulties . Fast speaking speed (n ¼ 5) . Fleeting subtitles (n ¼ 2) . Unfamiliar abbreviations (n ¼ 1) . Capitalized letters (n ¼ 1)

. Difficulty in concentrating on language learning (n ¼ 2)

Summary of strengths and weaknesses of the game design.

Gameplay design

Art design Audio design Others

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Strengths

Weaknesses

. Various challenging game missions (n ¼ 8) . Intriguing storyline (n ¼ 7) . Multiple routes (n ¼ 3) . Easy for less skilled gamers to play (n ¼ 2) . Appealing graphic/character design (n ¼ 17) . Clear dubbing (n ¼ 4) . Good background music (n ¼ 2) . Sense of achievement (n ¼ 8) . Development in strategic thinking (n ¼ 1)

. Difficult game missions (n ¼ 14) . Time-consuming (n ¼ 6)

language learning resources for learners. However, compared to the findings of previous studies (Chen & Yang, 2011; deHaan et al., 2010; Peterson, 2010; Ranalli, 2008; Rankin, Gold & Gooch, 2006; Rankin, Morrison, McNeal, Gooch & Shute, 2009), the subjects in Study One reported fewer vocabulary gains. The reasons for their limited vocabulary gains might include the following. First, the duration of the gaming session might be too short. Since not every subject completed the temporary goal in the experiment, some might not have encountered the target vocabulary items. If the subjects were allotted with more time, they would have had more encounters with the target words and thus have had a better post-gaming performance.

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The issue of interactivity in games might also account for the subjects’ limited vocabulary gains. The difficulty of concentrating on language while gaming was reported in Study Two, revealing that high interactivity in the game somehow hindered students’ vocabulary learning. The issue of interactivity in video games hindering langauge learning was earlier proposed by deHaan (2005b) and deHaan et al. (2010). It is thus worthwhile to further investigate how and to what extent interactivity with adventure games can positively/negatively influence learners’ language learning.


Effectiveness of note-taking The lack of significant difference of the two groups’ vocabulary gains shows that the note-taking group did not outperform the other group. One possible explanation for the similar vocabulary gains is that the note-taking group’s attention was mainly on playing rather than on the language. Because note-taking was not required, some of the subjects might have chosen not to focus on the language and thus took no notes. Others might have been attentive to the language at the beginning; however, as the gaming proceeded, their attention gradually shifted to playing, as evidenced by the different amount of notes taken at the beginning and at the latter game sections. Taking fewer or no notes might have resulted from the inconvenience of taking notes on paper. The irrelevance of note-taking to accomplishing the game could also be a possible cause. Since taking notes could be interruptive and possibly spoil the fun of gaming, the subjects might have reduced the frequency of note-taking to sustain the gaming flow and paid scant attention on the language. Improvements in other language skills/knowledge Improvements in reading ability and listening ability were the other major improvements reported in Study Two. Similar improvements were also reported in previous studies (Chen & Huang, 2010; Chen & Yang, 2011). deHaan (2005b) commented that there are rich textual/aural inputs in adventure games. Szynalski (n. d.) also argues that the ‘‘real, conversational language’’ in adventure games could help players ‘‘program their brains with good English’’ while playing and could thus enhance their understanding of conversational language. It seems that adventure games can expose learners in an authentic English environment that enhances their listening and/or reading abilities. Students’ attitudes toward the adventure game From the survey results and written comments in Study Two, it was found that the students held positive attitudes toward the game design. The storyline and art/audio design encouraged students to continue their gaming, which conformed to Gee’s Design Principle (2003). The intriguing storyline as one of the salient strengths of the game echoes the similar finding reported in previous study (Chen & Yang, 2011). It could be inferred that a good storyline is one of the crucial factors that make adventure video games attractive. Another critical factor that could influence students’ perceptions of the attractiveness of an adventure game is whether the game missions are challenging enough for students and thus provide them a sense of achievement upon completion.



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The importance of challenging game missions as intrinsic motivation was earlier identified by Malone (1981) and is again supported with the subjects’ feedback in this study. However, it should be noted that what was challenging to certain students might be difficult to others. Many students complained that some challenging game missions in BONE took them a lot of time to complete. If the difficulty level of a game is beyond the students’ competence, it might take students a great amount of time and thus runs the risk of losing students’ interest quickly. Students also complained that there was no way for them to control the dialogue and subtitle speed, and that caused them some difficulties in comprehending the text. The ‘‘lack of control’’ in subtitles and dialogues has already been identified by deHaan (2005b), and he thus diminished the value of using adventure games in language learning despite the fact that rich language inputs are embedded. Though some limitations occurred when applying a commercial adventure video game like BONE, its high practicality of implementation to language learning still makes it a promising choice. To effectively apply these existing games to facilitate language learning, several criteria for game selection are proposed based on the research results. First, teachers should select video games which match students’ language proficiency levels. The language difficulty level should be slightly beyond students’ ability yet not overwhelming. In addition, teachers should select games with subtitles and clear pronunciation, so that students can receive both written and spoken input while gaming. A game with adjustable subtitles will benefit students’ language learning more. In addition to the language, teachers should also choose games with good game design. A good game should provide students with various moderately challenging game missions to sustain their interest in gaming and learning. In addition, a game with intriguing storylines and delicate, high-quality visual/sound effects could enhance students’ gaming/learning motivation. Limitations Although the results of this study have presented some interesting findings, some limitations should be noted. A major limitation is the limited number of subjects. The research results would be more representative with a larger sample size. In addition, no thorough survey was conducted in Study One to investigate the subjects’ perceptions of the game. Since these subjects experienced more pressure than those in Study Two when gaming, it would be better to have both the two studies’ subjects’ perceptions so that a comparison between the two can be made. To further investigate the effectiveness of adventure video game-based vocabulary learning, it is also suggested to have one more group in Study One that learns words through the traditional way. Conclusion This paper investigated the effects of an adventure video game on foreign language learning and students’ perceptions by conducting two studies. The results of the studies yielded several interesting findings. First, based on the experimental results in Study One, it was clear that EFL students can acquire new L2 vocabulary items after

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playing an adventure game. The second study suggests that, even though some difficulties and inconvenience might occur, language learners still hold positive attitudes toward adopting commercial adventure games in language learning, and that this type of adventure games are beneficial to second language learners’ improvements in listening, reading, and vocabulary knowledge. These research results thus suggest the educational potentials of adventure video games for foreign language learning, and should encourage further exploration into how and to what degree such interactive video games can assist second or foreign language learners in enhancing vocabulary knowledge and other language skills. Acknowledgements


This work is particularly supported by ‘‘Aim for the Top University Plan’’ of the National Taiwan Normal University and the Ministry of Education, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Notes on contributors Prof. Howard Hao-Jan Chen obtained his PhD degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1996. He is a professor in the Department of English at National Taiwan Normal University and is presently the Director of Mandarin Training Center at National Taiwan Normal University as well. Prof. Chen’s research interests include computer-assisted language learning, corpus linguistics, second language acquisition and vocabulary acquisition. Christine Ting-Yu Yang is currently a research assistant of the Department of English in National Taiwan Normal University.

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