International Civil Engineering Conference ICES'14

PROCEEDI NGSOF

I NTERNATI ONAL CI VI LENGI NEERI NG CONFERENCE 14th 16th MARCH, 2014

1. Conc r e t eT e c hnol ogy 2. E nv i r onme nt a l &Wa t e rRe s ouc e E ngi ne e r i ng 3. Ge ot e c hni c a l E ngi ne e r i ng 4. Mi s c e l l a ne ous 5. S t r uc t ur a l E ngi ne e r i ng 6. T r a ns por t a t i onE ngi ne e r i ng

International Civil Engineering Conference – ICES’14, VIT University

International Civil Engineering Conference

ICES’14 March 14-16, 2014 Vellore, India

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS Organized by:

American Society of Civil Engineers – India Section Southern Region – VIT University Chapter Department of Civil Engineering, School of Mechanical & Building Science, VIT University, Vellore – 632014, TN, India

Conference Proceedings

i


Contents Organizing Committee

iii

Advisory Committee

iv

About VIT University

v

About ASCE-VIT

vi

About ICES’14

vii

About The International Conference

vii

Papers of Oral Presentation: Concrete Technology

1

Environmental & Water Resource Engineering

16

Geotechnical Engineering

128

Miscellaneous

179

Structural Engineering

237

Transportation Engineering

291

Abstracts of Poster Presentation

322


ii


Organizing Committee Chief Patron

Dr. G. Viswanathan Chancellor

Patrons

Mr. Sankar Viswanathan Vice President Mr. Sekar Viswanathan Vice President Mr. G. V. Selvam Vice President Prof. V. Raju Vice Chancellor Prof. S. Narayanan Pro-Vice Chancellor Prof. Anand. A. Samuel Pro-Vice Chancellor Prof. A.Senthilkumar Dean (SMBS)

Conveners

Prof. A.N. Brijesh Nair Professor Prof. Amit Mahindrakar Professor

Organizers

Mr. Karan Jayesh Patel Mr. Vinit Ahlawat Mr. Mayank Khurana Mr. Vishal Shreyans Shah Mr. Alexander Mathew Mr. Henyl Rakesh Shah Mr. Rohit Rajan Mr. Anjani Kumar Tiwary Mr. Akhil Nair


iii


Advisory Committee Dr. Sivakumar Babu G L, Professor ASCE India Section President

Mr. K P Pradeep ASCE- Secretary (ASCE IS-SR)

Dr. Sireesh Saride Section Secretary

Dr. Asuri Sridharan, Rtd. Professor Dept. of Civil Engineering, IISC- Bangalore

Dr. Pradeep U. Kurup, Professor Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts

Dr. Barnali Dixon, Associate Professor Dept. of Environmental Science, University of S. Florida St. Petersburg

Dr. Nagaratnam Sivakugan, Professor Civil & Environmental Engineering, James Cook University, Australia

Dr. Radhakrishna G. Pillai, Associate Professor Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai

Dr. Asis Mazumdar, Professor Director, School of Water Resources Engineering, Jadavpur University

Dr. Nihal Ranjan Samal, Research Scientist City University of New York (CUNY), USA.

Dr. Bharat Sharma, Principal Researcher & Coordinator-IWMI India Program

Prof. Dookie Kim, Associate Professor, Structural System Laboratory, Kunsan National University, South Korea.


iv


VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Founded in 1984, as Vellore Engineering College, the Institute was upgraded to a University conferred in recognition of its academic excellence in 2001. The institution was founded by the North Arcot Educational Trust under the chairmanship of the present Chancellor Dr. G. Viswanathan. VIT student numbers has reached 22,000 with a faculty strength of above 1000. It runs 19 Undergraduate and 34 Post graduate programs as well as research programs including Ph.D. VIT is a highly accredited institution by both national & international bodies such as NBA, NAAC, IET (UK) and EI (UK). B.Tech. programs in Civil Engineering and Mechanical Engineering are also accredited by ABET (USA). Three years in a row, VIT has been ranked among the top 10 premier Engineering Institutions of India. The campus spread over 350 acres with greenery and sylvan surroundings away from the crowded city. The University is very selective in its admission process, where it enrolls about 4000 students annually through a national competitive examination involving more than 1,60,000 applicants. Conference Venue: The conference is scheduled to be held at Rajaji Hall, Dr. M.G.R. Block, VIT University


v


About ASCE-VIT Established in the year 2011, the American Society of Civil Engineers (IS SR) VIT student chapter has been proficient in its portrayal of a student chapter exclusively dedicated for civil engineering, in the college. With various events, guest lectures and workshops ASCE - VIT has managed to attract a large number of the student population. With the advent of a national level symposium ‘Structura 2013’, the chapter reached new heights, now being a common name amidst various civil engineering circles. We seek to attain overall excellence and carry out the mission of ASCE and thus make our mark in the charts of ASCE International.


vi


About ICES‘14 An initiative by the American Society of Civil Engineers Indian Section, Vellore Institute of Technology hosts the first of its kind, International symposium on civil engineering. Bringing you the finest, most advanced of symposiums, the likes of which have never been seen before - ICES 2014 shall be a place where you can dream to think beyond. First of many to follow, ICES aims to set up a bar of reference when people think about Civil Engineering conferences. Events which rack your brain and takes you to a whole new level, workshops which will sweat information out of you, guest lectures from an array of highly decorated personalities, unconventional MUNs and many others, await you. First and foremost, the brightest minds of our country, from various fields of engineering, coming over to deliver their bountiful wisdom in more than 6 guest lectures. Paper presentations on fields which cover Geotechnical, Environmental, Transportation and Structural. Next in line are 3 large scale workshops on topics like GIS, Bridge Design and Disaster Management. A series of mini workshops and seminars, organized and presented to you by VIT’s own faculties, an array of never before seen events which will make your civil engineering fantasies go wild and an allround exhibition of models by students. This showcase is guaranteed to transport you to a whole different place where you’ll witness the most innovative and creative models made by students. To finish this grand spectacle, there is a panel discussion focusing on issues that civil engineers face globally. A panel of highly decorated persona to deliver their insight on various broad topics of everyday life. Presenting to you ICES 2014, a sanctum for civil engineers worldwide.

About The International Conference  The conference will give an opportunity to meet international experts and exchange views  Provide a knowledge sharing platform.  Presentations by foreign and Indian experts will highlight the current trends and Innovations In various fields of Civil Engineering  Provides a platform for students/scholars to present their research and Ideas to the Industry and academicians


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY


1

Concrete Technology


IC001 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON TRANSLUCENT CONCRETE WITH FIBRES A. Vijay1, M. Ganeshbabu2 1

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University

2

PG Student (Structural Engg.), Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University

__________________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT Energy saving and architectural touch without compromising the structural stability are the major key issues for infrastructure. In this paper, the development of a light transmitting concrete ‘Transcrete’ using plastic optical fibre (POF) is discussed. Transcrete produce new alternatives to entrench the concept of sustainability, which in turn helps to reduce the consumption of electric energy in closed environment. It can also be manufactured as prefabricated parts which may ensure perfect alignment of the POF in the concrete. The experimental results show that optical fibre can be easily combined with concrete and that of POF proves to provide steady light transmitting ratio. This research study concentrates on structural stability, manufacturing technology and sustainable commercial feasibility to deliver an environmental friendly product. The strength is characterized by testing with varying percentages of POF and steel s in proximal combinations. Key words: Translucent concrete, Transcrete, plastic optical fibres, Steel fibres, sustainability, eco-friendly. __________________________________________________________________________ 1. INTRODUCTION Translucent concrete is a combination of optical fibres and fine concrete. Numbers of fibres run side by side transmitting light between the two surfaces of each element. Because of their small size the fibres blend into concrete becoming a component of the material like small pieces of ballast. In theory, a wall structure created out of translucent concrete blocks can be a couple of meter thick as the fibres work almost without any loss in light. Moreover the block are load bearing and provide the same effect with both natural and artificial light. Plastic optical fibres lead light by point between the wall surfaces. Shadows on the lighter side will appear with sharp outline on the darker one. Even the colour remains the same. Such a wall with optical fibres


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University pixels act as if scanner and screen are united. This special effect creates the general impression that thickness and weight of this concrete wall disappear. Translucent concrete blocks are produced depending on the aesthetical wishes and structures needs of the architect’s projects.

Basically all size of precast concretes is possible.

Translucent concrete blocks have same technical data as used for them. The same flexibility occurs with the fibres. The diameter of fibres can be chosen 2.5mm Moreover translucent concrete elements are joining together through splicing or agglutinating or in conjunction with any common framework. Talented architects and engineers should feel challenged to create structures of extraordinary beauty and innovation. Translucent concrete is the first step to what might become the building material of the future. In this research, we differentiate between the terms ‘Translucent’ and ‘Transcrete’. Translucent concrete transmits higher amount of light and gives clear picture since the s are placed too close. Whereas in Transcrete, s are placed with adequate space such that it do not compromise on actual strength of the concrete. And, that is the major area in which this research focuses.

Figure 1: Translucent concrete

OBJECTIVE 

To study the feasibility of employing translucent concrete as a structural element.



To strengthen the member using steel s to make up for the loss of strength due to possible segregation.

SCOPE 

Production of translucent concrete as load bearing structural member.



Study of translucent concrete with steel s with different ratio.



Eco-friendly, Energy saver, Green building condition.


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 2. MATERIALS The materials used in translucent concrete are, i)

Cement

– OPC 53

ii)

Fine aggregate

– River sand

iii)

Coarse aggregate

- 10mm size

iv)

Water

v)

Plastic optical fibres (POF)

vi)

Steel fibres

Plastic Optical Fibre (POF) Plastic optical fibre is an excellent media to transmit light at specific wavelengths since its refractive index is greater in core than in coating. As such, light can be transmitted through POF in the form of total reflection. As POF has a much larger core size and larger numerical aperture than common SiO2- based optical fibres, it can absorb light at an incident angle as large as 60° and still provide a better light guiding system.

POF has the advantages of greater ductility and good flexibility for a harsh environment. The light transmitted in POF is in the form of electromagnetic waves whose amplitude, phase, polarized state and frequency are affected by various physical parameters, such as temperature, pressure, stress, strain, electric field and magnetic field.

POF gives advantages like high precision, relatively small volume, steady for structural identity, anti-electromagnetic interference, anti-corrosion, ease in handling and ruggedness.

In our research 2.5mm diameter plastic optical fibres were used. The colour of POF used are transparent and it as no conductivity or heat transfer, smooth, bendable shape, good flexibility.

Plastic optical fibre contains Polyresin as core material and Fluorinated polymer as cladding material. It contains 1.49% Core refractive index, 0.5% Numerical aperture and step index profile.


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Concrete Technology


Figure 2: Plastic optical fibre cable

Steel fibres There are a number of different types of steel fibres with different commercial names. Basically, steel fibres can be categorized into four groups depending on the manufacturing process viz. cut wire (cold drawn), slit sheet, melt extract and mill cut. It can also be classified according to its shape and/or section. Various notations were previously used to nominate the specific type of the steel fibres but in this dissertation the following notations are used: 1.

(h x w x 1) to nominate the straight rectangular section steel fibres. The letters h, w

and 1 stand for section depth, width and the fibre length respectively. 2.

(d x 1) was used to name circular or semi-circular section straight or deformed steel

fibres, d and I stand for diameter and length respectively. Hook-ended steel fibre (Le. 80/60 H means aspect ratio Length of steel fibre).

3. FORMWORK Special formwork is required for casting both beam and cubes of translucent concrete. Because plastic optical fibres runs more side by side. So the formwork for cubes made by using ply wood of standard cube size 150mm X 150mm X 150mm for 6 cubes. Single formwork is made for total 6 cubes by following dimension – 1.40m X 150mm X 150mm and drilled by 3mm bit machine on each side to pass plastic optical fibres of 2.5mm diameter and it can striped and hold or pinned on each edges by support. The figure of formwork made shown.


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Concrete Technology


Figure 3: Formwork for cubes

CONCRETE MIX Conventional concrete specimens for M30 mix were casted to test the 28th day strength and compare that with 28th day strength of translucent concrete. The trail mix of conventional concrete carried out the ratio 1: 1.6: 2.5 In General, Translucent concrete specimen have to cast for M30 mix and will take 28 th day strength test. In this mix design steel fibres have add to increase the strength of translucent concrete. The trail mix of conventional concrete carried out the ratio

1: 1.9: 1.7 (using

10mm aggregate) Translucent concrete casted in five proportions replacing course aggregate by using plastic optical fibre and steel fibres. Normally plastic optical fibre used in concrete cube as 0.8% for 0.15m3.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS Compressive Strength Compressive strengths were measured using a compression testing machine with a maximum capacity of 2000KN. For all tests, each value was taken as the average of two samples. Test results for Translucent concrete for 28 days curing are tabulated in Table Table 1: Compressive strength results for conventional concrete

S.No

Mix

Plastic Steel Average optical fibre strength fibre

(%)

(N/mm2)

(%)


1

1:1.9:1.7

0.8

0

39.68

2

1:1.9:1.7

0.8

0.2

42.2

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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 3

1:1.9:1.7

0.8

0.4

48.8

4

1:1.9:1.7

1

0.2

44.5

5

1:1.9:1.7

1

0.4

38.17

Cost Analysis For a 150mm cube the additional cost for translucent concrete is 2.16%. This percentage rise in translucent concrete may compensate with the annual electricity bill by more than 25%, which means a worth initial investment. REFERENCES 1. Zhi Zhou, Ge Ou, Ying Hang, Genda Chen, Jinping Ou. Plastic Optical Fibre Based Smart Transparent Concrete - Proc. of SPIE Vol. 7293 72930F-5 2. João Manuel Machado Pinto Germano, Translucent lightweight concrete - Publication number US20130119293 A1 published on May 16, 2013 3. M.N.V.Padma Bhushan, Johnson, Afzal Basheer Pasha, Prasanthi, - Optical s in the Modeling of Translucent Concrete Blocks - ISSN: 2248-9622, www.ijera.com, Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.013-017 4. Bill Price (1999), fib Symposium PRAGUE 2011, proceedings ISBN 978-80-87158-29-6 5. Aron Losonczi (2001), Sergio Galván and Joel Sosa (2007), fib Symposium PRAGUE 2011, proceedings ISBN 978-80-87158-29


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Concrete Technology


IC043 STRENGTH AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF CEMENTITIOUS CONCRETE CONTAINING POST-CONSUMER METALIZED POLYTHENE WASTE Ankur C. Bhogayata1, Dr. Narendra K. Arora2, Abhay V. Nakum3 1

Associate Professor & Head, Dept. of Civil Engg., Marwadi Engineering college, Rajkot, Gujarat, India

2

Professor and Head, Dept. of Applied Mechanics, L.E. College of Engineering, Morbi, Gujarat, India

3

Assistant professor, Dept. of Civil Engg. Marwadi Engineering College, Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

ABSTRACT Strength and durability properties of cementitious concrete containing metalized post consumer plastic waste were investigated. The shredded metalized plastic fibres were added in concrete mix in the range of 0%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% and 2% by volume. A constant water to cement ratio of 0.45 was maintained. The specimens were tested for the basic properties like compressive strength, split tensile strength, pull off strength and durability properties like acid resistance, sulfate resistance, oxygen permeability, water sorptivity, rapid chloride penetration (RCPT), accelerated corrosion, and Impact strength. The test results showed that due to the addition of metalized plastic waste the strength and durability properties were improved for up to 1% addition of metalized plastic. However some of the properties were reduced insignificantly with increase in plastic percentage. The test program had an objective to utilize the hazardous metalized plastic waste as a constituent towards mitigation of littering and dump filling issues of metalized post consumer plastic wastes. It was established that it could be potentially beneficial to use metalized post consumer plastic wastes in normal cementitious concrete preferably for non structural concreting activities.

Keywords: Post consumer metalized plastic waste, water to cement ratio, durability, rapid chloride penetration, impact resistance, compressive strength, split tensile strength.

1. INTRODUCTION Rapid growth of human population in past three decades has raised the serious issue of post consumer plastic waste all round the world. About 300 million tons of plastic waste is produces yearly [13]. Plastic is non bio degradable material hence takes a long time to get completely disposed off. Moreover metalized plastics used in food packaging and general


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University purpose, are not suitable for recycling and reuse. Efforts from various countries are being made to manage the huge amount of such wastes. Very small amount of wastes are being recycled depending on their types and categories. Plastics used in food packaging, wrapping and carry bags are observed difficult to be recycled, hence becomes a major portion of the wastes used in land filling. This could be a serious land and water pollution cause. The fast infrastructural development has raised the concrete demand. Concrete is being produced immensely and massively all around the world today. Utilization of plastic waste in concrete therefore could be a good concept as far as the safe disposal of the waste is concerned. It shall be worth experimenting to check the effects of post consumer metalized plastic on concrete properties like strength and durability. The paper discusses the experimental results received from the basic strength and durability tests.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Ample amount of research is carried out in the area of strength investigation of fibre reinforced cement concrete in past three decades. Selected papers were referred for the basic literature review. Specifically, the utilization of plastic waste as concrete constituent is also explored to a great extent. Researchers have used PET bottles in various forms like aggregates, fibres, and powder in cement concrete mixes [7-17]. It is required to be mentioned that very few papers have dealt with the use of polythene bags as cement concrete constituent and almost none for metalized plastic. The authors took the initiative towards the area and started the series of experiments of strength and durability with addition of post consumer metalized plastic waste in cement concrete. The present paper deals with the combined results of strength and durability to demonstrate the changes took place due to addition of metalized plastic in cement concrete.

3. OBJECTIVE The research objective focuses on a dual task of checking effects of metalized plastic on properties of concrete and towards safer disposal of metalized plastics which are the causes of hazardous impacts of plastic waste on environment. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE The research could contribute towards the management and disposal of hazardous metalized plastic waste through largely used construction material like cement concrete. The results of the research could provide a set of valuable data regarding the effects of metalized plastic


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University waste on basic strength and durability properties also which is not very specifically available at present in sufficient quantity.

4.

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

Materials Cement, Aggregates, Sand and water Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grades available in local market is used in the investigation. The cement used has been tested for various proportions as per IS 4031-1988 and found to be conforming to various specifications of IS 12269-1987. The specific gravity was 2.96 and 2

fineness was 3200cm /gm. Coarse aggregate: Crushed angular granite metal of 20 mm and 10 mm size from a local source was used. The specific gravity of 2.71 and fineness modulus 7.13 was used. Fine aggregate: River sand was used as fine aggregate. The specific gravity of 2.60 and fineness modulus 3.25 was used in the investigation. Natural river sand and potable water were used conforming to the relevant IS code and requirements. Post consumer metalized plastic Food packaging industry utilizes numerous types of polyesters to produce food grade plastic products. Plastic pouch made by metalized polyester films were shredded to the pellet form and added to the concrete mix in different proportions as shown in the table,\

Table 1 Mechanical and physical properties of metalized plastic film


Property

Values

Unit

Resin category

Polythene

--

Plastic type

LDPE

--

Recycling code

4

--

Density range

0.94-1.4

Gm/cm3

Thickness

0.05

mm

Water vapor resistance

Good

--

Oxygen permeability

High

--

Tensile strength

1800-1900

Kg/cm3

Elongation

90 -110

%

Co efficient of friction

0.45 – 0.55

--

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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Figure 1: Metalized plastic films before and after shredding

Mixtures The water to cement ratio was kept as constant at 0.45. All mixes were prepared for each test set of strength and durability test. The following tables illustrate the mix proportions used for casting the specimens. Table 2: Mix proportion calculation for unit quantity of concrete mix

Volume of concrete

1

m3

Volume of cement

0.11058

m3

Volume of water

0.19158

m3

0

m3

Volume of all in aggregate

0.69784

m3

Mass of coarse aggregate

1155.204

kg

Mass of fine aggregate

689.4658

kg

Volume of chemical admixture

Specimen preparation and curing (table for number and types) Specimen were prepared as cubes of size 150mm, cylinders of 150mm diameter and 300mm height, disk of 150mm diameter and 63mm thickness, and small disks of 75mm diameter and 63mm thickness were prepared. Curing in water, acid and sulfate solution was carried out for 60 days. The sorptivity test was conducted on the disks for 300 seconds time. Drop hammer test was performed for disks as per the standard procedure. Initial and final crack reading were taken and used to analyze the impact resistance of the concrete.


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results received from the extensive experimental exercise are presented in graphical manner in the following figures. Based on the overall result scenario of tests, some important discussions could be made as below, The results of durability tests demonstrated excellent increase in the resistance characteristics of the concrete mix. With the increase in the metalized plastic content the acid and sulfate resistance was increased by 75% till the dosage of 1.5% metalized plastic. For the dosage of 1% metalized plastic, resistance to chloride ion penetration was increased up to 50%.

The other properties like impact resistance, corrosion of rebar, oxygen

permeability and water sorptivity get an insignificant reduction up to 20% within this dosage limit. However the compressive and tensile and pull off strength were reduced up to 50% at the full dosage of 1.5% of metalized plastic in the concrete mix.

Figure 2: Compressive and tensile strength results

Figure 3: Weight losses under acid and sulfate attack and Pull off strength test results


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Figure 4: Results of Oxygen permeability and sorptivity tests

Figure 5: Results of RCPT test

Figure 6: Results of Impact load test

Figure 7: Results of Accelerated corrosion test


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 6. CONCLUSIONS

Important conclusions were received based on the experimental results of various tests performed on concrete specimen containing metalized plastic as constituent. 

The durability properties like chloride ion penetration, acid and sulfate resistance and water sorptivity were improved for up to 1% of dosage of metalized plastic. However the properties like impact resistance and accelerated corrosion remained unaffected due to the addition of metalized plastic even at the dosage of 1%.



Properties like compressive strength, tensile strength, split tensile strength and consistency & workability reduced up to 30% beyond the addition of metalized plastic dosage of 1%.



Metalized plastic produced by post consumer activities could be utilized as cement concrete constituent up to an extent dosage of 1% preferably in non structural applications. The littering and landfill issues could be mitigated even at small scale by utilizing metalized plastic waste in cement concretes, thereby the hazardous impacts of non degradable metalized plastic could be reduced.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks to Prof. M.N. Patel- principal L. D. Engineering College Ahmedabad, for facilitating the experimental work at the concrete laboratory. Umiya Polyplast – Rajkot for providing raw material of metalized plastic films. We are thankful to all teachers and students of M.E. Civil program of Marwadi engineering college- Rajkot and Ahmedabad for their help and support.

REFERENCES

1. Annual report, Central Pollution Control Board, India, 2008 -2009. 2. ASTM C 666. 3. ASTM C 1012. 4. IS: 456- 2000, Indian Standard Plain and reinforced concrete –code of practice, New Delhi, 2000. 5. IS: 10262:2009, “Concrete Mix Proportioning – Guidelines”, First Revision, July, 2009.


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Concrete Technology

International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 6. IS: 3812 part-I-2003. 7. BATAYNEH M., MARIE I, ASI I., “Use of Selected Waste Material in Concrete Mixes”, Pub Med, U. S. National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health, vol. 27, Issue12, 1870- 6.November, 2006. 8. BULENT YESILATA, YUSUF ISIKER, PAKI TURGUT, “Thermal insulation enhancement in concretes by adding waste PET and rubber pieces”, Construction and building materials 23 (2009), pp – 1878-1882. 9. DORA FOTI, “Preliminary analysis of concrete reinforced with waste bottles PET fibers”, Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011), pp - 1906–1915. 10. F. MAHDI, H. ABBAS, A.A. KHAN, “Strength characteristics of polymer mortar and concrete using different compositions of resins derived from post-consumer PET bottles”, Construction and Building Materials 24 (2010), pp - 25–36. 11. F. PACHECO-TORGAL, YINING DING, SAID JALALI, “Properties and durability of concrete containing polymeric wastes (tyre rubber and polyethylene terephthalate bottles): An overview”, Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012), pp - 714–724. 12. NABAJYOTI SAIKIA, JORGE DE BRITO, “Use of plastic waste as aggregate in cement mortar and concrete preparation: A review”, Construction and Building Materials 34 (2012), pp – 385 – 401. 13.

PRIYA NARAYAN, “Analyzing Plastic Waste in India- Case Study of PET bottles and poly bags”, Lund University, Sweden, September, 2001.

14. SIDDIQUE R, KHATIB J, KAUR I, “Use of Recycled Plastic in Concrete: A Review”, U. S. National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health, vol. 28(10), 1835 – 52, November, 2005. 15. S.S.VERMA, “Roads from Plastic Waste”, Point of view, Indian Concrete Journal, November, page: 43 – 44, 2008. 16. SUNG BAE KIM , NA HYUN YI , HYUN YOUNG KIM , JANG-HO JAY KIM , YOUNG-CHUL SONG Material and structural performance evaluation of recycled PET fiber reinforced concrete, Construction and Building Materials 32 (2010), pp – 232 – 240. 17. T.R.NAIK, S.S. SINGH, C.O.HUBER, AND B.S.BRODERSEN, “Use of Post Consumer Plastics in Cement Based Composites”, Cement and Concrete Research, Science Direct, Vol. 26, Issue 10, October, page: 1489 – 1492, 1996.


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Concrete Technology


ENVIRONMENTAL & WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING


16 Environmental & Water Resource Engineering


BC006 A STUDY OF RAINFALL TREND IN BAGMATI RIVER BASIN INDIA Amrendra Kumar1, Deepak Khare2, M.P.Akhtar3*, Rituraj Shukla4 1

M.Tech. Student, Dept of WRD&M, IIT Roorkee India,

2

Professor and Head, Dept. of WRD&M, IIT Roorkee, India,

3

Under Secretary to the Govt., Dept. of Water Resources, Govt. of Bihar, Patna, India,

4

Research Scholar, Dept of WRD&M, IIT Roorkee, India,

ABSTRACT Climate change has affected the rainfall worldwide. Many climatologists are working on it to find a possible relation between climate change and rainfall, in order to manage this valuable resource in a better way. In India, these changes have significant variations in different regions due to extremely diversified weather throughout the year and that too varies from place to place. An imperative need persists to quantify theses changes in order to manage the available natural regional resources judiciously. The objective of this study is to observe the temporal variability of Rainfall for the period of

102 years (1901-2002) for better

management of the frequent occurrence of unabated regional floods in the Bagmati River Basin situated in one of the worst flood affected area in northern hemisphere. Where devastating flood hits almost in every alternate year. Annual and monsoon rainfall time series is considered to understand and investigate the trend of rainfall of Bagmati river basin in the past 102 years using non parametric methods such as Mann–Kendall and Sen’s Slope tests. The rainfall trend in a time series has been estimated by Sen’s estimator method. Pre whitening is done to reduce auto correlation effect from the rainfall time series before the application of the Mann–Kendall test. On annual basis, the analysis of Mann–Kendall test exhibits decreasing (-ve) non- significance trend in rainfall time series over the BagmatiKamla River Basin within Indian Territory. The study demonstrates vividly that annual as well as monsoon rainfall has a considerable decreasing trend in the time span of 102 years. This is incisive indication of considerably reduced basin water potential in recent years and needs to be managed altogether with basin flood water management effectively to avoid upcoming regional water stressed condition.

Keywords:

Rainfall; Precipitation;

Non-Parametric Tests;

Trend Analysis;

Auto

Correlation; Mann–Kendall and Sen’s T Tests



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 1.

INTRODUCTION

Precipitation is the one of the most important climatic variable, because it is the prime determining factor in the choice of crops and ecological change in types of food grains(Chakraborty and Newton 2011). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) reported the inter-seasonal; inter annual and spatial variability in precipitation trends during the past few decades all across Asia. Decreasing trends in annual mean precipitation are observed in Russia (Savelieva, Semiletov et al. 2000) North-East and North China (Zhai and Pan 2003) and coastal belts and arid plains of Pakistan .However, annual mean precipitation exhibits increasing trends in Western China Changjiang Valley and the South-Eastern coast of China (Hu et al., 2003; Zhai and Pan, 2003), Bangladesh (MIRZA and DIXIT 1997) .

India perspective Many studies have attempted to determine the trend in rainfall on both country and regional scales. Most of these deal with the analysis of annual and seasonal series of rainfall for some individual stations or groups of stations.(Parthasarathy and Dhar 1974) found that the annual rainfall for the period 1901–1960 had a positive trend over Central India and the adjoining parts of the peninsula, and a decreasing trend over some parts of eastern India. (Ramesh and Goswami 2007) analyzed daily gridded observed rainfall data for the period 1951–2003 and found decreasing trends in both early and late monsoon rainfall and number of rainy days over India. (Pattanaik 2007) found decreasing trend in monsoon rainfall over northwest and central India during 1941–2002. (Kumar, Pant et al. 1992) found the increasing trend in the monsoon precipitation along the west coast, north Andhra Pradesh and north-west India and decreasing trend over east MP and adjoining areas, north-east India and parts of Gujarat and Kerala over 114 years (1871–1984). The decreasing trend varied between 6 to 8 percent per 100 years while the increasing trend was 10–12 percent per 100 years. The precipitation fluctuations in India have been largely random over the century, with no systematic change detectable on either an annual or a seasonal scale (Lal 2000). However, areas of increasing trend in the seasonal precipitation have been found along the west coast, north Andhra Pradesh and northwest India and those of decreasing trend over east MP, Orissa and northeast India during recent years.(Guhathakurta and Rajeevan 2008) found the significant decreasing trend in the three subdivisions (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Kerala) and significant increasing trend in eight subdivisions (Gangetic West Bengal, West Utter Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Konkan and Goa, Madhya Maharashtra subdivision, Coastal Andhra Pradesh Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University and North Interior Karnataka) in monsoon precipitation during the period of 1901– 2003.(Singh, Kumar et al. 2008) indicated the increasing trends in annual precipitation and relative humidity during the period of 1901–2000 in north Indian River basins. (Joshi and Pandey 2011) found no trend in annual precipitation over the whole Indian Territory, Southwest, Southeast, Central and Northeast India during 1901–2000. Analysis of rainfall amount during different seasons indicated decreasing tendency in the summer monsoon rainfall over the Indian land mass and increasing trend in the rainfall during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon months(Jain and Kumar 2012).

1.1.1. Bagmati River Basin in Northern India Bagmati river basin in India is situated in North Bihar region of state Bihar. Bagmati river originates from Nepal and meets in Ganga river in Bihar (Fig. 1a and 1b)). Total catchment area of Lower Bagmati Basin situated in Indian Territory is approximately 10000 km2. As stated in previous section, Bagmati River enters North Bihar about 2.5 km north of Dheng Railway Bridge, meets Kosi river at Khormaghat in north Bihar.

Main tributaries are

Lalbhekya, Lakhandei & Adhwara group of rivers. Bagmati River Basin comprises of four districts of Bihar, Darbhanga Khagaria, Muzafferpur and Sitamarhi in Northern Indian Territory. Monthly precipitation data of four districts covering a period of 102 years (1901– 2002) were downloaded from Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) site India water portal. A pre-whitening procedure is done before applying these data for Mann-Kendall test.

Figure 1a: Study Area ( Bagmati River Basin in yellow colour)

2. METHODOLOGY Mann-Kendall test The Mann-Kendall test is applicable in cases when the data va lues xi of a time series can be assumed to obey the model (Eq. 1)(Hirsch, Alexander et al. 1991)




x  f (t )   i

(1)

where, f(t) is a continuous monotonic increasing or decreasing function of time and the i can be assumed to be from the same distribution with zero mean. The Mann-Kendall test statistic S is calculated using the formula(Eq. 2) n 1

S

n

 sgnx

k 1 j k 1

i

 xk 

(2)

Where xj and xk are the annual values in years j and k, j > k, respectively, sgn(xi-xk) can be given as shown in Eq. (3),  1 if  sgn x j  x k    0 if  1 if 

x j  xk  0 x j  xk  0 x j  xk  0

(3)

The values of S and VAR(S) are used to compute the test statistic Z as shown in Eq (5)

   Z   

S 1 VAR 0 S 1 VAR

if

S 1

if

S 1

if

S 1

(5)

The presence of a statistically significant trend is evaluated using the Z value. A positive or negative value of Z indicates an upward or downward trend. The statistic Z has a normal distribution. To test for either an upward or downward monotone trend (a two-tailed test) at α level of significance, H0 is rejected if the absolute value of Z is greater than Z1-α/2, where Z1α/2

is obtained from the standard normal cumulative distribution tables. In MAKESENS the

tested significance levels α

are 0.001, 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1.

2.3.1. Sen’s slope To estimate the true slope of an existing trend the Sen's nonparametric method is used. The Sen’s method can be used in cases where the trend can assumed to be linear(Hirsch, Alexander et al. 1991). This means that f(t) in above equation(Eq.6) is equal to

f(t)  Q t  B

(6)

where Q is the slope and B is a constant. To get the slope estimate Q in the above equation, one can calculate the slopes of all data value pairs as shown in Eq.(7)




Qj 

x j  xk

(7)Where

j k

𝑗>𝑘

If there are n values xj in the time series we get as many as N = n(n-1)/2 slope estimates Qi. The Sen’s estimator of slope is the median of these N values of Qi. The N values of Qi are ranked from the smallest to the largest and the Sen’s estimator is shown as Eq.(8),

Q  Q N 1

if

N is odd

 1 Q   Q N  if 2 2 

N is even

2

(8)

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION An understanding of the spatial and temporal distribution and changing patterns in rainfall is a basic and an important requirement for the planning and management of water resources. Especially, the river-basin rainfall trends exhibit a considerable variability. Mann-Kendall Test results for the monthly annual and seasonal rainfall data was obtained. In the present study, all four districts within Bagmati River Basin namely Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Khagaria and Sitamarhi are exhibiting decreasing pattern in annual rainfall. Quantitatively, Darbhanga has shown decreasing annual rainfall of 1.56 mm/year and in monsoon a decreasing slope of 1.48 mm/year (See Fig. 2). Similarly, Khagaria district has a trend of decreasing rainfall in slope of 1.86 mm/year and in monsoon a decreasing slope of 1.76 mm /year as presented in Fig.3. Another district Sitamarhi has an indication of decreasing rainfall pattern in this time series with annual slope of -2.39 mm/year and monsoon slope of 2.4mm/year as depicted in Fig. 4. Muzzaffarpur district has shown a decreasing trend of annual slope- 2.41 mm/year and monsoon slope of- 2.26 mm/year as shown in Fig. 5. While observing the test Z values, it can be readily seen that in Darbhanga, rainfall during six month has shown a decreasing trend while two months exhibited no trend of increasing or decreasing (Fig. 2&6). Apart from that, some months indicated minute increasing trend and surprisingly these are post monsoon and winter rainfall months. Similar to that, observing the values of Z test for Khagaria District (See Fig. 3&7), five months are indicating a decreasing trend in both annual and monsoon rainfall with high degree of significance in months of June and July. Whereas the monsoon months are showing lesser rainfall, and pre monsoon and monsoon month are showing slight increase in trend. Sitamarhi district has shown a steep decrease in seventh month in both annual and monsoon rainfall with very high degree of significance level in June July and August (see Fig. 4&8). Muzzaffarpur district too has



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University exhibited decreasing rainfall in seven months and annual and monsoon rainfall at very high significance level (Fig. 5&9). It can noticeably be observed that Muzaffarpur district has highest Z values for annual and monsoon amongst all four districts with fairly high significance value. It can readily be inferred from the aforementioned test results that monsoon climate has changed significantly in BRB in recent years and continuously decreasing with slight improvement in pre monsoon and post monsoon season. A value of the statistical indicators for the entire four districts in BRB is presented in tabulat form as indicated in Table 2. Table 2: Values of statistical indicators at chosen gauge sites within the study river basin Time series

Darbhanga

0.05

2.53

February

-0.35

-0.02

-1.19

-0.05

March

0.00

0.00

-0.76

April

-0.23

-0.01

May

0.30

June

0.08

2.82

**

0.08

-0.84

-0.02

-1.01

-0.04

-0.02

-0.77

-0.02

-0.78

-0.02

0.46

0.01

0.27

0.01

0.35

0.01

0.01

1.24

0.10

0.90

0.09

0.88

0.06

-1.40

-0.39

-3.44

***

-0.84

-2.68

**

-0.79

-2.74

**

-0.65

July

-1.21

-0.54

-2.39

*

-0.82

-2.24

*

-0.96

-2.33

*

-0.96

August

0.40

0.12

-1.95

+

-0.46

-2.75

**

-0.71

-2.89

**

-0.79

September

-0.66

-0.22

-0.58

-0.17

-0.23

-0.04

-0.16

-0.03

October

0.87

0.10

0.98

0.16

-0.42

-0.09

-0.13

-0.03

November

0.00

0.00

1.98

0.01

1.11

0.00

1.54

0.00

December

-0.17

0.00

1.15

0.00

0.53

0.00

1.63

0.00

Annual

-2.18

-1.58

-2.79

-1.86

-2.96

-2.39

-3.26

Pre-

-0.38

-0.03

0.45

0.06

0.57

0.07

0.62

-1.46

-3.14

-1.76

-3.27

-2.40

-3.54

0.62

0.08

1.04

0.17

-0.16

-0.04

0.06

0.01

0.34

0.04

-0.66

-0.04

0.50

0.03

0.07

0.00

*

Signf.

*

Signf.

Q

1.53

Signf.

Test Z

0.02

Test Z

Q

0.95

Q

Test Z

January

Muzaffarpur

Signf.

Q

Sitamarhi

Test Z

Khagaria

Month

(1901-2002)

*

**

**

**

-2.41 0.05

monsoon (Mar-May) Monsoon

-2.06

*

**

**

***

-2.26

(June-Sept) Postmonsoon (oct-Nov) Winter (decfeb) Note: *** if trend at α = 0.001 level of significance


** if trend at α = 0.01 level of significance


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University * if trend at α = 0.05 level of significance

+ if trend at α = 0.1 level of significance

2500.00

Annual Rainfall

2000.00 1500.00

Data

1000.00

Sen's estimate

500.00 0.00 -500.001880

Residual 1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020Linear (Residual)

-1000.00 Year Figure 2: Figure showing annual rainfall trend of Darbhanga 2000.00 Data

Annual Rainfall

1500.00

Sen's estimate Residual

1000.00

Linear (Residual) 500.00 0.00 1880 -500.00

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Year Figure 3: Figure showing annual rainfall trend of Khagaria

2000.00 Data

Annual Rainfall

1500.00

Sen's estimate

1000.00

Residual Linear (Residual)

500.00 0.00 1880 -500.00

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Year

-1000.00

Figure 4: Figure showing annual rainfall trend of Sitamarhi



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 2000.00

Data

Annual Rainfall

1500.00

Sen's estimate

1000.00

Residual

500.00 0.00 1880 -500.00

Linear (Residual) 1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Year

-1000.00

Figure 5: Figure showing annual rainfall trend of Muzzafferpur 2000.00

Data

Monsoon Rainfall

1500.00

Sen's estimate

1000.00

Residual

500.00 0.00 1880 -500.00

Linear (Residual) 1900

1920

1940

-1000.00

1960

1980

2000

2020

Year Figure 6: Figure showing monsoon rainfall trend of Darbhanga

Monsoon Rainfall

1500.00 Data 1000.00


500.00

Linear (Residual) 0.00 1880 -500.00

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Year Figure 7: Figure showing monsoon rainfall trend of Khagaria

2000.00

Monsoon Rainfall

1500.00 Data 1000.00


500.00

Linear (Residual) 0.00 1880 -500.00

1900

1920

1940

1960 Year

1980

2000

2020

Figure 8: Figure showing monsoon rainfall trend of Sitamarhi




Monsoon Rainfall

2000.00

Data

1500.00

Sen's estimate

1000.00

Residual

500.00

Linear (Residual)

0.00 1880 -500.00

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Year

-1000.00

Figure 9: Figure showing monsoon rainfall trend of Muzzafferpur

4. CONCLUSION Agriculture is the mainstay of the State's economy as it provides the 71% employment and the agricultural hazards are associated with variability of precipitation. Past studies were focused at the level of meteorological subdivisions. However, major objective of the present study is to investigate the precipitation trends at district level. Therefore, this is more precise study as compared to the study conducted by Guhathakurta and Rajeevan (2007); Joshi and Pandey (2011); and Kumar et al. (2010) in India. This study provides a broad overview of precipitation statistics, seasonality and inter-annual variability at the district level and may help managers and agricultural planners. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the spatial and temporal variability of precipitation of this region. It can be noted that earth is passing from intermediate zone of climate change. If this trend continues for more hundred years, climate will try to reset its eco-balance system, resulting in flood, drought and forest fire etc. This means the longest dry periods and the shortest wet session. The study has analyzed the rainfall data of 102 years from 1901 to 2002 to determine the trend of rainfall in the Bagmati River basin region. As this region is witnessing a rapidly changing pattern of rainfall it may have considerable impact on human life in this region. Therefore, it can be concluded that there may be an impact of climate change in present, which contributes to the decrease in monsoon rainfall as well as annual rainfall. Similarly, Sen’s Slope has also estimated decreasing magnitude of slope for rainfall data. This study has also revealed that the monotonic trend (annual) for rainfall time series found to be decreasing (negative) with high level of significance. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The data used in the present study is provided by Department of Water Resources, Government of Bihar, and Patna, India, which is gratefully acknowledged here.



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University REFRENCES 1. Chakraborty,

S. and A. C. Newton (2011). "Climate change, plant diseases and food

security: an overview." Plant Pathology 60(1): 2-14. 2. Guhathakurta, P. and M. Rajeevan (2008). "Trends in the rainfall pattern over India." International Journal of climatology 28(11): 1453-1469. 3. Hirsch, R. M., et al. (1991). "Selection of methods for the detection and estimation of trends in water quality." Water resources research 27(5): 803-813. 4. Jain, S. K. and V. Kumar (2012). "Trend analysis of rainfall and temperature data for India." Current Science (00113891) 102(1). 5. Joshi, M. K. and A. Pandey (2011). "Trend and spectral analysis of rainfall over India during 1901–2000." Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (1984–2012) 116(D6 6. Kumar, K. R., et al. (1992). "Spatial and subseasonal patterns of the long‐term trends of Indian summer monsoon rainfall." International Journal of climatology 12(3): 257-268. 7. Lal, M. (2000). "Climatic change-implications for India's water resources." Journal of Social and Economic Development 3: 57-87. 8. MIRZA, M. Q. and A. DIXIT (1997). "Climate change and water management in the GBM Basins." Water Nepal Volume 5 5(1): 63-89. 9. Parthasarathy, B. and O. Dhar (1974). "Secular variations of regional rainfall over India." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 100(424): 245-257. 10. Pattanaik, D. (2007). "Analysis of rainfall over different homogeneous regions of India in relation to variability in westward movement frequency of monsoon depressions." Natural Hazards 40(3): 635-646. 11. Ramesh, K. and P. Goswami (2007). "Reduction in temporal and spatial extent of the Indian summer monsoon." Geophysical Research Letters 34(23). 12. Savelieva, N., et al. (2000). "A climate shift in seasonal values of meteorological and hydrological parameters for northeastern Asia." Progress in Oceanography 47(2): 279297. 13. Singh, P., et al. (2008). "Changes in rainfall and relative humidity in river basins in northwest and central India." Hydrological processes 22(16): 2982-2992. 14. Zhai, P. and X. Pan (2003). "Change in extreme temperature and precipitation over northern China during the second half of the 20th century." Acta Geographica Sinica 58(S1): 1-10.




IUWRM-ANN DYNAMIC MODEL FOR GOVERNANCE OF PER CAPITA SUPPLY OF WATER Dr.V.Nagarajan Associate Professor, SSN College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.

ABSTRACT Developing an integrated framework for urban water management and its validation by applying ANN is the aim of the study. A concerted engineering strategy for comprehensive management of water resources for Chennai city is warranted to avoid a repeat of water crisis like the one experienced in 2003-2004 during which per capita supply (PCS) was only 20 lpcd as against the present PCS of 109 lpcd. The Integrated Urban Water Resource Management –Artificial Neural Network (IUWRM-ANN) model was developed to predict water supply in Chennai in 2025 under different scenarios using PCS as the performance measure and governing data considered for this water supply management study were Rainfall, Land use, Demographics, Infrastructure calibrated with groundwater (GW) conductivity, GW storage, GW extraction cost, and opportunity cost of time and rainfall runoff. The runoff data for the period 2002-2009 were used to calibrate the model and develop insights on the Chennai water system and forecasting runs from 2007 to 2025 were used to predict Chennai's water supply situation in 2025.The effect of rainwater harvesting in the performance of PCS is commendable and the water audit study draws attention of water pricing and fixing leaky pipes. The results of the study demonstrate the proficiency of the ANN method in estimating the performance.

Keywords- integrated urban water resource management, per capita supply, metro water, water pricing, water audit, urban watershed, rainwater harvesting, desalination plant, artificial neural network, multi layer perceptron.

1. INTRODUCTION The key themes to develop a coherent water strategy for urban areas like Chennai will clearly have to move towards, and revolve around, the issues viz., water audits, demand management, integrated urban water resource management (IUWRM) and urban watershed. IUWRM is an emerging concept that envelops the entire urban water cycle, including rainwater, desalination, ground and surface water, etc., as well as storage and distribution,



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University treatment, recycling and disposal, and the protection, conservation and exploitation of water resources at their origin. India’s National Water Policy (GOI 1987) gives priority to drinking water among the various uses. Thus, though domestic water supply consumes no more than 5% of total water consumption in the country, the importance of water supply has risen in recent times. Urban Water Sector (UWS) is a zone of serious mismanagement. As an engineering solution to this problem, a framework for urban water management could be developed from the inspiration and guidance from several global agreements and norms, including Agenda 21 itself, and the World Water Vision.

Chennai has the lowest water availability per capita of any large metropolitan area in India. Public water utility, the Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (called "Metrowater"), serves the municipal corporation area via a piped network. Almost all households in Chennai have some sort of access to public supply: private piped connections, yard hand pumps or taps, public standpipes, or utility run "mobile supply" tankers. Outside city limits, peri-urban towns and villages are served by a patchwork of town and village supply schemes, and are mostly dependent on groundwater. Metrowater obtains most of its water for city supply via three interconnected rain-fed reservoirs, along with well-fields located to the north of the city. In addition, Metrowater also gets water from two inter-basin projects: the inter-state Telugu Ganga Project (water is delivered into the city's reservoir system), and the newly commissioned intra-state Veeranam Project (water is delivered directly to pumping stations).

2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVE. Presently in Chennai city, 590 MLD of water is supplied to the public, 30 MLD to industrial areas and 30 MLD to the neighbouring local bodies. The per capita supply is 109 lpcd. Whereas contrary to the present state of affairs, in 2003-2004, Chennai’s reservoirs went completely dry and the piped supply system was nigh on shut down for more than ten months. The entire city was supplied by “mobile supply”, utility run tankers that went from neighbourhood to neighbourhood delivering a lifeline supply of water of 20 lpcd. The said cessation of piped supply symbolized a crisis of severe magnitude and prompted speculation that the city might have to be relinquished if no water was made available soon. A concerted engineering strategy for comprehensive management of water resources for Chennai city is warranted so as to avoid a repeat of water crisis like the one experienced in 2003-2004. This startling situation is the driving factor for this IUWRM framework through artificial neural Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University network (ANN) and developing such an integrated framework for urban water management and its validation by applying ANN is the objective of the study. Further, intention of this IUWRM-ANN study is to outline the salient features of these solutions or combination of solutions of efficient, equitable and sustainable in nature to address Chennai’s water problems.

3.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The per capita supply norm in India is 135 lpcd as per the Indian standard code IS: 1172: 1983. UNESCO has studied that rapid urbanization and uncontrolled urban migration make urban water management a very challenging issue in India (UNESCO(3)).The field study conducted revealed that integrated management is necessary for efficient functioning of urban water systems. The administrative structure has a big role in fostering integrated management. A range of indicators of water supply will be taken into account, including the quality of water, sanitary integrity of the supply, the costs of water at the point of purchase, reliability of supply and service level, as defined by distance/time criteria. The first two indicators relate to the likely quality of water consumed and therefore are direct influences on health. The remaining three indicators have equally important indirect influence in terms of encouraging alternative source use, decreasing quantities of water used and increasing vulnerability to contamination in some supplies. (People Science Institute,(6)).

The various options for augmenting water supply in urban India, in addition to demand management, which the urban policy makers have ignored, have been critically analyzed. It illustrates from the case of Chennai, where efforts are made to augment water supply through rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge and wastewater recycling. Successful case of rainwater harvesting (in macro and micro scale) in North Chennai, supported with Groundwater Regulation Act have enabled in overall improvement of water resources in the city and through roof-top rainwater harvesting at household level (SANDRAP, (4)).Resource scarcity, the critical aspect, is not just the consequence of hydro-geological factors but most often it is man-made (Janakarajan, (10)). The issues that are crucial for determining appropriate price policy and the need to initiate reforms therein have been analyzed in detail (Rajan Padwal, (11)). A white paper on urban water management has accounted that Academia is not engaged with administration; planners are unaware of political forces; lawmakers are out of touch with the realities of land use. Hence a revolutionary way to look at urban issues is warranted (Swati Ramanathan, (13)). Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 4. METHODOLOGY The methodology adopted to study the dynamics of water supply for Chennai using the historical period from 2002-2009. The model included utility supply via the piped distribution system and self-supply via private resident wells and private tanker supply as its components. Quantity of water currently being consumed from different sources presently and in 2025 known expected growth in population, income, and water infrastructure, current state of consumer well-being and thus developing a baseline forecast, baseline for future state of consumer well-being and examining its policy solutions and the impact of three different solution approaches on the quantity of water consumed by different consumers from different sources were studied distinctly using the historical data.

Per capita supply (PCS) is considered as performance of this IUWRM-ANN model. The Rainfall, Land use, Demographics, Infrastructure calibrated with groundwater (GW) conductivity, GW storage, GW extraction cost, opportunity cost of time and rainfall run off were taken as governing data. The historical runoff from 2002 to 2009 used to calibrate the model and develop insights on the Chennai water system, and forecasting runs from 2007 to 2025 were used to develop scenarios of Chennai's water supply situation in 2025 and test the effects of various policies. After verifying the model results against extensive data, scenario of water supply in Chennai in 2025 has been developed. The study employed a computer code Multi Layer Perceptron (MLP) type ANN for computing the per capita supply. The Feed Forward Back-Propagation network type was used for estimating the performance of per capita supply. The study examined various combinations of these parameters as input to the model so as to evaluate the degree of dependence of each of these variables. The combinations considered were: (1) Rainfall, Land use, Demographics and Infrastructure (hereafter referred to as ANNPCS1) (2) Rainfall, Demographics and Infrastructure (hereafter referred to as ANN-PCS2) (3) Rainfall, Land use and Demographics (hereafter referred to as ANN-PCS3).

5. RESULTS The results of the study clearly demonstrate the proficiency of the ANN method in estimating the performance and architecture, input-output weights of the models are shown below. The integrated model was run over the period from January 2002-January 2009. This period included a multi-year drought (2003-2004) and as well as a year in which Chennai received Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University the highest rainfall in recorded history (2005).The integrated dynamic model study accounts for and significance of Veeranam project in the performance of PCS. Rainfall Land use PCS Demography Infrastructure Output Layer

Hidden Layer

Input Layer

Figure 1.1: Architecture of ANN-PCS1 Model

Rainfall Infrastructure Per Capita Supply

Demography

Input Layer

Hidden Layer

Hidden Layer

Output Layer

Figure 1.2: Architecture of ANN-PCS 2 Model Rainfall Land use

Per Capita Supply

Demography

Input Layer

Hidden Layer

Hidden Layer

Output Layer

Figure 1.3: Architecture of ANN-PCS3 Model

Table 1.1 (a): Input weight Matrix Hidden Node 1

2

3

4

5

6

1.2171

-0.4450

1.6513

-2.8784

1.2787

-0.6619



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table 1.1(b): Hidden weight Matrix Hidden Node Output Node PCS

1

2

3

4

5

6

1.2171

-0.4450

1.6513

-2.8784

1.2787

-0.6619

Table 1.2 (a): Weights obtained after training the ANN-PCS2 Model Hidden Node

Input Node 1 Rainfall

2

3

4

5

6

24.758 32.277 -4.8011 -11.1296 7.0895 7

1

Infrastructu

-

re

7.1260

1.1743

1.0059 -17.5324 7.0515

Demograph 0.4542 y

-

-

4.5531

9.7648

0.1036 2.0886

5.1625

8.6050

0.9702

Table 1.2 (b): Weights obtained after training the ANN-PCS 2 Model-Output-Hidden Layer2 Input Node Rainfall

Hidden Node 1

2

0.2936 5.5629

3

4

5

6

-

-

-

-

1.6549 1.3906 1.8176 3.9285 Landuse

-

-

-

2.0242 0.1080 2.1690

1.7307 2.5147 2.6617 Demography 1.8916

-

4.8197 0.5787 4.7886 0.4447

2.5006

Table 1.3 (a) : Weights obtained after training the ANN-PCS3 Model Output

Hidden Layer 2 1

2

3

4

Per Capita

-

2.031

3.077

-0.0169

Supply

2.8273

7

4



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table 1.3 (b): Weights obtained after training the ANN-PCS 3 Model-Output-Hidden Layer-2

It can be observed that the number of hidden neurons in the network increased with a reduction in the number of variables in the input set. When the resulting per capita supply were compared with actual observations, the model performance was found to deteriorate with a reduction in the number of variables in the input vector in the function approximation case (Table 1), except for ANN-PCS1.

Table 1: Correlation Coefficient for All Neural Network Models. Correlation Coefficient Model

Function

Sub-sampling

Approximation

method

ANN-PCS1

0.95

0.91

ANN-PCS2

0.85

0.78

ANN-PCS3

0.95

0.93

This indicates the importance of the individual governing variables in estimating the per capita supply. The results reveal that only the ANN-PCS3 model showed a significant improvement in performance. One of the reasons for this improved performance of ANNPCS3 may be that the influence of selected input variables in input vector captures variation in the per capita supply effectively, and it aids to capture any nonlinear residual dependencies. The results also indicate that an ANN model would be able to compute the recovery rate using minimum governing variables. The IUWRM-ANN model was then extrapolated to 2025 for the population, income, and land use changes. The 100 MLD desalination plant commissioned in 2010 and the proposed 200 MLD during 2015 have also been employed in the model. The effect of rainwater harvesting in the performance of PCS is commendable and the study draws attention of tariff raising and fixing leaky pipes. The model used different rainfall scenarios by repeating stretches of the historical rainfall record in the period from 2010-2025. The baseline scenarios yielded soothing results of achieving per capita supply of 135 lpcd.



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 6. CONCLUSIONS IUWRM dynamic model coupled with performance evaluation of PCS through ANN were employed in this study. MLP type ANN employed in this study predicts PCS incorporating calibrated input data in generalized manner and its network architecture. The ANN system used was MATLAB: Neural network tool box .The practical application of this study encompasses local communities to decide on the level of access to safe water, need to create more sustainable livelihoods per unit of water and need to manage human water use to conserve the quantity and quality of freshwater. The model depicts the true benefits of rainwater harvesting. The model replicated 2003-04 droughts, supply augmentation, pipeline leakage and rainwater harvesting. It predicts that given Chennai’s rainfall patterns and augmentation of resources, the severe water crisis would not get repeated and water crisis could be managed in an integrated manner.From the experience gained from this study,the three singular solutions came into sight to address Chennai’s water problems are 

desalination plants adopting membrane technologies- the utility favored augmenting supply,



raising tariffs ( i.e water pricing) and fixing leaky pipes,



Rainwater harvesting -to recharge the aquifer.

REFERENCES 1. Land use considerations in Urban Environmental Management, UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank Urban management Programme,1993. 2. Report on Human Settlements,1996 and Oxford University Press,1996. 3. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN/ESCAP), 1997. 4. South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP), Nov. 1999, Assessment of Water Supply Options for Urban India. 5. Bartram, J. K. 1991 and 1999, Effective monitoring of small drinking water supplies. 6. Peoples Science Institute (PSI), 1999, Government of India. 7. Census of India (2001), Government of India. 8. National Water Policy of India (2002), Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. 9. www.rainwaterharvesting.org. 10. Janakarajan,S. 2004, Trading in groundwater: A source of Power and Accumulation.



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 11. Rajan Padwal, 2004, Issues of Pricing Urban Water. 12. Bhattacharya and Datta (2005), ‘‘Neural networks: Applications in flow and transport processes in a coastal aquifer’’ Proc., Int. Hydrology and Water Resources Symp., Institution of Engineers, Perth, Australia, 797–802. 13. Swati Ramanathan, 2006, White Paper on Sustainable Urbanization in India.




IC015 GREENHOUSE GAS DIFFUSIVE FLUX ASSESSMENT FROM FEW INDIAN RESERVOIRS G. Anvesh1, M. L. Kansal2, B.R. Gurjar3 and Aman Sharma4 1

Research Scholar, Civil, 2 Professor, WRDM, 3Assosiate Professor, Civil Engineering Department,

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India 4

Chief Engineer, WAPCOS Limited, Gurgaon, Haryana.

ABSTRACT There is a growing interest and concern regarding Green House Gas (GHG) emissions as these are the major contributors of global warming. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Methane (CH4) are two main GHGs which get emitted from both natural aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as from anthropogenic activities. In natural aquatic system water storage is an important aspect for meeting the requirements of drinking water, food, and energy. However, development of such water bodies will impact the environment. Recent studies has shown that water bodies play a significant role as the sources of GHG emission, particularly in tropical climatic zones. One possible reason for this is the annual water temperature is much higher in tropical climates. This means that the rate of decomposition is faster leading to higher CO2 and CH4 flux in the water. Indian reservoirs indicate the complete spectrum of different types of reservoir found in the world. Their performance in terms of emission of GHGs is more difficult to trace out. In this paper pathways of GHG emission from a reservoir have been discussed and a tool as suggested by UNESCO/IHA has been used to assess the GHG emission from four existing reservoirs in India. These reservoirs are of different age and are located in different parts and climatic zones of India. Predicted diffusive fluxes in CO2eq has been estimated for the year 2013 as well as over the 100 years of their existence in terms of Tonnes CO2eq.

1. INTRODUCTION The increasing anthropogenic activities have nowadays resulted in increasing concentration of natural gases CO2 and CH4 resulting in GHG effect (Houghton, 1996). According to the European Environment Agency (EEA), CO2emissions account for the largest share of GHGs equivalent of 80–85% of the emissions. Fossil fuel combustion for transportation and electricity generation are the main sources of CO2contributing to more than 50% of the



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University emissions (Goldenfum, 2009). In India generation of electricity with coal based thermal power plant contributing to more than 55% (Mishra, 2004), Hydroelectricity and natural gases represent respectively more than 15% and 5% of electric generation capacity. So far hydro power has been consider as the clean source of energy. Nevertheless, for the last few years GHG emission from freshwater reservoirs and their contribution has been a big issue regarding generation of electricity (Tremblay, 2005). Recent studies showed that the carbon which is transferred to water body will undergo decomposition under oxic and anoxic conditions and produces CO2 and CH4 (Farrèr and Senn, 2007).Once CO2 and CH4 are produced, they are not immediately released into the atmosphere, this gases are soluble in the water until a chemical event occurs that causes the gases to be released (Kansal, 2013). In this paper it briefly discusses exactly how reservoirs become a greenhouse gas and the mechanism behind the emission are been pointed out clearly and the predicted emissions of CO2 and CH4 in the form of diffusive fluxfrom Indian reservoirs located in different climatic zones are been assessed using UNESCO/IHA GHG Risk Assessment Tool.

2. GHGS EMISSION BY CREATING RESERVOIR While considering without a reservoir creation over a flowing water bodies only natural emission like conduction, deposition and emission will take place. On creation of a reservoir, emission from different parts of the reservoir will takes place Figure 1 shows detail sources of GHGs emission from the reservoir. The OM (Organic Matter ) which present in the soil and plants is imported from the catchment in addition to that OM which preexisting in the reservoir together will decomposes aerobically and anaerobically and emits CO2 and CH4 gases to the atmosphere with the help of some parameters (primary and secondary) (Goldenfum, 2009). Macrophytes which are present on the surface of water are also responsible for some amount of CH4 emission to the atmosphere.

2.1 Reactions involved in emissions The OM which is present in the water bodies and which has been inputted by surface and sub-surface runoff decompose under oxic condition and produce CO2 (1). And at the bottom the OM which is stored in the sediments decompose under anoxic conditions and produces CO2 and CH4 (2). Decomposition under oxic conditions: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

(1)

Decomposition in anoxic conditions (Methanogenesis): Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University C6H12O6 → 3CO2 + 3 CH4

(2)

CO2 and CH4 emissions to the atmosphere from reservoirs include: 1.

Bubble fluxes (ebullition) from the shallow part of water bodies.

2.

Diffusive fluxes which are emitted from water surface of the reservoir;

3.

Diffusion through macrophytes.

4.

Degassing at downstream of reservoir outlet(s)

5.

Increased diffusive fluxes along the downstream part of the reservoir Wind

Figure1: Pathways of GHG Emissions from a Reservoir (IPCC 2007). Main parameters/factors influencing GHG emissions Parameters that effect in the production of CO2 and CH4 are divided into two types 1.

Primary parameters

2.

Secondary parameters

Primary parameters

Secondary parameters

Biomass of plants, algae, bacteria and animals in the

Wind speed and direction.

water bodies; Sediment load; Stratification of the water body

Rainfall.

OM storage, concentrations and C/N, C/P and N/P

Water current speeds.

ratios in water and in sediments; Nutrients supply; Temperature of water;

Water body depth and changes in water body depth.

Light (absence of turbidity); Dissolved oxygen

Reductions in hydrostatic pressure as water is

concentrations

released through low level outlets



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 3. CALCULATION OF DIFFUSIVE FLUX FROM AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM At Air-water interface this both CO2 and CH4 will be transferred by diffusion from the aquatic ecosystems. This pathway happens at reservoir upstream and downstream and it is based on the Henry’s law difference of partial pressure of a gas between the air (Pa) and the water (Pw). If Pw is higher than Pa the gas diffuses from the water to the atmosphere because a chemical compound always diffuses from the most concentrated layer to the less concentrated (Farrèr,2007). Several parameters control the intensity of the diffusive fluxesand the level of diffusive flux emissions can be estimated using the UNESCO/IHA Risk Assessment Tool with a confidence interval of 67% from the reservoir buy giving the required inputs into the model.

3.1 UNESCO/IHA GHG Risk Assessment Tool Model formulas Several alternative formulations were attempted by the UNESCO/IHAGHG emissions from freshwater reservoirs research project the following general expression has been given as the best fitting expressions (3), (4), and (5) which consider the parameters which are responsible for the emission of CO2and CH4 (C-CO2, C-CH4 in mg/m-2*d-1) from the reservoir by considering the age of reservoir.





C  CO2 186.0  0.148 R  944.485  1.91 T  0.09727 T 2  e 0.04452.3390.7033T 0.0358T  Age (3) 2

Formula for reservoir aged ≤ 32 years 2 C  CH 4  101.460.056T 0.00053P0.0186Age0.000288 Age 

(4)

Formula for reservoir aged > 32years up to 100 years

C  CH 4  101.160.056T 0.00053P 

(5)

Where R- Runoff (mm/year), Age- Age of the reservoir, T- Mean annual Temperature (0C), P- Mean annual Precipitation (mm/year). Reason for consideration of these parameters is: 

Max CO2 emission occurs after flooding so positive factor of temperature



The new long term equilibrium emission (after the initial pulse) is a positive factor of runoff. Higher the runoff higher the CO2 emission from the reservoir



The steepness of the initial decline (the exponential term) is a negative function of temperature.



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 

For older reservoirs (>32 years), diffusive CH4emissions are constant in time at a level which is determined by temperature and precipitation only.

3.1a Range of variability of the estimates The predicted values “lower limit” and the “upper limit” can be estimated as a function of the predicted values of gross GHG fluxes (of CH4 and CO2) and the mean square errors. Table 1 expresses how to estimate the values of the limits of the 67% confidence interval, for the models adopted in GHG Risk Assessment Tool. Table 1: Limits of predicted values of the 67% confidence interval Predicted Value

Lower limit

Gross C-CO2 Flux

1

Gross C-CH4 Flux

1

2.3

* “Predicted

3.55

*

Gross C-CO2 Flux”

“Predicted Gross C-CH4 Flux”

Upper limits 2.3* “Predicted Gross C-CO2 Flux” 3.55* “Predicted Gross C-CH4 Flux”

4. PREDICTION OF DIFFUSIVE FLUX FROM INDIAN RESERVOIRS Indian reservoirs indicate the complete spectrum of different types of reservoir found in the world. Some are located in a tropic climate which can release a significant amount of GHG and some in arid environments, where sequestration probably dominates over release of carbon (Kansal, 2014). Between these extremes are reservoirs located in wet, humid or dry tropical environments. Their performance in terms of emission of GHGs is more difficult to trace out. The data of the four Indian reservoirs which are located in different regions shown in the Figure 2have been collected according to the latitude and longitude basics, the mean annual daily air temperature and Mean annual precipitation from 2 meters above the located surface has been analyzed by collecting the data from 1997-2013 from NASA Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource (POWER). Run-off data are obtained from UNH/GRDC composite run-off fields V 1.0. And the analyzed values are shown in the Table 2. The predicted values of that particular year as well as the expected lower and upper range of CO2 and CH4 with a confidence interval of 67 percent are listed in the Table 4. And mean emissions over reservoir life time (100 years)is shown in the Table 3.



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table 2: Details of parameters which are required for estimating diffusive fluxes by using GHG risk assessment tool D M A P (mm/yr)

R

DMAT (0C)

(1997-2013)

(mm/yr)

(1997-12)

31

919

200

Tehri

7

980

3

RanaPratapSagar

43

4

Subansiri Lower

1

S.NO

STATIONS

Age

1

Srisailam

2

Lat.

Long.

25

16005'13''N

78053'50''E

405

14.57

30022'40''N

78028'50''E

852

315

26

24055'04''N

75034'53''E

1766.5

500

9

27033'13''N

94015'31''E

DMAP and DMAT - Daily Mean Annual Precipitation and Temp., R – Runoff, Lat. - Latitude, Long. – Longitude

Figure 2: location of reservoirs studied Table 3: Estimated Diffusive Flux during 2013 with 67% confidence interval

S. NO.

Predicted gross* annual CO2

Predicted gross* annual CH4

diffusive flux

diffusive flux

(mg C-CO2 STATIONS

m-2

d-1)

(mg C-CH4 m-2 d-1)

67% CI Predicted value

REMARKS

Lower

Upper

limit

limit

67% CI Predicted value

Lower

Upper

limit

limit

CO2

CH4

emission

emission

1

Srisailam

410

178

943

118

33

420

M

H

2

Tehri

812

353

1868

114

32

404

H

H

3

RanaPratapSagar

397

173

913

146

41

518

M

H

4

Subansari

1223

532

2814

55

15

194

H

H

H-High, M- Medium, CI- Confidence Interval




Table 4: Average Diffusive Flux over 100 years with 67% confidence interval

S.No

Predicted gross* annual CO2

Predicted gross* annual CH4

diffusive flux

diffusive flux

(mg C-CO2 m-2 d-1)

(mg C-CH4 m-2 d-1)

STATIONS

67% CI

67% CI

Predicted

Lower

Upper

Predicted

Lower

Upper

value

limit

limit

value

limit

limit

REMARKS

CO2

CH4

emission

Emission

1

Srisailam

413

381

449

130

114

147

H

H

2

Tehri

372

342

404

82

72

93

M

H

3

RanaPratapSagar

479

441

521

160

141

182

M

H

4

Subansari

400

369

435

31

28

36

M

M

H-High, M- Medium, CI- Confidence Interval



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table 5 : Emissions calculated from total surface area and converting into T of CO2 eq averaged over 100 years State

Dam

Area 2

Predicted value

IC

(km )

(MW)

(mg C - m-2 d-1) CO2

CH4

at

of C-CO2/yr

bt-CO eq/yr 2

ct

of C-CH4/yr

dt-CH /yr 4

et

of

CO2eq/yr

Total

AP

Srisailam

800

1670

413

130

120596.0

442185.3

37960.0

50613.3

1265333.3

1707518.7

Uttarakhand

Tehri

52

100

372

82

7060.6

25888.7

1556.4

2075.1

51878.7

77767.4

Rajasthan

Rana P Sagar

198.2

172

479

160

34652.3

127058.4

11574.9

15433.2

385829.3

512887.8

Assam

Subansiri

33.5

2000

400

31

2556.5

9373.7

198.1

264.2

6604.2

15977.9

aIncludes

conversion of predicted value of CO2 into Tons over the complete surface area per year (Surface area x predicted value of CO 2 x 0.001 x 365 )

bConverting

C-CO2 into CO2eq by multiplying with GWP of CO2(t C-CO2 x 3.6 x 1 )

cIncludes

conversion of predicted value of CH4 into Tons over the complete surface area per year (Area x predicted value OF CH 4 x 0.001 x 365 )

dIncludes

conversion of C-CH4 into CH4 (t C-CH4 x 1.3 )

eConverting

C-CO2 into CO2eq by multiplying with GWP of CO2(t-CH4 x 25 )



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University CONCLUSIONS

In this case study, four reservoirs from different regions of India have been selected and the emission through diffusive flux has been estimated. According to the study, CH4 emissions are high for all the reservoirs and CO2 emissions are high for Tehri, Subansari and moderate for Srisailam and Rana Prathap Sagar when compared with threshold limits of the model. While considering throughout the life time assessment of the reservoir (100 years), the emission of CH4 is high for all reservoirs except Subansari and CO2 emissions are in a limit and medium except Srisailam. Even though these are predicted values, the CH4 emissions is high for all the reservoirs and hence mitigation measures must be taken to reduce the emission since GWP of CH4 is 25 times higher than the CO2. Water bodies have the potential to emit large amounts of CO2 and CH4 and contribute to global warming. The decomposition of organic matter is the main reason for the production of these GHGs so we have to control the entrance of OM into water bodies, maybe upto some extent. Another possibility is logging trees before starting the flooding process so that less organic matter is available for decomposition. Due to the fact that the oxidation of CH4 through Methanotrophic bacteria seems to be a key factor to decrease the amount of CH4 released into the atmosphere, this mechanism should be supported somehow to minimize the emissions from water bodies. There is still a need for lot of research to understand all the important processes. REFERENCES: 1.

Farrèr, C., Senn, D., 2007. Hydroelectric Reservoirs-the Carbon Dioxide and Methane Emissions of a “Carbon Free” Energy Source. Master's thesis, ETH Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich. unpublished.

2.

Goldenfum, J.A., 2009. UNESCO/IHA Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Research Project. UNESCO/IHA measurement specification guidance for evaluating the GHG status of man-made freshwater reservoirs.

3.

Houghton, J.T., 1996. Climate change 1995: The science of climate change: contribution of working group I to the second assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.

4.

Kansal, M.L., 2013. Impact of water bodies on Green House Gas Emission, National seminar on green chemistry, 5-6.

5.

Kansal, M.L., 2014. Unpublished Report: A study on Hydropower and its impact on green gas emission, WAPCOS Ltd., Project No. WRC-6009/13-14.




Mishra, U., 2004. Environmental impact of coal industry and thermal power plants in India. Journal of environmental radioactivity 72, 35-40.

7.

Tremblay, A., 2005. Greenhouse gas Emissions-Fluxes and Processes: hydroelectric reservoirs and natural environments. Springer.

8.

UNESCO/IHA (2012). Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Assessment Tool (Beta Version) User Manual.

9.

10. 11. 12.




IC021 REVIEW ON LOCAL SCOUR DUE TO WATER JETS Ankit Chakravarti1, Z. Ahmad2, R.K.Jain3 and Umesh K. Singh1 1

Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India.

2

Professors, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India.

3

Asociate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, L.E.College, Morbi (Gujrat)

Abstract The structures built in rivers and channels are subjected to scour around their foundations. If the depth of scour becomes significant, the stability of the foundations is endangered. Therefore estimation of maximum scour depth is required for safe and economical design of hydraulic structures and their foundations. Due to the significant practical importance, the problem of local scour due to jets has been studied by many investigators. In this paper, a review of studies on local scour due to submerged jets is presented including all possible aspects, such as scouring process, parameters affecting scour process and scour estimation formulas. Keywords: scour, submerged jets, sediment transport, open channels, cohesive sediment, cohesionless sediments 1. Introduction Scouring is a natural phenomenon caused by the flow of water in rivers and streams. In a river, scour is most pronounced when the bed and riverbanks consist of granular alluvial materials, but deeply weathered rock can also be vulnerable to scour in certain circumstances. The factors influencing the development of scour are complex and vary according to the type of structure. Protection works for preventing scour need to be designed to withstand the flow forces imposed on mobile bed at downstream of the structures in order to get a successful solution to control the effects of scour process. Scour due to turbulent jets impacts numerous hydraulic engineering projects. Turbulent jets are typically associated with engineered hydraulic features, including stationary structures such as spillways, outlet works, and grade control structures, and with mobile sources such as propeller wash and nozzle discharges. Hence, due to practical importance, scour process due to water jets has been a topic of continued to the investigators. The study on scour due to vertical submerged water jet in Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University uniform sediments was first conducted by Rouse (1939). Thereafter, a number of investigations have been carried out to study the response of submerged water jets for various sediment materials, jet velocities, jet heights and diameter of nozzles (Clark, 1962; Sarma, 1967; Westrich and Kobus, 1973; Rajaratnam and Beltaos, 1977; Rajaratnam, 1982; Aderibigbe and Rajaratam, 1996; Chakravarti et al., 2013). In this paper a review on jet scour studies have been critical reviewed. It includes scouring process, parameter affecting scour process, temporal variation of scour depth and scour estimation formulas. 2. Local scouring process The scour process starts downstream of hydraulic structures through which a jet is issued when the bed shear stress induced by jet exceeds the critical bed shear stress for the initiation of bed particle motion. The local scour process of a hydraulic structure is complex in nature because of abrupt or sudden changes of the flow characteristics over the erodible bed. In submerged vertical round or circular water jet the main characteristics flow regions are mainly responsible for the water separation impacts on the mobile beds these flow regions are as follows; 1. Potential core flow regions 2. Free jet flow regions 3. Impinging jet flow regions 4. Wall jet flow regions The fully submerged circular jets plane (two dimensional and three dimensional) impinging on a standing pool of flow water have four regimes of water flow through jet. In potential core flow regions - A region where almost uniform mean velocity is called potential core region. Free jet flow regions - the free jet flow region follows the potential core transition and it is characterized by linear increase in width and a Gaussian velocity distribution. Impinging jet flow regions – The impinging jet regions is the region just near the bed surface, an impinging occur in which the water flow is deflected from the axial into the radial motion during the water flow through impinging jets. The wall jet region – The deflected water flow continues as wall jet in the regions containing two different shear zones a boundary layer near the wall jet region and a free shear zone. Mazurek et al. (2003) studied the scour of cohesive sediment due to submerged plane wall jet issuing from a horizontal nozzle. Westrich and Kobus (1973) conducted experiment on jet scour on a uniform sand bed with a vertical submerged water jet. Also influence the jet height on the volume of scour hole was studied. For given jet parameters, the scour hole volume first increases with height of jet and then remain constant before decreasing again. Rajaratnam (1982) carried out the experiment on a Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University round jet impinging on sand beds. Breusers and Raudkivi (1991) replotted the original data of Westrich and Kobus (1973), Clarke (1962), and Rajaratuam (1982) for maximum depth of scour and formulas for scour estimation were developed. Rajaratnam et al. (2003) conducted laboratory based experimental study on scour in noncohesive sediment due to water jets having minimum tailwater depth. The observation were taken for maximum static and dynamic depth of scour, radius of scour hole, they observed that the depth of scour in dynamic condition is three times of scour depth in static state at equilibrium conditions. The main dimensions of the scour profiles in equilibrium conditions are the function of Froude number also the densimetric Froude number is based on the velocity of the jet from the bed level. Adribigbe and Rajaratnam (1998) showed the experimental investigation on the effect of sediment gradation on erosion by plane turbulent wall jets. Three different types of cohesionless sediment mixtures were used for turbulent wall jets. They conclude that the non uniform sediment has a significant effect on the size of the scour profiles generated by submerged wall jet. Po-Hung Yeh et al. (2009) presents the experiments on sand beds scour due to moving vertical circular jet to investigate the topographic deformation. Seven experimental run were conducted in which the first two run have constant jets i.e. which have no movement, by varying water flow rates. Walter et al. (1983) studied on impinging of water jets on nonuniform streambed through experimental study and theoretical analysis. Stein et al. (1993) performed the laboratory works on mechanics of scour due to jets downstream of headcut. The impinging water jets which are same to that also occur in downstream in a natural headcut, and conducted with the help of a free overfall. Ali Uyumaz (1988) studied on scour downstream of vertical gate through laboratory experiment in cohesionless sediment under and over the gates is performed in alternate flow under and over the gate. Aderibigbe and Rajaratam (1996) conducted laboratory experiments on submerged impinging jet. They examined the asymptotic scoured lengths of sand bed for EC < 5 under above condition and also examined the scoured bed profiles in equilibrium conditions. The dynamic and static depth of scour about equal by extrapolating the scour curves. The erosion parameter was defined as below: d Ec  u o  o h  j

  / ( g .d 50 . s /  f ) When d o  8.3  hj 

(1)

Where d o = nozzle diameter, u o = average jet velocity, Ec = erosion parameter, h j = height of jet above sand bed level, g = acceleration due to gravity, and  s /  f is the relative density



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University defined by (  s   f /  f ) , were  s is the mass density of sediment,  f is the mass density of water. The regimes of flow were classified as weekly deflected jet regimes (WDJR) and strongly deflected jet regimes (SDJR) in equilibrium condition. These two regimes of flow are associated by narrow transition regimes. The strongly deflected jet regime is divided as SDJR-I and SDJR-II according to the value of erosion parameter Ec . The SDJR flow regimes found at value of erosion parameter Ec greater than 0.35 also the WDJR is again divided as the WDJR-I and the WDJR-II in this flow regimes the flow occurs at the range of erosion parameter Ec < 0.35. In these flow regimes the dynamic and static scour profiles are same and suggested the following flow patterns and profiles of the eroded sand bed as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Sketches of flow regimes (Aderibigbe and Rajaratnam, 1996) 3. Dimensional Analysis Using Buckingham 𝜋-theorem and employing physical reasoning, many investigators trying to combined the different parameters related to scouring process due to submerged impinging water jet in various non-dimensional forms. The review of literature has indicated the following functional relationship as described in eq. 2 and 3 to hold good for maximum depth of scour process under submerged circular vertical water jets in case of cohesionless sediment (Aderibigbe and Rajaratnam, 1996). dsms = f(uo, do, hj, g, d50, 𝜌𝑠 , 𝜌𝑓 ) (2) dsms/hj = f(Ec) (3) Mazurek et al. (2003) expressed the maximum nondimensional depth of scour due to plane wall jet in cohesive sediment as dm/hj = d m bo  f ( U o2  oc ) where  = mass density of fluid and  oc = critical bed shear stress for cohesive sediment. Also studied that   oc has a definite relation with  m /  oc ; Where   U o2 ;  m = maximum bed shear stress due to flow. The existence of a critical value of  was identified, below which no significant depth of scour found. The above relationships reduced to the following form; d m bo  f   c c  Where Conference Proceedings



c = critical value to  . Ali and Neyshaboury (1991) studied to found the following nondimensional parameters for scour depth estimation due to submerged horizontal offset jet; d m bo  f Fo , tU / bo , yt / bo , p / bo  Where t = time of scour; yt = jet height downstream free

surface from initial bed level. Neglecting the effect of jet submergence, Aderibigbe and Rajaratnam (1998) expressed the nondimensional relationship of the characteristics length of equilibrium scour hole under deeply submerged plane wall jet as lm bo  f Foe  Where l m = any characteristics length of equilibrium depth of scour; Foe = densimetric Froude number,

that is

U o gd e ; de = effective size of the sediment. These nondimensional parameters

play a significant role influencing the scour phenomenon due to jets. 4. Effects of different parameters on equilibrium depth of scour 4.1 Role of densimetric Froude number Local scour due to deeply submerged horizontal jet was studied by Ali and Neyshaboury (1991). They studied that the effect of densimetric Froude number Fo on extent of scour depth and conclude that the equilibrium scour depth increases with increase of densimetric Froude number. 4.2 Effect of jet height from bed level The effect of jet height from bed level due to jet was studied by Ali and Neyshaboury (1991) suggested that the equilibrium scour depth increases with decrease in jet height from bed level. Fig. 2 indicates that the deeper holes are scoured lowering the jet with respect to the bed level. 4.3 Effect of sediment size For a given time, the volume of scour hole increases with decrease in sediment size for a constant height of jet and velocity studied by Ali and Neyshaboury (1991). The variation of scour hole volume with time for different sediment sizes, as shown in Fig. 3. For coarse sediments, the formation of dune was formed at the downstream end of the scour hole profile studied by Farhoudi and Smith (1985). 4.4 Effect of sediment gradation Adribigbe and Rajaratnam (1998) showed the experimental investigation on the effect of sediment gradation on erosion by plane turbulent wall jets as shown in Fig 4. They conclude that the non uniform sediment has significant effects on the size of the scour profiles generated by submerged wall jet. The sediment mixture for estimating better correlation for



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University the scour depth was found as d95 (the particle size d95 have the particle size at which 90 percent in finer by weight) than d50 to describe the densimetric Froude number (Fo). 4.5 Scour Profiles Rajaratnam and Berry (1977) experimentally studied the scour caused by circular wall jets of air and water in polystyrene and sand beds, respectively. The scour profiles were approximately similar with some noticeable deviations in the region of the dune at the downstream end of the scour hole. The similarity of scour profiles for different time intervals was shown by Mazurek et al. (2003). Ade and Rajaratnam (1998) made a generalized study of scour due to horizontal circular turbulent jets. They concluded that the similarity of the bed profiles in the unsteady and asymptotic states exists. 4.6 Estimation of Scour Depth Sarma (1967), Westrich and Kobus (1973) and Rajaratuam (1982), Aderibigbe and Rajaratnam (1996) and Ansari et al. (2003), identified non-dimensional parameter for describing the relationship of erosion parameter, E c which can be expressed by eq. 4;

d  Ec  uo  o  / h   j

 gd50 s       f  

(4)

Where d o = nozzle diameter, u o = average velocity of jet, Ec = erosion parameter, h j = jet height above original bed level, g = acceleration due to gravity and  s /  f is the relative density defined by (  s   f /  f ) , where  s is the mass density of sediment,  f is the mass density of water. The equation proposed to estimate maximum scour depth by Aderibigbe and Rajaratnam (1996) and Ansari et al. (2003) as described by eq. 5and 6, also plotted in Fig 5. d sms  1.26( Ec )0.11  1.0 (5) hj

d sms  1.3( Ec )0.15  1.0 hj

(6)

V(m3)

dm/bo

log (tUo/bo)

t (min)

Fig. 2 Variation of dm/bo with log(tUo/bo ) for different h/bo after Ali and Neyshaboury (1991)


Fig. 3 Variation of V with t for different D after Ali and Neyshaboury (1991)



35

Ansari et al. (2003) Adribigbe and Rajaratnam (1996)

30 25 20

dsms/hj

dsms/hj 15

0.1

Rajaratnam 1981 GSD 1.32 GSD 2.02 GSD 3.13

10 5 10

20

Rajaratnam (1982) Ansari et al. (2003) Westrich and kobus (1973) Sarma (1967)

0 0

Aderibigbe and Rajaratnam (1996)

30

Fo

0.0 0.1

1.0

Ec

10.0

100.0

Fig. 4 Variation of maximum scour depth with Fo

Fig. 5 Variation of dsms/hj with erosion parameter, Ec; (Ansari

(Adribigbe and Rajaratnam, 1998)

et al., 2003)

5. CONCLUSIONS Numerous studies have been conducted on scour by jets under submerged water conditions it remains a major problem in many cases. There is confusion among the investigators regarding the discrepancy that exists in the estimation of temporal variation of scour depth, estimation of static and dynamic depth of scour. Further complexity in the flow field arises and the scour bed due to the sudden change in the flow characteristics. Also, the flow characteristics simulated in the laboratory differs significantly from that in the prototype due to the large-scale distortion of the model. All these factors act as a barrier to understand the problems. However, more studies, especially large-scale model studies, are needed to get solutions of the problems.

REFERENCES 1. Ali, K. H. M. and Neyshaboury, A. A. S. (1991). “Localized scour downstream of a deeply submerged horizontal jet”. Proc. Inst. Civ. Engrs. (London), Vol. 91, Part 2, pp. 1-18. 2. Aderibigbe, O.O., and Rajaratnam, N. (1996). “Erosion of loose beds by submerged circular impinging vertical turbulent jets.” J. Hydraul. Res., vol. 34(1), 19–33. 3. Aderibigbe, O., and Rajaratnam, N. (1998). “Effects of sediment gradation on erosion by plane turbulent wall jets.” J. Hydraul. Engg. ASCE, 124(10), 1034–1042. 4. Ade, F. and Rajaratnam, N. (1998). “Generalized study of erosion by circular horizontal turbulent jets.” J. Hydraul.Res. vol. 36(4), pp 613-636. 5. Ansari, S.A., Kothyari, U.C., and Ranga Raju, K.G. (2003). “Influence of cohesion on scour under submerged circular vertical jet.” J. Hydraul. Eng., ASCE, vol. 129(12), 1014–1019. 6. Chakravarti, A., Jain, R.K. and Kothyari, U.C. (2013). “Scour under submerged circular vertical jets in cohesionless sediments.” ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Taylor & Francis Group, DOI:10.1080/09715010.2013.835101. 7. Clarke, F. R. W. (1962). “The action of submerged jets on movable material.” PhD thesis, Imperial College, London. Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 8. Farhoudi, J. and Smith, K. V. H. (1985). “Local scour profiles downstream of hydraulic jump”. J. Hydr. Res., Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 343-358. 9. Mazurek, K. A., Rajaratnam, N., and Sego, D. C. (2003). “Scour of a cohesive soil by submerged plane turbulent wall jets” Journal of hydraulic research, vol. 41(2), 195– 206. 10. Po-Hung Yeh, Kuang-An Chang, John Henriksen, Billy Edge, Peter Chang (2009). “Large-scale laboratory experiment on erosion of sand beds by moving circular vertical jets.” Ocean Engineering, Elsevier, vol. 36, pp 248-255. 11. Rajaratnam, N., and Beltaos, S. (1977). “Erosion by impinging circular turbulent jets.” J. Hydraul. Div., ASCE, vol. 103(10), pp 1191–1205. 12. Rajaratnam, N. (1981). “Erosion of plane turbulent jets.” J. Hydraul. Res., IAHR, vol. 19(4), pp 339–359. 13. Rajaratnam, N. (1982). “Erosion by submerged circular jets.” J. Hydraul. Div., ASCE, vol. 108(2), pp 262–267. 14. Rajaratnam, N. and Berry, S. (1977). “Erosion by circular turbulent wall jets”. J. Hydr. Res., Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 277-289. 15. Rajaratnam, N., and Mazurek, K.A. (2003). “Erosion of sand by circular impinging water jets with small tail water.” J. Hydraul. Eng., ASCE, vol. 129(3), pp 225–229. 16. Rouse, H. (1939). “Criteria for similarity in the transportation of sediment.” Bulletin 20, University of Iowa, Iowa, USA, 33–49. 17. Sarma, K.V.N. (1967). “Study of scour phenomenon and its functional form.” Ph.D. thesis, Indian Institute of Sciences, Banglore, India. 18. Stain, O. R., Julien, P.V., and Alonso, C. V. (1993). “Mechanics of jet scour downstream of a headcut.” J. Hydraul. Res., 31(6), pp-723-738. 19. Uyumaz Ali (1988). “Scour downstream of vertical gate.” J. Hydraul. Engineering, vol. 114(7) pp 811-816. 20. Walter C., Mih and Jobaid Kabir, (1983). “Impingement of water jets on uniform streambed.” Journal of hydraulic engineering, ASCE, 0733-9429/83/0004-0536, paper no. 17891. 21. Westrich, B., and Kobus, H. (1973). “Erosion of a uniform sand bed by continuous and pulsating jets.” Proc., 15th IAHR Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, Vol. 1, A13.1– A13.8.




IC022 MODELING OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON WATER RESOURCES ON REGIONAL SCALE Umesh Kumar Singh1 and Ankit Chakraverti2 1, 2

Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,, India.

ABSTRACT Climate change has a significant impact on the hydrological cycle. Godavari, the largest river in peninsular India and third largest in India, is selected for the present study. The model setup and runs were performed using SWAT hydrological model. In the present study, two futuristic climate scenarios A2 and B2, and one baseline scenario BL has been used to address the uncertainty issues. Regional scale datasets used for model set-up were: land-use from global land cover fraction, soil from FAO and terrain model from SRTM. Primarily the water yield and evapotranspiration component of water balance were studied separately for each of the twelve sub-basins. The modeled flow at the sub-basin outlets were also evaluated for the various scenarios. To induce a level of confidence in the generated results, the basin was modeled using Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) gridded precipitation and temperature datasets. A good comparison was found between the baseline scenario (BL) results and observed dataset (IMD) results. The model is validated using long term observed flow data for some of the sub-basins. This investigation would provide a good basis for selecting appropriate adaptation strategies to cater to the climate change impacts. Keywords: Climate Change, Hydrological Modeling.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Water resources management planners are facing considerable uncertainties on future demand and availability of water. Climate change and its potential hydrological effects are increasingly

contributing

to

this

uncertainty.

The

Second

Assessment

of

the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1996) states that an increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is likely to cause an increase in global average temperature of between 1 and 3.5 degrees Celsius over the forthcoming century. This will lead to a more vigorous hydrological cycle, with changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration rates regionally variable. These changes will in turn affect water



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University availability and runoff and thus may affect the discharge regime of rivers. Climate change may potentially have major consequences for the use and water management of the rivers. Thus, the climate change impacts are going to be most severe in the developing world because of their poor capacity to cope with and adapt to climate variable.

2.

METHODOLOGY

Study Area The river Godavari is the largest river in South India which is taken as the study area as shown in the figure 1. The river basin extends over an area of 312813 Km 2, which is nearly 10% of the total geographical area of the country. The river basin lies between latitude 16° – 16' N and 22° – 43' N and longitude 73° – 26' E and 83° – 07' E. It is roughly triangular in shape and the percentage of the areas of the basin in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa are 48.6, 20.9, 1.4, 23.4 and 5.7 respectively.

Delineation of the river basins In study, DEM has been generated from SRTM 90 m resolution data. Automatic delineation of the river basins is done by using the DEM as input and the final outflow point on the drainage of the river basin as the final pour/drainage point. Figure 1 depicts the modeled river basins. The river basins have been divided into sub-basins using an arbitrarily selected threshold value.

Weather data and Land cover/land use layer The data generated in transient experiments (HadRM3) by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction, UK, at a regional climate model resolution of 0.44° x 0.44° latitude by longitude grid points (Figure 2) has been obtained from IITM (Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology), Pune, India. The daily weather data on precipitation, temperature (maximum and minimum), solar radiation, wind speed and relative humidity at all the grid locations were used. The HadRM3 grid has been superimposed on the sub-basins for deriving the weighted means of the inputs for each of the sub basins. The centroid of each sub-basin is then taken as the location for the weather station to be used in the SWAT model. This procedure has been used for the present/control (representing series 1961–1990) and the future/GHG (representing series 2071–2100) climate data. Classified land cover data (13 categories) produced by the University of Maryland Global Landcover Facility, using remote sensing with resolution of 1 km grid cell has been used. (Hansen et al.,1999). Conference Proceedings



Figure 1: Godavari basin

Soil layer Soil map adapted from FAO Digital Soil Map of the World and Derived Soil Properties (ver. 3.5, November 1995) with a resolution of 1:5,000,000 have been used.

SWAT Model and model Set-up SWAT is a river basin, or watershed, scale model developed by Dr. Jeff Arnold for the USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS). SWAT was developed to predict the impact of land management practices on water, sediment and agricultural chemical yields in large complex watersheds with varying soils, land use and management conditions over long periods of time (Neitsch et al., 2002b). The SWAT model simulates the hydrologic cycle at daily time steps. SWAT is a distributed, continuous, hydrological model with an ArcGIS SWAT interface. The interface is used for pre- and post-processing of the data and outputs. The spatio-temporal water availability is determined in the present study with incorporating location of medium and major projects. The same framework is then used to predict the impact of climate change on the availability of water resources (under GHG) with the assumption that the land use shall not change over time. Division of Godavari basin into twelve sub-basins as per the tribunal has been modeling separately for each of the sub-basin. It has 7 headwaters and 5 intermediate basins. Threshold of 1000 hectare considered for generation of stream network in-order to place the project locations. Only outlet points derived from 50,000 thresholds kept for delineation. Major and Medium projects placed for



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University modeling discharge gage location placed for validation. IMD gridded datasets of precipitation and temperature are used for modeling to showcase its proximity with HadRM3 baseline results for the confidence developing measure.

Figure 2: HadRM3 grid points over Godavari basin

Control and GHG climate scenario The control climate scenario represents the simulated baseline weather conditions (1961– 1990). Each of the river basins has been simulated using the SWAT model by using this generated daily weather data (HadRM2) of control climate scenario. Although the SWAT model does not require elaborate calibration, yet, in the present case, any calibration was not meaningful since the simulated weather data has been used for the control period whereas the historical recorded runoff with which the model is usually calibrated is the response to the actually observed weather conditions. Therefore, these two series are not comparable at short time intervals. The model has then been run on each of the basins using GHG climate scenario (representing 2071–2100 period) data but without changing the land use. The outputs of these two scenarios have been analysed firstly at the basin level to quantify the possible impacts on the precipitation, runoff, soil moisture and actual evapotranspiration. Subsequently, detailed analyses have been performed on the river basins to quantify the impacts at the sub-basin level. In the latter exercise relatively shorter time interval of month has been used in the analyses (although the detailed outputs at daily time interval are available at the sub-basin level).




3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Hydrologic modeling of the river basins The SWAT (SWAT running on ArcGIS interface) distributed hydrologic model has been used on the river basins of Godavari. After mapping the basins for terrain, landuse and soil, each of the basins has been simulated for hydrological response by imposing the weather conditions predicted by Hadley centre (output of regional climate model – HadRM3 version) for control and GHG climate conditions. Figure 3 shows the plot of the water balance components with their thirty year average annual values for A2, B2, BL and IMD scenarios for the Godavari river basin. It can be observed that the values of the water balance component for A2 and B2 scenarios was higher while it was lower for the IMD scenario. It indicates that rainfall and runoff are going to increase in future scenarios due to the variation in climate change. We can see that precipitation values increases in the middle month of the year. It may be because of higher rainfall from the month of June to September. AET value is highest in the month of March. Water yield value is highest in the month of August while precipitation value is highest in the month of July. As the value of precipitation increases then water yield also increases but we can see from the figure 4 and 6 that precipitation value is increases for the month of July to August while water yield value decreases for that period. It may be because of AET value increases for that period. Figure 7, 8 and 9 shows the percentage change in A2 and B2 scenarios over BL scenarios for all three water balance components. There is more percentage change (around 200) in rainfall for A2 and B2 scenarios over BL scenario for the month of February and March. From the table we can see that value of rainfall for that month is small. Percentage change is high because of small value is increased its double not because of big changes in rainfall values. There is also slightly negative change in rainfall value for B2 scenario in the month of December. Figure 8 shows the percentage change in value of AET for A2 and B2 scenarios over BL scenario. There is the negative change in A2 and B2 scenarios for the month of April. In the month of April, there is the more evapotranspiration occurs in BL scenario compared to A2 and B2 scenarios. Figure 9 shows the percentage change in the value of water yield for A2 and B2 scenarios over BL scenario. There is no negative change in value of water yield i.e. water yield obtained in A2 and B2 scenarios is more than to BL scenario.




2000 1800 1600

Value (mm)

1400

IMD

1200

A2

1000

B2

800

BL

600 400 200 0 PRECP

AET

WY

Water Balance Components

Figure 3: Thirty year average annual value of water balance components for each scenario in Godavari basin 600

90 80 70

400

IMD A2

300

B2 BL

200

AET (mm)

Precp (mm)

500

60

IMD

50

A2

40

B2

30

BL

20

100

10

0

0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12

1

2

3

4

5

Time (Month)

Figure 4: Monthly Rainfall for A2, B2, BL and

7

8

9

10 11 12

Figure 5: Monthly AET for A2, B2, BL and IMD

Scenarios for IMD Scenarios for Godavari

Godavari

350

250

300

200

250

IMD

200

A2

150

B2 BL

100 50

% Change in Rainfall

Water Yield (mm)

6

Time (Month)

150 A2

100

B2

50 0

0

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12

Time (Month)

Figure 6: Monthly Water Yield for A2, B2, BL GHG Scenarios for Godavari


2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12

-50

Time (Month )

Figure 7: Monthly % change in Rainfall from control to and IMD Scenarios for Godavari



80

60 50 % Change in WY

% Change in AET

60 40 20

A2

0

B2

-20

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12

40 A2

30

B2

20 10

-40 0

-60

1

Time (Month)

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11 12

Time (Month)

Figure 8: Monthly % change in AET from control to GHG Scenarios for Godavari

2

Figure 9: Monthly % change in Water Yield from control

to GHG Scenarios for Godavari

REFERENCES 1. Bouraoui F, Grizzetti B, Granlund K, Rekolainen S, Bidoglio G (2004) Impact of climate change on the water cycle and nutrient losses in a finnish catchment. Climatic Change 66(1-2):109–126. 2. Chang H, Evans B, Easterling D (2001) Effects of climate change on stream flow and nutrient loading. J Am Water Resour Assoc 37(4):973–986. 3. Gosain, A. K., Sandhya Rao and Debajit Basuray (2003) Assessment of vulnerability and adaptation for water sector. Proceedings of the workshop on vulnerability assessment and adaptation due to climate change on Indian water resources, coastal zones and human health. Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, pp. 17–24. 4. Hansen, J., R. Ruedy, J. Glascoe, and Mki. Sato, 1999: GISS analysis of surface temperature change. J. Geophys. Res., 104. 5. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2001) Climate change 2001: the scientific basis contribution of working group I to the Third Assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 6. Climate Change 1995; The Science of Climate Change, Houghton, J. T., Meira Filho, L. G., Callander, B. A., Harris, N., Kattenberg, A., and Maskell, K. (eds.), University Press, Cambridge. 7. Neitsch SL, Arnold JG, Kiniry JR, Williams JR (2001) SWAT: Soil Water Assessment Tool. Texas A&M University, Texas Agricultural Experimental Station, Blackland Research Center.



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 8. Santhi S, Arnold JG,Williams JR, DugasWA, Srinivasan R, Hauck LM (2001) Validation of the SWAT Model on a Large River Basin with Point and Nonpoint Sources. J Am Water Resour Assoc 37(5):1169–1187. 9. USEPA (1999) Protocols for Developing Nutrient TMDLs. Office of Water EPA 841-B99–007, USEPA, Washington, DC. 10. USEPA

(2004)

Global

Warming

Site.

[Online]

Available:

http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/glob alwarming.nsf/content/index.html




IC031 SIMULATION OF SEDIMENT YIELD OVER UNGAUGED STATIONS USING MUSLE (Case Study Megadrigedda Reservoir) P.Sundar Kumar1, Dr.T.V.Praveen2, L.Mounika3, T.Santhi4 1

Research scholar, Andhra University: Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, K L

University, Vaddeswaram, Guntur Dist, Andhra Pradesh. 2

Professor & Head WRE division, Department of Civil Engineering, Andhra University Vishakhapatnam,

Andhra Pradesh 3,4

Student of 3rd year B.Tech, Department of Civil Engineering, KL University, Vaddeswaram,

Guntur Dist., Andhra Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT Land and water are the two most vital natural resources of the world and these resources must be conserved and maintained carefully for environmental protection and ecological balance. Estimation of runoff and sediment yield is a prerequisite for conservation and management of water resources and for many hydrologic applications. The present study was undertaken for a Megadrigedda Reservoir having a drainage area of 363 Sq.km for prediction of runoff, sediment yield. Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) application study is undertaken in order to estimate the sediment yield of the Megadrigedda reservoir, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. The runoff factor of MUSLE is computed using the measured values of runoff and peak rate of runoff at outlet of the reservoir. Topographic factor (LS) and crop management factor(C) are determined using geographic information system (GIS) and field-based survey of land use/land cover. The conservation practice factor (P) is obtained from the literature. Sediment yield at the outlet of the study reservoir is simulated for fifteen storm events spread over the year 2012-2013 and validated with the measured values. The high coefficient of determination value (R2=0.77) indicated that MUSLE model sediment yield predictions are satisfactory for practical purposes. Keywords: SCS-CN, Land use/land cover, MUSLE, Soil erosion, Sediment yield, Storm event.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Soil erosion is an important item of consideration in the planning of reservoir development works. It reduces not only the storage capacity of the downstream reservoirs but also



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University deteriorates the productivity of the reservoir.Erosion involves the detachment, transport and deposition of soil particles and aggregates. Sediment yield is defined as the total amount of eroded material to be delivered from its source to a downstream control point (Gottschalk, 1964). Thus, sediment yield rates are directly dependent upon both soil loss rate and the transport efficiency of surface runoff and channel flow.Accurate estimation of sedimenttransport rates, in general, depends on an accurate a priori estimation of overland flows. Thus, any errors in the estimation of overland flows would be magnified through grossly inaccurate erosion estimations(Clarke 1994). Globally, more than 50% of pasturelands and about 80% of agricultural lands suffer from soil erosion (Pimentel et al. 1995). It is reported (Dudal 1981) that, worldwide, about 6,000,000 ha of fertile land is being lost every year due to just soil erosion and related factors. At this rate, it is estimated that currently about 1,964.4 Mha of total land area has already been degraded (UNEP 1997). Of this, about 1,903 and 548.3 Mha are affected with water and wind erosion problems, respectively. Land degradation by soil erosion is a serious problem in India with an estimated land degradation of 120.4 million hectare(Mha). Around 93 Mha land is affected due to water erosion. This widespread problem threatens the sustainability of reservoir which is the main surface source of drinking water and irrigation. Water and soil losses are the main reasons for sediment entering the reservoir, and these processes potentially reduce water quality.Therefore, it became necessary to quantify soil erosion more extensively, with the aim of providing a tool for planning soil conservation strategies on reservoir basis.The formulation of proper reservoir management programs for sustainable development requires information on reservoir sediment yield. Due to the complexity of the variables involved in erosion modeling, it became difficult to measure and to predict the sediment yield in precise manner. Among available soil erosion and sediment yield models, the universal soil loss equation(USLE), the revised version of it (RUSLE), and its modified version (MUSLE) are used in hydrology and environmental engineering for computing the amount of potential soil erosion and sediment yield (Mishra et al.2006). The USLE (Wischmeier and Smith 1978) was developed for estimation of the annual soil loss from small plots of an average length of 22 m, its application for individual storm events and large areas leads to large errors (Hann et al. 1996; Kinnell 2005), but its accuracy increases if it is coupled with a hydrological rainfallexcess model (Novotny and Olemc 1994). In the USLE model, there is no direct consideration of runoff, although erosion depends on sediment being discharged with flow and varies with runoff and sediment concentration (Kinnell 2005). It has been observed that delivery ratios to determine sediment yield from soil loss equation can be predicted accurately but that vary considerably. The Conference Proceedings


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University reason for this may be due to the variation in rainfall distribution over time from year to year. As a result of uncertainty in the delivery ratio, (Williams and Berndt 1977) proposed MUSLE with the replacement of the rainfall factor with a runoff factor. Particularly, this model is intended to estimate the sediment yield on a single storm basis for the outlet of the reservoir based on runoff characteristics, as the best indicator for sediment yield prediction (ASCE 1970; Williams 1975a, b; Hrissanthou 2005). MUSLE increases sediment yield prediction accuracy and also, it eliminates the need for delivery ratios. The MUSLE has been used previously by many researchers (Banasik and Walling 1996; Kinnell and Risse 1998; Tripathi et al. 2001; Sadeghi and Mizuyama 2007) and, in some cases, subjected to different modifications. The sediment yield model like MUSLE is easier to apply because the output data for this model can be determined at the reservoir outlet (Pandey et al. 2009). Hikaru et al. (2000) demonstrated successful application of USLE to mountainous forests in Japan. Cambazoglu and s(2004) estimated sediment yield using MUSLE and USLE in the Western Black Sea region of Turkey. Tripathi et al. (2001) estimated sediment yield from a small reservoir of India using MUSLE and GIS, and the estimated values were very close to the observed values of sediment yield.. Keeping this in mind, the present investigation was taken up to assess the applicability of the MUSLE for the Megadrigedda reservoir of Visakhapatnam, AndhraPradesh where there is difficulty in identifying suitable models for estimation of soil erosion and sediment yield at the reservoir scale in addition to the problems of irregular and discontinuous runoff and sediment data collection

2.

OBJECTIVES



Development of hydraulic based model for simulation of sediment yield. 



To validate sediment yield by comparing predicted values and observed values.

3.

STUDY AREA

The geographic location of the Megadrigedda reservoir catchement is located in the north eastern part of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh State and lies between latitudes of 17.43’N-17.57’N and longitudes 83.02’E83.17’E of geographical area of the Meghadri gedda reservoir catchement is 363 Sq.KM Reservoir is spread about 6.9 sq.km. Major streams/rivers feeding the reservoir are Megadrigedda, NarvaGedda and Borramma gedda. Meghdrigedda is flowing from north-west to south-east direction about 17km ,Borrammagedda is flowing from west to east for about 7



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University km and Narva gedda is flowing from south west to north east for about 6.5 km. Physiographic characteristics of the catchment: Catchment area is consists of Hilly area , undulating terrain and plains. Hill portion is located in the north west and north east and south-west, undulating areas is located at the foot hill portions and plain areas are located in north and central portions.Major portion of the catchment area is covered by agriculture land which consists of nearly about 51% of the total area, Hill area is covering about 17% and water bodies are consists of 11% in the total area S.No

LU/LC Type

Area in Sq.KM

Percentage

1

Agriculture Land

186.13

51.28

2

Builtup Land

13.32

3.67

3

Hill

61.65

16.98

4

Plantation

30.28

8.34

5

Waste Land

31.32

8.63

6

Water Bodies

40.30

11.10

Total

363.00

100.00

Table:1 Land use/Land cover statistics are presented in the table below.

Fig 1: Location map

1.

METHODOLOGY

In the present study, MUSLE is used to estimate sediment yield from the Megadrigedda reservoir. Runoff factor is a major input into the MUSLE model. It is computed using the runoff and peak runoff rates measured at the outlet of the study reservoir using SCS-CN



International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University method. The sediment yields estimated by MUSLE for different events during the year 2013 are compared with the observed sediment yield data collected from the stream ungauging station located at the outlet of the reservoir. The model performance is evaluated on the basis of test criteria recommended by the ASCE Task Committee (1993) and graphical performances criteria suggested by Haan et al. (1982).

4.1 SCS-CN Method of Estimating Runoff Volume SCS-CN

method

developed

by

Soil Conservation Services (SCS) of USA in

1969 is a simple, predictable and stable conceptual method for estimation of direct runoff depth based on storm rainfall depth. It relies on only one parameter, CN. Currently, it is a well established method, having been widely accepted for use in USA and many other countries. The details of the method are described in the section. The SCS-CN method is based on the water balance equation and two fundamental hypotheses. The first hypothesis equates the ratio of the amount of direct surface runoff Q to the total rainfall P (or maximum potential surface to the runoff) with the ratio of the amount of infiltration Fc amount of the potential maximum retention S. The second to the potential hypothesis relates the initial abstraction Ia maximum retention. Thus, the SCS-CN method consisted of the following Equations

(a) Water balance equation: Proportional equality P = Ia + Fc + Q

(1)

Hypothesis Q/(P − Ia ) = Fc /S

(2)

hypothesis: Ia = λS

(3)

Where,P is the total rainfall, Ia the initial abstraction, Fc the cumulative infiltration excluding Ia, Q the direct runoff, S the potential maximum retention or infiltration and λ the regional parameter dependent on geologic and climatic factors (0.140m

>1000 m

250 m …..OK Column Braces

300 mm x 600 mm

Column

650 mm diameter

Fig. 1 Intze tank components Step 2 Weight calculations of the various members (weight of staging, weight of container) •

Weight of Empty container = 1311.331 kN , Weight of staging = 1035.801 kN

•

Weight of Empty container + 1/3 weight of staging = 1656.598 kN

Step 3 Center of Gravity of Empty Container •

Centre of Gravity for empty container above top of circular ring beam = 3.292m

Step 4 Parameters of Spring Mass Model •

mi = 185266.4 kg, mc = 76158.66 kg, mi+mc = 261425.1 kg

•

Total mass = 257230.1 kg

•

Difference in % = 1.6% less than 2%


273


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Step 5 Lateral Stiffness of Staging •

Stiffness from STAAD model = 1.92E07 N/m

Step 6 Time Period (impulsive mode and convective mode) Full tank condition Time period for impulsive mode Ti = 0.8531seconds •

Time period for convective mode

•

Cc = 3.2865

•

Tc = 2.8766 seconds

Step 7 Design Horizontal Seismic Coefficient For impulsive mode Z = 0.24, I = 1.5, R = 2.25, Sa/g = 1.16 ,

(Damping 5%)

Ti = 0.8531 seconds For Convective mode Z = 0.24, I = 1.5, R = 2.25, Sa/g = 0.60 ,

(Damping 0.5%)

Tc = 2.8766 seconds Step 8 Base shear calculations •

Base shear (Impulsive mode) Vi = (Ah)i (mi + ms)g = 322.92 kN

•

Base shear (Convective mode) Vc = (Ah)c mc g

•

= 36.36 kN

Total Base shear V = sqrt(Vi2+ Vc2) = 324.436 kN

Step 9 Base moment calculations •

Mi* = (Ah)i [ mi (hi*+ hs)+ms hcg ] g


= 6225.59 kN - m

274


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University •

Mc* = (Ah)cmc(hc*+hs) g

= 746.26 kN - m

•

M = sqrt (Mi*2 + Mc*2 )

= 6270.16 kN - m

Step 10 Sloshing wave heights •

dmax =(Ah)c RD/2

= 0.411 m

5. RESULT TABLE Condition

Tank Full

Tank empty

Remark

Shear force in kN

324.436

224.942

Tank full critical

Base moment in kN-

6270.16

4272.19

Tank full critical

m

The parameters like response reduction factor and zone factor were considered as variables and following result is plotted.

Over turning moment in kN-m

Base shear in kN

Response reduction factor Vs Base shear 800 600 400 200 0 1.75

2

2.25

2.5

2.75

3

Response redution factor

Response reduction factor Vs Over turning moment 15000 10000 5000 0 1.75

2

2.25

2.5

2.75

3

Response reduction factor

Fig. 2 Effect of response reduction factor on base shear and base moment


275



Over turning moment in KNm

Base Shear in kN

Seismic zone vs Base shear 600 400 200 0 2

3

4

5

Seismic zone Vs Base moment 10000 5000 0 2

3

Seismic Zone

4

5

Seismic zone

Fig. 3 Effect of Zone factor on base shear and base moment 6. ANALYSIS AS PER EURO CODE: The code EC 8 part IV deals with the Design of structures for earthquake resistance for Silos, tanks and pipelines. The Specific Intze shape is not discussed so in this study, equivalent cylindrical container is considered. Based on the formulae given in the said code, the

Base shear comparison 1500

IITK GSDMA guideline

1000 500 0 250 500 7501000

EC 8 Part IV

Basemoment in kN m

Base Shear in kN

analysis is carried out and compared with the IIT GSDMA criteria

Capacity in m3

Base Moment comparison 30000

IITK GSDMA guidelines

20000 10000 0 250 500 7501000

EC 8 Part IV

Capacity in m3

Fig. 4 Variation of base shear and base moment for GSDMA IITK and EC 8 Part IV 7. CONCLUSION From the above analysis the base shear and base moment calculated from IITK GSDMA which is compared with various parameters like response reduction factor, seismic zone. The seismic zone V exhibits 3.6 times more value than Zone II. While response reduction factor shows linear behavior which is one of the governing parameter of the analysis. Indian guidelines provide higher results of Base moment and base shear by 7% to 11% as compared with EC8.


276


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University REFERENCES 1. IITK-gsdma guidelines for seismic design of liquid storage tanks national information center of earthquake engineering (2007) 2. Eurocode 8 - Design of structures for earthquake resistance Part 4: Silos, tanks and pipelines,2006 3. Sajjad Sameer U and Sudhir K. Jain,Lateral-load analysis of frame stagings for elevated water tanks , Journal of Structural Engineering. 1994, pg.1375-1394 4. M. Moslemi, M.R. Kianoush, W. Pogorzelski, Seismic response of liquid-filled elevated tanks,Engineering Structures 33 (2011),pg.2074–2084 5. Mostafa Masoudi, Sassan Eshghi and Mohsen Ghaforey., “Evaluation of response modification factor (R) of elevated concrete tanks",Engineering Structures 2012. 6. O. R. Jaiswal, Durgesh C. Rai,and Sudhir K. Jain., Review of Seismic Codes on LiquidContaining Tanks, Earthquake Spectra, Volume 23, No. 1.February 2007.


277



IC099 STUDY ON CHARACTERIZATION OF WIND AND ITS EFFECT ON STRUCTURES Ruchita R. Jamdar1, Sharad P. Purohit2 1

Post Graduate Student, Civil Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad

2

Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad

ABSTRACT Due to the complexity of wind, all the major code and standard related to wind load of various countries have considered it as Equivalent Static Wind Load (ESWL). For tall and slender structures the dynamic method i.e. Gust Factor Method is suggested originally proposed by Davenport (1967) which is based on the Displacement based Gust Loading Factor (DGLF). Zhou and Kareem (2003) have highlighted that the Moment based Gust Loading Factor (MGLF) offers a more realistic way of distribution of the ESWL along the height of the building compared DGLF. The paper focuses on understanding the wind characterization methodology of DGLF and MGLF, in detail. It also aims towards comparing DGLF based existing Indian Code IS:875(Part-iii)-1987, the method proposed in IS:875 Draft code by Bhandari et al (2006) and the MGLF procedure proposed by Zhou and Kareem (2003). A thirty storey, wind governed, Reinforced Concrete (R.C.) symmetric building is considered. Response quantities like Lateral Wind Force, Displacement, Moment, and Base Shear are calculated and compared using the above mentioned three approaches. INTRODUCTION: Wind, being random in both time and space, is a complex phenomena. Its complexity makes it difficult to understand and thus since many years all the code and standard related to wind load, the Equivalent Static Wind Load (ESWL) concept has been a popular method of estimating the wind forces on buildings and other structures. There are two basic approaches for calculation of ESWL: (I) Static Method and (II) Dynamic Method. Static Method would generally suffice for stiff structures but for tall, slender and


278


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University flexible structures, the dynamic response becomes dominant and hence the dynamic method needs to be employed. Dynamic Method consists of determination of along wind response of structure under buffeting action of wind and is commonly known as Gust Factor Method originally proposed by Davenport. The ESWL is mean wind force multiplied by the Gust Loading Factor (GLF). BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW: Agrawal et.al [3] have presented a comparative study of different wind characteristics pertaining to dynamic wind load for three terrain categories namely: sub-urban, heavy suburban and urban as given in the different codes namely Japanese, Australia/New-Zealand, American, British/European, Canadian, Hong-Kong, Chinese and Indian [existing (1987) as well as proposed draft]. Explanation regarding the various wind characteristics including mean wind velocity, turbulent intensity profiles, integral length scale of turbulence and power spectral density as adopted by different codes and standards for the above parameters have been discussed with reasons. Zhou and Kareem[1] presented the new method for distribution of ESWL along the height of the building wherein the gust factor is a moment based gust factor which has been used to calculate the ESWL GUST FACTOR APPROACH - NEW MODEL Zhou and Kareem (2003) have highlighted that the Moment based Gust Loading Factor (MGLF) offers a more realistic way of distribution of the ESWL along the height of the building as compared to DGLF. The MGLF is the ratio of peak base bending moment and mean base bending moment. The gust factor in present code of IS:875(Part-III)-1987 is essentially the ratio of peak and mean displacement and hence it is known as Displacement Based Gust Loading factor. But since only the mean and fluctuating displacement responses in the first mode are included in the derivation, the DGLF comes out to be constant for a given structure. [ ] (Zhou and Kareem (2003)). The DGLF has many advantages; simplicity in application, accurate estimation of displacement response etc. but it has been found that for relatively long, tall and flexible buildings, it falls short in accurate estimation of other response quantities like Base Shear and


279


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University base Bending Moment. [ ] (Zhou et. al (2001)). Since the multiplication factor (Gust Factor) is a constant value, the distribution of the ESWL is same as the mean wind velocity profile. This contradicts the common perceptive that the distribution of ESWL should depend on the structural mass distribution and the mode shape of the structure (like the earthquake load are distributed). For relatively small and less flexible structures, the results would not be as much inaccurate as the background component of wind velocity governs in these cases. But for tall, slender, long and flexible structures the resonant response is the dominant one and hence the distribution of ESWL must take into account the structural properties i.e. mass distribution and mode shape. METHODOLOGY TO ESTIMATE WIND LOAD In the present paper, ESWL is calculated for a G + 30 storey RC building using moment based gust factor concept given by Zhou and Kareem [ ]. ESWL is calculate for the same building using present IS:875(Part-III)-1987 and the IS:875 Proposed Draft and Commentary by Bhandari et al. Response quantities like Displacement, Base Shear, Base Moment and Lateral wind force. They are compared among three approaches used. Procedure to determine Gust Factor and ESWL used in IS:875(Part-III)-1987 and draft code IS:875(Part-III) is briefly narrated below with notable variation among themselves. Apart, MGLF procedure given by Zhou and Kareem [ ] is briefly provided in way it is implemented in the paper. IS:875(Part-III) - 1987 Method

IS:875(Part-III) Proposed Draft and Commentary

(DGLF Method) The Equation of Gust Factor, 𝑮 = 𝟏 + 𝒈𝒇 𝒓√𝑩(𝟏 + ∅)𝟐 +

The equation for Dynamic Response Factor Cdyn (Gust Factor), 𝑺𝑬 𝜷

G = constant

𝟏 + 𝟐𝑰𝒉 √𝒈𝒗 𝟐 𝑩𝒔 + 𝑪𝒅𝒚𝒏 =

𝑯𝒔 𝒈𝑹 𝟐 𝑺𝑬 𝜷

𝟏 + 𝟐𝒈𝒗 𝑰𝒉

Cdyn (= GLF) varies with height

Other factors like B, S, E are Factors S, E are constant but Background Factor Bs constant

and Height factor Hs are variable

ESWL, Ṕ = GṖ;

ESWL Ṕ = Cdyn Ṗ

where; Ṗ = Mean Wind Load

where; Ṗ = Mean Wind Load

MGLF Procedure suggested by Zhou and Kareem [ ] (1) Calculate the mean wind force at each floor using Ṗ = Cd pz Ae.


280


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University (2) Calculate the mean Base Bending Moment (BBM) using Ṁ = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 𝑧𝑖 , where N is the number of floors of the structure. (3) Obtain B, S and E through equations of IS:875(Part-III) Draft Code and plots of IS:875(Part-III)-1987. (4) Calculate Gust Factor by splitting Cdyn equation (code specific) into Background (GMB) and Resonant (GMR) component. These components, as per IS:875(Part-III) draft code, is as follows. 𝐺𝑀𝐵 =

𝐺𝑀𝑅

2𝑔𝑣 𝐼ℎ √𝐵 (1 + 2𝑔𝑣 𝐼ℎ )

𝑆𝐸𝐻𝑠 𝛽 = (1 + 2𝑔𝑣 𝐼ℎ ) 2𝑔𝑅 𝐼ℎ √

Combined equation for Gust Factor can be given by, 𝐺𝑀 =

1 + √𝐺𝑀𝐵 2 + 𝐺𝑀𝑅 2 (1 + 2𝑔𝑣 𝐼ℎ )

(4) Compute the resonant extreme BBM component. Ḿ𝑅 = 𝐺𝑀𝑅 Ṁ (5) Compute the resonant component of extreme ESWL at each floor by distributing resonant extreme BBM to each floor according to 𝑃𝑅𝑖 =

𝑚𝑖 ∅𝑖 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∅𝑖 𝑧𝑖

𝑧

𝑧

Ḿ𝑅 ,where; 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜 [1 − 𝜆 (𝐻)] and first mode shape function ∅1 (𝑧) = (𝐻)𝛽

here; λ = mass reduction parameter; β = mode shape coefficient; H = height of building (6) Compute the background component of extreme ESWL at each floor by 𝑃𝐵𝑖 = 𝐺𝑀𝐵 Ṗ𝑖 . (7) Compute response quantities like Base Shear and Overturning Moment obtained by Square Root Sum Square (SRSS) combination rule as follows. 𝑟 = ṙ + √𝑟𝐵 2 + 𝑟𝑅 2 where ṙ, rB and rR are the mean, background and resonant response components are obtained by static structural analysis by using individual components of ESWL.

PROBLEM FORMULATION A thirty storey RC building with following details is considered for the computation of wind force using three different approach.


281


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Location of building: Mumbai, Plan dimensions of building: 24 × 24 m, Wind zone: III, Basic wind speed: 44 m/s, Average storey height: 3m, Frame spacing in X- and Y-Direction: 8 m, Number of storeys: 30, Aspect ratio: 3.75:1:1. Typical storey height: 3 m, Positioning of building: One face of the building is facing the sea and hence assumed to be in Category 1 while all the other faces are assumed to be in Category 4 (in order to consider the extreme effect of terrain category) Building Parameters: Size of beam: 300 × 600 mm, Size of columns: 800 × 800 mm, Slab thickness: 125mm, Thickness of shear wall: 300 mm, Partition wall thickness: 150 mm, Material characteristics: Characteristic strength of concrete fck = 30 MPa, Characteristic strength of reinforcing steel fy = 415 MPa, Density of concrete = 25 kN/m3, Density of brick wall: 20 kN/m3. Fig. 1 Building Plan

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: ESWL for RC building with above mentioned details was calculated using EXCEL sheet. ESWL obtained are processed to determine Base shear and Overturning moment through ETABS. The results are compared among excel based calculation and ETABS result. Comparison among results obtained for ESWL are made in two parts. Part I: Comparison of IS:875 (Part-III) - 1987 and the Proposed Draft Code ESWL determined using three different approach is plotted against height of the building in Fig. 2 & Fig. 3.


282



Wind Force in Y-Direction (Category 4)

Wind Force in X-Direction (Category 1)

100

100 90

80

IS 875 Static

70 60 IS 875(III) GLF

50 40 30

IS 875(III) Draft Code GLF

20 10

Height of Building (m)

Height of Building (m)

90

50 100 Wind Force (kN)

70 60

IS 875(III)GLF

50 40 30

IS 875(III) draft Code GLF

20 10

0 0

IS 875(III) Static

80

0

150

0

100 200 Wind Force (kN)

300

Fig. 2: Variation of Wind Force along the height of the building in X and Y-Direction.

Base Shear in X- Direction

Base Shear in Y- Direction

6000

6000

5000

5000

5151.40

4000 3945.92 3000

4160.11

4000

Series2

1 2

3000

Series1

2994.00

2000

2000

1000

1000

0

0

2801.03

3

1646.83

Fig.3: Comparison of Base Shear Force

Major observations related to Fig. 2 & Fig. 3 are discussed herein. As the height of the building increases, the dynamic response becomes more predominant and hence the static method cannot be relied upon. The static method of IS:875(Part-III)-1987 gives higher value of wind loads in the lower region of the building as it does not account for the effect of turbulence intensity on the pressure. In the dynamic method, the turbulence intensity function takes care of the turbulence generated by friction on the ground and drag on surface obstacles hence the value of forces is lower in the lower height region. In line with this, the static method would give higher value of storey shear in lower storeys and lesser value of storey shear in higher storeys. As a result the estimation of the storey drift would be affected and the value of top storey drift obtained in case of static method would be less than the actual. The variation of force in case of static method and dynamic method of present code is dependent


283


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University on the wind velocity profile only as a result the variation is parabolic. The wind force in Terrain Category 1 is observed to be highly overestimated in case of gust loading factor method whereas the same in Terrain Category 4 is highly underestimated compared to draft code results. The Base shear obtained from the static method is nearly equal to that obtained through the draft code method, but the distribution of the shear along the storey is different. PART II: Comparison DGLF and MGLF Four different cases are considered for the study, wherein Case 1:β = 1.0 and λ = 0.0; Case 2: β = 1.6 and λ = 0.0; Case 3: β = 1.0 and λ = 0.2; and in Case 4: β= 1.6 and λ = 0.

TERRAIN CATEGORY 1

TERRAIN CATEGORY 4

Chart Title

100

100

90

90

80

80

70

70

Height of Building(m)

Height (m)

Chart Title

60 50 40 30

60 50 40 30

20

20

10

10

0

0 0

50

100

150

200

0

ESWL (kN)

50

100

150

200

ESWL (kN)

Fig. 4 Variation of components of ESWL along the height of the building

The following observations can be made from the plots in Fig. 4. The DGLF method used in IS 875(III)-1987 does not differentiate the cases that have nonlinear mode shapes or nonuniform mass, or both, from the case that has a linear mode shape and uniform mass, or case 1 considered here. Hence the DGLF method would give the same result for all 4 cases. The


284


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University effect of the non-uniform mass is insignificant and the effect of a nonlinear mode shape is 2.1% on the resonant forces which are negligible as the plots are nearly overlapping each other.

-4000

-3000

-2000 -1000 Storey Shear (kN)

TERRAIN CATEGORY 1

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Height (m) -250000 -200000 -150000 -100000 -50000 Base Bending Moment (kN-m)

-5000

0

0

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

TERRAIN CATEGORY 1

Height (m)

Height (m)

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

-4000

-3000 -2000 Storey Shear (kN)

-1000

0

TERRAIN CATEGORY 4

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Height (m)

TERRAIN CATEGORY 4

-200000

-150000 -100000 -50000 Base Bending Moment (kN-m)

0

Fig. 5 Variation of Shear Force and Bending Moment along the height of building

Fig. 5 shows the variation of base shear and bending moment along the height of the building. The mean background and the resonant components are plotted against height of building. CONCLUSIONS: In this paper a brief characterization of wind forces in the form of DGLF and MGLF approach is studied. The comparison of three different methods is carried out i.e. IS 875(Part III)-1987, IS 875(Part III)-Draft Code and the MGLF Procedure suggested by Zhou and Kareem. A thirty storey RC building is considered for the computation of wind forces using three different approaches. It is found that MGLF is more realistic in application than the


285


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University DGLF approach. The existing information of the codes is used in the MGLF approach which makes it easy to apply on different problems and it estimates the ESWL more correctly. Also its application range is extended to consider the effect of nonlinear mode shapes and nonuniform mass distributions. REFERENCES: 1.

Yin Zhou and Ahsaan Kareem, M.ASCE., 'Gust loading factor past, present and future', Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics(2003),pp.1301-1328.

2.

Yin Zhou and Ahsan Kareem, M. ASCE, 'Gust Loading Factor-New Model', Journal of Structural Engineering(2001).

3.

Solari, G., and Kareem, A. (1998). "On the formulation of ASCE 7-95 gust effect factor.", Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics(2003).

4.

A.G. Davenport, 'How can we simplify and generalize wind loads?', Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics(1995),pp. 657-669.

5.

Yin Zhou, Tracy Kijewski S.M.ASCE and Ahsaan Kareem, M.ASCE.),'Along-Wind Load Effects on Tall Buildings: Comparative Study of Major International Codes and Standards', Journal of Structural Engineering(2002).

6.

IS:875 (part 3)-1987. Indian standard code of practice for design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures, part 3wind loads. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1989.

7.

Bhandari, N. M., Kumar, K., and Krishna, P.,'IS: 875(Part3): Wind Loads on Buildings and Structures Proposed Draft and Commentary.', IITK-GSDMA, Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT-Roorkee.

8.

E. Simiu, R. Scanlan, Wind Effects on Structures: Fundamentals and Applications to Design, 3rd Edition, Wiley, New York, 1996.

9.

C. Drybre, S.O. Hansen, Wind Loads on Structures, Wiley, New York, 1997.


286



IC133 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF PLATE SUBJECTED TO FLEXURE 1 1

V.RAM GOPAL, 2C.MIGHT RAJ

Post Graduate Student, PSN Engineering College, Tirunelveli

2

Asst.Professor, PSN Engineering College, Tirunelveli

ABSTRACT Plates are widely used in a broad range of engineering applications and particularly in aeronautical, mechanical, marine and civil engineering. Firstly, the general behavior of the skew bridges in contrast with the straight bridges is discussed. Then a discussion is made on the optimal mesh size to be adopted for the finite element modeling of the slab. The analysis of patch loading is also discussed as the load coming on to the bridge is wheel load. Next, a particular folded plate namely, North light folded plate, is taken and analyzed analytically using Simpsons method and then compared with the computerized model in ANSYS 1. INTRODUCTION Plates are widely used in a broad range of engineering applications and particularly in aeronautical, mechanical, marine and civil engineering. The idea of using numerical calculations has been developed in order to simplify the analysis of complex structures like plates. One of these methods is the finite element method (FEM) that breaks up the geometrical domain into a number of sub-domains named elements. The assembly of the elements makes up the complete geometry of the problem.The finite element method is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial differential equations as well as of integral equations. 1. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PLATES TO BE EXAMINED: 1.1. Skew plates and its significance: Majority of the bridges built today have some sort of skew, curve or taper. Because of the increasing restrictions of space availability and increased speed of traffic, the alignment of the traffic system can seldom be adjusted for the purpose of reducing the skew or complexity of the bridge. The behavior of skew plates in comparison with straight plates is of no match and hence one has to understand the nature of skew plates before implementing it in their project.


287



1.2. Folded plates and its significance: Folded plates are thin-walled building structure of the shell type. Folded plate structures consist of flat components, or plates that are interconnected at some angle. The necessity of having large span structural roof is at its highest demand as in the case of storage buildings, swimming pools, gymnasia, offices, shopping centers, entrances to buildings and tunnels, folded plates is a viable option. 2. OBJETIVE OF THE PROJECT: The main objective of the project is to analyze two different types of plates namely skew plates and folded plates using finite element method. Following are the main aims of this project: 

To study the behavior of different types of plates.



To understand the basic parameters over which plate behavior depends.



To determine the inter-dependence of the parameters in the plate structural response.



To observe the change in response of the plate to some of its basic parameter.



To determine the difference in response for different types of loading.

3. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF SKEW PLATES 3.1. OPTIMAL MESH SIZE DETERMINATION: A plate of 8m wide and 4.4m span having 450mm depth is subjected to a distributed loading of 25N/mm2. Such a plate is then meshed with different sizes of mesh as shown in table 3.1.1 and then it was decided to adopt 0.45m as the optimal mesh size. Table 3.1.1: Optimal mesh size determination Mesh size M

Maximum Bending Stress N/mm2

Theoretical solution N/mm2

Error %

0.2

21.202

20.037

5.81

0.4

20.5

20.037

2.26

0.45

20.098

20.037

0.3


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 3.2. VARIARTION OF SKEW ANGLE: In this phase, a specific problem is taken with its span-width ratio fixed and the skew angle of the plate is varied. This study would help to study the effect of varying the skew of the plate with its structural response.A rectangular plate having width 8m and span 4.4m with a depth of 0.45m is subjected to a uniform load of 25 N/mm2.

Initially, the plate with zero skew

is modeled. Later plates with skew ranging from 10o, 20o, 30o, 40o, 50o, 60o are modeled and the results are then compared. A 30o skew rectangular plate model 70000

REACTION IN kN

60000

SKEW 0

50000

SKEW 10

40000

SKEW 20

30000

SKEW 30

20000

SKEW 40

10000

SKEW 50

0 -10000

1

2

3

4

5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 NODES ALONG THE SUPPORT

SKEW 60

Figure 3.2.1: Maximum Bending stress for different skews

Bending stress N/mm2

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Skew angle

Figure 3.2.2 Variation of Bending Stress for increasing skew angle


289


Bending stress in N/mm2


250 200 150 skew 30

100

skew 60

50 0 0.275

0.5

0.75

0.825

1

Aspect ratio

Figure 3.2.3Graph showing the variation of bending stress for different Span-width ratios 3.3. EFFECT OF WHEEL LOAD ON SKEW PLATES A rectangular plate of width 8m and span 4.4m having a depth of 0.45m is subjected to Class A loading as per IRC 6-1966. The loading is kept for maximum bending moment position and then analyzed statically. 200.00 SKEW 60

REACTION IN KN

150.00

SKEW 55 SKEW 50

100.00

SKEW 45 50.00

SKEW 40 SKEW 35

0.00 1

2

3

4

5

6

-50.00

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

SKEW 30 SKEW 25

Nodes along the support

Figure 3.3.1: Variation of reaction forces along the length of the support for different skew angle subjected to wheel loading.

3. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF FOLDED PLATE MODEL Folded plate structures consist of flat components, or plates, that are interconnected at some angle. They consume a little more material than continuously curved cylindrical shells. But the extra cost on this account is many times offset by the savings affected on forms.


290


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 4.1. VALIDATION OF THE MODEL Firstly, a specific problem of north light folded plate of thickness 100mm and span 18.29m and width 6.35m is taken with a live load of 720 N/mm2. Such a problem was solved manually using the Simpsons method and maximum stress values at the mid-span were noted down.

Figure 4.1.1: Plot of variation of stress from the ANSYS and analytical model 4.2. TROUGH WIDTH “F” VARIATION: The trough width “f” is varied with constant value of “p” to find its effect in the longitudinal stress values at mid-span. The value of “p” is kept constant so as to keep the

general

geometry of the plate alike. The trough width of the plate in the actual validated model was 0.476m. This value was then compared with arbitrary values of 0.6m, 0.7m, and 0.8m of trough width model fig7.4

Figure 4.2.1: ANSYS model of the plates having different “f” values


291



Figure 4.2.2: Plot showing the variation in longitudinal stress values at mid-span So, it can be seen from figure 4.2.2 that the effect of change in trough width “f” has no clear effects in change in the longitudinal stress values. So it be concluded that the trough width or in other words the support width can be varied in variably with no change in structural response.

10.00

Stress in N/mm2

5.00

h=0.175m 0.00 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

-5.00

h=0.5m h=0.675m

-10.00

h=0.85m

-15.00 -20.00

h=0.337m

Along the width of the plate

Figure 4.2.2: Graph showing the effect on longitudinal stress with change in “h” So, from the figure 4.2.2, with decrease in the “h” value, the negative stress has increased significantly with not much increase in the positive stress for same span and loading. Also, more importance should be given in the concrete strength design when opting for shallow folded plates as compressive stress is more significant than the tensile stress. Also, the extent of variation of compressive and tensile stress from neutral axis is more uniform when the h is the range of 0.5 m. This means that the neutral axis shifts more downwards when h is shallower which results in more reinforcement requirement. Conference Proceedings

292



Stress in N/mm2

t=0.075m 5.00

t=0.1m t=0.15m

0.00 0

2

4

6

8

10

t=0.2m

12

t=0.25m

-5.00

t=0.3m -10.00

t=0.06m


Figure 4.2.3Graph showing the effect on longitudinal stresses with variation in thickness”t” values The plate shows decreased stress for higher thickness values but stress becomes more non uniform along the width of the plate. Also the lever arm goes downward, as in the case of “h” variation, and would be required to provide a very uneconomical reinforcement ratio and also would be necessary to go for high strength concrete mix. From the figure 4.2.3, it is highly undesirable to go for higher thickness, as evidently folded plates is a thin shell element, it is recommended to go for a thickness range of 0.75m to 0.1m. 30.00

Stress in N/mm2

20.00 10.00 0.00 -10.00

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

-20.00

0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00

-30.00 -40.00


Figure 4.2.4: Plot showing the variation of longitudinal stress variation for different values of span-width ratio L/B The stress distribution along the width of the plate does not vary with the change in the length-width ratio from the figure 4.2.4. It can be noted that all the L/B ratios plates are showing same structural response pattern with just change in their magnitude.But, it can be noted that the stress distribution along the length varies with different length-width ratio.


293


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University For length-width ratio between 0.5 to 1, the maximum stress occurs at the trough region whereas in other length-width ratios the maximum stress occurs at the cantilevered crest.There was also a comparison of maximum stress obtained with the stress obtained by the beam theory. It was found that the beam theory is not applicable for any of span length. 5. CONCLUSION Hence, after serious examination of the structural response of skew plate subjected to uniform and wheel loading, having also the two parameter variation, skew and span-width ratio, the following points with regard to the results obtained can concluded. So with the close observation of the structural response of the folded plates with respect to the four parameters, trough width, thickness, height and span-width ratio, following are the inferences observed.It has been proposed to extend this project to the modeling and analyzing of different types of plate composite plates and understand the different basic parameters on which the plate behavior depends on. Also, to determine the structural response of these plates to the variation in these basic parameters. Finally suggesting some points which are critical in the analysis and design of these plates.

REFERENCES 1.

Cheung.Y.K , Zhang.Y.X , Chen Wanji, 2000, The application of a refined nonconforming quadrilateral plate bending element in thin plate vibration and stability analysis, Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 34, 175-191.

2.

Hambly,E.C., 1973, Bridge deck behavior, John Wiley and sons, New York.

3.

Irving H. Shames,Clive L.Dym , 1991, Energy and Finite element Methods in Structural mechanics ,Hemisphere Publishing corporation ,United States of America.

4.

Iqbal hussain. M and Charles Libove, 1976, Trapezoidally Corrugates plates in shear, Journal of structural division, 1109- 1130.

5.

Johnson Victor, D., 2003, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.Pvt. Ltd, 2003.

6.

Kumar, P.M., 2003, Finite Element Analysis of skew slab bridges, M.Tech thesis, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.

7.

Luccioni .L.X and Dong.S.B ,1998, Levy-type finite element analyses of vibration and stability of thin and thick laminated composite rectangular plates, Composites Part B ,29B ,459-475


294



IC006 IMPLICATION OF IRC 112:2011 ON RCC BRIDGE DESIGN: SYNOPSIS, APPLICATION AND COMPARISON WITH ITS PREDECESSOR IRC 21:2000 AND MENTOR EUROCODE Krunal J Mehta1, Prof. Paresh Patel2, Devang Patel3 1

PG Student, Civil Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad;

2

Head & Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad

3

Joint Principal Consultant, Spectrum Techno Consultants (P) Ltd., Ahmedabad

ABSTRACT Past half century has seen tremendous growth of knowledge in the field of concrete as material and its design process. Limit State philosophy a more realistic and comprehensive over Working Stress philosophy has found its way to almost all countries’ design standards. Unlike western countries India has separate codes and formation committee for concrete design as general (BIS) and bridge design (IRC). Indian Road Congress is the latest committee to publish a code on basis of Limit State Design Philosophy (IRC-112:2011). Owing to wide scope of subject and limitation of content that can be justified in one paper, present study has been concentrated around RCC segment of the code covering sections such as Basis of Design, Materials and ULS of Flexure). Comparison of relevant clauses of IRC 112 has been made with IRC 21 and EUROCODE (considered to be major source of influence). In the end an illustrative example of T-Beam is used to compare the various code provisions of IRC 112 and IRC 21 quantitatively.

1. INTRODUCTION IRC 112, published in year 2011 (November) is a unified code for Reinforced concrete and Prestressed concrete superseding IRC 21:2000 and IRC 18:2000. In line with international practice IRC 112 also divides limit state into two groups Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and Serviceability Limit State (SLS). To mention some of major facets: section 4 & 5 of code provides a detailed explanation of “Basis of Design” which provides a transparent view of codal recommendations, applicability and limitations. Section 7 of “Analysis” covers classical methods of analysis, modern methods such as non-linear analysis and specialized


295


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University method for torsion. Preceding sections 8 to 11 covers “ULS” for flexure, axial, shear, torsional and induced deformations. Section 12 covers “SLS” for cracking and deflection. Section 14 covers “Durability” requirements. Next three sections 15 to 17 covers detailing requirements as a general and for seismic resistance separately. Lastly section 18 covers the requirement of Quality control and workmanship. Code allows design using working stress method as an alternative for verification of ULS and accordingly annexure A-4 covers the same. In order to make descriptions more manageable, relevant section/clauses of code are mentioned in bracket.

2. SCOPE (SECTION 4) Compared to IRC 21 which provides a general description stating “This code deals with the structural use of PCC and RCC in road bridges”, IRC 112 gives a meticulous scope under section 4. It covers purpose, aim, aspects covered alongside limitations and assumptions as shown in Table 1. Table 1 Scope as per IRC 112:2011 1. Purpose: To establish common procedures for design and construction of concrete road bridges including foot bridges in India. 2. Aim: To achieve construction of safe, serviceable, durable and economical bridges. 3. Aspects covered: Design principles, detailed designed criteria and practical rules, material specifications, workmanship, quality control, all such aspects which affect characteristics/ability of bridge to meet the aims. 4. Limitations: 

Applicable to normal weight concrete (Density: 24 +/- 4 kN/m3)



Not applicable for hybrid structural system



Not applicable to other types of concrete (LWC, HWC, concrete with specially modified properties)

5. Assumptions: 

Choice of structural system and design carried out by competent personnel



Execution carried out by competent personnel



Adequate supervision and quality control



Construction material and products used are as per relevant standards



Intended properties considered for design are available



Use as intended & Adequate maintenance

3. BASIS OF DESIGN (SECTION 5)


296


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Designing is similar to “walking a tight rope”, which requires balance between safetyserviceability-durability on one hand and economy on other. Present section though being non-operative to design, is a step to bridge the gap between codal approach and designer’s intuition to achieve the same. In-line with international practice, IRC 112 divides Limit State Philosophy into two parts. Ultimate Limit State (ULS) covering equilibrium and strength of structure and Serviceability Limit State (SLS) covering deflection, crack width, vibrations and other secondary effects such as creep, shrinkage, relaxation of steel, fatigue etc. (ref. cl. 5.2 & 5.3) For a structure designed as per LSM, has to be reliable enough to perform as desired under given circumstances. To measure reliability (probability of failure) code has come up with approximate methods based on combination of following aspects: 1.

Known statistical parameters describing properties of materials and actions

2.

Deterministic model of structural behaviour

3.

International practices & past experience

4.

Partial factors for actions (loading) and resistance models (materials)

4. MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND THEIR DESIGN VALUES + QUALITY CONTROL AND WORKMANSHIP (SECTION 6, ANNX.-A2 & SECTION 18) Evidently Analysis & Design of a structure as a whole or its individual element require knowledge of the properties of constituting materials (i.e. permissible stresses and strains, strength, elongation etc.). Accordingly section 6 along with Annexure-2 provides the same. However attainment of these properties is highly dependent on its manufacturing processes adopted, Quality of workmanship and construction/work procedures followed. Accordingly section 18 provides minimum acceptable standards to achieve the same. 4.1 UNTENSIONED STEEL (ref. cl. 6.2 & 18.2) Code permits use of mild steel and carbon steel (hot rolled, TMT, de-coiled or cold worked) of various grades as specified in Table 2. Actual and idealized Bilinear Stress v/s Strain diagram of untensioned reinforcement is shown in figure 1 & 2 below. Table 2 also shows comparison of properties among IRC 21, IRC 112 (WL/AS – Annex.4) and IRC 112 Limit State Method. Modulus of Elasticity to be considered for design is 200 GPa.

Code

permits use of idealized or simplified bilinear diagram for design purpose; after reducing the stresses by partial safety factor for material γs. Design strain shall be limited to 0.9 times characteristic strain obtained from manufacturer of reinforcement.


297



Fig1 &2 Actual & Idealized Stress – Strain Diagram of Untensioned Reinforcement

4.2.CONCRETE (ref. cl. 6.4 & 18.4) Presently Indian Construction industry is facing a severe scarcity of skilled labour. Since majority of concrete, being casted at site/locally often faces quality related issues. Under these circumstances performance of concrete becomes the weakest link in achieving the design standards set earlier. Foreseeing these, IRC 112 has provided very detailed literature describing minimum standards, production methodologies & guidelines for concrete. It covers individual ingredients of concrete under clause 18.4, Mix proportions under clause 18.5, acceptance criteria under section 18.6, Quality control and Workmanship criteria (such as its production, transportation, placing, falsework, Inspection and testing etc.) Under clause 18.8. Mechanical properties of concrete are covered in section 6.4 and Annexure A-2 of IRC 112. For brevity of the space only basic mechanical properties are covered here. Grades of concrete are classified in three categories as follows: 1. Ordinary Concrete: M15 & M20 made on basis of nominal mixed proportioned by weight. 2. Standard Concrete: M15 to M50 (in multiples of 5) made on basis of Mix design which apart from standard ingredients may also contain chemical admixtures. 3. High Performance Concrete: M30 to M90 (in multiples of 5) made on basis of Mix design which is similar to standard concrete but may also contain one or more mineral admixtures for property modifications. Similar to majority of western countries EUROCODE has adopted concrete strength in terms of standard cylinder strength. However as per Indian practice IRC follows a model based on cube strength. Accordingly co-relation equations of relative mechanical properties are converted to equivalent cube strength. Co-relation between cylinder and compressive strength


298


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University is considered as: fck, cyl = 0.8 x fck, cube accordingly equation fcm, cyl = fck, cyl + 8 MPa (ref. EC-2) is converted to fcm, cube = fck, cube + 10 MPa. Un-confined concrete Design compressive stress for concrete is obtained by: Where, α = 0.67, factor for effect of sustained loading and gain of strength with time [ref. 6.4.2.2(2)]

γm = Partial factor of safety for material = 1.5 for Basic & Seismic

combination

1.2 for Accidental

combination IRC 112 provides three alternatives of Stress-Strain relationship for design of section, a.

Parabolic rectangular stress-strain relationship (fig. 3)

b.

Bi-linear stress-strain relationship (fig. 4)

c.

Simplified rectangular stress-strain relationship (fig. 5)


299


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table 2 Properties of Untensioned Steel (Comparison between IRC 21 & IRC 112) Sr. No.

Description

1

Grade of Steel

2

Characteristic Strength / Min. Yield Stress / 0.2% proof stress (MPa)

3

Min. Tensile Strength / as % of actual 0.2% proof stress / yield stress (MPa)

4

Min. % Elongation

5

Permissible Stress for Tension in Shear

6

Permissible Stress for Tension in Flexure or combined bending Permissible Stress for Direct Compression

Mild Steel Grade-I

Fe415

Fe415D -

240 240

415 415

415

500 500

500

415

415

500

500

IRC 21 IRC 112 – WL/AS IRC 112 – LSM IRC 21 IRC 112 – WL/AS IRC 112 – LSM

bars ≤ 20 mm = 250

bars > 20 mm = 240

IRC 21*

410

IRC 112 – WL/AS

410

IRC 112 – LSM

410

IRC 21* IRC 112 – WL/AS IRC 112 – LSM IRC 21 IRC 112 – WL/AS IRC 112 - LSM ** IRC 21 IRC 112 – WL/AS

23% 23% 23%

IRC 112 - LSM **

125 125 125 125

High Yield Strength Deformed Steel Fe500 Fe500D Fe550 -

Fe550D -

Fe600 -

-

-

-

550

550

600

110% 108% ( ≥ 485) ( ≥ 545) 110% 108% ( ≥ 485) ( ≥ 545) 110% 112% 108% 110% 106% 108% ( ≥ 485) ( ≥ 500) ( ≥ 545) ( ≥ 565) ( ≥ 585) ( ≥ 600) 23% 14.50% 12% 23% 14.50% 12% 23% 14.50% 18% 12% 16% 10% 14.50% 200 240 200 200 200 200 Same as minimum yield stress / 0.2% proof stress (Sr. No. 2 of the table) 200 240 200 200 240 240 -

106% ( ≥ 600) 10% -

Same as minimum yield stress / 0.2% proof stress (Sr. No. 2 of the table)

IRC 21 115 170 205 IRC 112 – WL/AS 115 170 170 205 205 7 ** IRC 112 - LSM Same as minimum yield stress / 0.2% proof stress (Sr. No. 2 of the table) IRC 21 95 95 95 Permissible Stress 8 for Tension in IRC 112 – WL/AS 95 95 95 95 95 helical rein. IRC 112 - LSM ** Same as minimum yield stress / 0.2% proof stress (Sr. No. 2 of the table) * Cross reference from relevant Indian Standards ** Values to be divided by Partial safety factor for material (γs) = 1.15 for basic and seismic combination & 1.0 for accidental combination. Note: For seismic zone III, IV & V; HYSD steel bars having minimum elongation of 14.5% and confirming to IS 1786 shall be used.


-

300


-

-

-

-


Fig 4 Bilinear stress-strain relationship

Fig 3 Parabolic rectangular stress-strain relationship

Simplified rectangular stress-strain relationship (fig. 5) Where, λ = 0.8 for fck ≤ 60 MPa λ = 0.8 – (fck – 60) / 500 for 60 ≤ fck ≤ 110 MPa η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 60 MPa η = 1.0 – (fck – 60) / 250 for 60 ≤ fck ≤ 110 MPa Note: If the width of compression zone decreases in the direction of the extreme compression fiber, value of ηfcd should be Fig 5 Simplified rectangular stress-strain relationship

reduced.

Table 3 compares these three idealizations in terms of average stress (fav) over a rectangular compression zone (from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis) and the distance from the compression face of section to the center of compression, which can be used for flexure design calculations. Table 3 Comparison of Stress block idealization (α = 0.67 & γ m=1.5) Parabolic rectangular

Bilinear

Simplified rectangular

fav

β

fav

β

Fav

β

Average Stress

ratio of depth

Average

ratio of depth

Average Stress

ratio of depth

(MPa)

to n.a. depth

Stress (MPa)

to n.a. depth

(MPa)

to n.a. depth

M15

5.424

0.416

5.025

0.389

5.360

0.400

M20

7.232

0.416

6.700

0.389

7.147

0.400

M25

9.040

0.416

8.375

0.389

8.933

0.400

M30

10.848

0.416

10.050

0.389

10.720

0.400

M35

12.656

0.416

11.725

0.389

12.507

0.400

M40

14.463

0.416

13.400

0.389

14.293

0.400

M45

16.271

0.416

15.075

0.389

16.080

0.400

M50

18.079

0.416

16.750

0.389

17.867

0.400

Grade


301


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University M55

19.887

0.416

18.425

0.389

19.653

0.400

M60

21.695

0.416

20.100

0.389

21.440

0.400

M65

22.624

0.405

21.284

0.383

22.478

0.395

M70

22.927

0.389

21.928

0.372

23.412

0.390

M75

23.235

0.377

22.536

0.363

24.247

0.385

M80

23.626

0.368

23.158

0.356

24.985

0.380

M85

24.165

0.362

23.828

0.351

25.628

0.375

M90

24.873

0.358

24.554

0.347

26.178

0.370

5. ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE FOR FLEXURE: Capacity of a flexure member can be found by use of strain compatibity method as shown below: 1. Assume a neutral axis depth and calculate the strains in the tension and compression reinforcement by assuming linear strain distribution and a strain of εcu2 (or εcu3 as the case may be) at the extreme fiber of the concrete in compression. 2. From stress-strain idealization, calculate steel stresses appropriate to the calculated steel strains. 3. From stress-strain idealization, calculate the concrete stresses appropriate to the strains associated with the assumed neutral axis depth. 4. Calculate the net tensile and compressive forces at the section. If they are not equal, adjust the neutral axis depth and return to step-1. 5. When net tensile force are equal to net compressive force, take moment about a common point in the section and determine moment of resistance. This method, being iterative, is tedious for hand calculations however shall be used for non-uniform section. Formulas for sections such as Rectangular and Flanged-Tee are given below. However special care must be taken regarding strain level in steel so as to avoid brittle failure (when strain in concrete reaches it limiting value prior to steel). For rectangular section: 1. Singly under- reinforced: 𝑀𝑢 =

𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝛾𝑚

𝛽𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠𝑡

𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑑 [1 − 𝛾

2. Singly Balanced: 𝑀𝑢 = 𝑓𝑎𝑣 𝑏𝑥𝑑 [1 −

𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑣 𝑏𝑑

𝛽𝑥 𝑑

For tension steel to yield 𝑥

]

3. Doubly reinforced : 𝑀𝑢 = 𝑓𝑎𝑣 𝑏𝑥(𝑑 − 𝛽𝑥) +


]

𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝛾𝑚

302

𝑑

𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑑 − 𝑑

′)

=

𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠𝑡

𝛾𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑣 𝑏𝑑 1 ≤ 𝑓𝑦𝑘 +1 𝛾𝑚 𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑢2/3


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University For compression steel to yield before concrete:

For Flanged Section: 1. Neutral Axis lies in Flange: Similar to Singly reinforced rectangular section 2. Neutral Axis lies in Web: I.

II.

Depth of rectangular part of stress block is greater than the depth of flange

Depth of rectangular part of stress block is less than the depth of flange Considering Whitney stress block, replace Df by, Limiting value of strain x/d block LimitingTable value of4x/d for all three idealizations of strain Steel 

MS-G-I

Fe415

Fe500

Fe550

Fe600

fck ≤ 60

0.77

0.66

0.62

0.59

0.57

65

0.76

0.65

0.61

0.58

0.56

70

0.75

0.63

0.59

0.56

0.54

75

0.73

0.62

0.57

0.55

0.53

80

0.73

0.6

0.56

0.54

0.51

85

0.72

0.6

0.55

0.53

0.51

90

0.72

0.59

0.55

0.52

0.5

Concrete 

𝑦𝑓 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝐷𝑓 In above equation

Limiting value x/d can directly be taken from Table 4. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: An example of RCC T-Beam is used to compare Working Stress (IRC 21) & Limit State (IRC 112) design philosophy. (Ref. Table 5 below) Table 5 Illustrative Example Results IRC 21 De

Working Stress Method

IRC 112 Limit State Method Rectangular Parabolic

Bi-linear

unit Simplified Rectangular

Effective Flange Width

3000

3000

3000

3000

mm

Flange Thickness

240

240

240

240

mm

Web Thickness

300

300

300

300

mm

Overall Depth

1400

1400

1400

1400

mm

SLS - Moment

1865

1865

1865

1865

kN-m


303


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University ULS - Moment

-

2750

2750

2750

kN-m

Clear cover

40

40

40

40

mm

Ast Assumed

8 # 32

6 # 32 + 2 # 20

6 # 32 + 2 # 20

6 # 32 + 2 # 20

Nos

Area of Steel (Ast)

6434

5454

5454

5454

mm2

Effective Depth (d)

1288

1302

1302

1302

mm

Concrete Grade (fck)

40

40

40

40

MPa

Steel Grade (fy)

500

500

500

500

MPa

fav

-

14.463

13.4

14.293

MPa

β

-

0.416

0.389

0.4

-

464

609

609

609

mm2

Permissible Comp. stress

4.69 < 13.33

-

-

-

MPa

Permissible tensile stress

227.98 < 240

-

-

-

MPa

-

3033

3032

3034

kN-m

Actual Crack width

-

0.13

0.13

0.13

mm

Limiting crack width

-

0.30

0.30

0.30

mm

Ast,min

Moment of Resistance Crack Width calculation

6. CONCLUSION IRC 112, Code is based on design philosophy which gives fair importance to each aspects of safety, serviceability, durability & economy. It also emphasizes on quality control and workmanship to achieve the desired standards. The code seems less user friendly initially, in a manner, it requires a thorough understanding of elementary concepts of engineering and design. However once understood, it provides more freedom / choices to designers while restricting the violation of very basic fundamentals of safety. REFERENCES 1.

N. Koshi, S G Joglekar, T. Viswanathan, A K Mullick, A K Mittal, Vinay Gupta, Alok Bhowmick, Umesh Rajeshirke, V N Heggade. “Code of practice for Concrete Road Bridges IRC 112:2011. Proceedings of Workshop by Indian Concrete Institute (New Delhi Centre), New Delhi” May, 02-04 , 2013

2.

IRC-21:2000. “Standard specifications and code of practice for road bridges -section-III - Cement Concrete (plain and reinforced), third revision”.

3.

IRC-112:2011. “Code of practice for concrete road bridges first publication.”

4.

EUROCODE 2 (EN 1992-2). “Design of Concrete Structures Part 2: Concrete Bridges.”

5.

C.R.Hendy, D.A.Smith. “Designers’ Guide to EN 1992-2, EUROCODE 2: Design of Concrete Structures Part 2: Concrete Bridges.”


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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING


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IC075 CHARACTERISTICS OF MACRO-LEVEL PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT FOR PLANNING OF PEDESTRIAN INFRASTRUCTURE 1

PritikanaDas, 2M. Parida, and 3V. K. Katiyar

1

Research Scholar, Centre for Transportation Systems, CTRANS, IIT Roorkee, India

2

Professor of Civil Engineering & Head CTRANS, IIT Roorkee, India

3

Professor of Mathematics Department, IIT Roorkee, India

ABSTRACT A macro level study has been done to estimate pedestrian flow characteristics in Dehradun which is capital of Uttarakhand. Various issues in the existing pedestrian facilities in Public Transport Terminals and shopping areas have been identified in Dehradun. Pedestrian count survey has been done manually at terminal points and shopping areas for 16 hours on weekdays. The demographic composition of pedestrians in walkway and cross flow at Public Transport Terminal and shopping areas has been presented in this paper which shall help in proper planning of pedestrian infrastructure. The variation in pedestrian flow, peak hour flow and peak hour factor have been analysed from this 16 hours long duration survey. Operational evaluation of existing pedestrian movement has also been done in this study. Demographic composition has been classified based on age-gender distribution, with baggage and without baggage scenario and land use pattern. To improve the existing pedestrian facilities in Dehradun, there is need to study the existing scenario and accordingly improvement measures can be worked out. 1.0 INTRODUCTION Walking is directly involved with other modes of transportation. Walking is an important mode as compared to other modes of transportation from various points of view [Frank and Pivo (1994), Ewing at al. (2004)]. It helps in maintaining good health as well as reduces travel cost [Rietveld (2000), Pretty at al. (2005)]. Walking is environmentally friendly as it does not create any air or noise pollution. Most of the people are shifting to other mode of transportation mainly personal vehicle due to lack of proper pedestrian infrastructure. Vehicle registrations increased from 1.8 million in 1971 to 62.7 million in 2003 and to 99 million vehicles in 2007 as per the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF), (Singh, 2010), simply indicate the scenario.


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University In Dehradun some areas like clock tower, railway station, Paltan bazaar & Connaught place are having heavy pedestrian flows (JNNURM, 2007). Primary survey was done by DIMTS Ltd. in 2011 and observed that 67.4% of the study network did not have footpath facility in Dehradun (CMP). Also from this study, it was noticed from household survey walking mode share 31.1% in Dehradun. Our study was done in March 2013 and it was recognized that pedestrian infrastructure require improvement in Dehradun. This paper is based on macroscopic study and outcomes from this paper will help in designing pedestrian infrastructure based on flow characteristics.

2.0 ISSUES OF PEDESTRIAN INFRASTRUCTURE – GENERAL VIEW Walking needs ubiquitous and easily maintainable routes and its continuous availability. It offers predictable travel times, reliable, free, non-polluting, non-energy-consuming service and healthful, relaxing exercise. Tourist cities are such as Varanasi, Shimla etc. scored low values (Walkability Index), indicating the poor condition of pedestrian facilities and also walk trips are high in smaller cities (MOUD 2008).Walking mode share is 34 % in plain terrain and 57 % in hilly terrain for population less than 5 lakhs and is 32% for having population between 5 lakh to 10 lakh. Dehradun is a tourist place with 5.66 lakhs population (census 2011). Tourist inflow increasing rate is 24.7% in Dehradun (CMP 2011). Pedestrians comfort guidance and various policies are available for pedestrians in developed country such as Pedestrian comfort guidance for London, Pedestrian Policies and Design Guidelines for Maricopa Association of Governments etc. but same is missing for India. Lack of pedestrian infrastructure in Dehradun can be noticed in Figure 1. This figure is showing the lack of separated pedestrian walkway in transport terminal areas.

Figure1: Pedestrian infrastructure in Dehradun (Railway Station and ISBT)


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University To reduce traffic fatalities, an integrated and sustainable urban transport policy must restore pedestrian accessibility, and minimize dependence on motor vehicles. (Badami, M. G. (2009)) 3.0 DATA COLLECTION Pedestrian flow rate has been counted by manual data collection method. Data collection was done for 16 hours. Data have been collected on selected seven sidewalks and two locations for crosswalks. Flow rate, percentage of pedestrian types, peak and off peak hourly volume and also variation in pedestrian demand for 16 hours have been analysed from the collected data set. Three locations were selected in Dehradun to study pedestrian demand and demographic composition. Details of selected locations are described in Table1. Pedestrian count survey had been done during 16 hours on selected sidewalks and crosswalks. Table1: Descriptions of Identified Pedestrian Facilities in Dehradun Pedestrian Location Facilities

Name

Sidewalk

ISBT

Name of Side Walk/ Cross

Land Use

Walk

Transport

Designation

ISBT –Rispna

S1

Rispna-ISBT

S2

Ghantaghar-Paltan Bazar

S3

Paltan Bazar-Ghantaghar

S4 S5

Terminal

Paltan Bazar

Shopping Area

Railway

Transport

Gandhi Road-Railway

Station

Terminal

Station Railway Station-Gandhi

S6

Road Near PaltanBazar Shopping Area Crosswalk

Ghantaghar to Ballupur

S7

ISBT (Transport Terminal)

C1

Railway Station (Transport Terminal)

C2


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 4.0 DEMOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF PEDESTRIANS Demography is the study of human populations, their size, composition and distribution across place. Demographic composition is the statistical and mathematical study of the size, composition, and spatial distribution of human populations. Data were observed based on various categories such as gender, age, activity and land uses. Demographic composition for gender distribution and age distribution in different land use are given in Table2.

Table2: Demographic Composition of pedestrians relating to gender and Age Distribution Pedestrian Gender Distribution

Locations

With Baggage (%)

Age Distribution (%)

Without Baggage (%)

Adult

Children

Older

Male

Female

Male

Female

S1

57.95

42.05

56.87

43.13

60.58

32.41

7.01

S2

67.07

32.93

68.73

31.27

45.64

45.94

8.42

S3

80.00

20.00

57.23

42.77

69.51

15.05

15.44

S4

80.18

19.82

56.87

43.13

69.55

10.79

19.66

S5

77.23

22.77

74.14

25.86

76.31

19.69

4.01

S6

80.01

19.99

77.70

22.30

79.03

11.18

9.78

S7

80.43

19.57

64.68

35.32

68.54

5.42

26.04

C1

56.56

43.47

57.15

42.85

52.44

40.93

6.63

C2

78.70

21.30

75.97

24.03

76.67

4.84

18.49

It can be observed from demographic composition that percentage of male pedestrian is always more than female pedestrian in gender distribution. Percentages of adult pedestrians were more than children or older pedestrians. It can be also observed from the demographic composition that the percentages of female pedestrians without baggage is 25.86% (S5) and 22.30% (S6) in station area where as these percentages increased up to 42.77% (S3) and 43.13%(S4) at shopping area. Percentages of male pedestrians 57.23% (S3) and 56.87 % (S4)


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University at shopping area and 74.14 % (S5) and 77.70 % (S6) at station area had been studied from the collected data. 5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION From manual data collection for 16 hours (6AM to 10 PM) period, data was analysed and hourly flow variation were observed at selected seven sidewalks and two crosswalks. Parameters counted in the given interval can reflect a true characteristic of pedestrian traffic flow which is the basic principle of measurement interval selection. In this study, pedestrian flow data were collected for 5 minute interval. Hourly pedestrian demand curves for sidewalks are shown in Figure 2 and 3. Also hourly pedestrian demand trend for crosswalk movement can be noticed in Figure 4. 3500

Pedestrian Flow

3000 2500 2000

S1

1500

S2

1000

S5

500

S6

0 0

5

10

15

20

Time(Hour)

Figure 2: Hourly Pedestrian demand on Sidewalks at Transport Terminal Ares

1600

Pedestrian Flow

1400 1200 1000 800

S3

600

S4

400

S7

200 0 0

5

10

15

20

Time (Hour)

Figure 3: Hourly Pedestrian demand on Sidewalks at Shopping Areas


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Pedestrian Flow

2500 2000 1500 1000

C1

500

C2

0 0

5

10

Time (Hour)

15

20

Figure 4: Hourly Pedestrian demand on Cross Walks at Transport Terminal Ares

Observed peak hour and off-peak hourly demand from this 16 hour survey are shown in Table 3. PHF can be used for design of pedestrian infrastructure. Summary of Peak Hour Factor (PHF) for identified locations in Dehradun are given in Table4. The PHF calculated from pedestrian counts and it is the average volume during the peak 60 minute period divided by four times the average volume during the peak 15 minute period, or 𝑃𝐻𝐹 =

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 60 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 4.0𝑋(𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 15 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑)

Table3: Peak hour and Off-Peak hour flow (pedestrians/hr.) values

Sidewalks

Peak Hour Flow value

Off-Peak Hour Flow value

S1

2968 (2PM - 3PM)

315 (6 AM-7 AM)

S2

1230 (12Noon-1PM)

250 (6 AM-7 AM)

S3

1341 (6 PM-7PM)

73 (6 AM-7 AM)

S4

947 (5PM-6PM)

115 (6 AM-7 AM)

S5

2372 (1 PM-2 PM)

305 (6 AM-7 AM)

S6

1771 (7 PM-8 PM)

129 (6 AM-7 AM)

S7

947 (5 PM- 6PM)

115 (6 AM-7 AM)


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table4: Summary of Peak Hour Factor for identified locations in Dehradun (15 min. interval) Peak Hour Factor (PHF) Time S1

S2

Minimum

0.472

Maximum Average

S7

S3

S4

S6

S5

C1

C2

0.548 0.625

0.544

0.511

0.638

0.394 0.609 0.700

1.007

0.890 0.936

0.924

0.915

0.947

0.859 0.935 0.931

0.744

0.786 0.806

0.785

0.765

0.764

0.620 0.783 0.832

Estimated design widths for identified walkways based on Peak Hour Flow and Sub-Hourly (15 minute) flow values with the existing values are given in Table 6.The analysis has been done based on considering walkway width standardized in IRC 103: 2012, standard values are given in Table 4.

Table4: Capacity of Footpath (IRC 103:2012)

Table 5: Indian Pedestrian Capacity Values

Design Flow in Number of Persons per Hour

Width of

All in one

In both

sidewalk

direction

directions

1.5

1200

800

LOS LOS LOS LOS B C B C

2.0

2400

1600

1.8

1350 1890 2025 2835

2.5

3600

2400

2.0

1800 2520 2700 3780 3.0

4800

3200

4.0

6000

4000

Width of In both Sidewalk Direction (m)

All in One direction

2.5

2250 3150 3375 4725

3.0

2700 3780 4050 5670

3.5

3150 4410 4725 6615

4.0

3600 5040 5400 7560

Source: Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center, 2011


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table6: Design Width (m) of Walkway based on Maximum Hourly and Sub-Hourly Flow

Design Width Side

Peak Hour

walks

Flow value

S1

2968 (2- 3PM)

(Both direction)

Design Peak Sub-

Width

Hourly

(Both

Existing

direction)

Width of

Flow LOS

LOS

B

C

3.30

2.36

Walkway

value(ped/hr.) LOS LOS

5604

B

C

4.00

4.00

2.24 (encroached)

(13-14PM) S2

1230 (12 Noon-1

1.80

1.80

1548

1.89

1.80

PM)

2.15 (encroached)

(12-13PM) S3

1341 (18 -19PM)

1.80

1.80

1572

1.90

1.80

0.85

1.92

1.80

1.2

3.00

4.00

Not

(14-15PM or 19-20PM ) S4

1372 (13 -14PM)

1.81

1.80

1612 (18-19PM)

S5

2372 (13 -14 PM)

2.64

1.95

4944

provided (13-14PM) S6

1771 (19 -20 PM)

1.99

1.80

2296

2.55

1.88

Not provided

(19-20PM) S7

947 (17-18PM)

1.8

1.82

1260

1.80

1.80

2.1

(17-18PM)

Considering pedestrian capacity values in Table 5, it can be concluded that the provided pedestrian facility in Dehradun need improvement. From this study, it can be suggested that there is need to design road and its auxiliaries facilities also viz footpath, side walk furniture considering pedestrians as primary mode of traffic. It is required to minimize vehicular


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University interference to the pedestrians, minimize pedestrian vehicle conflicts, ensure adequate walkway separation mainly at transport terminal areas and provide aesthetic designs for pedestrian infrastructure. Pedestrian pathway attributes such as accessibility, directness, continuity, safety, guidance and aesthetics should be considered to achieve those objectives. General characteristics such as body area, walking rates and capacity for pedestrian-related facilities with some physical, visual, mental disabilities of pedestrians should be considered for designing a better pedestrian infrastructure. 8. CONCLUSIONAND RECOMMENDATIONS It can be concluded from the study that pedestrian facilities in Dehradun need to be improved by finding out pedestrian demand and existing shortcoming in pedestrian facilities. It shall promote environmental friendly travel which will provide better health to every person with economic efficiency. This study involves pedestrian demand in weekdays in Dehradun at transport terminal areas and shopping areas for assessing existing pedestrian facilities. From the hourly demographic composition,it can be concluded that the number of female pedestrians in shopping area more than the station area. Pedestrian demand graph has been presented in this paper to observe the traffic flow pattern during 16 hour study. Also Peakhourly and off peak-hourly flow at transport terminal and shopping in Dehradun have been observed. The width of sidewalk has been estimated considering IRC 103:2012. It can be concluded from the variations in Hourly maximum value and Sub-Hourly maximum flow value that there is need to incorporate Sub-Hourly flow value for capacity and required walkway width in IRC 103:2012. Macro analysis of pedestrian flow helps to generate simple empirical parameters which shall be useful in the design of sidewalks in other cities in India

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The inputs received from MHRD fellowship at CTRANS and the research project “Indo HCM WP-7” sponsored by CSIR-CRRI is thankfully acknowledged in the presentation of this paper.

REFERENCES 1. Badami, M.G. (2009) “Restoring Pedestrian Accessibility in Indian Cities”. ADB knowledge showcases, India Transport, 14 September.


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 2. City Development Plan: Dehradun Revised Under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), May 2007. 3. Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center, March 2011, “Walkability in Indian Cities”. 4. Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Dehradun City (2012), Transport Department, Government of India. 5. Ewing, R., Schroeer, W. and Greene, W. (2004), “School Location and Student Travel Analysis of Factors Affecting Mode Choice”, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1895, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 55–63.

6. Frank, L.D. and Pivo, G. (1994), “Impacts of Mixed Use and Density on Utilization of Three Modes of Travel: Single-Occupant Vehicle, Transit, and Walking”, Transportation Research Record 1466, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 44-52. Highway Capacity Manual (2010), Washington, DC, Transportation Research Board. 7. IRC: 103-2012, “Guide Lines for Pedestrian Facilities”, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, India. 8. Ministry of Urban Development (2008), “Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India”. 9. Pretty, J., Peacock, J., Sellens, M. and Griffin, M. (2005), “The Mental and Physical Health outcomes of Green Exercise”, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 15(5), 319 – 337. 10. Rietveld, P. (2000), “Non-motorised modes in transport systems: a multimodal chain perspective for The Netherlands”, Transportation Research Part D 5, 31-36.

11. Singh, A. (2010),“Transport Sector – Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007”, Presentation by Anil Singh, Central Road Research Institute to the India Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA), 11 May 2010, New Delhi. 12. Walkability and Pedestrian Facilities in Asian Cities: State and issues (2011) Asian Development Bank and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities.


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IC108 MODE CHOICE MODELLING APPROACH USING FUZZY LOGIC IN INDIAN METROPOLITAN CONTEXT Ashu S. Kedia1, B.K. Katti2 1

Post Graduate Student, Civil Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat-395017, Gujarat, India 2

Visiting Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat-395017, Gujarat, India

ABSTRACT Efficient urban public transport promotes reduction of environmental pollution and traffic accidents in addition to being a relatively affordable means of transportation. The estimation of choice of a transport mode is probably one of the most important tasks in transport planning as it is directly related to traffic and travel quality in mixed traffic conditions, in pace with ever increasing travel demand with reference to the urbanization trends observed in metropolitan cities in India. The paper presents the approach to investigate the ability and performance of Artificial Intelligence technique such as Fuzzy Logic for modelling travel mode choice behaviour for commuting different purpose trips in a metropolitan context. Models based on this technique have upper edge with a traditional multinomial logit (MNL) model in the presence of uncertainty in mode choice behaviour. Datasets are to be obtained by conducting the Home Interview surveys to capture travellers’ choice decisions in metropolitan cities and can be used for model building and validation. The model outputs find applications in framing transport management strategies.

Keywords: fuzzy logic, mode choice modelling, public transit, metro-urbanization 1. INTRODUCTION Traveler modal choice is generally explained by three basic factors: characteristics of the journey (e.g., length, time of day, and purpose), the socioeconomic characteristics of the traveler, and the transport system. Mode choice modelling and predictions relate closely to the transportation system policies and congestion mitigation strategies. Mode choice models generally form a critical part in analyzing the travel demand of a study area. In context with Conference Proceedings

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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University revealed preference (RP) data, mode choice models are generally estimated to determine the current mode shares of the population for different trip purposes. A modal share eventually has considerable impact on urban transport economics, road space sharing, traffic congestion, road safety and as well environmental pollution. In simple terms it does have effect on traffic and travel quality apart from transport economics. Conventional mode choice modeling techniques fail to capture the uncertainties involved in the decision making process of travellers. Hence, soft computing techniques can be considered as possible options to deal with the issue. Fuzzy logic approach as a tool can be employed to address effectively the uncertainty prevailing in the decision process. So, the research focus here has been to tackle the urban transit choice behaviour for the metropolitan environment through Fuzzy System. 2. URBAN AND VEHICLE GROWTH TRENDS IN INDIA The urban population in India has increased significantly from 286 million in 2001 to 378 million in 2011 and is estimated to touch 540 million by the year 2021. In terms of percentage of total population, the urban population has gone up from 27% in 2001 to 31% in 2011 and is expected to increase to 37% by the year 2021. Consequently, the number of metropolitan cities with a population exceeding one million has increased from 35 in 2001 to 53 in 2011. One has to note here that nearly 65% of the urban population is concentrated in class-I cities in India and 32% of this further is concentrated in metropolitan centers itself. These changes have intensified the demand for transport substantially, which many Indian cities have not been able to meet. The main reason for this is the prevailing imbalance in modal split, besides inadequate transport infrastructure and its sub-optimal use.

A majority of motor vehicles in India are concentrated in urban centers and it is alarming to note that 32% of these vehicles are plying in metropolitan cities alone, which constitute just around 11% of the total population. Nearly 250 to 600 motor vehicles are added daily in metropolitan centers in the country. Interestingly, these mainly comprise of two-wheeler, three-wheeler and cars where growth in two-wheeler is a dominating factor. There is a wide variety of both slow and fast-moving vehicles in mixed traffic. Since the mode selected for commuting trips affects the network conditions and the urban transportation system as a whole, it is very necessary to understand the mode choice behaviour of travellers.


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3. CONVENTIONAL MODE CHOICE MODELLING The models that tend to represent the travel behaviour of the individuals when provided with a discrete set of travelling alternatives are commonly known as discrete choice models.

Mode Choice Model

Binary Choice Models

Binary Logit Model

Simple Binary Logit Model

Binary Probit Model

Nested Binary Logit Model

Multinomial Choice Models

Multinomial Logit Model

Simple Multinomial Logit Model

Multinomial Probit Model

General Extreme Value Model

Nested Multinomial Logit Model

Figure 1: Classification of Mode Choice Models

An individual is visualized as selecting a mode which maximizes his or her utility. The utility of a travelling mode is defined as the degree of satisfaction that people derive by using that mode for a specific trip. Therefore the individual is visualized to select the mode giving maximum satisfaction, due to various attributes such as in-vehicle travel time, access time to the transit point, waiting time for the mode to arrive at the access point, interchange time, travelling fares, parking fees etc. This hypothesis is the base of conventional mode choice modelling through logit models.

Logit models are the most commonly used modal split models in the area of transportation planning, since they possess the ability to model complex travel behaviours of any population with simple mathematical techniques. The mathematical framework of logit models is based on the theory of utility maximization.


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4. OPT FOR SOFT COMPUTING Infact, modal choice and urban travel behaviour are quite complex for effective analysis in conventional approach. The traditional models cannot deal effectively with ambiguities, uncertainties, and vagueness prevailing in human decisions or perception of utility values. Therefore, the use of soft computing methodologies bear importance due to their ability to handle quantitative and qualitative measures under uncertainty. These have some similarities to cognitive mechanisms applied by individuals in the process of choice making and problem solving. Many of the perceived attributes of the travel alternatives in an individual’s choice set, cannot always be simply defined or described on the basis of crisp and quantitative evaluation of their main effects. Fuzzy logic, one major branch of soft computing techniques is considered to provide the proper base for such problems to deal with linguistic expressions on choice of travellers.

5. FUZZY LOGIC SYSTEM 5.1 Fuzzy Logic Base Fuzzy logic has been accepted as an emerging technology because of a wide range of successful applications. The following statement lays the foundation of fuzzy logic (Bogenberger, 2001). “In fuzzy logic, the truth of any statement becomes a matter of degree” The basic concept underlying fuzzy logic is that of a linguistic variable, that is, a variable whose values are words rather than numbers. Although words are often less precise than numbers, their use is closer to human perception. Another basic concept in fuzzy logic, which plays an important role in most of its applications, is that of a fuzzy if-then rule, called a fuzzy rule or fuzzy inference system. In general, fuzzy logic as a concept is easy to understand, because the mathematical aspects behind fuzzy reasoning are very simple. It is also tolerant of imprecise data. Fuzzy logic is based on natural language used by people on a daily basis.


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 5.2 Fuzzy Model Inference System The fuzzy inference system is the process of formulating the mapping from a given input to an output. The logic in the system is built by the experience of people who understand the system to be modelled in natural language. The statement of if-then (or rules) is the main mechanism in the fuzzy inference system. This fuzzy inference system makes the system natural and beneficial to model a complex human behaviour. The components of a fuzzy inference system are the rules, the fuzzifier, the inference engine, and the defuzzifier as illustrated in Fig.2.

Figure 2: Fuzzy Inference System 

Fuzzification

The function of the fuzzifier is to convert a crisp numerical value from the universe of discourse of the input variable, a linguistic variable to fuzzy number. The level of belief is equal to the degree of membership in the qualifying linguistic set which can take any value from the closed interval [0,1]. In Fuzzy Logic Model, membership functions of input and output parameters are determined appropriately based on survey results of a particular area and by the help of an expert’s knowledge. 

Inference Engine Process

The basic function of the inference engine is to compute level(s) of belief in output fuzzy sets from the levels of belief in the input fuzzy sets. The inference engine is mainly based on “rules”. The rules are based on expert opinion, operator experience, and system knowledge. The if-part of such a rule is called the rule-antecedent and is a description of a process state in terms of a logical combination of fuzzy propositions. Moreover, the then-part of the rule is called the rule-consequent and is again a description of the control output in terms of a logical combination of fuzzy propositions. The inference process is divided into three phases,


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University application of the fuzzy operator in the antecedent, implication from the antecedent to the consequent, and aggregation of the consequents across the rules.



Defuzzification

The function of the defuzzifier is to convert the levels of belief in output fuzzy sets to a crisp decision variable of some kind. As described above, the result of fuzzy logic operations with fuzzy sets is invariably a conclusion in the form of a fuzzy set. In practice, the output of the defuzzifier process is a single value from the set. There are several built-in defuzzifier methods. The centre of gravity method is the most commonly used for extracting a crisp value from a fuzzy set. This method calculates the weighted average of the elements in the support set.

6. FRBS MODE CHOICE FRAMEWORK 6.1 Model Inputs Logit models are employed in deciding the proportion of different modes in urban transportation system with reference to observations made in decision making on part of the trip maker through his attention towards travel cost, travel time, comfort and convenience for his travel etc. However, the household income cannot be ignored in travel mode decision particularly for middle and lower income groups of the society and more so in choice of public transport system in our metropolitan cities. In our mixed traffic, two-wheelers, auto rickshaw, cars, buses, bicycles, and cycle rickshaw are the predominant modes. Often even walking is also considered as one segment of mode. Necessarily the above cited attributes and the modes form the database for model building. 6.2 Modal Share: Utility Value Mode Choice is eventually is based on the logic of maximization of satisfaction with reference to derivation of utility value by the modes in a comparative state and it is in the form as shown in equation (1)

𝑃𝑖𝑘 =

exp(𝑈𝑖𝑘 ) ∑𝑛 𝑘=1 𝑈𝑖𝑘

(1)


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Where, 𝑃𝑖𝑘 is the probability of an individual 𝑖 selecting mode 𝑘; and 𝑛 is the total number of available modes in the choice set for individual 𝑖. 𝑈𝑖𝑘 is the utility function of mode 𝑘 for individual 𝑖, linearly regressed with the perceived attributes 6.3 Fuzzy Model Framework A Mamdani – type fuzzy inference system can be developed using the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox of MATLAB® as shown in typical Matlab® snapshot (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Typical snapshot showing Mamdani Fuzzy Inference System in Matlab®

Travel cost, travel time, comfort, convenience, income etc. and mode utility are inputs and outputs respectively as shown in Figure 3. These cannot be crisp based, the fuzzy membership functions are to be adopted for say five levels such as very small, small, medium, high and very high in a triangular form as shown in typical Matlab® snapshot (Figure 4) to generate membership values to pass on to fuzzy inference system.


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Figure 4: Typical snapshot showing Triangular Membership Functions for input variable travel cost in Matlab®

The next step is framing of fuzzy rules by the antecedents with specified input attributes to get consequent of utility as output as shown in typical snapshot Figure 5.

Figure 5: Typical snapshot showing Fuzzy Rule Based System in Matlab®

For example, considering two-wheeler as referred mode for the three attributes of income, travel cost and travel time the fuzzy rule would be “If income is medium and travel cost is low and travel time is medium, then the utility is high”


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University The results are further defuzzified to get back the result in crisp format, in order to make use of it in logit function to define the modal choice of the trip maker.

7. CONCLUSIONS The urban travel demand which is increasing significantly in most of our metropolitan cities, the need of the hour is to frame the appropriate transport system and management strategies in a sustainable way. This necessarily draws the attention towards the modal share in a balanced manner, so that the urban transport cost, pollution, traffic congestion and accidents are minimized. It is possible to address these things if proper mode choice behaviour of urbanites is realized through building up of appropriate travel demand models. Fuzzy Rule Based System can be considered as one of the effective approach in modal choice decision to cover the ambiguity prevailing in human responses and answer the likely choice for the mode under given perceived attributes.

8. REFERENCES 1. Holland, R. (2000). Fuzzy logic model of mode choice. In Proceedings of Seminar K of The European Transport Conference 2000, Held at Homerton College, Cambridge, UK, 11-13 September 2000-Transport Modelling. Volume P445. 2. Khan, O., Ferreira, L., Bunker, J. and Parajuli, P., (2007). Modelling Multinomial Passenger Demand using Computer – based Stated Preference Surveys, Australian Transport Research Forum (ATRF). 3. Mizutani, K., & Akiyama, T. (2000, July). A Logit Model for Modal Choice with a Fuzzy Logic Utility Function. In Traffic and Transportation Studies (2000) (pp. 311-318). ASCE. 4. Postorino, M. N., & Versaci, M. (2002). A fuzzy approach to simulate the user mode choice behaviour. In Proceedings of the 13th Mini-EURO Conference, Bari, Italy. 5. Rajasekaran, S., & Pai, G. V. (2003). Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Algorithm: Synthesis and Applications. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. 6. Teodorović, D. (1999). Fuzzy logic systems for transportation engineering: the state of the art. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 33(5), 337-364.


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IC018 REDUCING CONGESTION IN DHANMONDI RESIDENTIAL AREA: INTRODUCING CORDON PRICING Md. Mehedi Hasnat, Dr. Md. Shamsul Hoque

ABSTRACT Dhanmondi was planned and developed as a residential area back in 1952. In 1984 about 28 percent of the houses in this area were used for non-residential purpose. Since 1984 to 2006 the residential purpose of land use has decreased from 71.86% to 46.09% whereas commercial use has increased from 28.35% to 52.91%. Residents of this area own nearly 209 cars per thousand populations. Numerous commercial institutions lead an enormous volume of traffic into and out of the area every day. Study showed that through traffic in this area is dominated by autos and smaller sized vehicles, which is one of the major causes of congestion. In this paper the prospects of introducing cordon pricing in Dhanmondi residential area is elaborately discussed. It will cost government a total of 213.05 million taka capital with minimum revenue of about 288.32 million taka and a profit of 75.27 million taka in the base year. Average traffic speed inside the residential area is expected to increase by 30%. It is expected to save travel time cost and fuel cost of 101.89 and 23.56 million taka respectively every year. Also it will reduce emission with an estimated monetary value of 1.31 million taka. 1. INTRODUCTION

Dhanmondi is one of the most affluent residential areas in Dhaka city. It was planned and developed by the Public Works Department (PWD) according to the order Dhaka No. 11413 requ.-9th December 1952 [1]. Beginning as the residential area for the city's elite, over the decades evolved into a miniature city, where one can find everything from hospitals to malls, schools, banks, offices and universities. Numerous schools, hospitals, private universities, business institutions lead an enormous volume of traffic into and out of the area every day. Being the place for all amenities, ironically this place has many problems derived from these amenities. For the last few years congestion has become a mind boggling problem for the residents. Having a grid iron pattern road network this place has always been attracting the lucrative investors. According to a study of Housing


325

and

Building Research Institute


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University (HBRI), in 1984 about 28 percent of the houses in this area were used for non-residential purpose although the area was planned as a residential area [1]. Since 1984 to 2006 the residential purpose of land use has decreased from 71.86% to 46.09% whereas commercial use has increased from 28.35% to 52.91% [2]. Its road network originally developed to be used for residential purposes is facing a hard time to cope with the ever rising traffic volume with its limited capacity. This place is one of the most heavily built up area of the city; hence increasing the capacity of the road network is almost impossible.

2.

IDENTIFYING THE RESPONSIBLE PARTIES

Dhanmondi residential area is bounded by road no. 2 and road no. 27(old 16) at its south and north respectively and by Mirpur road and Satmosjid road at its west and east side respectively. With an area of about 1.7 square kilometer it is the home for 23898 households with a population of about 119,500. It is the home for the high income group of the city with an anticipated car ownership of nearly 100%. People here own nearly 25,000 private cars [3]. That is 209 cars per thousand populations. For Hong Kong, Singapore and Seol, Jakarta and Bangkok this number is 50, 100, 200 and 300 respectively. No wonder 209 cars per 1000 people is too high for a developing country like Bangladesh. In addition to this everyday thousands of non-resident’s cars travel in, out and through this place. Undoubtedly private cars are the major cause of congestion within the residential area. Among the institutions the schools have the highest trip attraction. Over the past fifteen years there have been uprising of a myriad of private schools and now Dhanmondi houses more than 100 schools. Sultana (n.d)[4] reports that this has led to increasing traffic congestion during school hours. Most of the schools do not have their own transport buses for the students. So the students ride their own cars to school. Moreover, it has been found that 72% of the students don’t share rides, making the student-to-vehicle ratio very high [5]. So the congestion level becomes high during the school hours (7:30am-9am and 12:30pm-2pm). An extent of the growing nonresidential activities due to grid pattern road network of Dhanmondi residential area and their impacts on Mirpur road are revealed by the questionnaire survey conducted both for the residents of Dhanmondi and non-residents but using Dhanmondi roads or Mirpur road by T. Khan et al (2011) [5] in their study. It was found that 42% of the trips are originating within Dhanmondi residential area with destination outside of the area; 37% of the external to internal traffic represent the non-residential traffic which is a significant amount.


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University 3. ROAD PRICING Targeting private cars as the main contributor to the congestion; measures need to be taken to control their number into the residential area. Introduction of road pricing can prove to be a suitable solution to this problem. Road pricing can be different types; it can be cordon based, distance based, time based or congestion based. Since Dhanmondi residential area is a small zone cordon pricing is most suitable for this area. In many countries around the world it has proven to be useful in reducing the congestion in a significant level. Cordon pricing of London is quintessential in this regard. It has been operational since February 17 of 2003. London installed hundreds of cameras throughout the congestion zone, charging £10 to anyone driving within it (between operational hours of 7am-6pm, Monday to Friday). Impacts of London Congestion Pricing according to third year annual report stated that the average traffic speed during the charging days increased by 37%, peak period congestion delays declined to 30%, bus congestion delays declined 50%, and bus ridership increased by 14% [6]. In a nutshell it has reduced the use of private cars significantly within the charging area, increased the use of NMT and public transport to a large extent. 31% of the residents believed that the overall environment and the air quality of the charging area have improved during 2006 to 2007. A study showed that there has been a 13percent reduction in nitrogen oxide, a 15 percent reduction in particulate matter, and a 16 percent reduction of carbon emissions since the congestion charge was put into effect [7]. Besides this cordon pricing has also become a source of government income. London’s administration has been using this revenue to improve the quality of public transit throughout the city and especially within the charged area. According to Transport for London, the £42 million supplementary investment on safety (provided by the congestion charge), has resulted in a 40 percent decrease in serious injuries or fatalities, and a 40 to70 percent reduction in private vehicle crashes. The £42 million have been used to increase the number of cameras, increase traffic calming measures and increase the number of safety campaigns throughout the city. Inspired by the success of London’s congestion charge, and with a desire to more evenly distribute the flow of traffic entering its city centre, Stockholm introduced its own congestion pricing system on January the 3rd, 2006. Stockholm’s congestion tax has something else in common with London’s equivalent – it’s been a big success. Public transport has seen a 4.5% increase in ridership, traffic is down by 18%, and waiting time to enter the city centre during peak hours has been reduced by 50%. There have also been environmental and economic benefits.


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Carbon emissions have dropped by 14-18%, ownership of tax-exempt environmentally sustainable vehicles has almost tripled, and retailers have seen a 6% increase in business [8]. Cordon pricing today is on operation in Genoa, Copenhagen, Prague, Shanghai, Honk Kong and is proven to be a successful tool in reducing congestion.

4.

CORDON PRICING IN DHANMONDI RESIDENTIAL AREA

There is no definite peak hour within which traffic volume is highest within the residential area. Morning rush hour is 7:30am to 9am. At midday morning shifts of most of the schools break out. From 12:00 at noon to 1:30pm volume remains higher than normal. From 4:30pm the evening shifts of the schools break out. So the evening rush hour starts at around this time and continues up to 8pm. So charging hour will be from 7:00am to 8pm each weekday. Only the private cars will be charged. Taxi cabs, CNGs, other public transports, school buses, police cars, government vehicles and emergency vehicles will be exempted. Every vehicle entering the area must have digital registration plate that is readable by an ANPR (automatic number plat recognition) camera. The area has totaled 31 entrance points, 4 of which end in a cul-de-sac. Charging area will be bounded by the red line as given in the following figure.

Figure 1: Proposed Cordon Pricing Zone A total of 76 ANPR cameras are estimated to be needed for the enforcement of congestion pricing. Charging period will be 7:30am to 8:00pm on weekdays (Sunday to Thursday). Congestion Charge is estimated based on the annual per capita GDP of Bangladesh. As following the idea of London Congestion charge, comparing their charge of £10 and annual per capita GDP (Purchasing Power Parity, PPP) of $36700 with per capita GDP of Bangladesh of $2000 (PPP) [9], congestion charge is estimated to be £0.545 or 65tk. Cars owned by the residents will enjoy 90% exemption, i.e. they have to pay 6.5tk every time they enter into the area. The estimated cost of an ALPR system is defined by the following equation: Conference Proceedings

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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University ($20,000 * C) * 1.2 = Total Cost of an ALPR system [10]. C = the no. of cameras (there is always one camera per lane at each proposed camera site) $20,000 = the cost of each ALPR camera 1.2 = takes in to account the 20% estimated soft costs such as installation and fiber optics.

Hence total cost = ($20,000 * 76) * 1.2 = $1824000. In BDT installation cost = 1824000*77.867=142.03 Million Taka. Operating Cost of Each Year (50% of Installation Cost) will be 71.02 Million Taka. The cost benefit of the first year of implementation is given in Table I as follows: Table I: Cost Benefit Analysis for congestion charge = 65tk Residential vehicles

Total Cost

Total Benefit**

Net Profit**

vehicles

Million BDT

Million BDT

Million BDT

80

213.05

288.32

75.27

70

213.05

380.19

167.14

60

213.05

472.06

259.01

as %of total

**Detail calculation is not provided

Now, as congestion charge is a form of social cost, it must depend on the level of congestion created in the charging zone. Comparing the population density of London’s CCZ (Congestion Charging Zone) of 12,333/sq.km with the that of DRA which is 70,289/sq.km, the congestion created in DRA should impose 5.7 times as much problem to the population inside the DRA as London’s CCZ. Hence a more reasonable, yet a little optimistic congestion charge can be applied. Thus the cost benefit result comes as given in Table II: Table II: Cost Benefit Analysis for congestion charge = 100tk Residential vehicles as %of

Total Cost

Total Benefit**

Net Profit**

total vehicles

Million BDT

Million BDT

Million BDT

80

213.05

442.22

229.17

70

213.05

583.55

370.51

60

213.05

724.89

511.84

**Detailed Calculation is not provided.


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University From the calculation the cost of implementation and operation for each year the authority has to pay an amount of 213.05 million taka. From the system minimum profit is expected to be 75.27 million taka and the most optimistic operation will bring a profit of 511.84 million taka annually.

5.

USER BENEFITS

Users are surely the beneficiary of the cordon pricing. User can be benefited in various way, such as their travel time will be saved, fuel cost will be saved, as from the environmental point of view the emission is also reduce to some extent. The model of finding the extent of user benefits in the most generalized form is as follows: Total financial value of benefits = Travel time value (TV)* total time saving (TS) + Fuel cost (FC) * Fuel saving (FS) + emissions reduction cost (EC)* amount of emissions reduction (ES) [11] We assume that the average traffic speed inside the DRA will increase by 30%. This will increase the peak hour speed of 14.4km/hr [12] to 18.72km/hr. Hence a vehicle traveling at least 1 km inside the charging zone each day will have a saving of travel time equal to 0.967 minute. According to the “RHD Road User Cost Annual Report for 2004-2005” the Unit Travel Time Costs for each transport mode are:

Table III: Unit Travel Time Costs for each transport mode TTC per Vehicle (BDT per hour),

TTC per Vehicle (BDT per

2004-2005

hour), 2012-13

Car

123.3

227.2

Bus

171.92

816.6

Auto Rickshaw

76.5

363.82

Vehicle Type

In 2004-05 FY per capita GDP of Bangladesh was $421, which is now $2000 (Purchasing Power Parity). The value of column 2 has been multiplied by a factor of 4.75.


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Table IV: Travel Time Cost Saving Type of Vehicle

Number of Vehicles /day

TTC in million Tk/Year

Private Car

38070*

98.82

Auto Rickshaw

1904**

3.07

Total Annual TTC Saving

101.89 Million Tk.

*Number of cars entering the charging zone each day. **5% of Private cars

Majority of the private cars (about 85%) in the city is run by CNG. Hence savings in fuel costs and emission are estimated on the basis of the cost of CNG and emission of CNG driven vehicles. CNG per Kilometer = 0.25 cumec (driving at average speed of 14~17 km/hr) CNG driven vehicle in congestion = 0.008 cumec/hour. Cost of CNG per cumec = BDT 30 Table V: Estimated Emission Rate of CNG driven Vehicles Pollutants in kg/cumec

Acceleration Emissions rates Idle Emissions Rate

NOx

HC

CO

3.286

1.255

27.61

--

.02

0.33

Source: Cost/Benefit Analysis of Electronic License Plates [11]

From the cost estimation of air pollution provided by different author[11] a reasonable value is used in this study which is given in Table V. Table V: Cost Estimation of Air Pollution Source

Cost of Pollutants in (USD/Kg of pollutant)

Value used in the study

CO

NOx

HC

1

2

2

Source: Cost/Benefit Analysis of Electronic License Plates [11]


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University It is assumed that each vehicle on each working day will have to spend 8 minutes less in the traffic congestion. Hence, Total Vehicles traveling in and out the charging zone per day = 38070*2 = 76140. Therefore total yearly time will be saved by all these vehicles = 2791800 hours. Total fuel (CNG) will be saved = 22334.4 cumec. Total Fuel cost will be saved = 0.67 Million BDT. HC and CO emission will reduce by 446.688kg and 7370.35kg respectively. Thereby total emission costs will be saved = $8263.726 = 0.643 Mil BDT. As it was previously estimated that average traffic speed inside the DRA will increase by 30%, so it is forecasted that the fuel efficiency will also increase by this percentage. Hence all vehicles will require 0.075cumec of less CNG for each kilometer. Total cars running each day with a minimum trip length inside the DRA of 1 km is 38070. Total fuel saved each year = 785193.75 cumec. Total fuel cost will be saved = 23.556 Million BDT. Hence, Total user benefit in = travel time cost + fuel use cost + emission reduction cost = [101.89 + 23.56 + (0.643 + 0.67)] Million BDT = 126.78Million BDT per year These benefits are only a rough prediction. The whole revenue earned from this project will be used to improve the public transport system. Starting from the boundary zone of DRA, in a progressive and sequential way public transport of the whole city will be benefited. From the revenue the government can help the schools situated within the residential area to initiate a well-organized school bus service. Once the system if able to earn the trust of the parents; it will be a great step towards the mitigation of congestion during the school hours. So the estimated user benefit will have a much higher value than estimated.

6.

PREREQUISITES FOR IMPLEMENTING CORDON PRICING DRA

Before implementing cordon pricing some facts must be looked upon. Majority of the congestion is caused during the school hours. So before the implementation, a better transportation solution should be provided for the schools of DRA. People may tend to park their vehicles outside the DRA. To discourage them from doing so, high penalty for on-street parking on restricted areas should be enforced. Again for the user, who must use the car, should be given a space outside the DRA to park their vehicles for limited time. But due to a very densely populated and heavily grown urban area there are no places to provide such facilities. Parking ticket inside the DRA should be introduced. This is to discourage the onstreet parking inside the DRA. Vehicles entering into the DRA with commercial supplies Conference Proceedings

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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University should be charged more. That will discourage the establishment of new commercial institutions within DRA. To provide a better option for the through traffic the quality of the public transport should be improved in the major roads surrounding the DRA. NMT should be a major concern. As we concentrate on limiting the use of motorized vehicles, it should also be kept in mind that in no way the NMT vehicles particularly the rickshaws be given the chance to thrive in number within the area to create a new problem. Use of bicycles and walking should be encouraged for traveling within the area. Public acceptance is the major hindrance for the implementation of cordon pricing as experienced from the earlier cordon pricing systems in London, Stockholm, Oslo and various other cities of the world. 7.

ALS (AREA LICENSE SCHEME) IN DRA

One of the major prerequisite of introducing ANPR camera is that there must exist free flow of traffic. Since it is not always achievable in all the entrance point of DRA an alternative road pricing system can be adopted. It is a manual scheme based on the display of paper licenses that were purchased prior to their entering the Restricted Zone (RZ). To enter the RZ during the restriction periods, non-exempt vehicles will need to purchase an ALS area license from roadside sales booths located on approach roads to the RZ, petrol stations, post offices or convenient stores. These will be available as daily and monthly ALS area licenses. Enforcement personnel will be stationed at the control points to ensure that non-exempt vehicles displayed valid ALS area licenses on their windscreens, or on the handle-bars in the case of motorcycles and scooters. Violating vehicles had their vehicle license numbers noted down and their owners sent summonses for entering the RZ without a valid license. Vehicles will be free to move around or leave the RZ without having the ALS area licenses. Installation cost is less than ANPR camera system, but operation is costly. Over all it will cost less than introducing ANPR cameras.

8.

CONCLUSION

Increasing the capacity in an already heavily built up urban area is almost impossible, therefore certain alternative way of demand management must be utilized to reduce the congestion of Dhanmondi residential area. Cordon pricing has proven its efficiency in many developed urban areas of the world. Though in terms of installation cost it may prove to be a little optimistic but in regard to the problem it can solve, it is the right type of solution for Dhanmondi residential area. Again there is always an option of introducing area license


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University scheme in the area. This system will ensure that the private car owners pay their part of the social cost. Thus this initiative is also expected to discourage multiple car ownership of the residents and increase the habit of carpooling among the residents and non-residents. In accordance with its implementation emphasis must be given toward introducing bus service for the schools, promoting walking and cycling within the area and discouraging new commercial establishments.

REFERENCES 1.

[ “Trends of Development in Dhanmondi” by A S M Mahbub-Un-Nabi And

Maqsud Hashem. 2.

[ “Violation of Land Use Plan and Its Impact onCommunity Life in Dhaka

City”by Kasphia Nahrin. 3.

[ Term Paper” by Md. Aminul Islam; Junior Transport Consultant,

Dhaka Transport Co-ordination Board. 4.

Sultana, M. (n.d) “Dhanmondi no more what it was” The Financial Express, Bangladesh, viewed 15 July 2010,

5.

[ “Modeling Preference for School Bus Service in Dhaka: An SP Based

Approach” by

Charishma F.Choudhury1 , Mobashwir Khan2, Jason

Wang2; 1. Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. 2. Department of Engineering, Harvey Mudd College. 6.

Impacts monitoring; sixth annual report, July 2008. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/sixth-annual-impacts-report-2008-07.pdf

7.

[ “Road Pricing in Britain” by Nash, Chris. Journal of Transport Economics

and Policy 41 (2006): 137,


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“The Success of Stockholm’s Congestion Pricing Solution” accessed 15th December 2013

9. 10.

CIA World Factbook 2013. “Cost/Benefit Analysis of Electronic License Plates” by Andrew Eberline for Arizona Department of Transportation, June 2008.

11.

“Cost/Benefit Analysis of Electronic License Plates” by Andrew Eberline For Arizona Department of Transportation.

12.

Final Report on “Preparatory Survey Report on Dhaka Urban Transport Network Development Study (DHUTS) in Bangladesh.” March 2010 By JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency)


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ABSTRACTS of POSTER PRESENTATION


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IC013 COMPARATIVE STABILITY OF BUILDINGS BASED ON SOIL PROPERTIES Mohit Dwivedi VIT University,

Many a times, we come across instances of settlements of houses and buildings in a particular area. These settlements could be differential or uniform (beyond a specified limit).This poses a threat to safety and well-being of the residents of that particular residential construction, while leading to humongous economic losses. Thus this research article is aimed at analyzing the characteristics of the soil samples collected from various localities of the city of Lucknow, situated in Uttar Pradesh, India and drawing out a comparative study based on the data recorded and to propose any solutions if applicable. For the analysis, soil samples were collected from Jankipuram, Lalkuan, Civil Lines, Cantonment area and Malihabad in Lucknow. Various laboratory tests such as Sieve analysis test, Atterberg’s limit test, Specific gravity test, direct shear test etc were conducted and the best and worst areas for construction were spotted. Adequate remedial measures were provided.

IC017 EVOLVING AN EFFICIENT STRUCTURAL COLUMN THROUGH BIOMIMICS Lucky Rebecca Joseph1, Satyanarayanan K. S.2, 1

P.G student Structural Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University, Kattankulathur,

Chennai 2

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University, Kattankulathur, Chennai

Biomimicry is the discipline of science that studies models of nature and then imitates or inspiration of those designs, processes to solve human problems. Many engineering and architectural applications have learned from these natural processes to create buildings that are models of resource efficiency. Although present construction has included all requirements in seismic codes, there are still some design-construction principles that have to be optimized in order to improve building adaptation seismic events. Structures need to modify concurrently with ecological trends for reducing pollution associated with production. For this paper, such kind of resiliency standard is achieved focusing on structural design


337


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University concept inspired by the performance and geometry efficiency of a static model bio-structure human skeleton precisely femur, tibia and produce structural elements driven by the natural flow of force generated by an earthquake. Such kind of desired “force-driven form” found resemblance with bones. Human skeleton adapts according to function and loads that are normally encountered. This key idea of nature is mimicking to composite columns of framed structures, which should withstand both gravity and transverse loading of structural system. This paper is an initial part of ongoing research work and presents the results of analysis on femur and tibia. Keywords: Biomimicry, structural system, CT scan, femur bone, tibia bone, mimics, column

IC019 AMBIENT CURING OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE USING COMBINATION OF FLY ASH AND GGBFS Darpan J. Bhorwania, Sonal P. Thakkarb a

Post-Graduate Student, Institute of Technology, Nirma University

b

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University

Concrete is the most abundant used man made material in the world. One of the main ingredients of concrete mixture is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) which is the second most utilized material after water. The amount of the CO2 released during the manufacturing of OPC is in the order of one ton for every ton of OPC produced. The production of cement is responsible for approximately 7% of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions. In order to create a more sustainable world, engineers and scientists are developing and putting into use a greener building material, one of them is Geopolymer Concrete. This paper will discuss the various combination of fly ash and GGBFS, as source material, to produce geopolymer concrete. It has further been generally accepted that heat treatment is necessary for producing geopolymer concrete. This is considered a drawback affecting its manufacture and feasibility. The work presented in this paper is conducted in the aim of improving strength of ambient-cured geopolymer concrete. Three combinations of fly ash and GGBFS in proportion of 90:10, 70:30 and 50:50 have been taken for study. The effect of curing on compressive strength of geopolymer concrete is studied at 3 and 7 days. The paper describes that at 50:50 percent combination of fly ash and GGBFS, the ambient-cured geopolymer concrete achieves strength level of M 25 grade at 7 days. Keywords: Geopolymer, GGBFS, Fly Ash, Ambient Curing


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IC025 “HETEROGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATION SOLVER USING GRAPHICS PROCESSING UNIT (GPU) AND CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)” Konark P. Patel1, Dr. Paresh V. Patel2 1

Post Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University,,

Ahmedabad 2

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad

Today’s computing environments are becoming more multifaceted, exploiting the capabilities of a range of multi-core microprocessors, central processing units (CPUs), digital signal processors, and graphic processing units (GPUs). Presented with so much heterogeneity, the process of developing efficient software for such a wide array of architectures poses a number of challenges to the programming community. Linear equations can be used to solve many problems, e.g. solid mechanics, fluid dynamics, structural engineering and so on. Since the size of problems increases to achieve accuracy, number of linear equations to be solved also increases and so is the time. Advancement of new parallel computation technology using inexpensive graphic card processors (multi-core GPUs) makes the dreams coming true to solve large linear equation system of form AX=B. In the present study, a direct method for solving this linear equations system called Gaussian Elimination is used. Graphics Processing Unit is used for parallel computations with help of OpenCL programming language. It is a step in the direction of heterogeneous computing for smarter, faster and better analysis of problem. The main purpose of using this parallel computation is to minimize the time of analysis of problem that involves large number of linear equations. Keywords–Parallel computing, GPU, CPU, OpenCL


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IC036 QUARRY DUST-A PROMISING GEOMATERIAL FOR IMPROVING THE GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL Barun Kanoo1, Sanjeeb Das2, Rahul Das3 and Pratim Parash Kalita4 1, 2, 3, 4

Undergraduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam

The reduction in the sources of natural sand has resulted in the increased need to identify substitute material for sand. Quarry dust which is a waste product obtained from the crushing processes is one of such materials. This waste product is left in huge heaps in the neighborhood of the quarry causing serious health hazards. Further this waste disposal is another problem faced by the industry. Quarry dust also turns out to be one of the promising geomaterial for improving the geotechnical properties of the soil. Past studies clearly indicate that the quarry dust content has effect on different geotechnical properties of soil. Therefore, the present study attempts to critically review the findings reported in the literature to reveal the influence of dust content on different geotechnical properties. This paper discusses the effect of quarry dust content on the shear strength, compaction characteristics, California bearing ratio, swell pressure, swell potential etc. of soil. It was found that there are very few studies on the effect of quarry dust content on the geotechnical properties of soil. Therefore, further experimental investigations are required to quantify this to use quarry dust as a substitute for sand to improve the geotechnical properties of soil.

Keywords: Quarry Dust, Waste, Geomaterial, Geotechnical Properties, Experimental Investigations.

IC037 INFLUENCE OF MEASURING METHODOLOGIES ON ATTERBERG LIMITS Barun Kanoo1, Sanjeeb Das2, Rahul Das3 and Pratim Parash Kalita4 1, 2, 3, 4

Undergraduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam

Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of the fine grained soil and they play a vital role in determining various engineering properties of the soil. Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states-solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state, the consistency and behaviour of a soil is different and consequently are its engineering properties. These limits are important to understand because they have an effect on the integrity of the soils being used as a construction material. Accurate determination of Atterberg limits is very important and various measuring methodologies are used. This paper


340


International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University reviews the influence of various measuring methodologies on determination of Atterberg limits. The main objective of the paper is to analyze the various advantages and limitations of various methods of determination of Atterberg limits. These limits have been correlated with various engineering properties of soil such as swelling, shrinkage, compressibility, permeability and shear strength. Moreover the difference which arises in the engineering properties due to variation in Atterberg limits obtained by using different measuring methodologies have been discussed. Keywords: Atterberg limits, Measuring Methodologies, Influence, Advantages, Limitations. Engineering Properties, Difference

IC051 WATERSHED SUSTAINABILITY INDEX ASSESSMENT OF A WATERSHED IN CHHATTISGARH, INDIA Surendra Kumar Chandniha1* , M L Kansal2, and G. Anvesh3 1

Research Scholar, Department of Water Resources Development & Management, Indian Institute of

Technology, Roorkee 2

Professor, Department of Water Resources Development & Management, Indian Institute of Technology,

Roorkee 3

M Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

In order to achieve continuous sustainable development in a watershed, it is desired that natural resources such as water are assessed and utilized efficiently. Generally, water resources are assessed considering watershed as a unit. Since the water requirements and availability varies in space and time, it is desired to manage the water resources so as to satisfy the demand on sustainable basis. Further, in order to achieve sustainability, it is necessary to consider social, economic and environment aspects of water resources. However it is difficult to bring all these indicators on a single platform. In this study, a watershed sustainability index (WSI) which integrates the hydrology, environment, life and policy (HELP) has been suggested for Piperiya watershed in Chhattisgarh state of India. This watershed has an area of about 2400km2 and is part of Hasdeo river basin which is located in Koriya district of Chhattisgarh. Further, the majority of population in the area is tribal and illiterate. Providing safe and adequate water to the masses is a challenge in this area. The District has numerous hill ranges with rocky geological formation having steep slope. The district faces an acute water shortage for drinking as well as irrigation. Further, the area has number of coal mines and coal washing plants, which contaminate the surface water as well as groundwater. Thus, the availability of safe and fresh water is quite limited. It has been noticed that the WSI for this watershed is about 0.60, which is moderate level of


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University sustainability. In order to improve the water sustainability in this watershed, a watershed management framework and its utilization has been elaborated. Keywords: Sustainability, hydrology, environment, life, policy, Chhattisgarh

IC055 Transboundary Water Management: Indian Approach S. P. Raia and N. Sharmab a,b

Dept. of Water Resources Development & Management, IIT Roorkee

India shares water resources (rivers and river basins) with all its neighbors (Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Myanmar and Bangladesh). Due to India’s geographical location and all the northern rivers originating in the Himalayas and flowing either to Arabian Sea or Bay of Bengal, India is an upstream as well as a downstream riparian. Hence India’s role becomes very critical as to how the water resources should be managed in South Asia. South Asia is home to well over one fifth of the world's population, making it both the most populous and the most densely populated geographical region in the world. With water conflicts emerging more often and with no concrete international water management mechanism available it’s high time we realize the importance of water treaties. This paper gives an insight as to how India should take up the issue of transboundary water resources specifically rivers with the neighboring countries especially with china on river Brahmaputra. What should be the framework of transboundary water sharing? What should be the guiding principles for policy making and treaties? This paper investigates the prospects of cooperation on the sensitive issue of water between India and China. Keywords: water resources, riparian, water conflict, water treaties, transboundary water management.


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IC056 SOIL STABILIZATION USING WASTE RICE HUSK ASH, CEMENT, LIME & GYPSUM Gupta M.A1, Goyal A.S2 , Anaokar M.R3 1,2 3

student Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and Engineering, Student Member, ASCE

Assistant Professor, Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and Engineering, Associate Member,

ASCE

India has a total road network of about 4.7million kilometers. 53 percent of the total road network is paved. The budgeted amount spent over roads is Rs.14,90,925 Crore. The durability and serviceability of pavements depend mainly on strength of subgrade, which can be enhanced by ground improvement techniques. This paper takes the critical review the available technology in the field of ground improvement by the use of waste rice husk ash for this purpose. India is one of the world's largest producers of rice. This paper therefore takes the review of the effect of rice husk ash on the properties of soil related to pavement such as Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The paper compares the use of rice husk ash with cement as an additive and lime and gypsum as an additive and critically reviews the effect on these mixtures on the aforesaid properties of soil.

Keywords: Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Cement, Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), Marine Clay (MC), Clay of High plasticity (CH), Expansive Soil (ES)

IC057 FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING OF RC BEAMS USING FRP COMPOSITES Parth B. Patel1, Rahul S. Gandhi1, Dr. Urmil V.Dave2 1

Under Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University,

Ahmedabad 2

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad

This research work is an attempt to study the behavior of RC beams using different FRP materials and study of its strength-cost optimization. Flexural behavior of beams strengthened using CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer) and GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Conference Proceedings

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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University Polymer) is evaluated. Total eight beams are casted and tested over a span of 1700 mm up to failure load under two point loading. The beams were designed as under reinforced concrete beams. Two beams each are strengthened with single layer GFRP, double layer GFRP and single layer CFRP, respectively. The FRP (Fiber Reinforced Polymer) layers are parallel to the beam axis at the tension side. The parameters observed during testing are failure load, increase in moment carrying capacity, deflection at mid span and at the point loads, failure mode and cracking pattern of beams. Experimental and analytical results of moment carrying capacity and deflection for the beams are compared. Key words: Flexural Strengthening, CFRP, GFRP, Displacement, Moment carrying capacity, strength-cost optimization

IC062 SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR OF PASSIVE CONTROL DEVICES: A STATE-OF-THE ART REVIEW Vikmani H.P1, Agarwal K.A2, Mundra P.M3, Gharat P.M4 1, 2, 3 4

Student of Mukesh Patel School Of Technology Management and Engineering, Mumbai

Assistant Professor, Mukesh Patel School Of Technology Management and Engineering, Mumbai

The growing trend of high-rise structures demands an increasing need to attenuate the illeffects of seismic hazards on the civil engineering structures. This paper will provide a detailed insight on various state of the art technologies of passive control devices in terms of behavior and real time processes. The paper covers major topics such as fundamentals of energy dissipation systems, comparison of mechanical behavior, advantages and disadvantages of devices and real time applications of these devices. The paper will also bring forth an extended view on Tuned Liquid Column Dampers as a passive control device, however the main objective is to provide a critical review on performance of TLCD right from its development.


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IC068 APPROACH FOR OPTIMIZING HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT BASED ON RANDOMIZED PATH PLANNER Dr. Avijit Maji and MB Sushma Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

This paper presents a new approach to design the highway alignment. The main objective of the overall design is to find an optimal highway alignment. The highway alignment optimization is a complicated problem associated with a number of solutions which often get trapped in the numerous local optima points. The alignment design problem also includes many complex and non-linear constraints. In additions the commonly used algorithm for highway alignment generates random points on the predefined orthogonal sections of the search space. This limits the problem to a discrete solution set rather than the continuous search space. A randomized path planner proposed in this paper, is to obtain an optimal highway alignment. The major technique of the approach is to connect the two points using the link function by minimizing the obstacle impacts like environmental impacts, impacts on historic sites and other sensitive areas and the distance function. An optimal path obtained in this approach is refined by certain functional parameters. In the approach the path is iteratively expanded from the source point to the target point by exploring new search areas, and narrow passages or difficult areas more effectively. KEYWORDS: Optimum Highway Alignment, Randomized Path Planner.

IC090 Planning and Designing the Water Supply Scheme in Maraimalai Nagar Mahalakshmi1, Hemendranath2, MayankGupta3, RaaviSaiKiran4, Baskar5 1,2,3,4 5

Final Year B.Tech, Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University

This water supply scheme is necessary to supply clean water for domestic purpose.The study area Maraimalainagar is of 58.08 km2 with a population of 48,449. The water sample was taken from the source water lake was collected and analyzed for quality. The color of the source water sample was greenish yellow. The pH value was 6.16 while the turbidity was 3.1NTU. The specific conductance was 1.77micro mho. The TDS was 971 ppm. The BOD and COD were 28 mg/l and 185 ppm respectively. The treatments such as removal of grit, flocculation, sedimentation and chlorination were decided based on results of quality parameters tests. The underground tank of size 19mx9mx6m, grit chamber of size 9mx0.2mx0.9m, flocculation tank of size 5.1mx8.5mx1.75m, sedimentation tank of size 36m×8.5m×3.5m, chlorination tank of size 36m×8.5m×3.5m and overhead tank are the


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University structural elements designed for this water supply scheme. The estimation was worked out and cost was arrived. Total cost of the project excluding pipes cost was estimated as Rs.1,10,57,765/-.

IC127 RETROFITTING AND STRENGTHENING OF RCC STRUCTURES USING COMPOSITE FIBER WRAPS Ayush Bhingarde, Anand Awathe B.Tech Civil Engineering, S.V.K.M’S NMIMS Mukesh Patel School Of Technology Management and Engineering, Mumbai, India.

Infrastructure worldwide is aging, creating a demand for innovative methods for both retrofit and strengthening of existing structures. Fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) offer an inert, highstrength, cost-effective and quick alternative to traditional methods of structural upgrade. These materials, known as advanced composite materials or fiber wrap; consist of highstrength fibers in a polymeric matrix. The fibers provide strength and stiffness and the matrix provides load transfer between fibers as well as environmental protection for the fibers. Fiber wraps are available in a variety of materials such as carbon/epoxy, glass/epoxy, boron/aluminum, boron/titanium thereby finding applications in various structures. The installation is low impact and light-weight thereby minimizing disruptions and limiting addition of dead weight. Fiber wrap can be designed as an externally bonded tension member adding shear strength, flexural capacity and confinement to beams, slabs, walls and columns. These systems can be designed to increase the axial capacity of columns. It is found that with one layer of FRPC wrap, the ultimate strength of the column specimen increased by a factor of 2.5 and 8 times when 8 layers were used. The ultimate strain increased 6 times with one layer of wrap. This feature is attractive for earthquake-resistant structures. Thus, fiber wraps provide a lucrative solution for strengthening of structures.

BC007 SOIL-WATER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR HILL-SLOPE OF GUWAHATI CITY Manisha Chetry1, Prajna Parmita1, Dr. Malaya Chetia2 1

UG Student, Civil Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India

2

Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India

Hill slopes of Guwahati city mainly constitute of unsaturated soil. While analysing the stability of hill slope, study of hydrology i.e. infiltration and surface drainage become important. For analysing slope stability, Soil-Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC) is extensively used. It is a graphical relationship between water-content and soil suction. SWCC


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International Civil Engineering Symposium - ICES’14, VIT University has become an indispensable tool in the disciplines of geotechnical engineering, because it helps in determining various soil property functions, for e.g. Permeability, shear strength, thermal property, and water storage function. Several types of test equipment have been used in determining the SWCC. But it is found that the equipments used are very costly and the procedure for determining the curve is also very time consuming and difficult to implement. So the paper presents a simplified methodology for determining the SWCC. In this technical note, estimation method is used for predicting the SWCC by using software. One is US based database and the other is Australian based database. Locally available hill soil is tested and using the above mentioned database the SWCC is obtained. The objective of this paper is to compare the curves obtained from the mentioned estimation method.

Keywords: Hill slope, Unsaturated Soil, SWCC, Hydrology, Stability


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