for doing things we were not able to do before. For us, multimedia involves multiple ...... the schematic representation of a string quartet. The user's brain receives.
Interactive Report of the Working Elizabeth
multimedia
pedagogues
Group on Interactive
Multimedia
S. Adams
Amruth Kumar
Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, USA
Ramapo College of New Jersey, USA
Linda Carswell Open University,
Jeanine
Meyer
Pace University,
Milton Keynes, UK
Ainslie
Pedagogy
Ellis
USA
John Motil California State University,
P.S. C.I.T. Monash University, Australia
Northridge,
USA
Patrick Hall (chair) Open University,
Milton Keynes, UK ●
Abstract This working group report proposes a set of criteria for effective design and use of educational multimedia. These criteria are organized around the mutually interdependent roles of teacher, learner, and technology in the educational process. The criteria constitute a first attempt, grounded in educational theory, at a response to important pedagogical and social issues that have been raised with respect to traditional instructional approaches. Some illustrations of potential uses of multimedia are discussed. Finally, recommendations are offered regarding public policy and institutional activities to promote development and dissemination of well-designed multimedia materials and equitable access to the technology necessary for their use.
If not, why not?
The authors come from educational institutions which have disparate modes of presentation. Those at the Open University in England currently rely primarily on text because their students are educated at a distance. Those from institutions in the United States rely primarily on face to face presentation to relatively small classes of students, while those from Australian universities use a combination of presentation modes where the live presentations are usually to larger audiences. When there is a new technology, we are not only interested in how it can help us to do old things better but we are also interested in exploring the possibilities for doing things we were not able to do before.
1 Introduction For us, multimedia involves multiple sensory modes – the visual, aural, and tactile senses, with material delivered through the same single environment, in this case the computer. The visual material includes pictures and diagrams in addition to text, with moving or dynamic components. The aural elements include speech voice-over, music, and sounds to illustrate educational elements with an auditory component. The tactile elements are usually the input actions through the keyboard and mouse. Tactile output is not common, although for persons with visual impairment one might contemplate the use of Braille and contoured figures.
Multimedia has of late taken the world by storm, both in education and entertainment. Commercial companies are pursuing it primarily for ‘edutainment’, that is a blend of education and entertainment. Educators the world over are investigating the pedagogic benefits of using it in education, while governments are actively promoting the application of multimedia for education through grants. It seems an opportune time for us to stop and ask ourselves whether all this isn’t just hype. All new PCs are marketed as ‘multimedia machines’ whether the user wants the capability or not. Educators and commercial suppliers are rushing to don the garb of multimedia creators in all that they do, making the word ‘multimedia’ the latest bandwagon of technology. This report
will
consider
●
Can multimedia
●
If so, why and how?
The tight integration or orchestration of the elements of media is important. This involves the ‘chunking’ of concepts or components into manageable packets of information for the user and providing for the interconnection or hyperlinking of packets.
the questions:
benefit
education? Interactivity is a major feature of multimedia. It enables multimedia applications to respond to user input in addition to generating output for the user. Interactivity, together with tight integration allows the user a substantial degree of learner control - an important feature of multimedia applications.
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In order to determine what we can do that is new, we need to first look at what we do now and why and how we do it. If multimedia is so promising, we might some day discover, with the benefit of hindsight, that current approaches to teaching could have been substantially improved. We can at least
Integrating Tech. into C.S.E. 6/96 Barcelona, Spain 01996 ACM 0-89791 -844-4/96/0009 ...$3.50
182
imagine methods.
that
there
may
be
some
weaknesses
in
current
iii A third pedagogical issue is teaching sequence and learning sequence. Conventional education is predominantly linear students are expected to learn the material in the sequence determined by the instructor. Textbooks similarly impose a sequence, the assumption being that the student reads throu,gh the textbook from beginning to end, though some authors have attempted to suggest alternative paths through their texts. In
In Section 2 we look at a number of issues that will be important in differentiating the use of multimedia from current educational approaches, and look at a number of other issues that might cause us to have reservations about the use of multimedia. In Section 3 we propose a set of characteristics to which effective educational multimedia should conform. These need to be grounded in theory, and this is picked up in Section 4. While learning theory has developed over the past century, and may not change, the pedagogy (i.e. teaching strategies) to the use of multimedia and its will need to be tailored instructional design. In section 5 we discuss a number of applications of multimedia. These include general examples, student-authored projects, and some applications specifically for Computer Science education. Finally, in Section 6 we make a number of recommendations.
2 Issues Concerning Multimedia
the
distance education, research at the Open University shows that around 50Y0 of students attempt to break away from the teaching sequence of their written material, preferring to use the material assessment
issues
when needed for the
Use of
concerning
v A fifth pedagogical issue is the time and place of study. Conventional instructor-led education takes place at fixed times and places, which may not suit students’ constraints on time and place.
the
vi A sixth pedagogical issue is the variety of learning styles that students have. This variety is reviewed later - students differ one from the other. Typically, the didactic approach will have been determined by a single educator or text book author. While in conventional settings we may generate alternative explanations in response to learning problems, these may be limited to material presented orally, accompanied by a few alternative or supplemental diagrams. In this form, explanations are not easily reusable.
use
We will describe a number of issues which are significant for the use of multimedia in education. We will describe these pedagogic issues as possible shortcomings of current instructor-led or textbook-based delivery, leading on to show how multimedia can overcome these. However, we must recognise that the best teachers and instructors already have methods of responding to these issues in ways that benefit their students. We defer the discussion of more concerns to the next subsection.
to be consulted
iv A fourth pedagogical issue is that of pace. Some students require longer to study and learn particular topics than others. This could be for a variety of reasons, from problems of language to particular learning blockages for that particular topic. Conventional lessons at regular intervals may not leave enough time for such students to keep up with a course.
Why should we want to use multimedia for education? The reasons given range from ‘because it is there’, to ‘use it or lose the audience’, to ‘it helps learning’ by enabling flexibility in presentation of content, pace, time and style of learning.
2.1 Pedagogical of multimedia
as a resource assignments.
general
social
issues
vii A seventh (and final) pedagogical issue is the pressure on the educational system to educate more students with shrinking resources. Governments want more for less. How can this be achieved without loss in the quality of the educational system? Larger classes may be one way, distance education another, Ibut behind this lies the need to make more effective use of that scarce resource, the excellent teacher or instructor.
or
i A first pedagogical issue is that of the expectations of both students and educators. Multimedia is there, and we will be expected to use it. Multimedia, in the form of the World Wide Web, is being increasingly used by industry. When industry is promoting multimedia, education cannot be far behind, certainly not in the eyes and expectations of the society which benefits from the education.
Now let us look at how the use of multimedia could address the above pedagogical issues. Free standing multimedia provides the potential for students to learn on their own, at their own pace and in their own sequence. As educators, we can present material in a multiplicity of ways with a number of alternative accounts or views of the material, and the students can choose the format and account that they like best. ‘They can take control of their own learning, and can view the materials supplied as personal learning resources.
ii A second pedagogical issue is the changing nature of our student body. Eliot Soloway entitled his keynote address ‘The Nintendo Generation Goes to College’, and we must address this. We are now educating a generation of students whose experience has been radically different from that of the preceding generations. These students are pictorially oriented through experience of television and sophisticated diagrams in print. They are accustomed to a level of stimulation which if not present can lead to shifts of attention and the need for pausing. We need to respond to this by providing learning that exploits these abilities and expectations. and acknowledges some of the problems of shortened attention spans and a reduced interest in reading print.
Storing explanations and other educational aids on digital media permits students to repeat a teaching sequence if they so choose. We may be able to show students things that are difficult to illustrate in text, such as animation of algorithms and multiple perspectives of three dimensional objects. We can provide experiments or what-if scenarios, such as simulated surgical operations, dissections, or nuclear explosions, for learning by ‘experience’. All this, when backed up by an experienced instructor who focuses on the specific learning problems of the student, can make multimedia a very effective educational resource.
183
2.2 Social usage
issues
concerning
multimedia
requiring
even more analysis
andlor
synthesis.
Educators
must
demand that students use technology to seek out and evaluate a wider range of views; analyze data; build and test complex models; and present and communicate effectively and professionally to real audiences.
However, we are concerned that there may be negative social consequences arising from multimedia creation and use. We want to caution developers about the complexities and costs of producing effective multimedia for educational purposes. The concerns discussed below include the need to ensure the place of critical thinking in education, the issue of economic disparity feeding into and feeding off of multimedia education, and the possibility of mistaking and exchanging the teacher-creator forthecreation that is multimedia courseware. While some of these clearly relate to the outcome of the educational system, these issues are of a more general nature and we will refer to them as social issues.
2.3 The
validity
of multimedia
While the use of multimedia has received criticism for not demonstrating empirically validated ‘improvements’ in learning, it is important to establish why we are using it and what it is being measured against. What are the important factors: learning outcomes, learning factors, or both? What has multimedia been historically measured against? If we are trying to compare this form of learning on the basis of learning outcomes, what is our measuring stick: the good teacher, the bad teacher, or the average teacher? The problem lies in the fact that we do not and in a sense cannot objectively validate our own teaching and often arrogantly assume that the success of students is a result of our ability to teach. But how many of us have sat through ‘bad’ lectures and passed the course in spite of the lecturer?
i The first social issue concerns the possible negative effects on students who rely on multimedia as the primary vehicle for learning. Students of the MTV generation maybe accustomed to montages and sound bites, but they still need practice in analytical thinking. Students need to be sceptical of authority and not believe that technology, especially glittery technology, legitimizes sources. They must acquire the ability to reflect on and assess the credibility of all sources. Students
If we are not scrutinizing our own teaching, how can we hope to make valid comparisons? Are the learning outcomes more important than the experience? A student may study a course and achieve the ‘required’ learning outcomes but may have disliked the whole experience and never want to repeat it again. On the other hand, an enjoyable learning experience, with the same apparent immediate outcomes, may contribute to the habit of life-long learning. Validation of our teaching methods is important. However, we need to consider what it is we are measuring, why and in what circumstances, in order to distinguish when multimedia is advantageous. The benefits of sound educational practice may only appear long after the particular practice has been experienced by the student!
need to know how to make use of technology. But they must also be able to function when the technology does not work. ii The second social issue is the effect that it may have on society. Multimedia may enhance life for the haves, but may then putthehave-nots at a further disadvantage. Itmay serve to decrease the respect and support for existing bodies of text and related institutions and skills. Multimedia encourage nonlinearity, but linear sequential arguments serve important purposes. The straight linear narrative form, for example, the story and the novel and the film, will continue in importance. In many instances. the authors of new technology-based materials remain unrewarded and unacknowledged. Many current uses of technology give tacit support to casual plagiarism.
3. Effective
multimedia
Effective multimedia will address the issues described in Section 2, giving the pedagogical benefits described there, and minimizing negative social outcomes that might possibly arise. It will be designed with the following aspects in mind:
iii The third social issue is the effect on teachers and (current) institutions of education. Multimedia may put teachers out of work. Just when much educational research appears to indicate that lecturing fails many students (who require a more active, engaging form of instruction), some may use multimedia to produce an automated lecturer. Use of multimedia, especially appropriate, careful, and balanced use, requires considerable attention to educational practices. This, in turn, requires considerable time commitment and expertise in a variety of areas. The market forces tend to encourage a simplified role for the teacher when using multimedia, when the real requirements may be a more complex role, including a deep(er) understanding of the content and the ability to react appropriately to needs of individual students. The expectations of students and others, grounded as they are in commercial television and film, also apply pressure on the teacher for a substantial time commitment.
●
effective
learning
●
effective
instruction
●
effective
communication
●
effective
use of technology
of the content in the service
of the above
three
3.1
Effective
In order to promote
learning effective
learning
the product
must be
● simple - explaining a topic in terms of knowledge learner is already expected to possess (i.e. scaffolding)
iv Educators can act to prevent the worst effects in these areas, though it may happen that cheap education will put pressure on good education. Educators need to re-assess their educational practices. They must be advocates for maintaining and even raising standards. The advent of calculators meant that teachers had to develop more complex assignments, while also making sure that students still had basic skills. Similarly, the advent of multimedia means teachers have to develop assignments
184
●
clear - defining/delineating
●
unambiguous
- distinguishing
a topic
in its entirety
the topic
from
others
the
3.2 Effective
4 A review
teaching
highlights the perspectives/associations to acquire to master the topic
a student
●
● provides appropriate assessment procedures to mastery of the topic
3.3 Effective
needs
feedback mechanisms enable students to assess
so as to increase of the topic
monotonically
and their
the
4.1 What includes mechanisms to summarize periodically the material presented to that point and relate it to other previously acquired knowledge
3.4 Effective
use of
presentation
the
Learning
theories?
in to two approaches: mental
● a social or contextual approach looking, at the way learning is facilitated through other people and the relationship of the material to the world outside.
4.1,1
Psychological
Operant
approaches
Conditioning
Skinner’s theory is based upon the concept that observable changes in behaviour indicate learning. This occurs as a result of the learner’s response to external stimuli. The theory attempts to explain cognition in terms of behaviour and the use of reinforcement to produce the required response. In multimedia, tasks can be presented with appropriate feedback mechanisms to reinforce the learning. The opportunity for repetition to produce a required response can be achieved more easily when the learner can have repeated access as compared with traditional teaching environments.
learner – bookmarks, page-margin and other annotations, sequential traversal, a quick and simple way to figure out how far the learner has come and how much further there is to go, tables of contents, indexes, quick rewind and look ahead ●
● teacher – control of content and presentations, assignment of problems, projects and reading, assessment of student learning through standardized tests
Developmental
psychology
This theory was developed by Piaget, who was primarily interested in the development of human knowledge. The theory has had a profound effect on our understanding of the cognitive development of children. Central to Piaget’s theory is cognitive structure - physical and mental actions - that underpin stages in child development and specific acts of intelligence. Piaget identifies four stages of development: sensory motor; preoperations; concrete operations and formal operations.
● communication – oral. written. pictorial, graphic, audio, and video presentations, ability to synchronizetsequence presentations in various media, ability to repeat, restart, pause and resume, ability to splice other topics into the topic currently being presented, ability to omit cues in order to elicit responses from the learner
be used to provide
These stages are generally related, but not restricted, to particular age spans, with the majority of humans reaching the formal thought level by the late teens. This theory overla~ps with the constructivist perspective, the emphasis being the provision of an appropriate environment to enable learners to construct their understanding of the concepts involved. It has been used extensively in the elementary areas for cognition in mathematics and logic (eg. B ybee and Sund, 1982; Wadsworth, 1978 as cited in [9]). As the cognitive development based on this theory is facilitated by providing activities that allow adaptation, multimedia applications will support this through interactivity, animation and object manipulation by l.he learner,
● learner – automated search over text and other material, instantaneous lookup of related concepts through hyperlinks, synergistic presentation of relevant material in multiple media, unrestricted traversal of material
● teacher – research assignments making electronic libraries, easy customization procedures and easy customization of control simulations and microworlds
divide
and and
thought
Technology should be used to ensure the above aspects and not to obscure them. The usual human factors issues must be adequately considered during development of multimedia. Technology should be used to bring together all the benefits currently being presented on disparate media. As they relate to the learner, teacher, and modes of communication, these are:
should
are the learning
theories
● a psychological approach looking at the internal processes and the way these change during learning
technology
In a similar manner, technology features not currently available:
and
multimedia education we need to consider learning theories concepts [4], the pedagogues that apply to those concepts, how they impact instructional design and practice.
●
● preserves in the multimedia processes used in its development
theories
‘Educational software can be characterized not only as a teaching and learning resource but also as a teaching strategy; that is, a software program carries with it explicit and/or implicit strategies for its use (i.e. instructional strategies).’ [9]. When considering the instructional design and practice for
communication
● presents material learner’s understanding
of learning
pedagogues
especial use of of assessment of presentation,
● communication – customizing the granularity/amount of material, customizing the sequence of presentation and the speed of delivery, ability to enable alternative paths
An alternative consideration of psychological development and its role in learning has been made by Vygotsky[ 14] who has seen the process as much more social.
In the following sections we will add additional grounding to the guidance on effective multimedia. We will seek this grounding in educational theory.
185
Information
Processing
Theory
Instructional
Information processing theory uses the computer as a model for human learning. This includes the input, processing, and storage of the information in order to generate responses to that information. It incorporates encoding, retention, and retrieval of information, with learning taking place primarily through memorization. In its practical application, this involves the ‘chunking’ of information, where a chunk is a meaningful unit that comprises 5 - 9 items, a figure derived from cognitive psychology as reflecting the limit of short term memory. Multimedia has the ability to facilitate the chunking through different media types, multiple representations and appropriate positioning or ordering of information.
Dual
coding
informing
learners
stimulating
recall
presenting providing
reception of the objective of prior
learning
the stimulus learning
guidance
performance
expectancy retrieval selective
perception
semantic
encoding
responding
providing
feedback
reinforcement
assessing
performance
retrieval
enhancing
retention
Table
1
and transfer
generalization
— Gagne’s Instructional Cognitive Processes
4.1.2 Social
and
Experiential
Learning
contextual
— Events
and
approaches
This theory is based in the learner achieving cognition through practical application or experience. Experiential learning is characterized by personal involvement, learner initiation and learner evaluation. Proponents of this theory (eg. Kolb [7]) move through a process of taking hold of the experience and then transforming it. The facilitation of this involves setting a climate for the learner that allows control of the learning environment to suit his/her preferred way of learning. Multimedia, with its non-linear structure, allows the user greater control over the learning environment. Its elements of interactivity coupled with multiple media types provide a better representation in a virtual environment of the real experiences that aid the learner.
Intelligences
This theory supports a pluralized way of understanding the intellect. Gardner postulates that there are multiple intelligences such as musical intelligence and spatial intelligence. This contrasts with the traditional approach that describes a person’s abilities in terms of general intelligence regardless of the task in hand. Multimedia allows the development of a multiplicity of presentations that can appeal to multiple types of intelligence.
Constructivist Conditions
Cognitive Process
attention
eliciting
theory
Paivio’s dual coding theory [10] is based in the premise that verbal and non-verbal processing is of equal importance for human cognition. He also postulates two different types of representational units: imagens (mental images and part-whole relationships) and logogens (association and hierarchies in terms of verbal entities), and identifies three different types of processing: the activation of the verbal or non-verbal system, the reference to the other system and the triggering of events within the same system. A given task may require any or all of these three types of processing. This theory has been particularly applicable to cognition in areas such as problem solving and concept learning. It has been used as a general framework for educational psychology. Multimedia applications can provide the simultaneous presentation of verbal and non-verbal triggers as well as linking mechanisms to aid in the associations necessary for the given task.
Multiple
gaining
Event
of learning
This theory has been developed by Gagne who postulates that there are five different categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes, which require different types of instruction supported by different external and internal conditions. Gagne arranges these conditions into a hierarchy, the order of which facilitates the learning by each prior level becoming a necessary prerequisite for the next higher condition. As a result he identifies nine instructional events and their corresponding cognitive processes (see Table 1). Use of this theory in the multimedia environment caters to the premise that different learning outcomes require different instructional approaches, as these applications have the ability to be individualized to suit the learner and the concept.
186
theory
The constructivist theory views learning as a complex situation in which the learners must actually re-construct the knowledge on their own terms through an active intellectual process. When using the constructivist approach students must grapple and struggle with material (ideas, concepts, facts) in order for this knowledge to be internalised. Teachers and authors can utilize interactive multimedia to support an appropriate level of guidance through the use of feedback, markers and annotations to help learners in constructing their own view of the knowledge. An important element of the construction of ideas is visualization and practice, features which multimedia applications can support very well.
Anchored
Instruction
Anchored instruction has become an important paradigm for technology based learning where the technology is used as an anchor for all subsequent learning. The multimedia application in the form of a case study or problem based situation becomes the central focus for subsequent learning, providing the stimulus for discussion and exploration of ideas. This paradigm
is based upon a general model and Stein 1993 as cited in [9]).
Situated
of problem
solving
(Bransfor
client, produce something tangible for their something that can be externally evaluated.
Learning
4.2.3
This is where the learning is situated in a real contextual setting as opposed to an abstract environment. It can be compared to the apprenticeship model, where the learner becomes active and engaged with the community culture of the learning domain. In this way, situated learning is usually incidental. Multimedia, through its use of aural, visual and tactile components, can generate a virtual environment that mimics tbe real world and thus offers significant potential for situated learning.
Lateral
Thinking
Lateral thinking, as postulated by Edward De Bono, works from the premise that problems often require a different perspective to enable them to be solved. He identifies four critical factors associated with lateral thinking: the recognition of the dominant ideas within the problem, searching for different ways of looking for things, a flexibility of the thinking process, and the encouragement of tbe generation of ideas. The rich environment provided within the multimedia framework, together with hyperlinking, facilitates a flexible learning environment that suits the lateral thinking theory.
4.2
Pedagogues
We use the term pedagogues to refer choice of strategy is driven by theories that apply to the situation environment. It appears that technology may facilitate or enable as well as the current ones.
to teaching strategies. The attention to the learning and to the facilities in the interactive multimedia a host of new pedagogues
One frequent way of viewing pedagogues is to posit the spectrum of constructivist versus instructivist approaches. Constructivist pedagogues, also known as generative pedagogues, are those that require students to construct or generate their own knowledge following a very general assignment. By contrast, when using instructivist strategies, teachers focus on their own analysis of the topic and deliver this material as information to the student. The student is viewed as an ‘empty vessel to be filled’. The issue of granularity helps put these two views in perspective. Teachers may use their own analysis of the field to set up the instructional sequence. For each individual objective in the sequence, the approach can be constructivist, instructivist or anything in between.
4.2.1 Collaborative
Learning
How
dimension
to use the social
is part of the definition
or do
Tasks
Setting an inquiry task also constitutes a teaching strategy. Students can use sources organized in multimedia/hypertext form. They can also have the assignment to produce their results as a multimedia document, making appropriate choices of media for representations.
4.2.4 Simultaneous
Modalities
The use of simultaneous modalities is something that only becomes possible with the new multimedia technology. For example, Multimedia Mozart, one of a series of products, presents to the listener/viewer music plus text narrative plus the schematic representation of a string quartet. The user’s brain receives these inputs simultaneously. Similarly, simulations exist, mainly for mathematics and science, m which students simultaneously receive and manipulate images, animations, videos, audio clips, notations, and text narrative all representing the same phenomena. This use of simultaneous modalities represents a substantially different way of engaging the learner. It is clear from this review that many learning theories pedagogues can be supported by multimedia applications. important to acknowledge these and their importance influencing tbe instructional design of the applications.
4.3 Cognitive
styles
and
other
and It is in
thteories
Components of a multimedia educational system include humans (learners and teachers), technology, and content. These are all tied together into a system with various goals, preferences and limitations. The components can be modelled in various ways as described below, ranging from very simple to complex.
4.3.1 Cognitive
Styles
Humans (both learners and teachers) are most simply modelled by Left-Right brain preferences. Left brain is associated with logic, sequence and analysis, whereas right brain is associated with holistic, graphic, and synthetic thinking. Others have described such ‘parallel ways of knowing’ or ‘cognitive styles’ as ●
intellect
versus intuition
●
rational
●
transformational
●
hierarchical
●
successive
versus intuitive
(Assagioli) (Maslow)
versus
associative
(Jensen)
of
strategy. Collaborative or co-operative learning used in conjunction with other strategies may have beneficial effects. The groups of students can be in the classroom or together at remote sites, or dispersed over wide areas and communicating electronically. Multimedia appears very conducive to group projects, both in the sense that projects generally require more than individual efforts and also that students tolerate, even expect, a high level of collaboration.
4.2.2 Authentic
Inquiry
school,
Tasks
Another tool in teaching strategy is to give the students an ‘authentic’ task. Students are directed to perform a service for a
187
versus heterarchical versus simultaneous
4.3.2 Briggs-Myers
(Wells) (Sechenov)
Scale
Learners can also be modelled in more detail by the BriggsMyers [3] indicator with two ways of perceiving (extroversion or introversion, and sensing or intuition) and two ways of judgement (thinking or feeling, and judgement or perception). These four ways form 16 possible combinations. For example, tbe combination ENTJ describes Extroversion, Intuition,
Thinking and programmers.
4.3.3 Felder
Judging,
a
rather
active
●
sensing
●
visual
●
sequential
descriptor
of
[5], specifies
four
by Felder
versus
versus verbal versus global
Model
active experimentation accommodators
with
concrete
active experimentation converges
with
abstract
●
● reflective divergers
observation
● reflective observation called assimilators
with
concrete
with
abstract
experience,
called
conceptualization,
experience,
called
conceptualization,
Kolb finds that engineering majors tend to have convergent styles and business majors had accommodative styles.
4.3.5
McLuhan
Model
Taxonomy
Content (as well as intellectual abilities modelled in terms of Bloom’s Taxonomy six levels: e
knowledge
●
comprehension,
●
application,
●
analysis,
●
synthesis,
●
evaluation.
From the review incorporated in this section it is evident that there are many models and theories, and it is important to be aware that the development of multimedia applications is a complex process. The fact that no single theory has become the universally accepted approach indicates the complexity of the field. This does not, however, mean that theories should be disregarded as they can play an important part in the development and design of the instructional framework.
5 Illustration education
and skills) can be [2] which specifies
of uses of multimedia
in
Given the criteria for effective multimedia in section 3 and the theories of the previous section, we now discuss a few illustrative uses of multimedia in education. These are not meant to be comprehensive. We look at general examples, then the specific creation of multimedia by students, and then the application of multimedia in Computer Science. Two issues of the Communications of the ACM are useful for examples of good practice, Vol 39 No 8, August 1995, and Vol 39 No 5, April 1996. We particularly recommend the papers by Garzotta et al [6] and by Thuring et al [14] in the first and by Norman and Spohrer [8] and by Rosson and Carroll [12] in the second.
5.1
Media has been modelled simply by Marshal McLuhan as either ‘hot’ or ‘cool’. Hot media (such as print or radio) arranges information into parts, communicates the parts as a sequence, and puts together the whole. Cool media (such as video) arranges information as a whole, communicates the whole at once, and breaks out the parts. Some students may prefer one medium over the other. Some topics may fit better on one medium than another,
4.3.6 Bloom
Model
intuitive
Another model by Kolb [7] specifies learning styles as the preferred modes for perceiving (concrete experience versus abstract conceptualization) and processing (active experimentation versus reflective observation) leading to four combinations:
●
4.3.7 Reeves and Harmon
Interactive multimedia has been modelled by Reeves and Harmon [1 O] for evaluation using a set of 14 pedagogical dimensions, such as experiential value (abstract versus concrete) and structure (high or low).
versus reflexive
4.3.4 Kolb
called
For example, a topic such as operating systems can be viewed initially from a low user view, then at a higher level from an analytic view, and higher yet from a design or synthesis view.
Scale
A model involving human learners dimensions on a scale including b
common
General
examples
Multimedia can be used in tandem with other forms of teaching, particularly to enable instructors to respond to individual student needs. It can be used to customize instruction to suit the pace, learning style, and time and place constraints of the learner. Active engagement of students through interaction with multimedia can increase attention span. Finally, in every class there are students who never speak up, never enter discussions or ask questions. Since multimedia provides interactive individualized instruction, these learners will be freed of their inhibitions from asking questions and their learning experience will be enhanced. Multimedia can be used to create simulations of events which would be too dangerous to actually carry out, such as nuclear reactor failures. The combination of a video showing open heart surgery with an audio narrative can serve as preparation for the real event. Multimedia enables adaptation of educational materials for disabled people. Along with virtual reality, it provides types of interaction specifically tai Iored to their unique learning needs. Distance learners have different requirements from students. They are geographically remote and interactivity, engagement, and direction ideally with traditional modes of learning. Students motivation and are largely restricted to input from
and
188
traditional lack the associated may lack text based
Agnew et al [1]). A frequent occurrence is that students put in more time on the projects than the teacher expected. As a related matter, students are amenable to raising the standards and often cannot stop improving their work. This poses a new set of challenges to the teacher, particularly concerning student overwork, but faculty are rewarded by what their students achieve.
materials. For these students, multimedia offers an environment more closely matched to traditional learning. Interactivity and motivation strategies can be built into such systems with the added advantage of presenting a multiple sensory approach not previously possible, with resources only previously available through remote libraries. This extends the learning environment of such students and provides them enrichment in an isolated learning environment.
5.2 Students
as authors
and
Working with multimedia occurs on a spectrum or conceptual network. Students can use professionally developed titles, work with systems developed by their own teachers, and generate their own products. The best commercial titles engage the studenth-tser in active learning. A typical situation is for teachers to identify resources, prepare materials, and establish a framework in which students perform their creative work. Teachers, parents, and other audiences must be cautious, in making assignments and assessments, to encourage and reward genuine contributions of students and not careless ‘cut and paste’. The mechanisms of the World Wide Web facilitate the
learners
The authorship of multimedia is not restricted to professionals working for commercial vendors. Though the time commitment can be arduous, teachers can develop multimedia resources for their own classes. At the least, this can be an important productivity gain. It can also mean that teachers can address learning issues with more finesse than is possible otherwise. More significantly, the creation of multimedia by students themselves can serve as an effective classroom strategy. Having students construct their own multimedia projects invokes, exercises, and confirms a variety of educational goals.
assessment task by making it easy to require students to include direct links to their resources so that viewers can examine the sources and see what the student authors have actually done.
Challenging students to design and build multimedia supports constructivist learning. Students must explore and analyze the material so that they can organize and present it. They must understand the content at the higher levels of application and synthesis. They must create representations of phenomena in the appropriate media and construct meaningful and accurate linkages. Students do all this for real and authentic audiences that, in general, do not exist for other forms of expression. The anticipation that these audiences will view the work provides strong motivation for students, without much accompanying stress.
5.3 Special considerations Science education What
can
interactive
multimedia
for provide
Computer for
the
field
of
Computer Science? Computer Science education has, after all, the prime objective of preparing students to analyze problems and situations and design algorithms and systems. In particular, what can interactive multimedia do for Computer Science education? Teachers can use multimedia for visualizations of algorithms, including the workings of abstract machines, data flow, interactions of objects, and so on. This can be useful in a demonstration mode, in front of the class, or as tools provicled to the independent learner. This provides a significant time saving, since many situations can be demonstrated within a constrained time period. The production of these materials is not a trivial task, and the typical academic system may not provide adequate rewards for the production of well designed
The task of producing multimedia invokes content learning, and the development of critical thinking and technical skills. In addition, since student constructed multimedia is frequently carried out as a team project involving considerable effort and interaction with audiences, informants, and various experts inside and outside the school, the students must develop and practice important interpersonal skills.
materials. Preparing students to be creators and not just consumers of multimedia mitigates many of the concerns about multimedia. In particular, it makes students responsible for developing organization and linkages. It means that students must make appropriate choices of representations. This includes deciding what should be text and what should be image or icon. Student authors must decide on effective use of audio, animation and video. Multimedia student projects encourage and motivate the production of professional level work. Lastly, student constructed multimedia projects make students more critical consumers of all the media presented to them and more respectful of intellectual property. Students who can manipulate images themselves and put together a montage, are more likely to be sceptical of what they see. Students who have constructed their own hyperlinks can appreciate that these links are created.
However, interactive multimedia can provide even more than improved demonstrations. A simulation may require the student-user to predict the next step, to examine and change the parameters of the simulation program, even to modify or improve the simulation engine. A data analysis package may set the student a task and then compare the student’s result with a stored solution and feed back some advice about typical mistakes if the student has made them. These are conceptually driven interactions. This means that the demonstrations can be followed up by two more stages: students manipulate the abstract system themselves and then they generate something, for example, the program, themselves. This is especially important because the observation of something as complex. as a typical algorithm or systems design is generally not enough to produce the level of understanding required to implement the system.
These claims are not based settings, and assigning the
In addition to the visualization of algorithms and systems performance, multimedia has the potential to provide a vehicle of expression for the many systems of notation that are important in our field. We include here. traditional and standard
made for student constructed multimedia projects solely on logical argument. In many places, age situations, teachers have had tangible successes creation of multimedia to their students (eg.
189
development of an appropriate pedagogy evaluation of the educational impact.
systems such as flow charts, data flow diagrams, entityrelationship diagrams, object-oriented analysis diagrams, CASE tools, and so on. Also to be included here are more recent schemas such as TOP MAPs, and any other systems developed to express models and abstractions. Interactive multimedia provides additional functionality beyond CAD/CAM programs. Authors can annotate the diagrams with hyperlinks to text, audio, and even video expositions. The systems can even be designed to require particular annotations by students.
.
Policy makers and funders of multimedia must be made aware of these costs and bear them in mind before establishing multimedia development projects.
6.2 Identify One key issue is how to provide students with the feedback and support necessary so that their use of simulations doesn’t degenerate into more or less mindless trying of random possibilities. One answer to this is that the teacher makes careful assignments. These are termed the anchoring tasks. In this situation, the studentArser is adjusting the parameters of the simulation in order to answer some critical question. This
6.3 Create training course design and production
awareness of the development
in multimedia
Creation of multimedia requires knowledge of the content, technology, pedagogy, as well as human factors. No single person can be expected to have mastered all these areas. Even when multidisciplinary teams are involved the interaction among these components is difficult to master. Education and training are necessary before people can create effective multimedia. ●
A course should next SIGSCE/SIGCUE
6.4 Create multimedia
In Section 3 of this report we have given a set of criteria for effective educational multimedia. These criteria were grounded in a number of issues discussed in Section 2 and theory presented in Section 4. Then in Section 5 a discussion was made of some applications of multimedia in education.
6.1 Raise multimedia
practice.
● An activity to do this should be encouraged by SIGCSE/SIGCUE, perhaps by establishing a reviewing column or section in a suitable newsletter or journal.
recommendations
of recommendations
of good
cannot expect any example of best practice to be perfect, but must select them for particular aspects of educational multimedia which they illustrate.
In addition to the general areas of visualization and manipulation of various schemas, interactive multimedia has great potential for supporting administrative and communication tasks for education. This was demonstrated in several talks at the conference. One example was the creation of a system for virtual interviewing of clients. The non-routine questions were answered through an e-mail exchange with the faculty.
From this arises a number below.
examples
We need to identify examples of good practice that the community can refer to and learn from. Each example will have been produced for a particular learner community with particular needs, and can only be judged relative to that context. We
support and direction is definitely necessary for students to make real progress. It is what good teachers do. However, it may be feasible and it may be necessary in the situation of independent learners to put more of the guidance into the computer system itself. This gives a link between the discursive and the experiential interactions of teacher and student. The process is not always easy and it is possible that the imposition of the guiding system may lead to problems. This is an important area for research.
and
as the
The content providers come from the faculties containing the disciplines concerned. The number of people on the course team within the discipline responsible for the entire course ranges from three to seven or more full time faculty members depending on the size of the course. From conception to completion a course takes anywhere from one to three years of development effort.
A combination of the use of interactive multimedia for production of the various schemas and the visualization of algorithms, programs and systems is feasible. That is, programming and systems development can be done using the same tools as the systems for exposition and education.
6 Summary
as well
be planned, conference.
a repository materials
possibly
as a tutorial
at the
of specific
Many individuals and teams are creating multimedia materials independently and in isolation from others, Everyone would benefit from a globally accessible repository of these materials and articles about them so that they can learn from each other’s successes and mistakes, and reuse and build upon the work of others.
for action given
. A suitable organization should this service, possibly SIGCSE.
cost of
6.5 Propose action the technology.
Creating multimedia is very expensive. For example, a single multi media course produced at the Open University in England involves many people in a multidisciplinary team. A British Broadcasting Corporation unit on campus assists in the production of the multimedia. The Academic Computing Services unit facilitates the development of the software. Lecturers (equivalent of American assistant professors) from the Institute of Educational Technology assist in the
be encouraged
to increase
to perform
access to
The relevant professional and government organizations should be encouraged to provide community-based resources to narrow the gap between the haves and the have-nets with regard to multimedia resources in particular and computer and telecommunications access in general.
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The ACM should join with other professional societies in petitioning government agencies to establish such resource centres. ●
6.6 Foster institutions multimedia.
collaboration among for the development
of
Since developing multimedia is very expensive and all the necessary expertise may not be resident in any given institution, collaboration among the institutions must be fostered through grants, projects and competitions. ● The activities.
7.
ACM
could
become
a significant
broker
in
such
21st Ceniury. Harrisburg Group Publishing.
Schank, Roger C. And Alex Khan (1996) A Go-Based Scenario for High School Students. CA CM Vol 39 NoI 4, April 1996, pp 28-9.
14
Thuring, Manfred, Jorg Hannemann, and Jorg M Haake, (1995) Hypermedia and Cognition: Designing for Comprehension. CACM vol 38 No 8, August 1995, pp 5766
15
Vygotsky, Lev (1934) Thought and Language, translated, newly revised, and edited by Alex Kozulin 1986. Cambridge (USA) and London (UK): MIT Press
References
Bloom, B .S, (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Longmans, Green & Co., 1956.
3
Briggs Myers, Isabel Differing,: Consulting
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Cotton, Julie. (1995). The Theory Introduction. London and Philadelphia:
5
Felder, Richard M. (1993) Reaching the Second Tier Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education, Journal of College Science Teaching 23(5), March/April 1993, pp 286-290
6
Garzotta, Franca, Luca Mainetti, and Paola Paolini Hypermedia Design, Analysis and Evaluation CACTI VOI 38 NO 8, August 1995, pp 74-86
7
Kolb, D. Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Prentice hall, 1984
8
Norman, Donald A. And James C. Spohrer (1996) LearnerCentered Education. CACM Vol 39 No 4, April 1996, pp 24-27.
9
OLTC ( 1996), Technology http://www.oltc.
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and Myers, Peter B,, (1980) Gijls Psychologists Press, Inc., 1980. of Learning - An Kogan Page.
Learning
Theories, Open Corporation, edu.au/cp/default. html
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Paivio, Allan, Mental Representations approach, Oxford university Press 1986
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Reeves, Thomas C, and Systematic Evaluation Multimedia for Education Sorel Reisman, Multimedia
(1995) Issues.
Learning Ltd,
- a dual
Mea
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Kenneth Brodlie, Martine Chomienne, Peer Erlandsen, David Finkel, Michael Goldweber, Simon Holland, Ricardo Jimenez Peris, Deborah Knox, Diana Laurillard, Pam Lawhead, Andrew Marshall, Jeffrey McConnell, Thomas Naps, Marian Petre, Viera Proulx, Susan Rodger, Helen Sharp, Elliot Soloway, Harriet Taylor, Judith Wilson, and Mark Woodman. We apologize for any omissions.
2
(UK):
Rosson, Mary Beth and John M. Carroll (1996) Scaffolcled Examples for Learning Object Oriented Design. CA CM Vol 39 No 4, April 1996, pp 46-47.
Acknowledgements
Agnew, Palmer W., Kellerman, Anne S., and Meyer, Jeanine, (1996) MultiMedia in the Classroom, Allyn and Bacon, 1996.
and London
12
We would like to thank the following colleagues present at the Barcelona SIGCSE/SIGCUE Summer 1996 Conference who, either in formal presentations or in informal conversations, contributed ideas which we have incorporated into this document:
1
(USA)
coding
Stephen W. Harmon (1994). Procedures for Interactive and Training. Chapter 15 in Computing - Preparing for the
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