Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies — (Im)politeness in two Chinese versions of Miller’s Death of a Salesman Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng Jiangsu University
1. Introduction The beginning of the 21st century witnesses the prosperity of human civilization both in material and entertainment resources. Drama, as an art of elegance is more and more accessible to ordinary people with its specific beauty and humanistic power. Furthermore, the development of globalization promotes drama translation and reception all over the world, which in turn enhances drama translation studies, though still the most problematic and neglected area of translation studies. The dilemma lies in that drama theorists take little care of translation and translators have little knowledge of dramaturgy, as Hale and Upton points out (2000: 12), which has left drama translation studies caught in a ‘labyrinth’ as Bassnett (1985, 1998) labels with the contradictions between translating for page and translating for stage, which, as the major obstacle in the development of drama translation studies, induces more contradictory views upon its central issues such as the nature of drama translation studies, performability, subtext, acculturation, audience’s reception and so on. Nikolarea (2002: 10–11), with her years of translation practice and studies, proves that the polarization of performability and readability in drama translation studies is a reductionist illusion. It is a reflection of the weaknesses of all prescriptive approaches in translation studies, or a fallacy as it may be called. Quite a few scholars are also realizing that what sorely needed in drama translation is not the rejection or the emphasis of the concept of performability, but more empirical researches of the criteria that have made a play performable. Stylistics of drama proves to be a feasible and powerful methodological framework for drama studies in elaborating the factors concerning the nature of performability of drama. As Crystal (1997: 75) points out, drama is neither poetry Babel 60: 4 (2014), 425–444. © Fédération des Traducteurs (fit) Revue Babel doi 10.1075/babel.60.4.02xia issn 0521–9744 e-issn 1569–9668
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
nor novel; it is first and foremost dialogue in action. Based on the understanding of the true nature of dramatic dialogue, speech acts in context and interaction, drama scholars such as Pavis (1982), Carter and Simpson (1989), Bennison (1993), Herman (1995; 1998) as well as some Chinese scholars Yang (1989; 1991), Yu (1993; 1996; 1999), Li and Yu (2001) and Gao and Shen (2006) take advantages of the achievements of pragmatics and discourse analysis to construct the theory and methodology of stylistics of drama, achieving the explanatory adequacy of dramatic discourse with its functions of characterization, plot construction and matching with theatrical acts. This research is intended to apply stylistics of drama in drama translation studies by the aid of corpus-based translation studies with the understanding that a theatre text exists in a dialectical relationship with the performance of that text. The two texts — written and performed — are coexistent and inseparable, as indicated by Bassnett (1985: 87) and Nikolarea (2002: 10–11). Few researches of this type can be found, though its potentiality has proven to be remarkable. Kruger (1996, 1998; 2000, 2004) has undertaken a series of corpus-based studies of Shakespeare translations in South Africa on the discourse markers, involvement features and register variation, making valuable contributions to drama translation studies. We have also done a series of corpus-based studies on the drama translations from the perspectives of drama stylistics with exciting results. (Ren 2008, 2010; 2011, 2014). 2. Literature review Stylistics of drama brings about a powerful tool kit for drama studies, by deriving achievements from both pragmatics and discourse analysis in exploring characterization and interaction of dramatic discourse, such as speech acts, turn-taking, implicature, register analysis, deixis, politeness and cooperation, etc.; while, to our regret, in drama translation studies, few scholars have noticed the significance of the perspective of stylistics of drama. In the meantime, as Martin Wynne (2005: 1) points out, linguists and stylisticians have become more aware of the possibilities offered by corpus resources and techniques, there have been increasing numbers of studies published which suggest that the coming together of these fields can be fruitful. It is perhaps surprising, then, that apart from some important studies described here, there is little use of language corpora, or the techniques of corpus linguistics, in the study of literary style. Though Kruger (2004: 292) relates that translation scholars all over the world have begun to apply corpus linguistic methodology to translated text in an attempt to study translation as a textual phenomenon per se, he is actually the very few to combine corpus-based methods and achievements in stylistics of drama to study translated Shakespeare texts in
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
order to examine the different textual features between page and stage translations. In her doctoral dissertation, Ren (2008) undertook corpus-based studies on Ying Ruocheng’s drama translation from the perspective of discourse markers in his translated Teahouse, turn-taking management in The Family, Uncle Doggie’s Nirvana & Measure for Measure translations, deixis in translated Amadeus, stage directions in translated Major Barbara, speech acts in Teahouse and mood, modality and register analysis in the translation of The “Caine” Mutiny Court-Martial, all achieving satisfactory results by providing concrete data for the performability of Ying’s translated dramas.
3. C ase Study — (Im)politeness in two Chinese versions of Death of a Salesman In this research, we chose (im)politeness as the perspective of drama stylistics to study the two Chinese versions of Miller’s Death of a Salesman. One is translated by Yao Ke, a well-known Chinese playwright, published in 1971 by Hong Kong Today’s World Press titled as《推销员之死》Death of a Salesman); another version is by Ying Ruocheng, a famous Chinese actor, director and translator as well as former Vice Minister of the Ministry of Culture, P.R. China, published in 1999 by Chinese Translation Corp. in《英若诚名剧译丛》(Dramas Translated by Ying Ruocheng). In China, it is acknowledged that Yao’s translation is page-oriented while Ying’s translation is stage-oriented. By the aid of corpus approach, we will calculate the high frequent (im)polite expressions both in the original text and the translated dramas, observing their stylistic functions. 3.1. (Im)politeness in drama studies (Im)politeness has been attracting myriad scholars’ attention in pragmatics as well as in other relative areas such as dramatic discourse analysis, drama translation studies. The most well-known description of politeness theory is presented by Brown & Levinson (1987), which is established on the basis of the concept of face. One’s face is his/her public self-image with two components, positive face and negative face. When one’s face is threatened, such as one’s need to be desirable to other people (positive face) or one’s wish to be unimpeded by others (negative face), impoliteness appears. According to Bousfield’s recent study (2008: 72), impoliteness constitutes the communication of intentionally gratuitous and conflictive verbal face-threatening acts (FTAs) which are purposefully delivered: (1) unmitigated, in contexts where mitigation is required, and/or, (2) with deliberate aggression, that is, with the face threat exacerbated, ‘boosted’, or maximized in some way to heighten the face damage inflicted.
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
As have been mentioned, a number of explorations have shown that notions of linguistic (im)politeness are useful in shedding light on the critical studies of dramatic texts. Culpeper (1998: 83–95) suggests that, in dramatic terms, impoliteness is particularly interested with the social disharmony and tensions between characters, which is necessary not only for the developments in character and plot, but also for the arousing of audience’s interest. He is sensible to believe that a framework that brings together face (an emotionally sensitized concept about the self) and sociological variables (such as power and social distance) and relates them to motivated linguistic strategies is to be particularly useful in helping us understand (1) how characters position themselves relative to other characters, (2) how they manipulate others in pursuit of their goals and (3) how the plot is pushed forward. Short (1996: 216–221) explores the applications of the approach to dramatic text extracted from Romeo and Juliet. He finds that the variant forms of the vocatives which characters use to address one another have different effects in terms of politeness. For example, Buckingham’s repeated use of my lord when addressing Richard III shows his care for Richard’s positive face. More often than not, however, as Short notices, although politeness is in general social interests, there tends to be quite lot of impoliteness around in dramatic texts since plays are to be interesting dramatically. Audience expects to see conflicts arising, and impoliteness is an effective way of indicating all the conflicts involved in the drama. Hence, in the play, Richard, on the other hand, threatens Buckingham’s negative and positive face again and again by interrupting him during their dialogical interactions, which arouses the audience’s concern for their conflicts. Some Chinese scholars Yu (2004), Si (2005) etc. apply (im)politeness theory into the analysis of the shaping of characterizations in both English and Chinese dramas, such as Chinese drama Thunderstorm, American drama Death of a Salesman etc. studying the face-saving pragmatic ambivalence of character’s discourse or some face-threatening floutings of cooperative maxims – interruption, topic change, monologue and even silence, etc. We are making the tentative study on (im)politeness to explore and construct a research model of corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies. 3.2. ( Im)politeness in the two Chinese versions of Miller’s Death of a Salesman Using Concordance 3.0 and ICTCLAS, we may get the high frequency list of expressions concerning (im)politeness in the original work and their possible equivalents in translations so as to investigate their functions in the target theatre.
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
3.2.1. (Im)politeness data in the original work Miller uses “death” in the title, dramatically indicating the conflict of the hero with other characters and the outside world. Willy, as an old salesman, is becoming disabled both at home and in work. The conflict between his powerlessness in reality and his struggling to be powerful in his mind leads to his death. Among all the characters, there is only one person caring for his face, that is his wife Linda, but out of love rather than admirations, which really matters to Willy, a self-conceit man. With Concordance 3.0, we made full concordance of the text, investigating the words concerning (im)politeness. It is interesting that the face threatening expressions “goddam” and “hell” are used 15 times and 30 times respectively, mainly by the seemingly most powerful character Willy (8 times and 13 times respectively); while the politeness markers “please” and “dear” are used 5 times and 46 times respectively, mainly by the seemingly least powerful character Linda (as shown in Table 1). The data shows that Willy is the unhappiest person in the family. Willy’s continuous use of the face-threatening slang expressions highlight his dissatisfaction, desperation and anguish filled with the play and the conflicts between him and other characters and between the reality and his dream, which leads to his ultimate failure and death. The tension is the crucial factor of the play that attracts the audience’s interest. His wife, Linda, however, acts as a mediator with frequently used polite expressions (mainly to Willy) in the play to relieve all the contradictions and push forward the plot. Thus, the above mentioned items concerning (im)politeness need to be carefully concerned in translation. 3.2.2. Relevant data in the two Chinese versions By the aid of the text-processing software ICTCLAS and Concordance 3.0, we achieved word segmentation and made the full concordance of the two Chinese versions of Death of a Salesman so as to investigate relevant data concerning (im)politeness. 3.2.2.1. Corresponding expressions concerning (im)politeness. As far as the possible equivalents for “goddam” and “hell” are concerned, the concordances of the word frequency show that in Ying’s version, there are altogether 24 “他妈的” (a swear word in Chinese, offensive, often used by those less educated people when they are angry or annoyed), accounting for 0.054%; whereas, in Yao’s version, there is only 16, accounting for 0.036%. We randomly select the excerpts below to investigate the specific effects of the two versions.
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
Example 1: [In order to help non-native Chinese readers follow our discussions of the relative translation strategies, we add the transliterations by Roman system as well as English literal translations of the Chinese versions in each example]: WILLY: When the hell did I lose my temper? I simply asked him if he was making any money. Is that a criticism? LINDA: But, dear, how could he make any money? WILLY (worried and angered): There’s such an undercurrent in him. He became a moody man. Did he apologize when I left this morning? Ying’s version
威 利 我他妈的什么时候发火来着？我就是问问他赚到钱没有，这就叫责备？
WEILI: WO TAMADE SHENME SHIHOU FAHUO LAI ZHE? WO JIU WENWEN TA ZHUANDAO QIAN MEI YOU, ZHE JIU JIAO ZEBEI? WILLY: When the hell did I lose my temper? I simply asked him if he has made any money. Is that a blame?
林 达 可是亲爱的，他上哪儿赚钱去？
LINDA: KESHI QINAIDE, TA SHANGNAER ZHUANQIAN QU? LINDA: But, dear, where could he make any money?
利（又着急又生气）他身上憋着股子情绪，他变得那么阴郁。我走了以后 威 他道歉了吗？
WEILI: (YOU ZHOUJI YOU SHENGQI) TA SHENSHANG BIANZHE GUZI QINGXU, TA BIANDE NAME YINYU. WO ZOULE YIHOU TA DAOQIAN LE MA? WILLY (anxious and angered): There’s such an undercurrent in him. He became a moody man. After I left, had he apologized? Yao’s version
惟利：我哪儿发脾气来着？我不过问他是否在赚钱罢了。这哪儿是批评呀？
WEILI: WO NAER FA PIQI LAIZHE? WO BUGUO WEN TA SHIFOU ZAI ZHUANQIAN BALE. ZHE NAER SHI PIPING YA? WILLY: Where did I lose my temper? I simply asked him if he was making any money. How can this be criticism?
林妲：可是，亲爱的，他怎能赚钱哪？
LINDA: KESHI, QINAIDE, TA ZENNENG ZHUANQIAN NA? LINDA: But, dear, how could he make any money?
利:（又躭心又生气）他肚子里真有这样的鬼胎。性子变得歪声歪气。早晌我 惟 出了门，他赔罪没有？
WEILI: (YOU DANXIN YOU SHENGQI) TA DUZILI ZHEN YOU ZHEYANG DE GUITAI. XINGZI BIANDE WEISHENGWEIQI. ZAOSHANG WO CHU LE MEN, TA PEIZUI MEIYOU? WILLY (worried and angered): There’s such an undercurrent in him. He became a moody man. After I left this morning, did he apologize?
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
Willy and Linda are arguing about Biff ’s conditions. As a self-conceited father and with the hard experience of the bread owner of the family, Willy always expects too much for his two kids. He is more strict with Biff (their elder son) and worried about his future, which leads to his sacrifice of his life in the end. In Ying’s version, the Chinese taboo “他妈的” corresponds with the original colloquial “the hell” to intensify Willy’s worry and anger; whereas, in Yao’s version, it is deleted with the tone of the speaker Willy softening a lot. Linda is being concerned seriously about Willy. From the very beginning of the drama, she is always “careful and delicate” (as shown in the stage directions) when talking to Willy. Both the two versions use “亲爱的” as the equivalent vocative of “dear” to indicate Linda’s affection towards Willy, and her intention to make Willy calm down. At the same time, we notice that both the versions make frequent use of discourse particles such as “吗”、“呀”、“哪” to convey the emotions and interrelations of the characters. 3.2.2.2. Discourse particles concerning (im)politeness. With the statistics of the data, we find that another means to reflect characters’ positions and power in conversations is the overwhelming use of discourse particles concerning the interrelationship of the characters in both of the Chinese versions. The discourse particles in Chinese are helpful complementary means of revealing characters’ emotions such as anger, fear, refusal, despair, anxiety, sympathy and etc. The difference lies in the same: the so-called stage translation uses more those particles than the page translation (as shown in Table 2). Take the most frequently used three particles “吧”, “吗”, “呢” as an example, Ying’s version is almost three times of those in Yao’s version, and the proper use of which guarantee the simultaneous theatrical effect of the dramatic discourses by conveying speaker’s position relative to other characters and thus the remarkable characterization. While as shown in Example 1, Yao uses the particle “呀” at the end of Willy’ s argument, which mitigates his aggressiveness and fails to meet the needs of the development of the character and plot. Similarly, Linda ends her argument with the particle “哪”, which shows the speaker’s complaint of the partner’s opinion. But the original discourse is of Linda’s attempt to ease the conflict between Willy and Biff. The translation makes it hard for the actor to express the right mood of the role here. As far as the third discourse is concerned, with the stage direction “worried and angered”, we may feel Willy’s complex feelings—— dissatisfactions as well as worries of a father to a son. Ying uses the particle “吗” here to reproduce the complex feelings, while Yao’s version sounds always stern and simple without it. We randomly select other two episodes to investigate the specific performance and function of these particles in the two versions.
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
Example 2: LINDA: Willy, dear. Talk to them again. There’s no reason why you can’t work in New York. WILLY: If old man Wagner was alive I’d been in charge of New York now! That man was a prince, he was a masterful man. But that boy of his, that Howard, he don’t appreciate. When I went north the first time, the Wagner Company didn’t know where New England was! LINDA: Why don’t you tell those things to Howard, dear? Ying’s version
林 达 威利，亲爱的。再去跟他们说说
。为什么不能叫你在纽约上班呢？
LINDA: WEILI, QINAIDE. ZAIQU GEN TAMEN SHUOSHUO BA. WEISHENME BUNENG JIAO NI ZAI NIUYUE SHANGBAN NE. Linda: Willy, dear. Talk to them again. Why can’t they let you work in New York?
利 要是老头子瓦格纳还活着，纽约这一摊早归我负责了！那个人真是好样 威 的，有肩膀。可是他这个儿子，这个霍华德，这小子不知好歹。我头一次往北 边跑买卖那会儿，瓦格纳公司还没听说过新英格兰在什么地方呢！
WEILI: YAOSHI LAOTOUZI WAGENA HAI GUOZHE, NIUYUE ZHEYITAN GUI WO FUZE LE! NAGE REN ZHENSHI HAOYANGDE, YOUJIANBANG. KESHI TA ZHEGE ERZI, ZHEGE HUOHUADE, ZHEXIAOZI BUZHIHAODAI. WO TOUYICI WANG BEIBIAN PAOMAIMAI NAHUIER, WAHENA GONGSI HAI MEI TINGSHUO GUO ZAI SHENME DIFANG NE! Willy: If old man Wagner were alive I’d been in charge of New York for a long time! He was really a good man, YOUJIANBANG (Beijing dialect, reliable; literally means he is a man whose shoulder you can rest on). But his son, that Howard can’t tell the difference between good and bad. The first time I went north, the Wagner Company did not even heard about where New England was!
林 达 亲爱的，你干嘛不把这些话告诉霍华德呢？
LINDA: QINAIDE, NI GANMA BU BA ZHEXIEHUA GAOSU HUOHUADE NE? Linda: Dear, why don’t you tell those things to Howard? Yao’s version
林 妲 惟利，亲爱的。你再跟公司说说。为什么你不能在纽约办公呀？
LINDA: WEILI, QINAIDE. NI ZAI GEN GONGSI SHUOSHUO. WEISHENME NI BUNENG ZAI NIUYUE BANGGONG YA? Linda: Willy, dear. You talk to them again. Why can’t you work in New York?
利 要是老瓦格纳还活着，我现大概做纽约的主任了。他真是个好东家，大 惟 老板。可是，他这个宝贝儿子后无德，偏不赏识我。我第一次跑北路的时候， 瓦格纳公司还不知道新英格兰大那儿呢！
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
WEILI: YAOSHI LAO WANGENA HAI HUOZHE, WO XIANZAI DAGAI ZUO NIUYUE DE ZHUREN LE. TA ZHENSHI GE HAO DONGJIA, DALAOBAN. KESHI, TA ZHEGE BAOBEI ERZI HOUQUDE, PIAN BU SHANGSHI WO. WO DIYICI BAO BEILU DE SHIHOU, WAHEMA GONGSI HAI BUZHIDAO XINYINGGELAN ZAI NAER NE! Willy: If old man Wagner were alive, I’d have been the Director in New York. He was really a good employer, a big boss. But his treasurable son, that HOUWUDE (transliteration + free translation, meaning whose inferiors are virtueless) would not like to recognize my value. When I went north the first time, the Wagner Company even did not know where New England was!
林 妲 这些话你为什么不说给后无德听听？
LINDA: ZHEXIE HUA NI WEISHENME BUSHUO GEI HOUQUDE TINGTING? Linda: Why don’t you let Howard hear about those things? In Ying’s version, Linda’s discourse always starts from “亲爱的” as in the original, showing her care for Willy; while in Yao’s version, it is ignored sometimes. Besides, in Ying’s version, the particles such as “吧”, “呢” are integrated in the speaker’s discourses, placing emphasis on Linda’s mildness in addressing Willy as well as her care for Willy’s conditions with tentative suggestions to him, which successfully conveys the relative message of the original. While in Yao’s version, the p article “呀” makes Linda’s discourse more aggressive. As for the second discourse of Linda, the two versions show the same tendency, with Ying’s version using “呢” to indicate the typical tone of Linda and Yao’s in more straight way. As to Willy’s discourse, both of the versions end with “呢+!” revealing Willy’s self-conceit. Example 3: WILLY: Bernard is not well liked, is he? BIFF: He’s liked, but he’s not well liked. HAPPY: That’s right, Pop. WILLY: That’s just what I mean. Bernard can get the best marks in school, y’understand, but when he gets out in the business world, y’understand, you are going to be five times ahead of him. That’s why I thank Almighty God you’re both built like Adonises. Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want. You take me, for instance. I never have to wait in line to see a buyer..Willy Loman is here! That’s all they have to know, and I go right through. Ying’s version
威 利 伯纳德这孩子没人缘吧？
WEILI: BONADE ZHE HAIZI MEI RENYUAN BA? Willy: Bernard is not well liked, is he?
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
比 夫 他也有点人缘，可也不那么有人缘。
BIFU: TA YE YOUDIAN RENYUAN, KE YE BU NAME YOURENYUAN. BIFF: He’s liked, but he’s not well liked.
哈 皮 就是那样。
HAPI: JIUSHI ZHAYANG. HAPPY: That’s right.
利 我要说的就是这个。伯纳德在学校可能分数最高，明白吗，可是到了社 威 会上，做生意，明白 吗？你们会比他强五倍！所以，我感谢上帝，你们俩都长 得美男子似的。因为要说做生意，谁能出人头地呢，就得是那种仪表堂堂，叫 人一看就喜欢的人，只要大家喜欢你，你就不会倒霉。就拿我说吧，我从来用 不着跟别人排大队等着见买主。“威利·洛曼来了！“有这一句话，行了，我 通行无阻。
WEILI: WO YAO SHUO DE JIUSHI ZHEGE. BONADE ZAI XUEXIAO KENENG FENSHU ZUIGAO, MINGBAI MA, KESHI DAO LE SHEHUI SHANG, ZUO SHENGYI, MINGMAI MA? NIMEN HUI BI TA QIANG WUBEI! SUOYI, WO GANXIE SHANGDI, NIMENLIANG DOU ZHANGDE MEINANZI SIDE. YINWEI YAO SHUO ZUO SHENGYI, SHUI NENG CHURENTOUDINE, JIUDE YOU NAZHONG YIBIAOTANGTANG, JIAOREN YIKAN JIU XIHUAN DE REN, ZHIYAO DAJIA XIHUAN NI, NI JIU BUHUI DAOMEI. JIU NA WO SHUO BA, WO CONGLAI YONGBUZHAO GEN BIEREN PAIDADUI DENGZHE JIAN MAIZHU. “WEILI LUOMAN LAI LE!” YOU ZHE YIJUHUA, XINGLE, WO TONGXINGWUZU. WILLY: That’s just what I mean. Bernard can get the best marks in school, you understand? but when he gets out in the business world, you understand? you are going to be five times ahead of him! That’s why I thank Almighty God you’re both built like Adonises. Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want. You take me, for instance. I never have to wait in line to see a buyer..Willy Loman is here! That’s all they have to know, and I go right through. Yao’s version
惟利勃纳德的人缘不太好，是不是？
WEILI: BONADE DE RENYUAN BUTAIHAO, SHIBUSHI? Willy: Am I right that Bernard is not well liked?
弼甫人家不是不喜欢他,可不真心喜欢他。
BIFU: RENJIA BUSHI BU XIHUAN TA KEBU ZHENXIN XIHUAN TA. BIFF: He’s liked, but he’s not well liked.
海庇这是真的，爸爸。
HAIBI: ZHESHI ZHENDE,BABA.
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
HAPPY: It’s true, Pop.
利我说的就是这个。勃纳德可能在学校里拿最高的分数，你们明白，可是等 惟 到他出了学校，入了做生意的世界，你们明白，你们的窜劲儿要比他强五倍。 所以我感谢万能的上帝，你们哥儿俩都长得像阿都尼斯那么健美，因为在做生 意的世界里,谁长得相貌出众，谁能引起人家的好感，他就窜得起来。人缘儿 好，你就一辈子吃着不尽了。拿我自己来比方吧，我就从来不用挨班儿的等着 见买主的。他们只要知道：惟利·罗门来了！我就通行无阻的进去了。
WEILI: WO SHUODE JIUSHI ZHEGE. BONADE KENENG ZAI XUEXIAO LI NA ZUIGAO DE FENSHU, NIMEN MINGBAI, KESHI DENGDAO TA CHULE XUEXIAO, RULE ZUO SHENGYI DE SHIJIE, NIMEN MINGBAI, NIMEN DE CHUANJINGER YAO BI TA QIANG WUBEI. SUOYI WO GANXIE WANGNENG DE SHANGDI, NIMEN GEERLIANG DOU ZHANGDE XIANG ADOUNISI NAME JIANGMEI, YINWEI ZAI SHENGYI DE SHIJIELI, SHUI ZHANGDE XIANGMAOCHUZHONG, SHUI NENG YINQI RENJIA DE HAOGAN, TA JIU CHUANDE QILAI. RENYUANER HAO, NI JIU YIBEIZI CHIZHE BUJIN LE. NA WO ZIJI LAI BIFANG BA, WO JIU CONGLAI BUYONG AIBANER DE DENGZHE JIAN MAIZHU DE. TAMEN ZHIYAO ZHIDAO: WEILILUOMEN LAI LE! WO JIU TONGXINGWUZU DE JINQU LE. WILLY: That’s just what I mean. Bernard can get the best marks in school, you understand, but when he gets out in the business world, you understand, you are going to be five times ahead of him! That’s why I thank Almighty God you’re both built like Adonises. Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want. I’ll take myself as an example. I never have to wait in line to see a buyer..Willy Loman is here! That’s all they have to know, and I go right through. Similarly, in Willy’s illusion above, Ying’s version is scattered with the vivid auxiliary means of “吧”, “明白吗?”, “就拿我说吧” with erotesis as well as imperative structure to reveal his mentality of resorting to his gold time when the kids were young and admired him so much, showing his strong sense of self importance, which when confronting with frustrations in his old age, such as being fired by Howard, Biff and Happy’s incapability to support themselves when grow up, leads to his consequent suicide. By contrast, Yao’s version tends to follow the literal meaning of the original discourse, which is lack of those means and less efficient in reproducing the dramatic effect. 3.2.2.3. Interruption as a major means of impoliteness. Interruption is one of the most frequently used threatening face means in dramatic turn-taking to reveal the conflict between characters. In Death of a Salesman, the dialogue between Willy
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
and his present young boss, Howard, is a typical case as shown in the following examples. Example 4: Willy: If I had forty dollars a week—— that’s all I’d need. Forty dollars, Howard. Howard: Kid, I can’t take blood from a stone. I—— Willy: [desperation is on him now] Howard, the year Al Smith is nominated, your father came to me and—— Howard: [starting to go off] I’ve got to see some people, kid. Willy: [Stopping him] I’m talking about your father! There were promises made across this desk! You mustn’t tell me you’ve got people to see——I put thirty-four years into this firm. Howard, and now I can’t pay my insurance! You can’t eat the orange and throw the peel away—— a man is not a piece of fruit! [After a pause] Now pay attention. Your father——in1928 I had a big year. I averaged a hundred and seventy dollars a week in commissions. Howard: [impatiently] Now, Willy, you never averaged—— Willy: [banging his hand on the desk] I averaged a hundred and seventy dollars a week in the year of 1928! And your father came to me— or rather, I was in the office here— it was right over this desk— and he put his hand on my shoulder— Howard: [getting up] You’ll have to excuse me, Willy, I gotta see some people. Pull yourself together. [Going out] I’ll be back in a little while. [On Howard’s exit, the light on his chair grows very bright and strange.] Willy: Pull myself together! What the hell did I say to him? My God. I was yelling at him! How could I! [Willy breaks off, staring at the light, which occupies the chair, animating it…. (Act II) Ying’s version 威利哪怕一个礼拜四十块钱——有这点儿我就够了。四十块钱，霍华德。 WEILI: NAPA YIGE LIBAI SISHI KUAI QIAN—YOU ZHEDIANER WO JIU GOULE. SISHI KUAI QIAN, HUOHUADE. 霍华德我从石头里可挤不出水来啊，老兄，我—— HUOHUADE: WO CONG SHITOU LI KE JI BU CHU SHUI LAI A, LAOXIONG, WO——
利（有点不顾一切了）霍华德，阿尔·斯密斯被提名当总统那年，你父亲亲 威 自找到我——
WEILI: (YOUDIAN BUGU YIQIE LE) HUOHUADE, A’ ER SIMISI BEI TIMING DANG ZONGTONG NANIAN, NI FUQIN QINZI ZHAODAO WO——
霍华德（急于脱身）老兄，我约好了得见几位客人。.
HUOHUADE: (JIYU TUOSHEN) LAOXIONG, WO YUE HAOLE DEI JIAN JI WEI KEREN.
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
利（拦住他）我说的是你父亲的事儿！当初在这间屋里他许下的愿！你不用跟 威 我说什么要会客人——我在这个公司里干了三十四年，霍华德，可是现在连保险 费都交不起啦！你不能吃桔子把皮一扔就完了——人不是桔子。（停顿之后） 你好好听着。你父亲——一九二八年是我得意的一年。那年，我平均每个礼拜 光是佣钱就拿了一百七十块！
WEILI: (LANZHU TA) WO SHUODE SHI NI FUQINDE SHIER! DANGHU ZAI ZHEJIAN WULI TA XUXIA DE YUAN! NI BUYONG GENWO SHUO SHENME YAO HUI KEREN——WO ZAI ZHEGE GONGSI LI GANLE SANSHISI NIAN, HUOHUADE, KESHI XIANZAI LIAN BAOXIANFEI DOU JIAOBUQI LA! NI BUNENG CHI JUZI BA PI YI RENG JIU WANLE—— REN BUSHI JUZI. (TINGDUN ZHIHOU) NI HAOHAO TINGZHUO. NI FUQIN——YIJIUERBA NIAN SHIWO DEYI DE YINIAN. NANIAN, WO PINGJUN MEIGE LIBAI GUANGSHI YONGQIAN JIU NALE YIBAIQISHI KUAI! 霍华德（不耐烦）算了吧，威利，你从来也没拿到过—— HUOHUADE: (BUNAIFAN) SUANLE BA, WEILI, NI CONGLAI YE MEI NADAOGUO— 威利（拍桌子）一九二八年我每个礼拜平均一百七十块！你父亲找到我—— 不对！是在这儿办公室里——就是在这个办公桌两边——他的手放在我肩膀 上—— WEILI: (PAI ZHUOZI) YIJIUERBANIAN WO MEIGE LIBAI PINGJUN YIBAIQISHI KUAI! NI FUQIN ZHAODAO WO——BUDUI! SHI ZAI ZHEER BANGONGSHI LI——JIUSHI ZAI ZHE GE BANGONGZHUO LIANGBIAN——TADE SHOU FANGZAI WO JIANBANG SHANG—
华德（站起身来）实在对不起，威利，我约好了得见几位客人。控制一下自 霍 己嘛。
HUOHUADE: (ZHANQISHEN LAI) SHIZAI DUIBUQI, WEILI, WO YUE HAO LE DEI JIAN JIWEI KEREN. KONGZHI YIXIA ZIJI MA.
(朝外走）我一会儿就回来。
(CHAO WAI ZOU) WO YIHUIER JIU HUILAI.
[霍华德下场后，他原来坐的椅子发出特异的明亮的光。]
[ HUOHUADE XIACHANG HOU, TA YUANLAI ZUODE YIZI FACHU TEYIDE MINGLIANGDE GUANG.]
利控制一下自己！我他妈的对他说什么来着？老天爷，我冲着他大喊大叫 威 啦！怎么可以呢！（他住了口，呆视着照在椅子上的光。那光似乎使椅子活起 来了。
WEILI: KONGZHI YIXIA ZIJI! WO TAMADE DUITA SHUO SHENME LAIZHE? LAOTIANYE, WO CHONGZHE TA DAHANDAJIAO LA! ZENME KEYI NE! (TA ZHU LE KOU, DAISHIZHE ZHAOZAI YIZI SHANGDE GUANG. NA GUANG SIHU SHI YIZI HUO QILAI LE.
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
Yao’s version
惟利：要是我每星期有四十块钱，我也够了。四十块，后无德。
WEILI: YAOSHI WO MEIXINGQI YOU SISHIKUAI QIAN, WO YE GOULE. SISHI KUAI, HOUWUDE. 后无德：老先生，我可没法子石头里榨出油出来呀，我—— HOUWUDE: LAOXIANSHENG, WO KE MEIFAZI SHI OU LI ZHA CHU YOU CHULAI YA, WO—
利（现在他可真的不顾一切了）：后无德，诶尔·史密士提名竞选那年，你 惟 太老爷找我——
WEILI: (XIANZAI TA KE ZHENDE BUGUYIQIE LE) HOUWUDE, XIER SHIMISHI TIMING JINGXUAN NANIAN, NI TAILAOYE ZHAO WO—
后无德（移步要走）：我有约会，老先生。
HOUWUDE: (YIBU YAO ZOU) WO YOU YUEHUI, LAOXIANSHENG.
利（拦住他）：我在谈起令尊！隔着这张桌子，他答应过我不止一次！你别 惟 跟我说有约会这些话——我在这个公司里耗了三十四个年头，后无德，到现在 连自己的保险费都付不出！你能不能像吃橘子一样就把橘皮扔了的——人可不 是水果呀！（略听一下）说正经的，你记住，你老太爷——在一九二八那年， 我做得一帆风顺。平均一个星期我可以赚一百七十块钱的回佣。
WEILI: (LANZHU TA) WO ZAI TANQI LINGZUN! GEZHE ZHEZHANG ZHUOZI, TA DAYING GUO WO BUZHI YICI! NI BIE GENWO SHUO YOU YUEHUI ZHEXIE HUA——WO ZAI ZHEGE GONGSI LI HAOLE SANSHISI GE NIANTOU, HOUWUDE, DAO XIANZAI LIAN ZIJIDE BAOXIANFEI DOU FUBUCHU! NI NENGBUNENG XIANG CHI JUZI YI YANG JIU BA JUPI RENGLE DE——REN KE BUSHI SHUIGUO YA! (LÜE TING YIXIA) SHUO ZHENGJING DE, NI JIZHU, NI LAOTAIYE——ZAI YIJIUERBA NA NIAN, WO ZUODE YIFANFENGSHUN. PINGJUN YIGE XINGQI WO KEYI ZHUAN YIBAI QISHI KUAI QIAN DE HUIYONG. 后无德（不耐烦地）：我说，惟利，你从来没赚过—— HOUWUDE: (BU NAI FAN DI) WOSHUO, WEILI, NI CONGLAI MEI ZHUAN GUO——
利（拍着写字桌）：在一九二八年我平均每星期一百七十块！你老太爷找 惟 我——也可以说，我到这间屋子来——就在这张桌子跟前，他把手搁在我的肩 膀上——
(WEILI: (PAI ZHUO XIE ZI ZHUO) ZAI YI JIU ER BA NIAN WO PING JUN MEIXINGQI YI BAI QI SHI KUAI! NI LAO TAI YE ZHAO WO——YE KE YI SHUO, WO DAO ZHE JIAN WU ZI LAI—— JIU ZAI ZHE ZHANG ZHUO ZI GEN QIAN, TA BA SHOU GE ZAI WO DE JIAN BANG SHANG—)
无德（站起来）：真对不起，惟利，这个约会我非得去不可。沉住点 后 儿气吧。（向外走去）我一会儿就回来。（后无德一走出去，他的座椅上的灯 光变得非常耀目而奇异。）
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
HOUWUDE: (ZHANQI LAI) ZHEN DUIBUQI, WEILI, ZHEGE YUEHUI WO FEIDE QU BUKE. CHEN ZHU DIANER QI BA. (XIANGWAI ZOUQU) WO YIHUIER JIU HUILAI. (HOUWUDE YI ZOU CHUQU, TADE ZUOYI SHANG DE DENGGUANG BIANDE FEICHANG YAOMU ER QIYI.
利：教我沉住点儿气！他妈的我跟他说了些什么来着？天呀，我对他嚷嚷 惟 啦！这怎么可以呢！（他住了口，瞪目向灯光瞪着，那座椅载着灯光， 栩栩如生。
WEILI: JIAOWO CHENZHU DIANER QI! TAMADE WO GENTA SHUOLE XIE SHENME LAI ZHE? TIANYA, WO DUITA RANG ANG LA! ZHE ZENME KEYI NE! (TA ZHULE KOU, DENGMU XIANG DENGGUANG DENGZHUO, NA ZUOYI ZAIZHUO DENGGUANG, XUXURUSHENG. Howard seems to be the last straw for Willy. Resorting to his lifetime contributions to the company, he picks himself up to talk to Howard about his work and salary, while Howard pays little attention to his previous performance. The two interrupt each other in turn, with Willy as the victim of all the interruptions. Both the two versions reproduce the interruptions but with different ways as well as effects concerning the transition relevance place of turn-taking.
(1) Willy: [desperation is on him now] Howard, the year Al Smith is nominated, your father came to me and —— Howard: [starting to go off] I’ve got to see some people, kid.
利（有点不顾一切了）霍华德，阿尔·斯密斯被提名当总统那年， 威 你父亲亲自找到我——
WEILI: (YOUDIAN BUGU YIQIE LE) HUOHUADE, A’ERSIMISI BEI TIMING DANG ZONGTONG NANIAN, NI FUQIN QINZI ZHAODAO WO— Willy: [desperation is on him now] Howard, the year Al Smith is nominated, your father came to me and — 霍华德（急于脱身）老兄，我约好了得见几位客人。(Ying’s version) HUOHUADE: (JIYU TUOSHEN) LAOXIONG. WO YUEHAO LE DE JIAN JIWEI KEREN。 Howard: [impatient and starting to go off] Elder brother, I’ve got to see some people.
利（现在他可真的不顾一切了）：后无德，诶尔·史密士提名竞选那 惟 年，你太老爷找我——
WEILI: (XIANZAI TA KE ZHENDE BUGUYIQIE LE): HOUWUDE, AIERSHIMISHI TIMING JINGXUAN NANIAN, NI TAILAOYE ZHAOWO—
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng
Willy: [desperation is really on him now] Howard, the year Al Smith is nominated, your grandfather came to me and —— 后无德（移步要走）：我有约会，老先生。(Yao’s version) HOUWUDE: (YIBUYAOZOU) WO YOU YUEHUI, LAOXIANSHENG. Howard: (Moving to go off] I’ve got an appointment, old gentleman. Here, Ying puts vocative particle “老兄” into the transition relevance place as the means to interrupt Willy, which is more effective in Chinese in addition to the vivid stage direction; while Yao keeps the original order of the discourse without the same interrupting force.
(2) Howard: [impatiently] Now, Willy, you never averaged —— 霍华德（不耐烦）算了吧，威利，你从来也没拿到过—— (Ying’s version) HUOHUADE: (BUNAIFAN) SUANLEBA, WEILI,NI CONGLAI YE MEI NADAO GUO— Howard: [impatiently] Forget about it, Willy, you never averaged —— 后无德（不耐烦地）：我说，惟利，你从来没赚过—— (Yao’s version) HOUWUDE: (BUNAIFANDI) WOSHUO, WEILI, NI CONGLAI MEI ZHUANGUO— Howard: [impatiently] Let me say, Willy, you never averaged ——
Ying uses the threatening face particle “算了吧” as the equivalent of “now” in the original discourse to effectively indicate Howard’s impatience for Willy’s recalling of his past achievements; while Yao fails to convey the same message by using “我说” as a means of asking others’ attention in Chinese.
4. Conclusions The corpus-based studies on the (im)politeness in the two Chinese versions of Death of a Salesman prove to be applicable in exploring the quality and efficiency of drama translations, reproducing the tensions between the characters and the progression of the plot in the target drama. The study shows that the stage-oriented translation is more careful in making use of those means concerning impoliteness in relating with the subtle interpersonal relationship, especially the conflict among the characters as well as the conflict between the hero’s physical world and his illusion, which promotes the performability and reception of the translated drama in the target theatre. Corpus stylistics of drama seems to be of great significance in revealing the norm of drama translation.
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
Acknowledgements The research is sponsored by China’s National Social Sciences Fund (10BYY007), The Humanities and Social Sciences Fund of Ministry of Education of China (09YJA740055) as well as of Jiangsu Province (09JDB740006) and the 12th FiveYear-Plan Educational Science Fund of Jiangsu province in 2013 (B-b/2013/01/023).
References Bassnett, Susan. 1985. “Ways Through the Labyrinth: Strategies and Methods for Translating Theatre Texts.” In The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation, ed. by Theo Hermans, 87–102, London: Croom Helm. Bassnett, Susan. 1998. “Still Trapped in the Labyrinth: Further Reflections on Translation and Theatre.” In Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation, ed. by Susan Bassnett and AndréLefevere, 90–108. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Brown, Penelope, and Stephen C. Levinson. 1987. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1525/ae.1988.15.4.02a00420 Bousfield, Derek. 2008. Impoliteness in Interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Concordance 3.0 [http://www.concordancesoftware.co.uk/concordance_software_download.htm] (accessed on July 28, 2007). Crystal, David. 1997. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 4th edition. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Culpeper, Jonathan. 1998. “(Im)politeness in Dramatic Dialogue.” In Exploring the Language of Drama, ed. by Jonathan Culpeper, Mick Short, and Peter Verdonk, 83–95. London: Routledge. Hale, Terry, and Carole-Anne Upton. 2000. “Introduction”. In Moving Target: Theatre Translation and Cultural Relocation, ed. by Upton Carole-Anne, 1–13. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. ICTCLAS [http://ictclas.org/] (accessed on July 28, 2007). Kruger, Alet. 2004. “Shakespeare in Afrikaans: A Corpus-based Study of Involvement in Different Registers of Drama Translation.” Language Matters 35 (1): 282–301. DOI: 10.1080/10228190408566217 Nikolarea, Ekaterini. 2002. “Performability versus Readability: A Historical Overview of a Theoretical Polarization in Theatre Translation.” Translation Journal (6): 10–11. Ren, Xiaofei. 2008. Translator on the Stage——A systematic study on Ying Ruocheng’s Drama Translation. Chinese Social Sciences Press. Ren, Xiaofei, Zan Mao, and Qinghua Feng. 2010. “Turn-taking Management in Dramatic Dialogue Translation——A Case Study of Stylistics of Drama in Drama Translation Studies.” Foreign Languages Teaching Theory and Practice (1): 77–83. Ren, Xiaofei, Qinghua Feng, and Nan Wang. 2010. “A Translator on the Target Theatre— Ying Ruochen’s Theatre Translation.” Babel 56 (4): 363–378. DOI: 10.1075/babel.56.4.05xia Ren, Xiaofei, Jianding Zhu, and Qinghua Feng. 2011. “Orality in Drama Translation: A corpusbased study on Ying Ruocheng’s translation of Measure for Measure.” Foreign Languages and Their Teaching 2011 (4): 57–60. Ren, Xiaofei, Yin Zhang, et alii. 2014. “Corpus Stylistics in Drama Translation Studies: A Case Study of Deictic System in Drama Translation.” Foreign Languages Teaching Theory & Practice 2014 (2): 84–90.
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng Short, Mick. 1996. Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose. London and New York: Longman. DOI: 10.1177/096394709800700208 Wynne, Martin. 2005. Stylistics: Corpus Approaches. [www.pala.ac.uk/resources/sigs/corpusstyle/Corpora_stylistics.pdf] (accessed on Sep.2, 2009). Yao, Ke (trans.). 1971. Death of a Salesman (《推销员之死》). Hong Kong Today’s World Press. Ying, Ruocheng. 2007. Dramas Translated by Ying Ruocheng (《英若诚名剧译丛》), Chinese Translation Corp.
Appendix Table 1. The top two impolite slang expressions “goddam” and “hell” compared with the polite vocative “dear” and courtesy adjunct “please” in the original work Item
Goddam
Hell
Dear
Please
frequency
15(0.034%)
30(0.645%)
46(0.989%)
5(0.011%)
users
Willy, 8 Biff, 5 Happy, 2
Willy, 13 Biff, 10 Happy, 3 Charley,3 Bernard, 1
Mainly from Linda to Willy
Linda, 3 (to Willy) Willy, 2(to Ben and Linda)
Table 2. The top ten discourse particles used in the two versions Ying’s version
Yao’s version
吧
212
0.477(%)
吧
82
0.176(%)
吗
175
0.394(%)
吗
60
0.129(%)
呢
131
0.295(%)
呢
49
0.105(%)
啊
64
0.144(%)
啦
34
0.073(%)
嗨
27
0.061(%)
呃
32
0.069(%)
嘛
25
0.056(%)
呕
30
0.064(%)
嘿
16
0.036(%)
嘛
26
0.056(%)
啦
16
0.036(%)
哦
23
0.049(%)
奥
16
0.036(%)
啊
22
0.047(%)
哦
13
0.029(%)
嗯
18
0.039(%)
Abstract Drama translation studies used to be the most neglected area in translation studies due to its prescriptive approaches and reductionist illusion of polarization of performability and readability. Corpus stylistics of drama, with the aid of computer technology as well as the understanding of the true nature of drama as the dialectical combination of both literary and theatrical
Introducing corpus stylistics of drama in drama translation studies
characteristics, appears to be a remarkable theoretical framework and methodology for drama translation studies. The study of (im)politeness in Death of a Salesman and its two Chinese versions is undertaken as a case study. ICTCLAS and Concordance 3.0 were used to calculate the high frequent expressions concerning (im)politeness in both the original text and the Chinese versions, followed by the analysis of their stylistic function. It is found that modal particles and slang expressions in Chinese are useful to reconstruct the characterization, plot as well as performability of the translated drama. In conclusion, corpus stylistics of drama is of high feasibility in drama translation studies. Keywords: corpus stylistics, drama translation, (im)politeness, modal particles, page translation, stage translation, Death of a Salesman
Résumé La traductologie théâtrale était autrefois le domaine de la traductologie le plus négligé en raison de ses approches normatives et de l’illusion réductrice d’une polarisation de la jouabilité et de la lisibilité. La stylistique du corpus d’une pièce de théâtre, avec l’aide de la technologie informatique et la compréhension de la véritable nature d’une pièce de théâtre en tant que combinaison dialectique de caractéristiques tant littéraires que théâtrales, semble être un cadre théorique et une méthodologie remarquables pour la traductologie théâtrale. L’étude de la politesse et de l’impolitesse dans Mort d’un commis-voyageur et ses deux versions chinoises est entreprise en tant qu’étude de cas. ICTCLAS et Concordance 3.0 ont été utilisés pour calculer la fréquence des expressions exprimant la politesse et l’impolitesse dans le texte original et les versions chinoises, puis pour analyser leur fonction stylistique. Nous avons constaté que les particules modales et les expressions argotiques en chinois sont utiles pour reconstruire la manière de camper les personnages, l’intrigue et la jouabilité d’une pièce de théâtre traduite. En conclusion, la stylistique du corpus d’une pièce de théâtre est tout à fait possible dans la traductologie théâtrale. Mots-clés: stylistique d’un corpus, traduction théâtrale, (im)politesse, particules modales, traduction de page, traduction pour la scène, Mort d’un commis-voyageur
About the authors Dr. REN Xiaofei (corresponding author) is a Professor of English Language and Literature at Jiangsu University. She is the Director of Corpus-based Translation Teaching and Research Center. She has chaired several research projects on translation studies sponsored by the National Social Sciences Fund and the Humanities and Social Sciences Fund of Ministry of Education, P.R. China with the following two major monographs: A Translator on the Stage—a systematic study on Ying Ruocheng’s theatre translation, China’s Social Sciences Press, 2008. Introducing Corpus Stylistics into Drama Translation Studies, China’s Social Sciences Press, 2014. Address: International Office, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, 212013, P.R.China E-mail:
[email protected]
Ren Xiaofei, Li Lanlan, Zhang Chuanrui, Lu Jing and Liu Feng LI Lanlan is a postgraduate student in the Corpus-based Translation Teaching and Research Center, Jiangsu University. E-mail:
[email protected] ZHANG Chuanrui is a postgraduate student in the Corpus-based Translation Teaching and Research Center, Jiangsu University. E-mail:
[email protected] LU Jing is a lecturer in School of Foreign Languages, Jiangsu University. She is also a Ph.D. student in Macau University of Science and Technology. E-mail:
[email protected] LIU Feng is a lecturer in School of Foreign Languages, Jiangsu University. He is also a Ph.D. student in Macau University of Science and Technology. E-mail:
[email protected]
La Collection Unesco a pour but de contribuer à l’appréciation mutuelle des cultures par une aide à la traduction, à la publication et à la diffusion d’œuvres littéraires écrites dans des langues de diffusion restreinte. Créée en 1948, elle compte maintenant quelque 1000 titres représentant environ 80 littératures différentes.
Pour tout renseignement: Collection Unesco d’œuvres représentatives Division éditoriale et des droits Éditions UNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15 France Télécopieur/Fax: +33 (0)1 45 68 57 2 Courriel/E-mail:
[email protected] http://www.unesco.org/publications
Copyright of Babel is the property of John Benjamins Publishing Co. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
