Introduction to Sustainable Engineering: A course module for undergraduates:
(A course book for internal circulation among students)
Section III: Life Cycle Analysis
Dr Sachin A Mandavgane Associate Professor, VNIT, Nagpur, India
[email protected] Dr Bhaskar D Kulkarni Senior INSA Fellow, CSIR-NCL, Pune, India
[email protected] Page 1
INDEX Sr. No 1.
Content 1. Introduction 1.1 Goal Definition and Scoping 1.2Life Cycle Inventory 1.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 1.4 Life Cycle Interpretation
2.
2. Why Conduct a Life Cycle Assessment?
3.
3. Principles of life cycle analysis
4.
4. Examples of Life Cycle Analysis
5.
5. Life Cycle Cost Analysis
6.
6. LCA Software
7.
7. List of Handbooks
8.
References
Page No. 02 04 05 05 06
06
06 07 10 11 12 13
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LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS 1. INTRODUCTION As environmental awareness increases, industries and businesses are assessing how their activities affect the environment. Society has now become concerned about the issues of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation. Many businesses have responded to this awareness by providing “greener” products and using “greener” processes. The environmental performance of products and processes has become a key issue, which is why some companies are investigating ways to minimize their effects on the environment. Many companies have found it advantageous to explore ways of moving beyond compliance using pollution-prevention strategies and environmental management systems to improve their environmental performance. One such tool is LCA. This concept considers the entire life cycle of a product. Life cycle assessment is a “cradle-to-grave” approach for assessing industrial systems. “Cradleto-grave” begins with the gathering of raw materials from the Earth to create the product and ends at the point when all materials are returned back to the earth. LCA evaluates all stages of a product’s life from the perspective that they are interdependent, meaning that one operation leads to the next. LCA helps in the estimation of the cumulative environmental impacts resulting from all stages in the product life cycle, often including impacts not considered in more traditional analyses (e.g., raw material extraction, material transportation, ultimate product disposal). The term “life cycle” refers to the major activities in the course of the product’s lifespan from its manufacture, use, and maintenanceto its final disposal, including the raw material acquisition required to manufacture the product. Figure 1-1 illustrates the possible life cycle stages that can be considered in an LCA and the typical inputs/outputs measured.
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Figure 1-1. Life Cycle Stages Specifically, LCA is a technique to assess the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service, by • Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases; • Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases; and • Interpreting the results to help decisionmakers make a more informed decision. The LCA process is a systematic, phased approach and consists of four components: goal definition and scoping, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation as illustrated in Figure1.2.
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Figure 1.2.Phases of Life Cycle Assessment
1.1Goal Definition and Scoping Goal definition and scoping is the phase of the LCA process that defines the purpose and method of including life cycle environmental impacts into the decision-making process. In this phase, the following items must be determined: the type of information that is needed to add value to the decision-making process, how accurate the results must be to add value, and how the results should be interpreted and displayed to be meaningful and usable. The goal definition and scoping of the LCA project will determine the time and resources needed. The defined goal and scope will guide the entire process to ensure that the most meaningful results are obtained. Every decision made throughout the goal definition and scoping phase impacts either how the study will be conductedor the relevance of the final results. The following section identifies the decisions that must be made at the beginning of the LCA study and the impact of these decisions on the LCA process.
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1.2Life Cycle Inventory A life cycle inventory (LCI) is a process of quantifying energy and raw material requirements, atmospheric emissions, water-borne emissions, solid wastes, and other releases for the entire life cycle of a product, process, or activity. In the life cycle inventory phase of an LCA, all relevant data are collected and organized. Without an LCI, no basis exists to evaluate comparative environmental impacts or potential improvements. The level of accuracy and detail of the data collected are reflected throughout the remainder of the LCA process. Life cycle inventory analyses can be used in various ways. They can assist an organization in comparing products or processes and considering environmental factors in material selection. In addition, inventory analyses can be used in policymaking, by helping the government develop regulations regarding resource use and environmental emissions. 1.3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase of an LCA is the evaluation of potential human health risk and environmental impacts caused by extraction of environmental resources and release of various products. Impact assessment should address ecological and human health effects; it should also address resource depletion. A life cycle impact assessment attempts to establish a linkage between the product or process and its potential environmental impacts. For example, what are the impacts of 9,000 t of carbon dioxide or 5,000 t of methane emissions released into the atmosphere? Which is worse? What are their potential impacts on smog? On global warming?The assessment takes inventory data and converts it to indicators for each impact category. A typical list of impactindicators includes • Global climate change • Stratospheric ozone depletion • Smog • Acidification • Eutrophication • Natural resources (habitat, water, fossil fuels, minerals, biological resources) • Human toxicity • Ecotoxicity
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1.4Life Cycle Interpretation Life cycle interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the LCI and the LCIA, and communicate them effectively. Life cycle interpretation is the last phase of the LCA process. ISO has defined the following two objectives of life cycle interpretation: 1. To analyze results, reach conclusions, explain limitations, and provide recommendations based on the findings of the preceding phases of the LCA, and report the results of the life cycle interpretation in a transparent manner. 2. To provide a readily understandable, complete, and consistent presentation of the results of an LCA study, in accordance with the goal and scope of the study. 2. Why Conduct a Life Cycle Assessment? There are many reasons for a company to conduct a life cycle assessment. It can be used to reduce environmental impact and waste, reduce costs, focus on product development, support marketing claims, improve product/corporate image, and/or identify appropriate performance indicators. Further, conducting an LCA creates common metrics that can be compared and shared across the company, or with its suppliers and partners. 3. Principles oflife cycle analysis Life cycle analysis involves the consideration of inputs (raw materials and energy) and outputs (products and emissions) for each stage of the cycle over the useful life of a product or process. Typically, there are a number of stages in the life cycle of a product, and according to Evans et al. (2000), the most common stages for the manufacture of a glass bottle might include 1. Raw materials acquisition (RMA): Includes raw materials and the processing required to obtain them. Often, a separate life cycle analysis is undertaken to determine the inputs and emissions (burdens) associated with their acquisition. For example, RMA might include the mining operations involved in obtaining sand, which is a raw material for the manufacture of a glass bottle. 2.Manufacturing (MAN): Includes all of the manufacturing operations need to produce the finished product. For the manufacture of a glass bottle this would include the production of the glass as well as the manufacture of the lid and labels and boxes they are packed in. It can also include the remanufacture of new product from recycled material.
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3.Use (USE): Includes operations associated with the productfrom the time it is put into use to when it is either discardedor recycled. For a glass bottle, recycling might involve returningthe bottle intact for refilling or crushing it so it can beremanufactured and turned into a new bottle. 4. Disposal (DISP):Happens once the product is no longer in use and is not reprocessed back into the system. Usually, the product ends up as a waste and is disposed of in a landfill site. Disposal encompasses the operations used to process the waste to minimizeits impact on the environment, and can include energy recovery through combustion. 5. Recycle (RECYCLE): Includes the operations required to redirect the material from disposal and return it to the manufacturing stage for reprocessing. Recycling might include collection of the material andits cleaningand renovation before reuse or as a replacement for raw material before it is subjected to a complete transformation as a fresh product. 6.Transportation (TRANS): Involves the physical transfer of materials from one location to another at any stage in the life cycle. Usually, transport involves vehicles, such as trains, planes, ships, but can also include conveyors, pipes, and other distribution systems where energy usage and emissions can be identified. 7. Energy: Includes all forms of energy usage, such as electrical, fossil fuel, or renewable. The following are some examples on which LCA is applied: 4. Examples ofLife Cycle Analysis 1. Applications of life cycle assessment to NatureWorkspolylactide (PLA) production[1] 2. Life cycle analysis of greenhouse gas emissions associated with starch-based ethanol [2] 3. A parameterized life cycle analysis of crude oil from CO₂-enhanced oil recovery[3] 4. Energy life cycle assessment ofsoybean biodiesel [4] 5. Environmental life cycle assessment oftextile industries: A case study from Tirupur[5] 6. Evaluating literature life cycle data: A case study for electrical metallic tubing [6] 7. Life cycle assessment of PVC and of principal competing materials[7] 8. Life cycle assessment applied to coffee production: investigating environmental impacts to aid in decision making for improvements at the company level [8] 9. Life cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the process industry: A review [9] 10. Gate-to-gate life cycle analysis model of enhanced oil recovery [10] 11. Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissionsfrom plug-in hybrid vehicles: Implications for policy [11] Page 8
12. Production of bio-ethylene [12] 13. Life cycle assessment of ethanol production from tropical banagrass (Pennisetumpurpureum) using green and dry-processing technologies in Hawaii [13] 14. Life cycle assessment of beer in support of an environmental product declaration [14] 15. Life cycle assessment of supermarket carrier bags: A review of the bags available in 2006[15] 16. Using life cycle assessment to document sustainability benefits of enzymes applied in the leather industry [16] 17. Life cycle assessment in the bioenergy sector: Developing a systematicreview [17] 18. Simplified life-cycle analysisof the PV system in buildings:Present situation and future trends [18] 19. Simulation and life cycle assessment of process design alternatives for biodieselproduction from waste vegetable oils [19] 20. From ground to gate: A lifecycle assessment of petroleum-processing activities in the United Kingdom [20] 21. Life cycle assessment of wood-based ethanol–diesel blends (E-Diesel) [21] 22. Life cycle assessment of switchgrass-derived ethanol as transport fuel [22] 23. LCAs of petrol and diesel:A literature review [23] 24. Life-cycle assessment of pyrolysis bio-oil production [24] 25. Cradle-to-gate environmental assessment of enzyme products produced industrially in Denmark by Novozymes A/S [25] 26. Comparative life cycle assessment of an elemental T-shirt produced using biotechnology methods and a conventional T-shirt produced using conventional technology [26] 27. Life cycle analysis and environmental product declarations: North American market analysis [27] 28. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of domestic versusimported vegetables: Case studies on broccoli, salad crops, and green beans [28] 29. Life cycle assessment of solid waste management options: A review [29] 30. LCA of value-added novel bio-products processing and production [30] 31. LCA and carbon neutrality assessment: Monetary implication of information unavailability and uncertainty [31] Page 9
32. Sustainability metrics: Life cycle assessment and green design in polymers [32] 33. LCA tool for sustainability evaluations in the pharmaceutical industry [33] 34. Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of sugarcane production and processing in Australia[34] 35. Life cycle assessment of clothing process [35] 36. Use of life cycle assessment in evaluating solvent recovery alternatives in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products [36] 37. Life cycle assessment in the agri-food sector [37] 38. Life cycle assessment for cultivation of conventional and organic seed cotton fibers[38] 39. Lifecycle assessment (LCA) white paper [39] 40. LCA tool adaptation to pharmaceutical processes [40] 41. Life cycle energy and greenhousegas emissions for an ethanolproduction process based onblue-green algae [41] 42. Life cycle greenhouse gas impacts ofethanol, biomethane, and limoneneproduction from citrus waste [42] 43. Life-cycle analysis of wood products: cradle-to-gate LCI of residential wood building materials [43] 44. The use of LCA in the water industry and the case for an environmental performance indicator [44] 45. Life cycle assessment supports cold-wash enzymes [45] 46. Methane and the greenhouse-gas footprint of naturalgas from shale formations [46] 47. A comparative life cycle assessment of building insulation products made of stone wool, paper wool, and flax [47] 48. Life cycle assessment of fuel ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil [48] 49. Life cycle assessment in the steel industry [49] 50. Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater systems: Quantifying the relative contribution of sewer systems water [50] 51. Application of life cycle assessment to nanoscale technology [51] 52. Life cycle thinking and assessment for waste management [52] 53. Minimization of the LCA impact of thermodynamic cycles using a combinedsimulationoptimization approach [53] Page 10
54. Life cycle assessment of the production of kernel oil [54] 55. Life cycle assessment of reusable and single-use plastic bags in California [55] 56. Impact of plastic packaging on life cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission in The United States of America and Canada [56] 57. Life cycle analysis with examples from biofuel analysis [57] 58. Multiobjectivedesign for the consequential life cycle assessment of corn ethanol production [58] 59. Life cycle assessment on the conversionof CO2 to formic acid [59] 60. Water use in metal production: A life cycle perspective [60] 61. Life cycle analysis ofwater networks [61] 62. CORRIM: Life cycle environmental performance of renewable building materials [62] 5.LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS Life cycle costing (LCC) is a process to determine the sum of all the costs associated with an asset or part thereof, including acquisition, installation, operation, maintenance, and refurbishment and disposal costs. Early implementation of cost analysis models influences the design changes of the product and provides explanations for the relationships between cost and design parameters. They contribute to cost reduction by identifying high-cost contributors. However, there are many features of a product that can be studied using a life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) model. The combination of rising inflation, reduction in purchasing power, budget limitations, increased competition, etc. has created an awareness and interest in the total cost of products, systems, and structures. Not only the acquisition costs associated with new systems (e.g., quality management systems and environmental management systems) are rising, but also the costs of operating and maintaining systems already in use are increasing rapidly. Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is a data-driven tool that provides a detailed account of the total costs of a project over its expected life. Recognizing its benefit, several agencies have implemented LCCA programs and have successfully saved significant sums of money. Many terms and definitions are used in the area of life cycle costing. Some of the frequently used terms and definitions that are directly or indirectly related to life cycle costing include the following: • Cost is the amount of money paid or payable to acquire the materials, property, or services. Page 11
• Procurement cost is the total of investment or acquisition costs (nonrecurring and recurring). • Ownership cost is the total of all costs other than the procurement cost during the life span of an item. • Life cycle cost is the sum of all costs incurred during the life span of an item or system (i.e., the total of procurement and ownership costs). • Recurring cost is the cost that recurs periodically during the life span of a project or item. • Nonrecurring cost is the cost that is not repeated. • Reliability is the probability that an item or system will perform its function satisfactorily for the desired period when used according to specified conditions. • Maintainability is the probability that a failed item or system will be restored to its satisfactory working state within a stated total downtime when maintenance action is started according to specified conditions. • Downtime is the total time during which the item or system is not in a condition to perform its specified mission or function. • Manufacturing cost is the sum of fixed and variable costs chargeable to the manufacturer of a specified item or system. • Maintenance includes all scheduled and unscheduled actions necessary to keep an item or system in a serviceable state or restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, servicing, modification, repair, etc. • Repair cost is the cost of restoring an item, system, or facility to its original performance or condition. 6.LCA Software A life cycle assessment software provides you with a professional tool to collect,analyze, and monitor the environmental performance of products and services. One can easily model and analyze complex life cycles in a systematic and transparent way. Some commonly used software is as follows: SimaPro 7 GaBi 5 Umberto Quantis SUITE 2.0 EarthSmart Page 12
Sustainable Minds Enviance System 6.4 7.LIST OF HANDBOOKS 1.Handbook onLife Cycle Assessment Operational Guide to the ISO Standards Volume 7 [10] 2. International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment [11] 3. Life Cycle Costing Manual [12] 4. Life Cycle Cost Analysis Handbook [13]
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REFERENCES 1.Erwin T.H. Vinka,*, Karl R. Ra´bagob,David A. Glassnerb,Patrick R. Gruberb Applications of life cycle assessment to NatureWorksTM polylactide (PLA) production Polymer Degradation and Stability 80 (2003) 403–419 2.John Kruse Ph.D, Stewart Ramsey And Tom JacksonLife Cycle Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Starch-Based Ethanol 2008 3. Joe Marriott, Lead Associate, Booz Allen Hamilton A Parameterized Life Cycle Analysis of Crude from CO₂-Enhanced Oil Recovery National EnergyTechnology Laboratory 2013 4. A. Pradhan, D. S. Shrestha, A. McAloon, W. Yee, M. Haas, J. A. Duffield Energy Life Cycle Assessment OfSoybean Biodiesel Revisited American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers ISSN 2151-0032 Vol. 54(3): 1031-1039 2011 5.S.Priscilla Rajakumari& S KanmaniEnvironmental Life Cycle Assessment Of TextileIndustries ,Tirpur –A Case Study Journal Of Scientific & Industrial Research Vol 67.June 2008 461-467 6.Steve Barr, Todd Krieger Evaluating Literature Life Cycle Data: A Case Study for Electrical Metallic TubingDuPont Engineering Research and Technology October 2, 2007 7. Dr. Martin Baitz Mr. Johannes Kreißig Ms. Eloise Byrne Life Cycle Assessment of PVCand of principal competing materialsCommissioned by the European Commission, July 2004 8.Roberta Salomone.Life cycle assessment applied to coffee production: investigating environmental impacts to aid decision making for improvements at company level Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.1(2) : 295-300. 2003 9.Leslie Jacquemin, Pierre Yves Pontalier, Caroline SablayrollesLife cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the process industry: a reviewhttps://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00741389 Submitted on 12 Oct 2012 10. Timothy J. Skone, P.E. Gate-to-Gate Life Cycle Analysis Model of Enhanced Oil Recovery National Energy Technology Laboratory, 2013 11.Constantine Samaras, and Kyle MeisterlingLife Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissionsfrom Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles: Implications for PolicyEnviron. Sci. Technol., 2008, 42 (9), 3170-3176 12. Production of Bio-ethylene IEA-ETSAP and IRENA© Technology Brief I13 – January 2013www.etsap.org – www.irena.org
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13. Mochizuki, J., Yanagida, J. F., Kumar, D., Takara, D., & Murthy, G. S Life cycle assessment of ethanol production from tropical banagrass (Pennisetumpurpureum) using green and dry processing technologies in Hawaii American Institute of Physics Publishing 2014 14. Seth Lalonde, Anna Nicholson and Rita SchenckLife Cycle Assessment of Beer in Support of an Environmental Product Declaration Earthsure September 2013 15. Dr. Chris Edwards JonnaMeyhoff Fry Life cycle assessment of supermarket carrier bags: a review of the bags available in 2006 Environment Agency 2006 16. JH Kløverpris, JK Raman using life cycle assessment to document sustainability benefits of enzymes
applied
in
the
leather
industryhttp://lcacopenhagen.setac.eu/embed/Copenhagen/programme_abstracts_book_3110 2012_v2.pdf 17. Rebecca Rowe, Dr. Jeanette Whitaker, Jennifer Chapman, David Howard and Professor Gail Taylor Life Cycle Assessment In The Bioenergy Sector: Developing A Systematic st
ReviewUKERC/WP/FSE/2008/002 21 January 2008 18. P. FRANKL* A. MASINI** M. GAMBERAL EtandD. TOCCACELI ftSimplified LifeCycle AnalysisOf PV System In Building:Present Situation And Future TrendsCenter for the Management of Environmental Resources,INSEADFontainebleau, France June 1997 19. SérgioMoraisa,b,*, Teresa M. Mata a, António A. Martins a, Gilberto A. Pinto c, Carlos A.V. Costa a Simulation and life cycle assessment of process design alternatives for biodiesel Production from waste vegetable oilsElsevier Ltd 2010. 20. ReynOBornFrom Ground to Gate: A lifecycle assessment of petroleum processing activities in the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Process Engineering Norwegian University of Science and Technology June 2012 21. JOSÉ CANGARODRÍGUEZ Life Cycle Assessment of Wood-Based Ethanol-Diesel Blends (E-Diesel) International MSC In EnvironmentallySustainable Process Technology February 2003 22. Yu Bai& Lin Luo& Ester van der VoetLife cycle assessment of switchgrass-derived ethanol as transport fuelInt J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:468–477 DOI 10.1007/s11367-010-0177-2 23. Mattias Eriksson and SerinaAhlgrenLCAs of petrol and diesel a literature review The Swedish Knowledge Centre For Renewable Transportation Fuels Report 2013:058ISSN 1654-9406Uppsala 2013 Page 15
24. Philip SteeleMaureen E. PuettmannVenkataKanthiPenmetsaJerome E. Cooper Life-Cycle Assessment of Pyrolysis Bio-Oil Production Forest Products Journal Vol. 62, No. 4 25. Per H. Nielsen1*, Karen M. Oxenbøll1 and Henrik Wenzel2Cradle-to-Gate Environmental Assessment of Enzyme Products Produced Industrially in Denmark by Novozymes A/SInt J LCA 12 (6) 432 – 438 (2007) 26.Anne Merete Nielsen Per Henning Nielsen Comparative life cycle assessmentof the Elemental T-shirt produced with biotechnology and a Conventional T-shirt produced with conventional technology ERA / 1170057 / Final Report / 2009.11.13 27.Julie Hardy cSBA, LEED AP and Veronica Owens BALife Cycle Analysis and Environmental Product Declarations: North American Market Analysis www.lhsbc.com | December 2013 28. LlorençMilài Canals, Ivan Muñoz, AlmudenaHospido, Katharina Plassmann, Sarah McLarenLife Cycle Assessment (LCA) Of Domestic Vs. Imported Vegetables. Case studies on broccoli, salad crops and green beansCentre for Environmental Strategy, University
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33. Teresa M. Mata*a,d, Antonio A. Martinsb,d, BelmiraNetoc,d, Maria L. Martinsd,Romualdo L.R. Salcedoa†, Carlos A.V. Costaa† LCA Tool for Sustainability Evaluations in thePharmaceutical IndustryChemical EngineeringTransaction VOL. 26, 2012 34. M.A. RENOUF1, 3, M.K. WEGENER2,3Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Of Sugarcane Production And Processing In Australia Proceedings of the Australian Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, 29, 2007. 35. AltunSuleLife Cycle Assessment of Clothing Process Research Journal of Chemical Sciences Vol. 2(2), 87-89, Feb. (2012) 36. William A. Carole, C. Stewart Slater, Mariano J. Savelski*, Timothy Moroz, Anthony Furiato, Kyle Lynch Use of Life Cycle Assessment in Evaluating Solvent Recovery Alternativesin Pharmaceutical ManufactureChemistry and Industry 1997, Vol.1,pp.12 – 15 37. NielsHalberg (ed.) Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-food sector DIAS report • Animal Husbandry • no. 61 • October 2004 38. MurugeshBabu. K* and Selvadass.MLife Cycle Assessment for Cultivation of Conventional and Organic Seed Cotton fibresInternational Journal of Research in Environmental Science and Technology,27 February 2013 http://www.urpjournals.com 39. Jennifer Schuppe (University of Texas), Holly Ho (ISMT) Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) White Paper Technology Transfer #02014238A-TR International SEMATECH January 31, 2002Tool Adaptation to Pharmaceutical ProcessesD 2.1 LCA Tool Adaptation To Pharmaceutical Processes, January 2010 41. DEXINUO , † ZUSHOUHU , ‡ DONG GUCHOI , †VALEREM . THOMAS , * , † , § MA TTHEWJ . REALFF, ‡ ANDRONALDR . CANE ‡ ,Life Cycle Energy and GreenhouseGas Emissions for an EthanolProduction Process Based onBlue-Green AlgaeEnviron. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 8670–8677 42. Mohammad Pourbafrani1, Jon McKechnie2, Heather L MacLean1,3 and Bradley A Saville1Life cycle greenhouse gas impacts ofethanol, biomethane and limoneneproduction from citrus waste Environmental Research Letters
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44. E Friedrich1, S Pillay and CA BuckleyThe use of LCA in the water industry and the case for an environmental performance indicator ISSN 0378-4738 = Water SA Vol. 33 No. 4 July 2007http://www.wrc.org.za 45.P. H. Nielsen: Life Cycle Assessment Supports Cold-Wash Enzymes International JournalFor Applied Science, SÖFW-Journal | 131 | 10-2005 46. Robert W. Howarth· Renee Santoro · Anthony IngraffeaMethane and the greenhouse-gas footprint of naturalgas from shale formationsClimatic ChangeDOI 10.1007/s10584-0110061-5 47. Anders C. Schmidt1*, Allan A. Jensen1, Anders U. Clausen2, Ole Kamstrup2 and Dennis Postlethwaite3 A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Building Insulation Products made ofStone Wool, Paper Wool and FlaxInt J LCA 9 (1) 53 – 66 (2004) DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2003.12.144. 48.Aldo Roberto Ometto&Michael ZwickyHauschild& Woodrow Nelson Lopes Roma Life cycle assessment of fuel ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil Int J Life Cycle Assess (2009) 14:236– 247 DOI 10.1007/s11367-009-0065-9 49. Life cycle assessment in the steel industryA position paper issued by the World Steel Association (world steel)January 2010 50. Eva Risch a,*, Oriol Gutierrez b, Philippe Roux a, Catherine Boutin c,Lluı´sCorominas b Life cycle assessment of urban wastewatersystems: Quantifying the relative contribution ofsewer systems water r e s e arch 7 7 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 3 5e4 8 51. Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles United States Environmental Protection Agency April 24, 2013 EPA 744R-12-001 52.Life
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a
combinedSimulation-optimization approach R. Brunet et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 48 (2012) 367e377 54. VijayaSubramaniam,Choo Yuen May ,Halimath Muhammad Life Cycle Assessment Of the Production of Kernel Oil Journal Of Oil Palm Research Vol.22 December 2010 p.904-912 Page 18
55. Joseph Greene, Ph.D. Life Cycle Assessment of Reusable and Single-use Plastic Bags in CaliforniaCalifornia State University, Chico Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentJanuary 2011 56. Franklin Associates Impact Of Plastic Packaging On Life CycleEnergy Consumption & Greenhouse
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Clients\ACC\KC14252701.08.14 3860.00.001.005Ii January 2014 57.Life Cycle Analysis With examples from biofuel analysishttp://ocw.mit.edu/terms. November 2010 58. ArinolaAbiolaa, Eric S. Fragaa& Paola LettieriaMulti-Objective Design for the Consequential Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Ethanol Production Environmental ScienceTechnology, 40(6):1744-1750, February 2006 59. Alvaro Robledo-DiezMaster in Industrial EcologySupervisor: Edgar Life Cycle Assessment on the Conversionof CO2 to Formic Acid Department of Energy and Process EngineeringNorwegian University of Science and Technology, June 2012 60. T E Norgate and R RLovelWater Use in Metal Production: A Life Cycle Perspective CSIRO Minerals DMR-2505 September 2004 61. Michael Ambrose, Prof. Stewart Burn, DrDhammikaDeSilva, Mike RahillyLife Cycle Analysis of Water Networks 62.Bruce Lippke, Jim Wilson, John Perez-Garcia, Jim Bowyer, and Jamie MeilCORRIM: LifeCycle Environmental Performance of Renewable Building Materials Journal Forest Products June 2004,Vol 54, No.6 63. A. A. Burgess, D. J. BrennanApplication of life cycle assessment to chemical processes Chemical Engineering Science 56 (2001) 2589-2604 64.Aida
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http://www.istc.illinois.edu/info/library_docs/TR/TR040.pdfDecember 2009 65. Curran, M.A. Life Cycle Assessment: An International Experience. EnvironmentalProgress, 19(2), 65-71.2000 66. The Method of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) http://www.oc-praktikum.de 67.B Resource Guide: Conducting a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)2008 68.G.M. Evans, K.P. Galvin, E. DoroodchiIntroducing quantitative life cycle analysis into the chemical engineering curriculum Education for chemical engineers 3 ( 2008 ) e57–e65 Page 19
69. B.S. DhillonLife Cycle Costing for EngineersInternational Standard Book Number: 978-14398-1688-2 (Hardback) 2010 70. Brian Pallasch, Emily Feenstra, Brittney Kohler Life Cycle Cost Analysis American Society of Civil Engineers • Eno Center for Transportation & Maximizing the Value of Investment Using Life Cycle Cost Analysis. 71. SenthilKumaranDhurairaj ,S.K. Ong,A.Y.C. Nee And R.B.H. Tan Evaluation of Life Cycle Cost Analysis Methodologies Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 9, No. 1 (2002)10667938 72. Dr. Arnold Tukker , TNO Institute of Strategy, Technology and Policy Handbook onLife Cycle Assessment Operational Guide to the ISO StandardsVolume 7, Kluwer Academic Publisher New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow 73. International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Provisions and action steps First edition March 2010. EUR 24378 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union; 2010 74. Sielinde K. Fuller, Stephen R. Petersen LIFE Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program NIST Handbook 135 1995 Edition 210 Pages 75. Tim Mearig, AIA Nathan Coffee Michael Morgan, PMP Life Cycle Cost Analysis HandbookDepartment of Education & Early Development Education Support Services / Facilities 1st Edition 1999 76. Ester van der Voet and GjaltHuppesLife Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing of Bioethanol from Sugarcane in BrazilRenewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2009; 13(6-7): 1613-1619. 77. R. Gary Hicks & Jon A. EppsLife Cycle Cost Analysis of Asphalt-Ruber Paving Materials
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