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TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM Volume 6, Number 1, Spring 2011, pp. 233-249 UDC: 338.48+640(050)

INTERNATIONAL TOURISM, DOMESTIC TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CAN FIND THE BALANCE Constantina Skanavis 1 University of the Aegean Maria Sakellari University of the Aegean Tourism researchers have begun to study the phenomenon of domestic tourism, especially in developing countries. The growth of research interest in domestic tourism in developing countries underpins a stream of research in developed countries. The analysis reveals the appeal of these distinctive forms of tourism, international and domestic with regards to leisure, recreation and tourism patterns, but also highlights potential limitations including the dilemma of how to deal with the question of environmental quality that is affected by prevailing international and domestic tourism activities. Impacts of climate change on domestic and international tourism and environmental impacts caused by domestic and international tourism are highlighted. This paper suggests that Environmental Education is the key to this critical area concerning domestic tourism, international globalized tourism and environmental impacts. Keywords:

international tourism, domestic environmental education

tourism,

climate

change,

JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1 INTRODUCTION The nature, value and extent of international and domestic tourism have changed significantly in recent years. Because of its propensity to generate substantial economic benefits such as employment, foreign exchange, income and tax revenues (Nowak et al., 2003), developed countries and developing countries in particular, have embarked upon tourism-related development policies (Heidarabadi, 2008). On the other hand, in the last decade more and more tourists from non-Western © University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521

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Constantina Skanavis & Maria Sakellari

countries participate in international tourism, while the most spectacular change is the growth of non-Western domestic tourism. The analysis reveals the appeal of these distinctive forms of tourism, international and domestic with regards to leisure, recreation and tourism patterns, but also highlights potential limitations including the dilemma of how to deal with the question of environmental quality that is affected by prevailing international and domestic tourism activities. For example, although the tourism sector is highly influenced by climate, our understanding of how climate variability affects the sector and its potential vulnerability to climate change remains limited. Until recently, climate change had not garnered substantive attention from the tourism industry or the tourism and recreation research communities (Wall and Badke 1994, Scott et al. 2005a, Gossling and Hall 2006). Adaptation by tourists and tourism operators has had even less prominence in the developing literature on climate change and tourismrecreation, and remains an important research gap (Scott et al. 2003, 2005a, Hamilton et al. 2005a). Impacts of climate change domestic and international tourism and environmental impacts caused by domestic and international tourism are highlighted and the role of Environmental Education as a response to all of these impacts is examined. DOMESTIC VERSUS INTERNATIONAL TOURISM During the past decade, tourism researchers have begun to discover the phenomenon of domestic tourism (Ghimire, 2001), especially in developing countries (Scheyvens, 2002, Rogerson and Zoleka, 2005). This upturn of research interest in domestic tourism in developing countries underpin a well-established stream of research in developed countries (Rogerson and Zoleka, 2005) because of the demonstrated sheer size, rapid growth and economic value of domestic tourism, its ability to provide a base load to counter the seasonality of international tourism arrivals, and its developmental role especially for peripheral or marginal regions (Archer, 1978, Jaakson, 1986, Becker, 1987, Seaton and Palmer, 1987, Hall and Kearsley, 2001, Turner and Reisinger, 2001, Carr, 2002, Seckelman, 2002, Williams and Hall, 2002). In 2000, the amount of domestic trips undertaken by Swedes is more than three times as large as the amount of trips abroad (Coenen and van Eekeren, 2003). Second homes are an integral and growing part of contemporary leisure lifestyles in many parts of the developed world (Hall &Muller 2004, Muller, 2004, Gallent et al. 2005, McIntyre et al. 2006). For example, every fourth Finnish household-dwelling unit owns a second home but it has been 234


estimated that every second family has an access to one, because many of the second homes are used by relatives and friends (Melasniemi-Uutela, 2004). On the other hand, in the last decade more and more tourists from non-Western countries participate in international tourism, while the most spectacular change is the growth of non-Western domestic tourism. China ranked among the world’s top five tourism destinations in 2002, while the other four countries are all developed countries, namely, the USA, Spain, France, and Italy, but China’s domestic tourism has outpaced its international tourism in recent years (Wang and Qu, 2004). The rapid development of China’s domestic tourism has caught much attention from a number of researchers (Gormsen, 1996, Qiao, 1996, Zhang, 1997, Cai and Knutson, 1998, Wu et al., 2000). According to Wu et al. (2000), China’s fast growth of domestic tourism is mainly attributed to the growth of income per capita of Chinese citizens, the increase of leisure time, and the structural adjustment of China’s national economy. Zhang (1997) described China’s tourism as a low starting point, a great market potential, and having strong state macro control. In Brazil, India, Mexico, Thailand and China, leisure travel extends beyond the growing middle class to include the participation of the lower middle classes (Rogerson and Zoleka, 2005). In Kenya, domestic tourism is encouraged through offering reduced accommodation rates for local people (Sindiga, 1996). In Cuba, the state is encouraging a form of 'socially driven' domestic tourism (Hinch, 1990). In developing market economies the usual motivations for domestic travel encompass pilgrimages, visiting friends and relatives, business travel, health tourism, as well as leisure travel (Wen, 1997, Bleasdale and Kwarko, 2000, Barkin, 2001, Diegues, 2001, Kaosa-ard et al., 2001, Rao and Suresh 2001, Rule et al, 2004). The expansion of second home development as holiday accommodation is a new influence on flows of domestic tourism in Thailand and South Africa (Peleggi, 1996, Kaosa-ard et al., 2001, Visser, 2004a,b). Leisure tourism involving visits to national parks and areas of scenic beauty has been examined also in Saudi Arabia (Paul and Rimmawi, 1992, Bogari et al., 2003), Sri Lanka (Buultjens et al., 2005) and India (Rao and Suresh, 2001). Domestic tourism accounts for 86% of total tourism (Bigano et al., 2007a). Despite its size in comparison to international tourism, there are relatively few studies that analyse domestic tourism demand (Bigano et al., 2007b). These often focus on domestic tourists of one country or in one region of a particular country (Coenen and van Eekeren, 2003, Seddighi and Schearing, 1997). The most spectacular change is the 235


growth of developing countries domestic tourism. At the same time, although developed countries have been almost entirely responsible for greenhouse gas emission, developing countries are most likely to suffer the worst consequences of climate change because of lacking the economic capacity and infrastructure to cope with any increase in extreme weather events (Bell, 2004, Byravan and Chella Rajan, 2006). However, the research on climate change and tourism has overlooked domestic tourism (Bigano et al., 2007b) and the impacts of climate change on domestic tourism in developing countries. CLIMATE CHANGE: IMPACTS INTERNATIONAL TOURISM

ON

DOMESTIC

AND

Tourism and recreation sector is highly influenced by climate (Wall 1992, de Freitas 2003, Gomez-Martin 2005). Climate is an important factor in the destination choice of tourists (Maddison 2001, Lise and Tol 2002, Bigano et al., 2007b, Bigano et al. 2008). The Mediterranean in particular benefits from this determinant, being close to the main holidaymakers of wealthy, but cool and rainy, Northwest Europe, and tropical islands are another example of “perfect” climate destination for a dream holiday (Bigano et al., 2008). Climate change shifts international tourism flows towards higher altitudes and latitudes (Hamilton et al. 2005a,b). The currently popular holiday destinations may become too hot, and destinations that are currently too cool would see a surge in their popularity (Hamilton et al. 2005a,b, Hamilton and Tol 2007, Amelung et al. 2007). Low ski resorts and winter tourism may be particularly vulnerable (Elsasser and Bürki 2002, Scott et al. 2004, Scott and McBoyle 2007). The redistribution of tourism flows could negatively affect countries and regions that depend heavily on income from tourism and could bring benefits to places that are currently not popular with tourists (Bigano et al., 2007b). Domestic tourism has been overlooked in the research on climate change and tourism (Bigano et al., 2007b). A number of studies have begun to explore the potential adaptation of tourists to a changed climate (Maddison 2001, Lise and Tol 2002, Hamilton et al. 2005a, b, Jones and Scott 2006a, b, Scott and Jones 2006) and climate-induced environmental change (Braun et al. 1999, Richardson and Loomis 2004, Scott and Jones 2005, Uyarra et al. 2005, Scott et al. 2006). Research on tourism operators’ climate adaptation in the tourism-recreation sector remains even more limited (Scott et al. 2002, 2003, 2005b, Raksakulthai 2003, Becken 2005). One exception is the winter sports tourism segment, where 236


studies from different nations have documented existing climate adaptation practices (Elsasser and Burki 2002, Scott et al. 2003, Scott and McBoyle, 2007) and in some cases analysed the effectiveness of specific adaptations (Scott et al. 2003, 2006, Hennessy et al. 2003, Scott and Jones 2005). On the whole the focus has been on international tourism or tourism is examined in general not distinguishing between the two types of tourism (Bigano et al., 2007b). Bigano et al., (2007b) suggest three reasons why analysts have focussed on international tourism rather than domestic tourism: 1. Foreign holidays capture the imagination. 2. International tourism brings foreign currency and foreign income to the destination country. 3. International tourists are readily counted as they pass through transport and customs bottlenecks. Domestic tourism has been a largely under-researched aspect of tourism economies in the developing world as well (Ghimire, 1997). According to Rogerson and Zoleka (2005), the lack of research is partly a result of the emphasis accorded by national governments and policy makers to the foreign exchange earnings derived from international tourism flows (Scheyvens, 2002). This research gap is linked also to the fact that domestic tourism is more difficult to track than international tourism, as it occurs within the country of residence and thus does not involve the crossing of international borders at entry points into a country where visitors are counted (Keyser, 2002). Bigano et al., (2007b) presented an extended version of the Hamburg Tourism Model, including substitution between domestic and international tourism, in order to study the impact of climate change on domestic and international tourism. According to their findings: 1. Climate change would shift patterns of tourism towards higher altitudes and latitudes, same as in earlier papers (Hamilton et al., 2005a,b) 2. Domestic tourism may double in colder countries and fall by 20% in warmer countries (relative to the baseline without climate change) 3. For some countries international tourism may treble whereas for others it may cut in half. 4. International tourism is more important than is domestic tourism in colder places. International tourism is less important than is domestic tourism in warmer places. Therefore, climate change

237


may double tourist expenditures in colder countries, and halve them in warmer countries. 5. However, in most places, the impact of climate change is small compared to the impact of population and economic growth. 6. Climate change has a greater impact on tourism than sea level rise does, because the latter heavily affects only a few places. On the other hand, tourism today is deeply embedded in processes of global environmental change where natural scale and rate has dramatically increased because of human impact (Gossling & Hall, 2006). Tourism, redefining the land as a resource for leisure and recreation, has become one of the most important ways in which relations between humans and nature are today organised (Lash and Urry, 1994). DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

TOURISM:

Tourism and the environment are continuously found in a relation of interdependence, as tourism is almost always dependent on the quality of the environment. Moreover, the quality of the environment or certain characteristics of it, are often a pole of attraction for tourists. Cases where traditional tourist destinations have lost their glamour (and flow of visitors) due to environmental problems are not rare (e.g. reduction of tourists in the City of Mexico because of air pollution), (CeballosLascurain, 1996). Tourism, one of the major industrial sectors occupying one in fifteen workers worldwide (Croal, 1997), with a range covering the developed and developing World, is included in the spectrum of environmental protection activities. Globally, the tourism wave was multiplied almost 25 times (from 25 to 592 million tourists) from 1950 up to 1996. Greece accepted crowds of tourists as it is located in the center of the Mediterranean, being one of the two main tourist destinations worldwide, the other being North-central America (Mesplier and BlocDureffour, 1999). The continuing expansion of the tourist phenomenon during the last fifty years was rapid, resulting to the huge phenomenon of “mass tourism” with various consequences, one of which is the suffocating pressure to the environment, with harmful effects (Williams and Shaw, 1998). Even if most of the registered cases of the negative consequences of tourism concern the developing world, the developed world does not constitute an exception. For instance, Young, describes the metamorphosis of a small community in Malta, the residents of which lived from fishing and agriculture, into a region, which was negatively influenced due to factors such as tourist growth and complex systems of 238


seasonal resort centers (Fennell, 1999). Tsartas (1992) reported on two Greek islands where tourism greatly influenced youth, especially the males, in terms of attitudes and behaviour. According to Skanavis et al. (2004), there exist two types of relationships between tourism and the environment, a symbiotic one and a competitive one. In the symbiotic relation the environment and the tourism coexist harmoniously and to an extent they complement each other. Human activities do not degrade the natural environment; on the contrary they strengthen it resulting in mutual benefit. In the competitive relation of tourism and environment, the conflict of these two is presented as economic and anthropogenic activity trying to predominate over the environment and to lead to the degradation of it through the thoughtless growth of activities. Some of the most widespread cases of negative environmental impacts due to the tourist activity are the sea quality from the marine transport, the quality of aquatic environment from the disposal of sewages, unrefined or defectively processed, the quality of land from the uncontrolled disposal of waste, the geomorphology due to extensive building and creation of infrastructure networks, the flora, fauna and generally in the natural ecosystems from the various land uses, the loss of natural ecosystems, the exhaustive fishery, the removal of fauna, due to noise pollution or deforestation, the exhaustion of available quantity of aquatic potential due to the abrupt and increased consumption combined with the reduction of permeability of grounds (UNEP, 1995). The impacts of international tourism on natural environment are equally convergent with domestic tourism. Domestic second home tourism is considered to be more environmentally sound form of tourism than for example long-haul travelling by air, which causes remarkably higher emissions of green house gases and pollutants. Having a second home does not inevitably reduce other forms of tourism and recreational mobility, unless it substitutes them (Coenen and van Eekeren, 2003; Amposta, 2009; Skanavis & Giannoulis, 2010). In recent years flying has become progressively cheaper, which has led to an increase in the popularity of purchasing second or even third homes in amenity rich tourist resorts far from the permanent home (Gallent et al., 2005). Mathieson and Wall (1982) underline that rural second home development causes clearance of vegetation, disrupts wildlife and reduces soil stability, deposition of human wastes into natural waters reduces water quality, and visibility of second homes may decrease the aesthetic value of rural landscape. Dubois (2005) draws attention to growing energy consumption, floor space and land demand of second homes. Gallent et al. (2005) highlight two environmental concerns of second239


home tourism: a) resource implications related to second home usage including travelling and increasing pressure on environmentally sensitive areas and b) demand pressure of new development and building conversion in second home areas. Contradictions between tourism policy development on one hand and environmental protection on the other, are addressed through sustainable development. The theory of sustainable tourism emphasizes the critical importance of environmental stewardship (Brander et al, 1995, Bieger et al., 2000). Christou (2007) proposes that tourists as consumers have a part to play in influencing how a tourism destination brand personality is perceived and Choi et al. (2007) found that tourists as consumers both in US and Greece were more likely to patronize a hotel that provides environmentally responsible practices and also will pay more for the hotel. Consequently, the time is right for Environmental Education to play a more active role in order to encourage visitors and local population to alter their inappropriate behavior and to assist the management of environmentally sound tourism development. THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Since the late 1960s and 1970s, the most significant change in Environmental Education (EE) has been an emphasis on citizenship, problem solving, and issues identification. Most environmental education programs focus on developing programs, which will enable citizens to behave in environmentally desirable ways. All these educational attempts focus into promoting responsible citizenship behavior, arming citizens with the appropriate skills for critical thinking and with the ability to actively participate in the environmental decision-making processes. Since the state of the environment affects our quality of life, environmental education is an essential part of every society’s agenda. Environmental education improves everyday life by protecting human health and encouraging stewardship of natural resources (TsampoukouSkanavis, 2004a). The 1977 Tbilisi Intergovernmental Conference on EE objectives (awareness, sensitivity, attitude, skills, participation) serves as major guidance for working on building an environmentally effective human behavior. By using these objectives an environmentally responsible citizen could be portrayed as one who has 1) an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems and/or issues, 2) a basic understanding of the environment and its allied problems and/or issues, 3) feelings of concern for the environment and motivation for actively 240


participating in environmental improvement and protection, 4) skills for identifying and solving environmental problems and/or issues and 5) active involvement at all levels in working toward resolution of environmental problems and or issues (Hungerford and Volk, 1990). EE has mainly been established in the formal education; however, its importance has been recognized in the forms of non-formal and informal education. Formal, non-formal and informal EE programs’ objectives actualisation depends on the environmental educator, the person who is responsible for the implementation of the educational process. Informal EE includes any dissemination of information and knowledge, through mass media, libraries, social contacts or the internet (TsampoukouSkanavis, 2004b). UNEP (1995) in a report on tourism and the environment underlines the need for programs of guidance and education regarding ecotourism, the type of tourism that is most representative in a “friendlier” relation with the environment (built and natural) and all the alternative forms of tourism (agro-tourism, tourism of adventure, tourism in the nature etc.) (Ceballos - Lascurain, 1996). It stresses the necessity for information and education of both the visitors and the residents working in the ecotourism sites and local enterprises, and in general for everyone who is related with this sensitive issue. It also stresses the need for organized action in order to avoid negative effects in the local culture and environment (UNEP, 1995). EE is particularly important as it can educate and increase environmental awareness of local populations, as these are mainly occupied with ecotourism (Ross and Wall, 1999) but also educate the tourists-visitors in the ecotouristic areas as well. Also, there is a need for individuals that provide environmental education in the protected areas and in the regions of particular natural beauty that also constitute tourist destinations. Their role is closely related to the environmental and natural education (Skanavis et al., 2004). In the protected areas of Europe, education is considered as the most important subject following conservation. Their aim is to stimulate the conscience of visitors for nature and to increase their comprehension for values of the natural environment (Bibelriether, 1999). Planners and administrators of national parks and other protected areas face increasing challenges in managing the popularity of these natural areas as tourism destinations while ensuring their ecological integrity. Public and private involvement in tourism and environmental decision making facilitates environmental and tourism planning which is often a contested political activity involving multiple, interdependent stakeholders with diverse and possibly divergent 241


interests and values with respect to the natural environment (Jamal et al., 2002). CONCLUSION The environmental debate in tourism recognises the negative impacts of the travel and tourism industry on the environment. Environmental quality of a destination is a prevailing issue in making a travel related decision; it is a competitiveness factor among different tourist destinations with varying environmental quality. Climate plays an obvious role in tourist destination choice and is recognised as one of the major determinants of tourism flows. Climate change would alter that, as the currently popular holiday destinations may become too hot, and destinations that are currently too cool would see a surge in their popularity. Low ski resorts and winter tourism may be particularly vulnerable. Domestic tourism has been overlooked in the research on climate change and tourism. On the whole the focus has been on international tourism or tourism is examined in general not distinguishing between the two types of tourism. Domestic tourism presents a spectacular growth especially in developing countries, but there are relatively few studies that analyse domestic tourism demand. International tourism comparing to domestic tourism is more important in colder places and less important in warmer places. Therefore, climate change may double tourist expenditures in colder countries, and halve them in warmer countries. On the other hand, the impacts of international tourism on natural environment are equally convergent with domestic tourism. Contradictions between tourism policy development on one hand and environmental protection on the other, are addressed through sustainable development. This paper suggests that education is the key to this critical area concerning domestic tourism, international globalized tourism and environmental impacts. Environmental decision-making process in tourism development is intrinsically complex and often involves multiple attributes, the relative importance of which needs to be determined (Skanavis and Sakellari, 2007). In order to approach issue resolution in an informed and responsible manner, the learner must be able to identify the ecological consequences related to the issues and their proposed solutions (Volk, 1993). EE can play an active role in order to encourage visitors and local population to alter their inappropriate behavior and to assist the management of environmentally sound tourism development. The “superordinate goal” of EE is to aid participants in becoming 242


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SUBMITTED: FEBRUARY 2010 REVISION SUBMITTED: MAY 2010 ACCEPTED: JUNE 2010 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY Constantina Skanavis ([email protected]) is a Professor at the University of the Aegean, Department of Environmental Studies, Xenia Building, University Hill, Mytilene, Greece, 81 100. Maria Sakellari ([email protected]) is a Senior Researcher at the University of the Aegean, Department of Environmental Studies, Research Centre of Environmental Education and Communication, Xenia Building, University Hill, Mytilene, Greece, 81 100. 249