There has been a considerable increase in the industrial development of geothermal energy in the world. Pakistan is deficient in energy resources and is facing.
PK9600213
PINSTECH/RIAD-140
ISOTOPIC AND CHEMICAL STUDIES OF GEOTHERMAL WATERS OF NORTHERN AREAS OF PAKISTAN
SYED DILDAR HUSSAIN MANZOOR AHMAD M. ISHAQ SAJJAD WAHEED AKRAM NIAZ AHMAD M. AZAM TASNEEM MUHAMMAD RAFIQ
Radiation and Isotope Applications Division Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology P.O. Nilore, Islamabad. May, 1994
PINSTECH/RIAD-140
1S0T0PIC AND CHEMICAL STUDIES OF GEOTHERMAL WATERS NORTHERN AREAS OF PAKISTAN
SYED DILDAR HUSSAIN MANZDOR AHMAD M. ISHAG SAJJAD WAHEED AKRAM NIA2 AHMAD M. AZAM TASNEEM MUHAMMAD RAFIQ
RADIATION AND ISOTOPE APPLICATIONS DIVISION, PA!. 13 TAN INSTITUTE OF NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 9. O. NILORE, ISLAMABAD. MAY, 1994
OF
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 1.
INTRODUCTION
i
2.
DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA UNDER INVESTIGATION
1
2.1
Tectonic Setting
2
2.2 2.3 2.4
Regional Geology Local Geology of Geothermal Sites Climate
3 4 5
3.
COLLECTION AND FIELD TREATMENT OF SAMPLES
5
4.
LABORATORY TREATMENT AND ANALYSES OF SAMPLES
7
5.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
8
5.1
5.2 5.3
5.4 5.5 5.6
6.
Water Chemistry 5.1.1 Physicochemical Parameters 5.1.2 Major/Minor Ion Chemistry Isotopic Character 5.2.1 Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) Process Affecting the Isotopic Composition and Chemical Concentrations of Thermal Waters During Their Rise to the Surface Origin of Geothermal Waters Source of Sulphates Isotope and Chemical Geothermometry 5.6.1 Isotopic Geothermometers 5.6.2 Chemical Geothermometers
11 16 17 18 18 19
5.6.3
21
Evaluation of Na-K-Mg Temperature
9 9 1O 11 11
CONCLUSIONS
21
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
22
REFERENCES
23
ABSTRACT Northern Area is one of the major thermal fields of Pakistan. It has more than two dozen known hot springs having discharge temperature ranging from 35°C to 94°C. The area is characterized by U-shaped glaciated valleys among high mountain ranges. Tectonically the area is still active and has two major thrust faults viz. Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) and Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT). Most of the hot springs are lying along these faults. Chemical and isotopic investigation was undertaken to get the information about the origin and composition of hot waters, age and reservoir temperatures. Samples of water, gas and chemical precipitates were collected in four field trips and analyzed for various chemical ions and isotopes. The results show that the geothermal waters are of meteoric origin which have acquired their heat during circulation in fault system. Thermal waters are classified into Na-HCO , Na-SO and mixed type on the basis of their chemical contents. In Murtazabad, Budelas, Sassi and Chutran areas, thermal waters are being mixed with cold fresh waters while in the remaining areas occurrence of mixing process is not evident. Tritium contents suggest that hot waters of Tatta Pani and Tato springs have not been recharged within last 40 to 5O years. The hot waters of remaining areas are relatively younger in age. Different isotopic and chemical geothermometers have been applied to estimate the reservoir temperatures at different locations. These temperature estimates for the two major fields i.e., Tatta Pani and Murtazabad are in the range of 13O to 239 °C and 114 to 296 *C respectively. Sulphate-water and Silica thermometers yield close estimates whereas Na-K-ca temperatures are relatively high.
ISOTOPIC AND CHEMICAL STUDIES OF GEOTHERMAL WATERS OF NORTHERN AREAS OF PAKISTAN 1.
INTRODUCTION
There has been a considerable increase in the industrial development of geothermal energy in the world. Pakistan is deficient in energy resources and is facing difficulties in coping with the ever increasing demands for socio-economic development. With a view to improve the position of electric supply, geothermal resources, if feasible, may be exploited. Northern Areas is one of the major thermal fields of Pakistan. It has more than two dozen known hot springs with temperature ranging from 35 ^C to 94 C at the surface. A knowledge of the thermal characteristics and physico-chemical behaviour of groundwater in relation to aquifer lithology and structure is an essential pre-requisite of any geothermal exploration. The isotopic and chemical studies have been carried out to get information about the origin and composition of hot waters, age, temperature and recharge conditions of the reservoir. A brief description of the area investigated and the work carried out is as follows. 2.
DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA UNDER INVESTIGATION
The location of the investigated area is shown in Figure 1. It is characterized by steep topography and U—shaped glaciated valleys. Some important mountain ranges of the area are Kailas, Rakaposhi, Masherbrum and Karakoram. The area is drained by the rivers Indus, Gilgit and Hunza while the rivers Shigar, Shyok, Ishkuman and Yasin form the major tributaries to the main streams.
The hot springs of Tatta Pani (TI) and Murtazabad (MD) are located near the Karakoram Highway. Sassi (SI) thermal springs are on Gilgit-Skardu Road. Springs of Mushkin (MN), Budelas (BS) and Tato (TO) are accessible by jeepable tracks off the Karakoram Highway. Chutran (CN) thermal spring is located in Basha valley on the right bank of the river Basha. 2.1
Tectonic Setting
The geotectonic development of Northern Areas of Pakistan during late-cretaceous to cenozoic involves the following three tectonic elements: i)
Indo-Pakistan shield and its northern sedimentary cover (Indian Mass),
ii)
The rocks deposited on the southern part of the Eurasian Mass,
iii)
Evolved Island Arc Sequence during consumption of paleo-ocean Tethys .
the
The Indian subcontinent was a part of the Gondwana land from Archaean times. The Gondwana land consisted of the continents of South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia and India. The Indo-Australian part of the Gondwana land was separated from Eurasian Mass by a vast stretch of Tethyen sea. About 130 million years ago, the Indian ocean plate departed from Gondwana land and started drifting towards Eurasia with the simultaneous consumption of the Tethys Sea plate in between . As a result of intra-oceanic subduction in front of the Indo-Pakistan plate, an island arc (now called Kohistan Island Arc) was produced on the north of subduction zone. The first contact of this Island Arc was with Indo-Pakistan plate which
finally collided with Eurasian Mass. The Kohistan Island Arc Sequence is juxtaposed in between the Indo-Pakistan plate and Eurasian plate. A major thrust fault called Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) separates geologically the Indian Mass from the Kohistan Island Arc Sequence while another thrust fault called Main Karakoram Thrust (MKT) marks the boundary between the Kohistan Island Arc Sequence and the Eurasian Mass" 3 '. The major tectonic features of Northern Areas of Pakistan are shown in Figure 2. Seothermal manifestations under investigation lie along MMT and MKT. These thrust faults are still active. Heat generated mainly due to friction along these faults is imparted to the waters of the area which emerge in the form of hot springs at some places. The other speculated source of heat may be radioactive decay of granodiorites of the area' '. 2.2
Regional Geology
The rock units of the investigated areas represent the Indian Mass, the Kohistan Island Arc Sequence and the Eurasian Mass. The rocks exposed in the area are the metamorphic and granitic rocks which range from Precambrian to Tertiary in age. i) The rocks of Eurasian Mass north of Main Karakoram Thrust are late-paleozoic metasedimentary rocks, mainly flysh which are considered deep sea sediments deposited by turbidity currents ii) The oldest rocks of the Indian Mass are the Salkhala Series. They are involved in the Nanga Farbat tectonics and constitute a substantial part of the massif.
The main rock types are slate, phyllite, various types of schists, paragneisses, sandstone and quartritic crystalline conglomerate which B.re intruded by the basic to acidic igneous rocks. The other rock units of the Indian Mass are Hazara Formation and Tanawal Formation (F'recambrian in age), Abbottabad Formation and Mansehra Granite (Cambrian in age). The rocks of Hazara Formation and Tanawal Formation are believed to be deposited in deep sea basin by turbidity currents. Limestones and dolomites are the main lithologies of Abbottabad Formation while Mansehra Granite is porphyritic, foliated and tourmaline bearing in parts. iii) The rocks representative of island arc environment constitute the Kohistan Island Arc Sequence. They consist of a thick calc-alkaline plutonic, volcanic and volcano—sedimentary rocks, Jurrassic—Cretaceous in age 2.3
Local Geology of Geothermal Sites
Tatta Pani springs emanate from unconsolidated to semi-consolidated fluvial deposits or talus. Amphibolites fractured by the MMT constitute the hard rocks exposed around these geothermal manifestations. Tato spring emerges from semi-consolidated fluvial and moraine deposits. It lies at an altitude of about 1200 m above that of Tatta Pani springs. The hard rocks exposed around the Tato manifestation are Nanga Parbat Gneisses (Migmatite granitic gneisses) of pre-cambrian age. Mushkin spring emanates from surface soil. The rocks exposed around the spring are the Nanga Parbat Gneisses. Sassi springs emerge from quaternary deposits and the hard rocks exposed around the thermal springs largely comprise gneisses of Kohistan Island Arc Sequence.
Murtazabad springs emanate from a steep cliff which is made up of fluvial deposits largely comprising gravels. The hard rocks exposed around the manifestations are garnet staurolite schist and limesilicate marble of the Baltit Sroup which is assigned lower paleozoic to precambrian age. The Karakoram Granodiorite Belt is located 15 km north of the manifestations. Hakuchar springs are located on the left bank of the Hunza river towards south of Murtazabad springs and arise from fluvial deposits. The hard rocks exposed around Hakuchar springs are the same as those around Murtazabad springs. The manifestations at Murtazabad and Hakuchar lie north of the Main Karakoram Thrust. Budelas manifestations &re located between the MKT and the Karakoram Granodiorite. The rocks exposed around the springs belong to the Baltit Group and comprise garnet staurolite schist. Chutran spring issues from the semi-consolidated quaternary deposits. The hard rocks exposed around the spring are limestones of Eurasian Mass 2.4
Climate
Climate of the area is characterized by cold winters and warm and dry summers. June—August are the hot months during which mean maximum temperature is about 3O C. Snow fall occurs during cold months of December—February when minimum temperature goes several degrees below the freezing point. Rain fall is scanty. 3.
COLLECTION AND FIELD TREATMENT OF SAMPLES
Usually the study area is approachable during May to November as otherwise the roads are blocked due to heavy snow fall and land slides. Four sets of samples in May-June 1990, June 1991, October 1991 and October 1992 were
collected. In the "first sampling six sites with twenty three hot springs were located and water samples for the measurement of isotopes (D, H, C and O) and major chemical ions were collected. In the 2nd, 3rd and 4th sampling three sites viz. Mushkin, Chutran and Budelas could not be approached due to land slides. A site "Tato" near Tatta pani manifesting a boiling water spring with considerable discharge and a hot spring of Hackuchar near Murtazabad areA were added. Locations of sampling sites are shown in Figure 3. Some river/snowmelt samples were also included. Important physico-chemical parameters like pH, EC and temperature were measured in the field. Water samples for isotopes and chemical analyses were collected from almost all the springs whereas steam/gas samples were collected from three springs. The methodology for collection and field treatment of the samples for anions, cations, isotopes ( 0, 2 H , 3 H and 1 3 C) was adopted as described by Giggenbachc5*. For silica 50 ml of filtered thermal water was diluted four times with deionized water. Procedures for sampling sulphates and steam and gas are as follows. Sulphates: As the sulphate concentration in our geothermal springs is enough for the isotopes ( 3 & O) measurement. so one liter of water for each sample was collected to precipitate sulphate. Water samples were filtered in the field with 0.45 ^m filters to remove particles which may contain sulphur. pH was raised to about 10 and sulphate was precipitated by adding BaCl . Samples were also poisoned with HgCl to kill the bacterial activity, if present.
Steam and Gas: The system used for the collection of steam gas samples is schematically shown in Figure 4. procedure adopted is as follows.
and The
Stainless steel funnel was immersed in the water just over the mouth of the spring. Closing valve 1, the whole line was evacuated by circulation pump and hand vacuum pump. To avoid the entry of vapours from NaOH solution, valve 4 was closed and vacuum in 5 liter bottle was brought to about 10 mb. After evacuation, valve 6 was closed. By opening valve 1 steam and gases were allowed to enter the cooling coil where the steam was condensed, while the gases were driven into the bottle of NaOH by circulation pump for two minutes. After this valve 3 was closed and NaOH solution was shaken for 2-3 minutes to absorb CO and H S completely. The remaining gases like H , CH , N , Ar etc. were transfered to 5 liter bottle. The same process was repeated till a pressure of about one bar in the 5 liter bottle was achieved. In this way steam condensate, CO and H S absorbed '
' 2 2
solution in NaOH and mixture of other gases were collected. 4.
LABORATORY TREATMENT AND ANALYSES OF SAMPLES
Sample preparation and analyses for different ions like Na, K, Cs, Mg, Li, Si, Rb, B, Cl, HCO , SO and 18
2
3
isotopes like 0, H or D, H were carried out according to the procedures described by Giggenba.cn1 ' and Sajjad' '. For measurement cf 6 0 of sulphate, the precipitate collected in the field was filtered and reacted with HNO to remove carbonates by making pH upto 2. Sulphates were again filtered and dried. BaSO samples were
reacted with graphite at 1000 C and converted to CO . High voltage discharge was also used for the complete conversion of CO to CO . Conversion of sulphate to SO for 2
measurement of
V 0 2
2
: tV
=
log
(Na/Li) -
0.14
Table III shows that at Tatta Pani geothermal manifestations, deep reservoir temperatures calculated by Na-K, Na-Li, Quartz (after adiabatic steam loss) and sulphate-water geothermometer ar& in reasonable agreement. The K-Ca and Na-K-Ca temperatures are on higher side. The reservoir temperatures calculated by the same geothermometer at different thermal sites in Tatta Pani area are very close to each other. In Murtazabad area, SiO (Quartz) and sulphate water gee-thermometers yield close results. h4a-K-Ca geothermometer at sampling stations MD-19/H and T0-39/H could not be applied as the calicium concentration were below the detection limit of the technique used. The same chemical geothermometer applied to the three different geothermal sites in Sassi ar&a, provides very close reservoir temperature values. The temperatures determined by Na-K-Ca, Na-Li, Quartz • and sulphate-water thermometers are in good agreement with each other. Strong variations ars evident in case of Budelas and Chutran hot springs which are perhaps due to the reason that thermal waters at all these sites get mixed with river water. Hence different geothermometers used for temperature calculations seem to be inappropriate for these springs'
20
5.6.3. Evaluation of Na-K-Mg-Temperatures Evaluation of Na-K-Mg-temperatures'
' is
in Figure 17. The position of all the data points
indicates
that none of the thermal systems of the study area full equilibrium. The Tatta F'ani and Tato hot
marked
as
Murtazahad
Immature hot
them
in
Waters.
spring
No.
the
Some
in
show
all
the
compositional
hot
MD-24,
attained
springs
partial equilibrium. The high percentage of Mg remaining samples places
shown
springs
-25
and
area
including
-27/H
indicate the control by rock leaching in Cl-Li-B
which
triangular
plot (Fig. 7 ) , also show rock interaction in this diagram.
h.
CONCLUSIONS The thermal waters of Northern Areas are neutral
to slightly alkaline and have low dissolved
salt
Sodium is the dominant cation in almost all
the
terms of anions the
hot
waters
of
Budelas
sulphate type, those of Tatta Pani are and
those
of
domination.
the
Tatta
remaining Pani
and
of
area; Tato
contents. cases.
area
mixed show
springs
ars
In of
character bicarbonate
show
partial
equi 1 ibr iufT:.
The thermal waters are of have acquired their heat during systems. Shallow fresh waters of Tatta Pani little to the
water and
discharge
of
circulation does
Tato
not
whereas
Mushkin
waters of the remaining areas
meteoric in
mi>: it
the
with
and fault
thermal
contributes
spring.
(Murtazabad,
origin
The
a
thermal
Budelas,
Sassi
and Chutran) contain a significant component of fresh
water
incorporated in the flow system prior to discharge.
Absence
of tritium in Tatta F'ani and Tato hot springs indicates that residence time of recharging water in the geothermal
21
system
is more than 50 years while at
the
remaining
fields,
the
thermal waters appear to be young in age. Deep reservoir temperatures estimated by various isotopic and chemical geothermometers for the two major fields i.e. Tatta Pani and Murtazabad are 83—257°C and 65-296°C respectively. At Tatta Pani thermal manifestations, sulphate-water, Na-K, quartz (after adiabatic steam loss) and Na-Li geothermometers yield close estimates. In case of Murtazabad hot springs, sulphate-water and quartz thermometers give close results. Most of the temperatures in excess
sites of
have
15O C.
estimated
Further
reservoir
exploration
to
assess the potential of the sites for economic production of electricity is required. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The present investigation was carried out within the framework of IAEA Co-ordinated Research Programme for Africa, Asia and the Middle East on the Application Df Isotope and Geochemical Techniques in Geothermal Exploration (Research Contract No. 5924/RB). Sincere thanks are due to Dr, R. Gonf lantini. Dr. W.E. Giggenbach ar-ti Dr. S. Arncrsson for the provision of guidance and literature. Thanks are a?5a cite tc Dr. !"!. A. Beg for his suggestions to improve the manuscript. All the expenses on field sampling and isotopic and chemical analyses were met by PINSTECH. The keen interest taken by Director PINSTECH and PAEC authorities is thankfully acknowledged. The cooperation extended by Mr. Zahid Latif for measurement of stable isotopes and Dr. Mu^htar Ahmad for analysis of boron and rubidium is acknowledged. The efforts put in by the laboratory staff
22
(Messers Muhammad Arshad, Muhammad
Islam Pasha, liumtaz Khan,
Somar Gul, Imtiaz Ahmad, Bashir Ahmad and Irshad Ahmad)
for
carrying out sample analyses are appreciated. REFERENCES 1)
Powel1,C.McA., A Speculative Tectonic History of Pakistan and Surroundings: Some constraints from the Indian Ocean, In: Abul Farah & Kees, DeJong (eds.), Geodynamics of Pakistan, Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta (1979).
2)
Khan,K.S.A., Khan,I.H., Leghari,A.L., Khan ..M.S. Z ., Geology along the Karakoram Highway from Hasan Abdal to Khunjerab Pass, Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta (1987).
3)
Tahirkheli,R.A., Geology of the Himalayas, and Hindukush in Pakistan. Geol. Bull. Univ. Spec. Issue, Vol.Ill (1982).
4)
Todaka,N., Shuja,T.A., Jamiluddin,S., Khan,N.A., Pasha, M.A. and Iqbal,M., A Preliminary Study for Geothermal Development Project in Pakistan, Geological Survey of Pakistan (1988).
5)
Giggenbach,W.F. and Gogue1,R.L . , Collection and analysis of geotherfnal volcanic water and gas discharges. Report No. CD 2401, Chemistry Division, DSTR, Petone, New Zealand (1939).
6)
Sajjad,M.I., Isotope Hydrology in Pakistan, Instrumentation-Methodology-Applications, Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Punjab, Lahore (1989).
7)
Nehring , N.L. , Bower.,P. A. and Truesdel1,A.H. Techniques •for the conversion to carbon dioxide of oxygen from dissolved sulphates in thermal waters, Geothermics, Vol. 5, (1977) 63-66.
8)
Yanagisawa,F. and 3akai,H., Thermal Decomposition of Barium Sulphate - Vanadium Pentaoxide - Silica Glass Mixture for preparation of sulfur dioxide in Sulfur Isotope Ratio Measurements, Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 55, No. 6 (1983) 985-987.
9)
Craig,H., Isotopic Standards for Carbon and Oxygen and Correction Factors for Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Carbon Dioxide, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Vol. 12, 23
Karakoram Peshawar,
(1957) 133-149. 10)
Lyon,G.L. and Cox,M.A., Stable hydrogen and methane mixtures. (1978).
isotope analysis of Report No. INS—R-254
11)
Giggenbach,W., Gonf iantini ,R. , Panichi,C, Geothermal Systems, In: International Atomic Energy Agency, Guidebook on Nuclear Techniques in Hydrology, Tech. Report Series No. 91, IAEA, Vienna (1983) 359-379.
12)
BertramijR., Camacho,A., Stefanis,L.D., Medina,T., Zuppi,G.M., Geochemical and isotopic exploration of the geothermal area of Paipa, Cordillera Oriental, Colombia, In Geothermal Investigations with Isotope and Geochemical Techniques in Latin America, IAEA-TECDOC641, IAEA Vienna (1992).
13)
Mazor.E., Levitte,D., Truesdel1,A.H., Healy,J. and Nissenbaum,A. (1980), Mixing models and ionic thermometers applied to warm (upto 6O C) springs: Jordan Rift Valley, Israel, J. Hydrol., Vol. 45, pp.1-19.
14)
Truesdel1,A.H. and Fournier,R.O., Procedure for estimating the temperature of hot water component in a mixed water by using a plot of dissolved silica versus enthalpy. Jour. Research U.S. Geological Survey Vol. 5, No. 1 (1977)49-52.
15)
Pearson,F.J.Jr., and Rightmire,C.T., Sulphur and oxygen isotopes in aquous sulphur compounds. In: Fritz,P. and Fontes,J.-Ch., Handbook of Environmental Isotope Geochemistry, Vol. 1, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam-Cbtford-New York (19SO) 227-257.
16)
Lloyd,R.M., Oxygen isotope behaviour in the sulphate-water system, J. Geophys. Res., Vol. 73 (1968) 6O99-611O.
17)
Giggenbach,W.F., Gonfiantini,R., Jangi,B.L. and Truesdel1, A.H., Isotopic and chemical composition of Parbati valley geothermal discharges, north-west Himalaya, India, Geothermics, Vol. 12, No.2/3 (19S3) 129-14O.
18)
Henley,R.W., Truesdel1,A.H., Barton,P.B., Whitney,J.A, Fluid—Mineral Equilibria in Hydrothermal Systems, Reviews in Economic Geology, Vol. 1, Society of Economic Geologists, U.S.A. (1984) 31-43.
19)
Kharaka,Y.K., Mariner,R.H., Chemical geothermometers and their application to formation waters from sedimentary basin. In: Naeser,N.D. and Me Collon,T.H. (eds.), Thermal History of Sedimentary Basins, Springer-Verlag, New York (1989) 99-117.
20)
Fournier,R.Q. and Truesdel1,A.H., An empirical Na-K—Ca geothermometer for natural waters, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 37 (1973) 1255-1275.
21)
Fournier,R.O., Chemical geothermometers and models for geothermal systems, Geothermics, (1977) 41-50.
22)
Tonani,F., Some remarks on the application of geochemical techniques in geothermal exploration, P r o c , Adv. Eur. Geoth. Res., Second Symp., Strasbourg, (1980) 428-443.
23 3)
Fouillac,C. and Michard,G., Sodium/lithium ratios in water applied to geothermometry of geothermal reservoirs, Geothermics, Vol. 10 (1981) 55-70.
24)
Arnorsson,S., Chemical equilibria in Icelandic geothermal systems—implications for chemical geothermometry investigations, Geothermics, Vol. 12, No. 2/3, (1980) 119-128.
25
mixing Vol. 5
TABLE I: RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES SAMPLE TI-l/H TI-l/H TI-l/H TI-l/H TI-l/H
DATE 1 2 3 4
Na
K
Ca
255
7.0 6.4 2.3 2.7 4.7
0.50 0.36 0. 17
6.7 2.7 3.0 2.5 3.7
0 .34 0 .21
6.8
203 133 174 Mean 205
TI-2/H TI-2/H TI-2/H TI-2/H TI-2/H
174 Mean 195
TI-3/H TI-3/H TI-3/H TI-3/H TI-3/H
1 2 3 4 Mean 1
1 2 3 4
242 199 174
Mo
0.61
36 43 35 36 33
224 264 234 146 217
170 31 1 231 173
0.27
0.07 0.07 0.82 0.05
221
70 0.57 59 0.52 52 0 .54
9 .97 0 .23 0. 16 0.29 0. 19
0.12 0.05 0.01 0.06
32 52 43 40 42
220 202 221 160
155 39 1
43
0 . 20
0 .33
2.7 2.9 3.9
TI-4/H TI-4/H TI-4/H TI-4/H TI-4/H
239 191 169 3 4 173 Mean 193
6.4 4.9 2.3 2.3 4.2
0.42 0.26 0.25 0.43
0 .99 0 .05
0 . 34
0 .52
TI-5/C TI-5/C TI-5/C
1 255 3 193 Mean 224
6. 2 3.4 4.3
0.23 0 .60 0 .44
0 . 36
6.2 2 .4 2 .7 2.3 3 .4
0 9 9 0
TI-4/H TI-6/H T I-i/H' T T -,£,./M TI-6./-H
T I -7...-'H T I-7/H TI - 7 / h T T - 7 /' U
1 3
256 136 182 139
4 -'ear. 29 1
i
••' C
14?
3 4
186
Mean
133
1
262 146 193
TI-3/H TI -3/1-! TI-3/H TI-3/H
4 M e a n
TI-9/H TI-9/H
1 2
260
TI-9/H TI-9/H
3
TI-43/H
Mean
0 . 36
0.20 . 26 ,29 . 3d . 24
0.21 2 . 9 0.19 0 .29 2.9 0 . 26
51 47 49
0,05 '3 • 0 5
4a
130
217 216 182 199
232 187 24 1
20 1
162
200 247 192 135
20 1
20 6
20 2
216 225
220
135
2 19 220
196 166
224
130
2 ':
50 76 0 .55 59 6.51 61 0 .53
11 .0 O
"7
'—• • r
9.8
26
10.9 3.7 9.3
71 0 .49 8.7 58 0.53 0.03 11.0 57 0.51 0.03 9.9 55 70 0 .53 52 0 .53 59 0 .53
10 .7 3.3
9. 7
43
2 26 2^2 158
Rb
2 16
19 0 1 2 12
"7 -|
0 . 68
11.0
0 .61 ^ i
"•**
0 . 65
1
-i . '
-* *
0 .07 0.01 3 . 7 •?, . 2 4 0 . 9 5
3.13 0.15 9 . 33 @ .24
0 .04 0.06 0 .05
139 224
7.9 4.5 4.3 5.7
0.27 9 .24 0 .25 8.25
0. 12 0. 12 0. 12
165
2.9
0.30
0.67
223
35 50 47 45 44
61 43 33 40 4 6
0. y 8 0 .0£ 0 .0 2
7.3 2.7 4.3 4.9
20 0
S04 Si 02 Li
189 242 252 150 208
0 .32 0.34
34
TIC
45 37 35 33
1.75 0.05 0.02
239 187 167 173 191
3. 1
C1
55
250 1 72
49
627 150 29 7
3 1 50
'"•' ' ^
155
266
2 36
178
292 193
52 44 78 55 48
•~j i
7
i Z' ."'
19 *
4i
78 5 . 67 6 1 0 .63 0 .65
10.5
~? V
0 .64 6 3 0 . 76
10.7 9.8
70 0 .70
10 . 3
12.0 12.8
343 202
231 265
60
295 289
216 237
91 33 0.82 87 0 .82
56
267
126
63 0.53
•- . 3
? .?
SAMPLE
DATE
Na
K
267 14.2
Ca
Mg
Cl
0.27
1.71
93
290
98
TIC
S04 SiO2 Li
MN-10/H
1
MN- 1 1/C
1
18
9.4
7.67
2.26
2
101
64
MN-12/N
1
8
7.9
1. 14
1.79
3
114
67
MN-13/R
1
13
6.2
0.93 23.44
6
185
37
BS-14/H
1
369 31.0 18.00 28.00
116
281
266
BS-15/C
1
31
9.0 27.00 16.00
21
123
210
BS-16/H
1
16
7.0
16.00 15.00
3
97
134
BS-17/H
1
67 1 1 .0 20.00 24.00
8
83
1S0
BS-18/R
1
12 18.0
3.00 29.00
2
57
98
MD-19/H MD-19/H MD-19/H MD-19/H MD-19/H
1 2 3 4 Mean
51 72 180 105 82
193 638 968 750 637
290 20 1 276 325 272
MD-21/H MD-21/H MD-2 1/H MD-21/H MD-21/H
1 2 3 4
32 36 41 70 45
163 506 673 559 474
160 244 1 19 278 118 2.94 420 96 2.92 276 1 1 1 2.93
B
457 530 522 472 495
48.8 13 40 49.6 35.5
8 10 0.18
382 470 376 410 Mean 410
45.0 12.5 44.0 66.0S 41.9
2.00 1 .70 0.38 5.56 2.53
5.00 3.50 1 .56 2.52
2.00 0.41 0.49 5.86 1 .9?
2.08
41
215 66' 8 676 567
245 230 364 396 329
147 16? 3.31 145 3. 60 0.0 9 154 3.46 0.0?
145 963 792 725 658
110 227 129 9.7 257 144 1.94 370 122 2. 16 0 . 10 2.7 24 1 129 2.05 0.10 5.8 90 315 111 1.50 8.87 203 111 1.59 0.87
0.08 0.12
2.81 4.01 3.41
3. 15
MD-22/H MD-22/H MD-22/H MD-22/H MD-22/H
447 693 423 639 Mean 541
41 .0 12.6 39.0 71.6 40 .9
4.24 8. 93 5.06
46 42 176 75
MD-23/H MD-23/H MD-23/H MD-23/H MD-23/H
1 2 3 4 Mean
430 47? 398 450 437
45.0 4.0 0 25.0 0 12.4 3. 10 17.80 41 .0 2.60 18.72 59.8 10.76 25. 08 39.4 5. 10 21.43
36 2? 34 110 52
MD-24/H MD-24/H MD-24/H MD-24/H MD-24/H
1 2 3 4
254 302 260 283
38.0 1 1 .00 110.0 12.9 5.90 100.0 43.9 9.08 80.98 51.0 17.64 83.90
Mean 2 7 5 3 6 . 2 10.39 93.25
23 20 40 25
,-MD-25/H " MD-25/H MD-25/H
1 261 39.0 5.00 83.00 4 247 43.0 10.98 81.00 Mean 254 41.0 7.99 82.00
18 75 47
441 608 521
3 2
75 88
MD-26/N MD-26/N
Rb
1 2 3 4
1 2
11 15.9 7.00 15.88 3 13.7 22.88 28.38
13
65 32
115 192 4.04 173 4.00 0.06 160 4.02 0.06
8.2 7. 1 7.6
5.3 4.7 6.7
8.4
7.6 7.8
7.5 5.7 6.9
2.2
Mg
SAMPLE
DATE
Na
M D - 2 6 / N M D - 2 6 / N M D - 2 6 / N
3 4 M e a n
12 5 3
1.86 5.9 10. 10 3.3 20.40 1 3 . 0 0 9.5 15.03 1 4 . 5 4
4 5 3
82 100 86
21 32 38
M M M M
D D D D
-
2 2 2 2
7 7 7 7
/ / / /
H H H H
1 195 30.0 22.00 5 7 . 0 0 2 213 13.6 18. 10 3 168 36.0 48.00 5 1 . 0 0 Mean 194 26.5 29.37 5 4 . 0 0
13 IS 29 20
1 14 413 536 356
150 292 289 244
S S S S
I I I I
-
2 2 2 2
9 9 9 9
/ / / /
N N N N
1 3 4 M e a n
7.00 1.80 6.40 5.07
4 3 4 4
97 79 80 35
55 31 26 37
S S S S
I I I I
-
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
/ / / /
H H H H
1 2 4 M e a n
243 13.0 9.00 7.30 255 9.5 239 12.0 20 .63 246 11.5 12.31
6.00 5.40 6.96 6. 12
23 22 23 23
235 594 370 400
S S S S S
I I I I I
-
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1
/ / / / /
H H H H H
1 .2 3 4 M e a n
244 257 241 241 246
4.00 4.60 4.64 5.86 4.78
20 22 33 35 23
17.00 2 0 . 0 0 14.00
K
Ca
Cl
T I C
S04
S i O 2L i
Rb
B
73 72 0.68 72 0.68
0.2 3.8
180 239 225 231
91 76 0.58 33 0.53
2. 1 2. 1
191 374 537 330 371
110 262 167 223 192
?? 8? 0.62 75 0.60 37 0.61
2.4 2. 1 2. 1
5
1 14
70
3
78
45
1 9 8 6
132 94 90 105
22 19 21 21
7.4S 1 .72 6.69 5.24
1 6 6 4
38 82 30 83
15 21 31 22
H K R - 3 6 / H H K R - 3 6 / H H K R - 3 6 / H
235 13 . 9 1 4 .96 2 1.20 197 25 . 0 37.89 19.00 Mean 216 19. 5 2 5 . 9 5 28 . 10
20 35 28
396 635 516
27 1 156 162 137 1 .40 -J 1 -? 147 1 .40
3.3
3 M - 3 3 / N S M - 3 S / N S M - 3 3 / N
«.2 4 1.6 Mean 0.9
1
44 1 10
T T T T
2 3 4 Mean
8 11 2 7
C N - 3 2 / H
1
16
C N - 3 3 / R
1
4
8.00 7.0 3.2 ?.6d 3.3 16.79 4.5 1 1 .46
13.0 9.00 1.40 9.2 13.0 12.00 12.0 17.67 11 .3 10.02 7.0
9.0 22.00
I I I I
N N N N
D D D D
-
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
/ / / /
R R R R
2 3 4 M e a n
2 15 7 3
8.5 27.90 21 . 10 1 .63 3.9 11 .40 6.43 2.9 23.30 4.3 20 .37 9.74
6 G G G
I I I I
T T T T
-
3 3 3 3
5 5 5 5
/ / / /
R R R R
2 3 4 M ea n
2 1 1 3 5
5.60 2.3 10 .76 3.6 2.3 20 .60 2.7 12 . 30
0 0 0 0
-
3 3 3 3
9 9 9 9
/ / / /
H H H H
292 248 270 270
1 .2 7 . 3 0 3.5 3 5 . 5 0 2.4 2 1 . 4 0 11.7 16.8 19.0 15.6
1 . 10 5.00 3.0 5 0 . 10 0 . 10
s
4
-7*7
139 179 170 163
550 518 410 493
1' f
10 32 21 240 179 33 152
129 20 2 1.91 177 1 .69 169 1 .80
27. 1 24.4 14.5
SAMPLE
DATE
Na
K
Ca
Mo
Cl
TIC
304 Si 02 Li
NP-46/SM 2 NP-48/SM 3 NP-40/SM 4 NP-4S/SM Mean
2 8 2 4
6.9 6.10 3.3 9.60 3.4 17.70 4.5 11.13
1.56 1.84 2.74 2.03
1 6 4 4
66 84 79 73
22 26 28 25
IND-41/R 3 IND-41/R 4 IND-41/R Mean
13 4 8
3.0 11.60 2.7 20.60 5.3 15.30
1.65 5.36 3.76
5 5 5
104 50 77
13 33 26
HKR-42/N
11
5.9 22.66
0.74
7
55
44
3
Rb
B
N.8. ALL THE IONIC CONCENTRATIONS ARE IN P"='M DATE: 1= MAY. 1996; 2= JUNE. 1991; 3=0CT0BER , 199 1 : 4=0C"r0BER . 1992 M=H0T SPRING; C=COLD SPRING: R=RIMER: S=SNOW: SM= SNOW MELT; N=NULLAH
TABLE II: RESULTS OF ISOTOPIC ANALYSES F I ELD PARAMETERS SAMPLE
DATE TEMP
pH
TI-l/H TI-l/H TI-l/H TI-l/H TI-l/H TI-2/H TI-2/H TI-2/H TI-2/H TI-2/H TI-3/H TI-3/H TI-3/H TI-3/H TI-3/H TI-4/H TI-4/H TI-4/H TI-4/H TI-4/H
1 2 3 4
Mean 1 2 3 4
Mean 1 2 3 4
Mean 1 2 3 4
Mean
EC
£0-13 SS-34 < v..)
8.40 8.71 7.85 8.48 3.34
1 2 3 4 Mean
1
d
< • - . . )
75 74 74 68 73
TI-6/H TI-4/H TI-6/H TI-6/H TI-6/H
•~j
SO
945 939 860 925 917
Mean
TI-9/H TI-9/H TI-9/H TI-9/H
80-13 < •/. . )
8.23 8.76 7.85 7.85 8. 19
24 21 23
i
FLOW
SULPHATE
63 63 63 5? 63
TI-5/C TI-5/C TI-5/C
1 3
ALT
(m)
< °C>
WATER
1246
30
1246
30
1 176 1 176
1000 1000
1176
300
1176
300
1173
30
1173
30
1 197 1 197
40 0 40 0
972
1020
129 3
40 0
939 998
12S3
40 0
10 32 1216 10 0 0 1003 1216
150
64
3.69 7.75 3.50 3.31
50 50 50 56
3.67 3.93 7 . 9Fi S.53
1-8 12 1825 1012 1202 19 16 1202
976
— "7 ""j - 7 •-,
-72 -73 -73
12 . =i 12.6 13.4 12.6 11.4 10.7
2.78 -6.26 0.82 1.11
11.4 11.4
-1.33 11 . 8 3.27 0.97
0.45 2.41
11.3
11.3
4.5
11.3
SAMPLE
DATE TEMP < °C>
DH
EC ALT
SO-13
SD
d
TU SO-13 SS-34
500
-11.07
-76
13.0
0
-11.40
-79
12.2
6
TI-43/H
3
62
7.90
MN-10/H
1
59
6.96
I860
MN-ll/C
1
17
7.94
199
- 1 1.50
-77
15.0
55
MN-12/N
1
17
8.30
78
- 1 2 . 10
-84
12.3
27
MN-13/R
1
13
8. 11
54
-12.50
-32
13.0
16
BS-14/H
1
35
6.75
2220
- 1 1.80
-87
7.4
28
BS-15/C
1
20
7.00
74 1
-12.90
-86
17.2
23
BS-16/H
1
46
7.22
433
-11.39
-80
14.4
35
BS-17/H
1
38
6.62
786
-11.80
-79
15.4
26
BS-13/R
1
3
8.33
168
-13.70
-93
16.6
35
1
94 93 94 94
8.89 9.40 8.65 8.59 8.38
3140 3030 30 10 3000 3058
-12.30 -12.83 -12.78 -12.51 -12.73
-90 -91 -92 -38 -90
12.4 11.4 ?.? 12. 1
1 1 .5
8.34 8.02 7.85 8.23 8.11
2310 2560 2600 2700 2668
-11.80 -12.69 -12.47 - 1 1.58 - 1 2 . 14
-36 -83 -39 -31 -86
13. 1 10 .6 11.6 10 .9
68
8.26 8.55 3.50 8.45 8.44
3010 2750 2310 3978 38 10
-12.60 -12.62 -12.71 -12.45 -12.60
-92 -89 -89 -38 -90
11.6 12.3 1 1 .6 11.2
66 69 7@ 70 67
8 .93 7.29 7.50 3 . 12 7.96
2580 2630 2530 2630 2605
-12.30 -12.36 -12.59 -12.29 -12.50
-86 -88 -9 1 -35
12.4 14.6 10.2 1 3 .3 12.6
6.32 7.73 7.00 8.40 7.33
2230 2200 2250
20 1 1
10 8
2200 2228
20 1 1
100
-11.89 - 12 ."0 0 -12.01 -11.59 -11.85
-83 -79 -80
Mean
61 63 63 62 62
-80
1 1.4 4 3 16.7 38 16.3 4 4 14.7 3 5 14.8 4 0
MD-25/H 1 4 MD-25/H MD-25/H ,Mean
41 35 38
6 .84 3 . 65 7 .75
1780 1929 1350
- 1 2 .00
-79 -79 -79
17 10 13
MD-19/H MD-19/H MD-19/H MD-19/H MD-19/H MD-21/H MD-21/H MD-21/H MD-21/H MD-21/H MD-22/H MD-22/H MD-22/H MD-22/H MD-22/H MD-23/H MD-23/H MD-23/H MD-23/H MD-23/H MD-24/H MD-24/H MD-24/H MD-24/H MD-24/H
2 3 4
Mean 1
2 3 4
Mean
94 54 86 92 87 80
1 2
43 77 79
4
73
Mean 1 2 4
Mean 1
2 3 4
927 1176
FLOW < 1/mi
1983 1933
1946 1946
1965 1965
1200 1200
100 100
68 60
1959
56
1959
50
- 1 1 . 23 - 11 . 6 2
8.4
3.3
5 6
7 6 26 20 24 21 23
-2.33 -1.09 2.64 -0.26
13.2 13.2
3.4
0 . 19 0. 19
3.4
8 8
8 7
8 26 23 23 19
.0 .3
48
9
42
m
0.62
19.6
-2.62 -2.62
10.6
9.2 1.24 1 .24 9 .2
5.6
-1 -1
. 86 . 86
-HPLE
DATE TEMP
ML'-26/N
1
3 . 5* 8 . 43
MD-26- N MD-26/N MD-26/N MD-26/N
2 3 4 Mean
3
MD-27/H MD-27/H MD-27/H MD-27/H
1 2 3 Mean
48 48 41 41
MLT
C.L-
• J J . 5 -• c m
3
'
•; m >
£0 - ! 3
FLOW •• }
126 194
7.50 8. IS
6.96 7.74 6.70 7.13
175 165 1621 1560 1627 2020 1603 20 20
TU SO-13
SO
50 50
17.a 12. 1 18.6 14. 1 15.6
52 26 40 39 39
16.5 16.7 16.6
66 56 57 60
— 77
16.6 13.8 18.7 14.4 17. 1
31 23 43 44 35
-13.30 - 16.49 -12.67 -14.39 -14.46
-105 -100
-11.58 -1 1.67 -11.63
-76 -77 -76 -77 -32 -71 -77
—9 3 -120
-S3
1 1 8.86 9 8
20 3 1332
9
7.75 7.9 1
180 177 1332
-11.70 -12.64 -11.17 -11 .43 -1 1.74
1 2 3 4 Mean
52 51 53 40 49
7.69 7.9 5 7. 17 7.22
130 0 1290 1320 1354 1277 1297 1354
-10.60 -10.63 -10.54 -10.26 -10.51
-70 -68 -72 -70 -70
14.3 17.2 11.9 12. 1 14.0
41 29 44 37 33
1 2 3 4 Mean
52 59 50 49 50
7.32 7.53 7.05 7.28 7.30
1319 1300 130 6 1342 130 2 1307 1342
-10.40 -10.63 -10.62 -10.52 -10.54
-71 -68 -74 -72 -71
12.2 17.0 11 .2 12.2 13.1
43 32 40 39 33
1
SI-29/N SI-29/N SI-29/N SI-29/N SI-29/N
3 4 Mean
SI-39/H SI-30/H SI-38/H SI-38/H SI-30/H SI-31/H SI-31/H SI-31/H SI-31/H SI-31/H
6 . 96
149
100 100
50 50
CN-32/H
1
44
7.07
483
-13.20
-91
14.6
22
CN-33/R
1
10
8.42
20 9
-15. 10
-104
16.3
25
-15.92 -13.25 -14.36 -14.51
-1 15 -103 -1@4
12. 3 22 12.5 30 1 1. 9 31 12.2 'v "7
-15.33 -14.66 -12.9S -14.3J
- 10 3
19.3
21
-102
1 =" —'
— y "r—9 3
15. 3 17.1
36 36 31
-13,02 - 12.33 - 12.95
-9 0 -36
-14.55 -13. 1 3 -12.16 -13.39
-98 -34 -32
IND-34/R 2 IND-34/R 3 IND-34/R 4 IND-34/R Mean GIT-35/R GIT-35/R GIT-35/R GIT-35/R HKR-36/B MKP-3i/H riKR-36./H
rM-38/N 3M-3S/N SM-3S/M SM-3S/N
2 3 4 M 1= A ft
3.21
2 4 Mean
1328
~? «•'"' 2l
230
11
"7 "7 "7
24 3 1323
13
7 , •?*?
97 215 1493
I2 •7
12
2 Mean
255
1 1 X *.
^ c;
7.32 7.3 5
65 65
248 184 149S
1747 170-7
6 . 95
1949 1742 1949
;=; 3.30
123
Q
79 7 190 0
7 .87 >'
3. 8 9
459 427 I96 0
SS-34
m i ;
-94
-:r:S
- 33
i.
••'
•
r
1 :-; . 9
17.0 15.5 IS." 7 21.4 15 .3 13.5
-3. 1 -3. 1
9 ./
4 .32 4 .S2
9 .7
4. 6 5 .80
5 . 80
4. 6
24 '-• 1
*.
~' ~7
6.
=
:
•
-
.
59
34 4*
2
•^MPLE
DATE TEMP DH
EC i.juS/cm.t
ALT FLOW < m)
2 3 4 Mean
93 93 92 92
9.39 8.55 3.75 8.90
1548 1570 2272 1597 1569 2272
NP-40/SM 2 NP-40/SM 3 NP-40/SM 4 NP-40/SM Mean
8 5
8.S8
3 IND-41/R IND-41/R 4 IND-41/R Mean
13
SO-IS