Ellis, Sheen, Murakami, and Takashima (2008) also studied the effectiveness of ...... Facebook and Twitter, and participating in online English discussion forums.
Issues in Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language in the Arab World
Edited by Abdulmoneim Mahmoud and Rahma Al-Mahrooqi
Book Title: Issues in Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language in the Arab World Editors: Abdulmoneim Mahmoud and Rahma Al-Mahrooqi Publisher: Sultan Qaboos University’s Academic Publication Board Address: P.O. Box 17, Postal Code 123, Muscat, Al Khoudh, Oman The book was refereed by Sultan Qaboos University’s Academic Publication Board and international experts in the ELT field
©2012 All rights are reserved for Sultan Qaboos University. No parts of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners.
ISBN 978-9948-16-766-2
C o n t e n t s INTRODUCTION
11
CHAPTER 1
17
A Critique of the Concept of EFL in Arabian Gulf Countries James Moody
CHAPTER 2
47
Language Attrition among Omani EFL Teachers: Teachers’ Perception Rahma Al Mahrooqi and Tausiff Sultana
CHAPTER 3
67
Cultural Universalities and Peculiarities: Acase Study of Omani EFL SQU Students Jamila Al Siyabi 7
CHAPTER 4
99
Perceptions of ‘Foreigness’: Students’ Assessment of Arab-American Poetry in Bahrain and Oman Mary L. Tabakow
CHAPTER 5
117
Reading Comprehension Problems and Strategies of Omani University EFL Students Badria Al Barashdi
CHAPTER 6
159
The Role of L1in EFL Vocabulary Learning and Teaching Abdulmoneim Mahmoud.
CHAPTER 7
177
Arabic English: A Model for Teachers of English in the Arab World T. Balasubramanian
CHAPTER 8 Direct and Indirect Metalinguistic Feedback: A Matter of Suitability rather than Superiority Fatema Al-Rubai’ey & Prof. Hossein Nassaji
8
203
CHAPTER 9
233
Omani Undergraduates’ Attitudes towards Using Online Chat and Web-forums to Improve their Reading and Writing Skills in English Badr Al Jahwary
CHAPTER 10
271
Investigating Omani Learners’ Out-of-Class English Language Learning Strategies A. Bulushi and A. Al-Issa
CONTRIBUTORS
295
9
Introduction Abdulmoneim Mahmoud and Rahma Al-Mahrooqi
A
s the international language of communication, science, technology and business, English is now taught in almost all schools around the world
as a first, second or foreign language. In the Arab world, English is gaining ever more prominence as countries rush to embrace modernity and economic development and become part of the modern world. English is taught from grade one (i.e. the first year in general education) in many Arab countries. It is taught as a school subject. Students’ exposure to the language is confined to about four hours per week of classroom instruction. Much capital is spent on instruction (teacher employment, resources, textbooks, print and non-print materials, computer labs and interactive boards) to provide a rich and an effective language learning environment. Despite this massive investment and the tremendous efforts spent on English language teaching, the outcomes fall short of official expectations and the demands of the job market. A majority of Arab learners of EFL fail to achieve an adequate level of proficiency in the language even after more than ten years of English study at school. The complexity of the process of language learning and retention, especially in a foreign context, cultural barriers, motivation and attitudes, opportunities for daily interaction in English, effect of mother-tongue interference in language learning, methods of teaching and feedback are only a few of the 11
factors leading to the problem. Due to their critical importance, these factors need to be studied in depth and in different contexts so that professionals can understand the full extent of their effects and begin to devise effective ways of tackling them. This book addresses some of these issues in ten chapters which, though distinct from one another, are intricately connected. Thus, the topics discussed center around the problems facing teaching and learning EFL in the Arab world and the resulting deterioration of standards in the language. Needless to say, the authors in this book propose some solutions in their endeavor to alleviate the problem. The chapters are thematically arranged from general to more specific issues. Chapters one and two focus on the EFL context in the Arab world. The first chapter by James Moody addresses English language acquisition and learning in a region dominated by Arabic, which is used for “internal and external communication”. English, viewed as a means of international communication with the modern world, is taught and used as a foreign language in the Gulf. However, Moody cites research to show that in spite of the financial support English language instruction receives from Arabian Gulf countries, learners’ proficiency in the language is not improving. He offers a unique explanation of this: the kind of English taught in schools and higher education institutions reflects neither the language ecology of the region nor the real reasons calling for communication in English in the immediate environment. Moody examines the overall status of English in this region and how it operates in a diverse, multilingual situation. He also critically examines local ELT practices in the region, suggests further research and offers ways to surmount the challenges to teaching the language in this context. While Moody’s chapter looks at acquisition and learning, Al-Mahrooqi and Sultana’s chapter examines the other side of the coin: language attrition. The context of their study is Oman and the subjects of their study are Omani EFL teachers. Just as Moody highlights the limitations and peculiarities of the Arabian Gulf as a context for English language learning, Al-Mahrooqi and Sultana examine contextual limitations around language maintenance. 12
Investigating their subjects’ views on this topic, their study identifies linguistic and extra-linguistic factors affecting both phenomena. The results show that 93% of female teachers and 50% of their male counterparts suffered language attrition, with very few reporting language gain. The authors call for measures to be taken by the Ministry of Education to rectify the problem by providing adequate resources, training and support for teachers (e.g. a reduced teaching load) to help them to maintain their language after graduation. Context and culture are intertwined, which is why chapter three, by Jamila Al-Siyabi, addresses “Cultural Universalities and Peculiarities” in the sociocultural context of Oman. The chapter itself examines, from multicultural teachers’ viewpoints, Omani student assertiveness, courtesy (greetings), sense of time, politeness, oral traditions, face saving strategies and rapport using teachers’ observations, self-reports and anecdotes. Classifying instructors’ opinions and experiences as either universal or peculiar, the study reveals the cultural similarities and differences between Omani students and students around the globe. Such a practice might result in a better understanding of Omani students’ attitudes and expectations, and teachers’ perceptions and expectations, which could narrow the gap, if there is one, between the two. Mary Tabakow’s chapter, “Perceptions of ‘Foreigness’: Students’ Assessment of Arab-American poetry in Bahrain and Oman.” compares the perceptions of students from two similar but not identical cultures of Arab-American poetry, assumed by many to be connected to the Middle East. Reading and responding to two sets of poems – Arab American and native Arab poetry translated into English – without clues to title and authorship – the learners in both contexts expressed un-ease about the relevance of Arab-American poetry to their lives. The author concludes the chapter, calling for “more contextualization before introducing some ethnic American literature in the region.” Badria al-Barashdi reports a study where she used a questionnaire together with a think aloud interview to examine “EFL Omani University Students’ Reading Comprehension Problems and Strategies”. The analysis of the 13
questionnaire shows that students perceive vocabulary as the main hurdle in comprehension. The think aloud interview reveals ten strategies employed in processing reading texts. The study shows that text type affects the use of processing and problem solving strategies by EFL students. It also shows that proficient readers use more processing strategies than less proficient readers who tend to use more solving strategies. Abdulmoneim Mahmoud’s study sheds light on Arab students’ vocabulary problems. It is an analysis of the interlingual vocabulary errors of Arabicspeaking EFL university students. The study shows that most of these errors are cases of substitution where Arabic (L1) uses one word for two or more English words with different meanings. These substitution errors were further classified into errors of word choice, word form, word coinage and foreignization all of which could be attributed to transfer from MSA as well as NSA. The findings show that Arab students’ vocabulary errors are not only semantic but also syntactic. In light of the learner-centered approach to language teaching, the study advocates the use of L1 in teaching EFL vocabulary, a bilingual technique in line with the learners’ natural hypothesis formation process. T. Balasubramanian proposes “Arabic English” as a model for EFL teachers in the Arab world. He examines cases of mispronunciation of English words by Arabic speakers. Such mispronunciations are believed to render English speech unintelligible to non-Arabs and, sometimes, to other Arabs. The author analyzes the sound systems of English and Arabic to see the differences between them. In light of these differences and based on EFL learners’ pronunciation problems, he explores the possibility of evolving a variety of spoken English termed “General Arabic English” to be used in teaching spoken English in the Arab world. Fatma Al-Rubai’ey and Hossein Nassaji focus on the much debated issue of provision of written corrective feedback in teaching and learning EFL. They compare direct and indirect feedback using two intact EFL classes. The 14
findings reveal no significant difference between the two types of feedback. However, analysis of feedback on specific functions of the articles shows that direct feedback is more effective than the indirect type. Accordingly, the authors conclude that direct feedback is superior to indirect feedback with regard to certain functions of the English articles. The chapters nine and ten deal with the use of technology in EFL learning. In chapter nine, Badr Al-Jahwari investigates the attitudes of the Omani students toward the use of synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) and web-forums in learning English. The author examines the differences in attitudes in relation to gender, seniority in the university and the time spent on the internet. The findings show a positive attitude towards both sources (i.e. SCMC and web-forums) with no significant difference regarding gender and the duration of use of the internet. In chapter ten, Ali Al-Belushi and Ali Al-Issa examine the out-of-class strategies used by Omani EFL school students. They administered a questionnaire to all SQU freshman students to investigate their perceptions about the use of out-of-class computer and internet-based sources in developing their English. The findings show that the students used more receptive strategies than productive ones. We hope that the book proves to be useful for a variety of audiences interested in learning about education in the Arab World in general and about ELT in particular.
15
CHAPTER1 A Critique of the Concept of EFL in Arabian Gulf Countries James Moody
ABSTRACT
T
he designation of English as a foreign language is generally accepted in the Arabian Gulf. But this assumption is questioned for failing to reflect
the reality of speech communities and the negative effects of this on teaching. The language ecology of the region is considered in order to establish a basis for this claim. The Gulf is multilingual for several historical and economic reasons, chief among which has been a large influx of expatriate workers in the late twentieth century. This has produced a rich blend of languages, including English. As a result, not only are Arabic and English acquiring variant formal features, but they are also being mixed together in daily communication to form what is termed here a superordinate code. Manifestations of this process are examined by focusing primarily on the ways these languages feature in the linguistic landscape. Basic principles in ELT as practiced in the Gulf should be reevaluated against this background. Suggestions are made for types of research required to develop new approaches, and a fundamental change in the positioning of learners towards English is recommended. The challenges in accomplishing these tasks are acknowledged, but if met they can result in improved educational practices. 17
Introduction The acronyms EL1 (English as a first language), ESL (English as a second language) and EFL (English as a foreign language) have been ubiquitous in ELT (English language teaching) for more than two generations. The distinctions between them and the corresponding inner (EL1), outer (ESL), and expanding (EFL) “circles” to which they were originally assigned by Kachru (1985) have served the profession well. In particular, the theoretical contrast between ESL and EFL has contributed crucially to syllabus design and methodology. ESL involves teaching English to students who do not have it as a first language but who use it in either inner-circle first language communities where it is the majority language or else in the outer circle where it serves a variety of purposes as a public, official and occasionally personal language among groups of people who speak different first languages (Graddol, 2006). This is the situation, for example, in many countries which were former British colonies in Asia and Africa, where English has helped to preserve national unity. EFL, on the other hand, is associated with the expanding circle where nonnative speakers are learning English to communicate less with each other than with the rest of the world. Countries in the Middle East where Arabic is a shared first language have been conventionally regarded as falling into this category. Here many of the functions English performs in the outer circle are served by Arabic. Clearly students in these contrasting situations (ESL and EFL) require different types of instruction. Unfortunately, although this distinction has in the past proved pedagogically valuable, it has in practice not always been observed. EFL has frequently been taught (in the Arab world and elsewhere) as if it were ESL, which has led to the adoption of inappropriate and ineffective methodologies, textbooks, and assessment (see Moody, 2009, and the references therein). 18
Since Arabic is the dominant language throughout the Gulf region, used for both internal and external communication, and since English has traditionally been seen here as a means for international communication further afield, it would appear to be non-contentious and self-evident that English is a foreign language for these Arabic-speaking countries in the expanding circle and that consequently it should be taught and studied as such. But even when these reasons for teaching English as a foreign language are recognized, problems still remain. Several commentators—for example, Syed (2003), Karmani (2005), and Al Issa (2007)—have observed falling standards in English education throughout the Arab world and in the Gulf particularly. They point out that, in spite of major financial support, not only is Arabs’ fluency in English not improving but that in many places it may be declining. The reasons for this have been attributed to a variety of factors, including a neocolonial conspiracy between governments and petroleum companies (Karmani), a lack of adequate and appropriate ELT resources (Syed), and a failure of students to see a connection between their ability in English and actual communicative requirements (Al Issa). But there is another possible reason for the failures of much ELT. One of the consequences of globalization for the use of language is that old categories and the often unarticulated assumptions behind them are beginning to break down. Bruthiaux (2003) critiques Kachru’s formulation of the three concentric circles on the grounds that it fails to respond to the present complex ways English is used in different localities worldwide. This article will argue that at the beginning of the twenty-first century, the designation of English as a foreign language in the Arabian Gulf is a major stumbling block to achieving communicative competence. The distinctions between EL1, ESL, and EFL today are no longer as secure as they once were. In supporting these claims, it will be necessary to take into account the overall language situation in Gulf speech communities and the roles that English has come to play in them. 19
This will provide the background for reconsidering approaches to ELT. A new way of categorizing English in the region will be proposed, one which might improve users’ abilities to communicate both locally and internationally. The language ecology of the Arabian Gulf In examining the status of English, it is appropriate to indicate its place in the overall language ecology of the area. This theoretical concept was first formulated by Haugen (1972). In his view, no language should be studied in isolation but, rather, in terms of its interaction with social forces that affect its use and, in the case of bi- and multilingual communities, the relationships of a particular language with others. Mühlhäusler (1996) has pursued the analogy with the ecology of the natural world: like living things, languages are active; they change, develop, are born, and die. Furthermore, they depend for their survival on other languages in their environment, just as organisms in nature are mutually dependent on other organisms. Language is a social practice which is best understood within a framework consisting of the totality of all social practices. This dynamic model is reflected in Schneider’s (2003) analysis of the process through which local non-native varieties of English develop. Each country in the Gulf has its own unique language ecology. The Sultanate of Oman presents a linguistic contrast with the rest of the region in several respects. The coastal areas of Oman have been multilingual for several centuries (Al Busaidi, 1995). Its geographical position in the southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula, between the Strait of Hormuz, at the convergence of the Arabian Gulf and the Arabian Sea, has meant that for more than 500 years, Oman has been a strategic center of trade and communication among Arabia, Asia, and Africa. Languages from Zanzibar (Swahili), Iran (Persian), Pakistan (Balushi), India (Luwati, Hindi, and Urdu) and other places have been spoken in Oman—as first and second languages—for generations (Risso, 1986). For 20
example, Al Busaidi’s (1995) investigation of the language of employees at a parastatal company in Muscat in the 1990s reveals that as many as 25% of his Omani respondents do not have Arabic as a first language. One factor contributing to the growth of multilingualism in Oman is the generally positive attitude of Omanis towards this phenomenon. Although Arabic is the first language of most of the population and is used extensively in public and private life, there has long been a cosmopolitan tolerance of other languages, especially along the coast. Since Oman was relatively free from British colonial domination and the negative attitudes towards English that sometimes result from that experience (Al Busaidi, 1995; Anchimbe, 2007), there is today an easy acceptance of English (Al Issa, 2006). These positive attitudes have been reinforced by an influx of “returning Omanis” from Zanzibar after 1964. Being generally fluent in English, these first language Swahili speakers helped to promote English in Oman, perhaps more than any other group (Al Busaidi, 1995). On the other hand, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates were, until the mid twentieth century, virtually monolingual in Gulf Arabic. But since then the language ecology of the entire Gulf has radically changed, as all countries have experienced and been affected by a large influx of migrant workers, who have come primarily to support the burgeoning construction and petroleum industries. This has had, according to Kapiszewski (2006, p. 1) “a very significant impact on the economics, politics, and the social structure of the GCC [Gulf Cooperation Council] states”. To this list of consequences could be added language. Kapiszewski (2006. p.4) provides the following estimates for 2005-6 (based on 2004 statistics) of the percentages of expatriate populations of individual countries: Bahrain: 38%; Kuwait: 64.4%; Oman:19.9%; Qatar: 70%; Saudi Arabia: 27.1%; United Arab Emirates: 81%. In the area as a whole, 37.1% 21
of the population was estimated to consist of expatriates at that time. From the perspective of language ecology, Kapiszewski makes two other important points. First, that “[t]he dominance of foreigners in the workforce is even more prominent” (p.4) than these figures suggest, with an estimated average of 70% throughout the region. And second, that there has been a trend since 1975, for political and economic reasons, to employ fewer Arabic speaking expatriates. As a result, since that time, the numbers of expatriate workers from the Indian subcontinent (mainly India and Pakistan) have been much larger than those from Arab countries. It would be surprising if, as a result of such demographics, the language ecology had not been dramatically affected. Thus, “patterns of language use in Muscat [and, by implication, other Gulf cities] are as complex as its ethnic diversity” (Al Busaidi, 1995). Various varieties of Arabic (Sudanese, Egyptian, Jordanian, Palestinian, Lebanese, Syrian) are widely used, together with standard, non-standard, and pidgin forms of Arabic, English, and other languages, especially from India (Smart, 1990). Typical speech acts in urban centers of the Gulf are carried out in a multiplicity of languages, even if this consists of only “a few survival phrases that are often repeated many times in the course of a day” (Al Busaidi, p. 107). At the same time, English has been growing as a lingua franca among these diverse groups, so that today it is second only to Arabic in its frequency of use, not only as an official language in the public and private sectors, the media, and education, but also increasingly in less formal domains. Although there were no English language schools in Oman, for example, until the early 1960s, English has been required for high-level jobs since at least the 1950s (Al Busaidi, 1995). Consequently, Omanis, like citizens of other Gulf states, were disadvantaged with regard to lucrative employment. Redressing this imbalance has been a major concern of national development policies throughout the Gulf. 22
Governments in the region are keenly aware of the value of English for international communication and enthusiastic to promote it by means of educational reforms throughout the curriculum (see, e.g., the detailed English curriculum set out by the Supreme Education Council, Qatar, 2004, and the discussion of Oman in Busaidi, 1995). What has been given less direct attention, however, is the spread of English for communication within individual countries and within the region as a whole. But even a casual acquaintance with sights and sounds on the streets of Gulf cities makes it clear that English is one of a number of languages used in a variety of forms and for a multitude of purposes. Effects of multilingualism on English in the Gulf The sociopolitics of English in the UAE is explored by Findlow (2006), and her research also has relevance to other countries. In her survey of language attitudes, she finds that English and Arabic are “implicated” in an “ambivalence that is simultaneously imitative and resistant” (p. 31). She reports, significantly, that language planning has resulted in the promotion of English at certain universities where plans have been abandoned to make Arabic the medium of instruction. Thus, she concludes that both languages contribute to “the establishment of a new nation-state (UAE) identity” (p. 33), which challenges the link between “nationhood and the use of one single language” (p. 34). This raises the possibility that in the Gulf, English and Arabic complement one another in furthering similar national purposes. The consequences of multilingualism in communities where English is a nonnative language have been conventionally analysed in terms of diglossia (see, for example, Gumperz, 1987), a situation in which particular languages (or “codes”) are assigned specified domains, with local first languages typically functioning as “Low” (L) codes associated with home, personal relationships, and nationalism, while “foreign” languages take on “High” (H) functions 23
of work, bureaucracy, and higher education. In Findlow’s (2006) analysis, following Gumperz and others, diglossia assumes a dualism in which the forms and functions of each code are kept distinct. In this context, conflict can result when a foreign (H) language begins to take over functions from indigenous (L) languages (Romain, 1989). This is happening in many multilingual communities where English plays an increasingly important role in education, media, and the workplace. Tensions can be exacerbated by purists on both sides who are anxious to maintain a separation between languages. Williams (1992), however, offers a thorough critique of the concept of diglossia. Among his claims is that it denies the authority and creativity of individual speakers. Thus, a more dynamic analysis of language interaction in multilingual communities is required. In many places today where English is spoken as a non-native language, it would be a mistake to consider it as strictly a high code, with indigenous first languages as exclusively low ones (Pennycook, 2007). Over a period of time, an overlap of language functions leads to a process of merger, in contrast to the duality and separation involved in diglossia. The mutual influence of languages is not only accommodated but also becomes accepted as a process in which new standards of use emerge that are different from those of separate component languages (Schneider, 2003). One sign of this development is the frequency of extrasentential code-switching and intrasentential code-mixing (see Mahootian, 2006, for this distinction) between Arabic and English that occurs in cities of the Arabian Gulf and elsewhere in the Middle East, particularly among young people (Sallo, 1992). Using languages together in these ways is less the result of lexical or grammatical inadequacy of speakers with respect to one of the languages, than a means of extending the rhetorical possibilities of communication. Code-switching and mixing can be used, for example, for emphasis, to show a change in topic, to mark a logical break or transition, or to assert a new relationship between interlocutors (see Moody, 2001), and a switch from 24
Arabic to English in the Gulf can imply “sophistication…, prestige or… status” (Alarabiya.net, 2010). There have been contrasting reactions to such trends. Shiekha Mouza (the wife of the Emir of Qatar), speaking in Saudi Arabia, has criticized the frequency of code-switching between Arabic and English, especially in the media (Alarabiya.net, 2010). Omanis have been urged to reserve English as a tool for international communication and preserve their national identity which is embodied in Arabic (Al Mahrooqi, 2010; Al Suleimani, 2010). Yet all these commentator recognize the vital role of English, even to the extent that some Arab parents teach their children English before they go to school and use it with them at home (Al Mahrooqi, 2010). Research among college students in Oman, as reported by Al Balushi (2010) shows a more positive attitude to the mixing of Arabic and English in informal conversation, especially among young people. In fact, using English words and phrases when speaking Arabic seems to be a conscious way of asserting distance between generations. The anonymous writer on Alarabia.net (2010, para 3) suggests the dilemma in this statement: She [Sheikha Mouza] spoke about education [in which English is increasingly the medium of instruction at secondary and tertiary institutions] and its importance and in the same breath warned against the weakening of Arabic because of English phrases. The question is, then, whether, given the increasing use of English across many domains, both public (education, commerce, media, bureaucracy) and private (family, peer groups), either Arabic or English can maintain its separate identity. In multilingual communities, languages remain distinct from each other for two reasons: either a strict diglossia is observed and codes are assigned discreet functions, or there is a perceived conflict between languages. With 25
regard to the first of these possibilities, the previous discussion has indicated that diglossia distinctions between Arabic and English are disappearing in the Gulf. As to the second, in global terms language conflict was perhaps more common in the past when the spread of English throughout the world was often motivated by the neo-imperialist interests of Britain and the USA and the consequent privileging of native-speakers (Phillipson, 1992; Anchimbe, 2007). But, as has been noted, the Gulf region generally avoided the colonial experience of many other Asian and African countries. For whatever reasons, today English is gaining in popularity worldwide at the same time that countries where it is spoken as a first language are declining in international prestige. This is indicated in data from the Pew Research Center (cited in Graddol, 2006). In the Arab world, the findings of Al Haq and Smadi (1996) among Saudi Arabian students provide evidence that Arabs have their own instrumental motives for learning and using English and that the language can be valued in itself without associations with foreign cultural values or attitudes towards its native speakers. A new perspective on English Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz (1982) have written of the “unprecedented cultural and ethnic diversity” of speech communities in the late twentieth century, whose members confront unique communicative challenges in their “modes of interaction” (p. 2). In their view, these result from changes brought about by increased immigration, urbanization and financial security. The Arabian Gulf exhibits all these characteristics. As English extends its functional domains, the formal features of both Arabic and English are changing. Both these simultaneous processes make it problematic that English and Arabic will maintain their separate identities. What is happening to English in the Gulf is part of a general phenomenon. As Canagarajah (2007) and Pennycook (2007) point out, globalization does not 26
necessarily bring with it a dominance of standard English. Although English changes local languages in multilingual communities, it is equally likely that English itself will be changed. When English is used for real communication in a multilingual context, distinctive local forms emerge (Pennycook, 2007). This is because each group of speakers has its own unique language ecology. Hence, the fact that English is spreading does not entail linguistic homogenization in the sense that English speakers everywhere are using the “same” language. As English is used increasingly as a lingua franca, it becomes influenced by the forms of the first languages of its speakers. Eventually, the notion of “standard” English may change, as non-native speakers create a “hybridized and diversified” language (Canagarajah, 1999, p. 181). In Arabian Gulf countries, it is not only Arabic that influences English; elements of Indian English can be detected in everyday use in such expressions as to do the needful and timings (for opening hours of an office or business). And some of the grammatical structures that Balasubramanian (2009) assigns to Indian English—such as omission of articles, subject-auxiliary inversion in questions, and transitive verbs used intransitively—also feature in much English in the Gulf. Even if these influences from Indian English are not the origins of “variant” forms, they would certainly reinforce them. It is not only the formal features of English and Arabic that are altered in the process of “hybridization”. There is also a change in the nature of their pragmatic relationships. The phenomena of code-switching and mixing between languages can be a stage in the development of a situation in which separate languages begin to function together as components of what can be termed a superordinate code. Languages lose their exclusively H and L diglossia associations and become options within a single system. In this way, as possible alternative means of expression increase, the meaning potential (Halliday, 1978) of members of the speech community expands. 27
The interaction between Arabic and English in popular urban Gulf culture can be illustrated by commercial signs in Al Khoudh, a suburb of Muscat. Landry and Bourhis (1997) have developed a field of inquiry known as the linguistic landscape. This includes analysis from a sociolinguistic perspective of commercial and public signs in a specified area. They claim that in multilingual communities, an analysis of the linguistic landscape reveals the nature of cultural diversity and heterogeneity. Most signs on the streets of urban Oman mix Arabic and English, but there are several ways the relationship between these languages are manifested. The most common one is to present a literal translation, as is shown in the following example, where the English fish is a direct translation from Arabic أسماك:
It may be that this type of bilingual sign is intended for readers who are literate in only one or the other language. However, there are other categories of signs that are clearly meant for people who know and can read both languages. Sometimes transliteration is employed instead of translation. The two following photographs constitute a single sign; the English version is on the left and the Arabic on the right above the entrance to a coffee/tea shop. The Arabic is a direct transliteration of the English—including the words the ( )ذيand ()آند.
28
Arabic in this case would make little sense to a reader who is literate in Arabic but does not know English. The sign is almost ludicrous in its attempt to reproduce faithfully English sounds through Arabic spelling (and it was greeted with laughter when shown to a group of Omani secondary school students). It is probably significant that this sign is located in an up-scale shopping center, as it suggests a lingering diglossia association of English as a High code of sophistication and prestige. But in order to decode it, a reader needs to be equally familiar with (and literate in) both languages. The following sign for a popular bank would initially appear to employ transliteration as well. The English bank is reproduced with Arabic letters in بنك.
However, in this case the traditional Arabic word for bank ( )مصرفis not commonly used to mean a modern commercial bank in the Gulf. Thus, بنك can be classified as a loan word from English into Arabic. The frequency of transliteration in commercial signs may itself contribute to the process by which English words are incorporated into Arabic. Cenoz and Gorter (2006) note that features of the linguistic landscape can affect language behavior in multilingual communities (as well as vice versa). Other words from the Al Khoudh corpus that are transliterated from English into Arabic include 29
computer ))الكمبيوتر, film ()فيلم, and internet (—)إنترنتall of which are familiar in Arabic and would probably also qualify as loan words. Investigations of
linguistic landscapes elsewhere have indicated power
struggles between ethnic groups in multicultural and multilingual communities (see, for example, Cenoz and Gorter, 2006). However, the evidence from Al Khoudh and other parts of Muscat suggests the easy relationship between Arabic and English that has been referred to earlier. A large proportion of signs assume readers who are familiar with both languages, but neither one dominates the other. Although the Arabic usually comes above the English when the languages are ordered vertically, care is otherwise taken to strike an even balance between both in terms of the layout (size, color, font, positioning, etc.). In addition, as the following sign for a mobile telephone company shows, there can be a willingness and even a desire to explore, manipulate, and play with the possibilities inherent in relationships between languages.
Here decoding the sign depends on understanding orthographic and phonetic connections. The English word mobile is transliterated into the Arabic letters in the first line of the sign (though موبايلprobably constitutes a loan word), and عمان, of course, is reproduced as Oman. But the letters which are highlighted by green shading do not represent equivalent sounds. The letter مin Arabic (pronounced /mi:m/) is similar phonetically to the letter m in English. But since, when used at the beginning of the word موبايلit takes a shape that resembles the letter o in the English mobile, the two letters 30
are highlighted in the same way (and thus connected) in both languages. If a phonetic resemblance were being signaled, then the green shading would appear in either مand m or else in وand o. But this would spoil the joke. This sign suggests a sender who is seif-confident, secure, and creative in handling written forms of both languages and a sender who can understand and appreciate the cleverness of what is going on. A similar playful manipulation of orthography of Arabic and English is reported by Palfreyman and Al Khalil (2003) in their investigation of how university students in the UAE compose instant text messages. They show a common practice of representing Arabic letters with English numerals which have similar shapes. Hence, for example, the numeral 6 replaces the letter ط, and 7 is substituted for حwhen texting in Arabic. Another instance of using Arabic and English together comes from a publication produced by the Royal Oman Police and intended for primary school children. ( الشرطي الصغيرA’Shorti Assagheer [“The Little Policeman”]) is a professionally-produced booklet containing cartoons, brief essays, suggestions for activities, and games, all centered around the issue of public safety. All these sections are in Arabic, but some are also translated into English, with identical illustrations and layout. This publication is relevant to the present discussion in two ways. First, it is noteworthy that even at this early age, children are encouraged to associate English and Arabic; such bilingual publications can stimulate them to make connections between the languages and to engage with issues of translation at a basic, perhaps subconscious, level. Second, Tabakow and Strobl (2011) in their analysis of these booklets detect a subtext in which national unity and Omani culture are being promoted. Insofar as this is the case, it is pertinent to a consideration of the complementary roles of English and Arabic that nationalism in Oman is conceived of, in part, as involving both languages. These examples from the disparate areas of commercial signs, text messaging, 31
and children’s literature all attest to vibrant bilingual societies, in which people take for granted the mixed use of Arabic and English, encourage it, and are open to the creative possibilities offered by such an expanded linguistic repertoire. Implications for ELT How do (and should) such phenomena affect English language teaching? The negative consequences of two current and wide-spread practices at tertiary level in the Gulf have been analyzed in Moody (2009): the selection of “one size fits all” textbooks and materials that are not based specifically on local requirements and the use of international examinations (especially TOEFL and IELTS) as means of certifying English language competence at home (for employment and/or further education) but which in fact are intended to test candidates’ abilities to communicate with first language English speakers in EL1 environments. The problem with these and similar practices is that they ignore social reality. If education is to contribute to national development, then it follows that it should address local language issues in the same manner that it addresses economic and social concerns, with the aim of improving people’s lives in a specific place. One of the ways it can do this is to acknowledge the fact that, more often than not in the Gulf today (and throughout the world), non-native English speakers, when they use the language are likely to be engaged in communication with other non-native speakers, not with native English speakers (Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz, 1982; Lowenberg, 2002; Crystal, 2003). For this reason, urgent attention should be given to localizing ELT and freeing it from theories and practices established by and for other speech communities. The present discussion has attempted to illustrate the uniqueness of English use in the Gulf and the factors that have brought this about. Language teaching and learning should respond to these conditions. In this regard, Al Busaidi 32
(1995) states unequivocally, “Authority, derived from empirical foundations from language users themselves should be sought before unscientific, value laden terms [from elsewhere] are employed…” (p. 373). In confronting the challenges to ELT in the region, then, two complementary steps should be taken, from which appropriate changes may follow. One of these is practical and empirical while the other involves a radical shift of perspective. First, it is essential to conduct research into several aspects of language as used in specific Gulf communities and to apply the results to syllabus design, methodologies, and materials production. This includes determining the actual uses of English in each country by means of hard data relating not only to the forms and functions of English but also to their frequency of use and how English is mixed with other languages. It is equally important to determine social attitudes to emerging local forms of English and the extent to which they are rule-governed and can be codified. Much of this kind of information might be obtained through corpus analysis. (See Balasubramanian, 2009, Chapter 2, for a review of the literature on how such research has been conducted.) For instance, most English teachers have a list of “common errors” made by their Arabic-speaking students. These persist in spite of repeated attempts to eliminate them. Many have been attributed to the influence of Arabic in what Mahmoud (2012) prefers to term “interlingual transfer” (in place of the conventional notion of first language “interference”). It may be, though (and corpus analysis could determine this), that the time has come to reclassify some of these “errors” as relatively permanent “variant” features of English among Arabic speakers. One frequent example is the construction of complex sentences like the following: This is the book that I want to read it. In standard English grammar, in a relative clause that serves as both a relativizer and a substitute for the head noun, so the final it is not used. 33
This sentence is likely to be the result of a transfer from colloquial Arabic or modern standard Arabic, in which relative clauses are normally complete sentences (Prochazka, 2006): هذا هو الكتاب الذى أريد ان أقرأه However, communicatively, it cannot be claimed that the meaning of the English sentence is unclear. The only reason for preserving the “correct” form, then, is that it conforms to the practice of first language English speakers and that a person who produces such a sentence will be negatively judged by them. But in a language environment where first language English speakers are unlikely to be parties to communicative events, this consideration may no longer be valid. What research could help to reveal is the extent to which such structures are used and accepted by first language Arabic speakers. Another field of research relevant to language education is needs assessment, in order to determine the specific language skills and abilities required for graduates to be successful in professional, national, and even social life. Long (2005) has made the general claim that “no language teaching program should be designed without a thorough needs analysis” (p. 1). But needs can be approached in various ways. Kandil (n.d.) distinguishes between learning needs (of students, how they learn and the resources required) and target needs (the requirements and expectations for English use in the community). Al-Issa (2007) urges that both are important in Oman. There have been several investigations of ELT needs in the Arab world. These constitute a number of approaches and have produced different kinds of data. Research on learning needs has been undertaken by Zughoul and Hussein (1985), who examine the strengths and weaknesses of university students in Jordan as perceived by both themselves and their instructors. Their aim was to determine specific requirements of students as an aid to more effective teaching. With regard to target needs, Tucker (1978) reports on a major project undertaken, also in Jordan, involving a nation-wide survey of the workforce 34
at various levels and across occupations. It contains details about Jordanians’ purposes, frequency, attitudes and proficiency in using English. Al Busaidi (1995) concentrates on the linguistic background and patterns of use within and outside the workplace by a number of Omani employees of a single organization. Al Buainain, Hassan, and Madani (2004) present a survey of University of Qatar graduates’ perceived needs and practical uses of English in the workplace. Another dimension is provided by a student project supervised by Moody and Gibb (2007) in Qatar which investigates English language needs and expectations as assessed by selected employers in the public and private sectors. These studies all complement each other and offer suggestions for questionnaire design, methodology, and analysis which could prove valuable in future investigations. A second, and more radical, challenge to the ELT profession requires a rethinking of basic assumptions. The term EFL implies that learners are acquiring English to communicate in a language they do not “own” and which is often assumed to “belong to” people who have it as a first language. As the previous discussion has indicated, although communication with the outside world is one reason to learn English in the Gulf, it is not the only, or even the main, one. The issue of “ownership” of English by its non-native speakers is addressed by Norton (1997) in a review of articles in a special issue of TESOL Quarterly. She is concerned with how the various ways non-native English speaking students construct their relationship with English affect the manner in which they learn. If they conceive of English as basically a foreign language which they do not own, they “might not consider themselves legitimate speakers” (p. 422). When this happens, they are distanced from the language, do not understand its relevance to their lives, and consequently feel under its control. On the other hand, if students think of themselves as owners of the language, they will take charge and be able to use it successfully as a tool to serve their 35
purposes. This perception will provide them with stronger learning motivation. Hence, for learners language mastery takes on a different, more psychological meaning than its usual connotation of practical skill. Users of a language own it when they control it to communicate successfully in a particular situation. In this way, whether they are using standard or correct English may be irrelevant. Norton (1997) concludes with the following observation: if English belongs to the people who speak it, whether native or non-native, whether ESL or EFL, whether standard or nonstandard, then the expansion of English in this era of rapid globalization may possibly be for the better rather than for the worse. (p. 427). Graddol (2006) makes a similar point in relation to teaching. Since EFL assumes a goal of native-speaker competence, “[w]ithin traditional EFL methodology there is an inbuilt ideological positioning of the student as outsider and failure—however proficient they [sic] become” (p. 83). This can result in “considerable stress and resentment by learners, rather than significantly enhanced levels of proficiency” (p. 84). Graddol proposes replacing the concepts of EFL and ESL with ELF (English as a lingua franca), which privileges pragmatically-driven communication between non-native speakers, where “intelligibility is of primary importance rather than nativelike accuracy” (p.87). To formulate the aims of language education in terms of mutual intelligibility among users rather than as formal correctness requires major changes in how languages are taught. Finally, for ELT to respond adequately to the linguistic realities of the speech communities in the Gulf, then an even greater shift in perspective is required. If English is one element in a super-ordinate communicative system, then it follows that the system itself should be a focus of instruction. But practical pedagogy as well as administrative structures are strongly entrenched in 36
the heretofore unquestioned belief that languages are distinct entities and that teaching and learning them require their separation. Thus, educational institutions at all levels have classes, courses, departments, and instructors concerned exclusively with one particular language -Arabic or English. Of course, students need to master skills in individual languages, though, as has been observed, the concept “mastery” may need reassessing. But at some stage of education, attention needs to be given to teaching and learning Arabic and English (and perhaps other languages) together, in the same classroom with the same teachers and the same materials. The focus of study would be on particular communicative events considered with regard to the languages involved, how they relate to one another, and the standards and norms that are evident in these relationships. Such an approach would, among other things, acknowledge the skill and creativity that go into the kind of manipulation of Arabic and English that has been dealt with here. Such mixing would not be viewed as exotic or unusual but recognized and validated in the formal educational system as part of the fabric of people’s lives. Conclusion At the beginning of the twenty-first century, traditional clear-cut distinctions between EL1, ESL, and EFL appear to correspond less and less to linguistic reality in the Arabian Gulf and elsewhere. Languages in actual use have a way of inconveniently circumventing theoretical formulations and the desires of traditionalists and language purists. Canagarajah (1999) and Higgins (2003) observe that positive attitudes are developing worldwide to new forms of English created by non-native speakers. Native-speakers are losing their privileged position when non-native speakers communicate successfully and remain confident in the English they speak and write, even when it does not conform to first language standards. The disassociation between a language and its native speakers is a result of 37
the spread of English through the processes of globalization, and it brings into question a common belief that a language is limited to embodying the culture from which it originally springs. The myriad forms and functions English is taking on in today’s world illustrate that it is capable of expressing many cultures and values and that in addition it can be used to subvert the very culture that produced it (Pennycook, 2007). The title of a popular book on postcolonial literature makes this point in its title: The Empire Writes Back (Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin, 2002), with its allusion to another title, “The Empire Strikes Back”. But in the final analysis, it is a reification of the notion of language to suggest that it is able to do anything by itself. It is the people using a language who possess the power to take control of it and create new meanings, cultures and values, when through their daily interaction they alter its formal features, mix it with other languages, and extend its functions. In an eloquent plea for Arabs to think more locally than internationally and to protect Arabic against what he sees as the incursions of international English, Kazmi (2004, p. 13) concludes, “I should first try starting a conversation with someone next to me before I begin a conversation with someone thousands of miles away from me”. This is, of course, a valid point and emphasizes the need to think locally before thinking globally. However, there is the possibility (ever more likely as time goes by) that in the Arabian Gulf the (Arab) person sitting next to you may not be speaking entirely in Arabic. Such observations lend support to Al Issa’s (2007) injunction that “[t]imes have changed and so have the reasons and purposes for learning English and the way through which it is learnt” (p. 213). The challenge for ELT in the Gulf today is, put in its broadest terms, to resolve a familiar educational dilemma: whether to teach and study what ought to exist or to reflect the reality of what does exist. Should courses, methods, syllabuses, and materials be based on “standard” language and maintain a strict distinction between Arabic and English (and other languages in popular use)? Or should educational policy 38
be directed towards promoting an integration among languages and focus language teaching on communicative events instead of on the language(s) employed in those events? The present discussion has advocated the latter option. However, there is a case to be made for the other side, not the least aspect of which is the desirability of maintaining Arabic as a strong element in national identity and the possibility that the expansion of other languages in Gulf communities might hinder this endeavor. But whichever option is taken, policy makers, educational administrators, and language teachers should recognize and articulate all its implications, both positive and negative.
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CHAPTER 2 Language Attrition among Omani EFL Teachers: Teachers’ Perceptions Rahma Al Mahrooqi & Tausiff Sultana
ABSTRACT
T
his paper investigates the perceptions of Omani English language schoolteachers with regard to their English language retention or loss.
Carried out in an environment where Arabic is the dominant first language, the study identifies intra-linguistic and extra-linguistic factors affecting language maintenance or attrition.
Seventy-eight in-service teachers
answered a questionnaire with 7 open-ended questions on language attrition and retention. A key finding is that the majority of the respondents believes that they have suffered some language attrition. Ninety-three percent of the female teachers and about 50% of their male counterparts reported this. The overall findings call for measures by the Ministry of Education and by the teachers themselves to ensure English language retention because proficiency in English is vital for their career success and crucial for their students’ English acquisition. 47
Language Attrition Language attrition is a multifaceted phenomenon attracting research that cuts across different disciplines like sociolinguistics, theoretical linguistics, psycholinguistics, education and cognitive psychology. It refers to the “loss or attrition of skill in one’s native language (L1), a second or foreign language (L2).” (Oxford, 1982, p. 160) by an individual or a speech community. Language attrition in general invites such questions as “why” people lose language (factors which cause attrition) and “how” they do so (the mechanics of the process). These two questions are related and affect each other (Kopke et al 2007). The last three decades have seen a growing body of research on this problem (Oxford, 1982; Berko-Gleason, 1982; Kuhbeg, 1992; Yashitomi, 1992; Kraven, 1992; De Bot, & Clyne, 1994; Yazzie, 1996; Kouritzin, 1999, Murtagh & Van der Silk, 2004; Marefat & Rouhshad, 2007; Abbasian, & Khajavi, 2010). The process of loss is gradual and may begin with less accessibility to a language and then develop into a complete loss (Kuhberg 1992; Yashitomi, 1992). In other words, language loss could also refer to deficiency in the use of some linguistic aspects or to using them inappropriately or inefficiently. Thus code switching and negative transfer could be manifestations of language change or shift that is likely to lead to attrition (Holmes, 2001). As Yashitomi (1992) puts it, “Attrition may not necessarily refer to complete loss of skills/items but to difficulty in inverting them” (p. 298). Moreover, many scholars perceive attrition as the process of undoing the acquisition or learning process of a language and there is research supporting this notion (Kuhberg, 1992). Attrition arises from a variety of internal and external factors (Kopke, 2007) which affect either its amount or type or both. These range from cognitive, perceptual, motor, social, neurobiological, psychological, developmental and psychopathological to extra-linguistic factors such as language use and attitudes to language acquisition. Factors such as age and cultural context are 48
regarded as complex variables which are central and related to many other matters. Second Language Attrition Research on second language attrition is still in its early stages and fewer studies have been conducted in the L2 than in the L1 context. According to Yashitomi (1992), “Research in L2 attrition is a relatively new enterprise which is in need of a comprehensive theory/model” (p. 293). Some case study findings (Kravin 1992; Kuhberg 1993) cannot be generalized to all situations and conditions of L2 loss. Theories like the inverse relation hypothesis and the reverse order hypothesis that try to account for L2 attrition have not yet been fully tested and are far from comprehensive since they merely represent abstract descriptions of some linguistic behavior. The reverse order hypothesis, which propounds that the last thing acquired is the first thing forgotten, when tested by researchers like Yashitomi, (1992) seemed valid. Their findings provide evidence that receptive skills are more resistant to attrition than productive skills; lexical items, including vocabulary are easier to remember than grammatical structures; and phonology is better retained than both lexicon and grammar. However, the results of these studies cannot be relied on because they tested limited structures and most of them assessed skill loss within a short period (e. g. the summer vacation) which is too short to produce generalizable and valid findings. The inverse relation hypothesis, on the other hand, holds that language proficiency is an important determinant of the rate of language loss; that is, whatever is learned best is forgotten last and least (Yashitomi, 1992). Studies that support this hypothesis found that beginning students lose more grammar than vocabulary, while advanced students do the opposite. This is largely due to the stability or non-stability of L2 knowledge or the degree of its proficiency. Researchers claim that beginners have an unstable knowledge of grammar due to their limited exposure to the new structures. Hence, they 49
lose knowledge of grammar faster then lexicon. On the other hand, more proficient learners retain grammar better than vocabulary due to their mastery of L2 structures (ibid). Findings from first language research also support the inverse relation hypothesis, as native speakers tend to lose vocabulary items more than language structures. According to Yashitomi (1992), the multiple factors contributing to second or foreign language attrition include the following: Language use. Frequency of use influences retention or loss more than length of exposure. According to Flege, Yeni-Komshian and Liu (1999), lexical knowledge was found to be affected by how much English is used by L2 speakers; the more vocabulary is used, the better it is retained. They also suggested that “knowledge of ungeneralizable aspects of L2 morphosyntax (as well as the ability to pronounce an L2) improves gradually as a function of experience using the L2” (p. 100). Hence an experienced person will have a strong command of the L2, which will protect his knowledge from language loss. Age. Nine year old children who have already acquired an L2 are less likely to forget it than younger ones. Hence, children who experience no L2 attrition before age nine are more likely to retain their language at an older age than younger children who go through the process earlier; this is provided that the nine year olds have the chance to use it or to be exposed to it in their environment. A threshold in L2 proficiency. Yoshida contends that what is learned best is least vulnerable to loss (cited in Yashitomi, 1992, p. 296). In the same manner, Neisser and Berko-Gleason (cited in ibid) agree that at a certain proficiency level (the threshold), language loss becomes unlikely. Attrition as a function of length of disuse. The more neglected a language is, the more likely it is to be lost. This point is related to the first point in the list. 50
Language aspects resilience. Some linguistic aspects are more resilient to language loss than others. These include listening comprehension, phonology, some vocabulary items, idioms, interjections, fillers and metalinguistic skills in general. These survive loss despite disuse (Flege et al, 1999; Beherk, 1984; cited in Yashitomi, 1992). Motivation (Nakazawa, 1989; Edwards, 1976, 1978; cited in Yashitomi, 1992). The advantages of both integrative and instrumental motivation have been documented by such researchers as Gardner and Lambert, Duly and Bert, and Dorniye. The above factors, including the amount and frequency of language use, period of language disuse, age and motivation are key factors proven by research to be influential not only in language attrition and retention but also in language acquisition. However, much research is still needed to establish the full range of their effects in the L2 and FL contexts. What bearing could these theories and an array of other factors have on FL retention or attrition in the Oman EFL context among Omani teachers of English? The present paper investigates the perceptions of Omani EFL teachers about their English language retention or attrition. The study, conducted in an environment where Arabic is the dominant first language, sheds light on some intra-linguistic and extra-linguistic features, attitudes and motivation in producing language maintenance or attrition, the availability or non-availability of input resources for these teachers and in general presents an overview of some emerging patterns of FL attrition. Description of the context Sultan Qaboos University’s College of Education is mainly responsible for preparing English teachers to teach EFL at the school level. English majors undergo different stages of screening to ensure that they possess 51
the communicative competence to perform as future professional English teachers. To graduate, the minimum GPA required is a “C”. Though these teachers may demonstrate a reasonable command of English when graduating, there is no guarantee they will retain this once employed in schools (especially those located beyond Muscat) and without extended contact with the language. Sometimes their only contact is via the textbooks they teach, and maybe a few other books that reach their hometowns. School libraries’ limited English language resources, an absence of public libraries (except in the capital area), and a paucity of bookshops make book reading virtually a forgotten activity. The Internet, television channels and multimedia sources could bring the world of English into teachers’ homes but internet access rarely happens because it is expensive and unavailable in remote areas. Furthermore, the local communities, especially rural and remote ones, offer few opportunities for English conversation, especially for female teachers, as it is unacceptable in Omani society for unaccompanied females to frequent public places such as markets and engage in conversation with people from outside the family. Generally, an accompanying male relative will do all or most of the speaking on these occasions. Negative attitudes towards the use of English in public places also discourage English usage. There are very strong associations between Arabic and religion and Omani English teachers are generally discouraged by other family members from using English at home. Hence, neither the schools where the teachers are employed nor the community where they live, encourage the retention of English. In such a social context, does language attrition set in? And could there be language loss attributable to language disuse? This study investigates the perceptions of Omani English teachers regarding their maintenance or attrition of English from their viewpoint. It focuses on the general emerging patterns of L2 attrition in Oman and thus points to areas of future research on L2/FL loss. 52
Research Methodology A questionnaire, consisting of seven open-ended questions, was designed to elicit free responses from the teachers. The questions sought information on the following: General factors that could aid language retention General factors that could lead to language loss Opportunities the participants’ institutions provided to help teachers stay in touch with the language to retain it. How the participants utilized those opportunities Examples of personal language gain after graduation Post-graduation language loss Factors that helped the participants maintain their English proficiency A total of 150 questionnaires were sent to different regions, and 78 were completed and returned. There were 18 male and 60 female respondents, employed in various regions of Oman, including Batinah, Muscat, Sharqiyah, Dahirah and Dakhiliya and Dhofar. Their academic qualifications ranged from a BA in English Education to an MA in ELT Curriculum and Methodology The pattern of teaching experience included fresh recruits and those with twenty-nine years of service. The school grades taught also ranged widely from grade one to twelve and, in the case of one male teacher, extended to teaching at university level. Thus, the insights gleaned from respondents’ answers might be seen as evidence of an emerging general picture of the Omani situation. Findings The first question asked respondents to mention factors that they thought would help a person to retain proficiency in a foreign language such as English. The 53
following were their responses: Table 1: Factors aiding language retention
Activity
Female Male Percentage respondents respondents
Percentage
General speaking
10
55.5%
45
75%
Listening to the radio
1
5.5%
6
10%
Writing
1
5.5%
10
16.6%
Higher studies, inservice training, workshops
6
33.3%
16
26.6%
Watching TV (movies)
7
38.8%
25
41.6%
Teaching higher grades
3
16.6%
5
8.3%
Travel to Englishspeaking countries
1
5.5%
7
11%
As the table above shows, the three main perceived assets of language retention or maintenance are speaking the language, watching TV (especially movies) and pursuing higher studies or attending in-service training workshops. Both males and females placed these in the same order. Speaking, a productive skill, ensures continued language practice, which, the teachers believe, guarantees language maintenance. Listening to radio was mentioned by 7 respondents though, by contrast, watching TV, was advocated by 32 respondents. Because higher studies ensure engagement with language and learning, the item ranked third among the three highest language retention mechanisms teachers mentioned. 54
The second question asked respondents to name the factors which (according to them) lead to the loss of proficiency in a foreign language. It elicited the following responses: Table 2: Factors causing language loss Factors
Male respondents
Percentage Female Percentage respondents
Lack of reading, 9 writing or speaking
50%
38
63.3%
Living in an environment where English is not used in everyday communication
88%
46
76.6%
Lack of motivation 6 and interest in English
33%
21
35%
Teaching grades
16.6%
19
31.6%
16
lower 3
Respondents identified the following major triggers of language loss: living in a non-native speaker environment (79%), lack of language skills practice (60%), lack of motivation and interest in English (34.6%), and teaching English to lower grades, which they sometimes do through Arabic (28%). Male and female percentages show a proportionate agreement around these causes. The first cause is intimately related to the second as an English-deprived-environment does not offer daily engagement with the language. In turn, both causes are related to the factor identified by the majority of respondents as the major reason for language maintenance- speaking.
Given its importance in language
learning, it is not surprising that lack of motivation and interest in English came third among the causes of language loss. Lack of motivation and 55
interest in English can be a result of such factors as living in a foreign language environment, teaching lower grades and using Arabic to teach English. Additional causes for lack of motivation and language loss are the socio-economic status of teachers and their limited opportunities for professional development and career advancement and even family life after graduation can cause a loss of interest in their profession, which clearly would cause loss of motivation and diminished care about language retention. These factors are serious, and their effect cannot be ignored. Therefore, the Ministry of Education should devise ways to address them. Question three asked about opportunities for language retention in the respondents’ workplace and home towns. It brought these responses: Table 3: Opportunities for language retention at institutions Resources
Male Percentage Female Percentage respondents respondents
Availability of books, the Internet, TV and movies
12
66.6 %
52
86.6 %
In-service training, workshops and conferences
9
50%
27
45%
resource 1
5.5%
8
13.3%
33.3%
6
10%
Teacher center No resources
6
Clearly, as indicated by table 3, the resources available to most respondents (82%) are the Internet, TV (especially movies) and books (though few). Forty-six percent mentioned in-service training, workshops and 56
conferences as language retention opportunities found in their regions. This highlights the value of the Internet and TV and also continued teacher professional development as language retention devices. The fourth question asked about how respondents utilized the various opportunities that were available to them. The following were their responses: Table 4: Ways of utilizing language retention opportunities Utilization of resources
Percentage Female Percentage Male respondents respondents
Utilizing resources during free time
9
50%
No free time -work overload
16
26.6%
6
10%
Use of the Internet, TV, 5 newspapers & attending workshops whenever possible
27%
21
35%
Daily use of English beyond the classroom
22.2%
13
21.6%
44.45
9
15%
4
Lack of daily English use 8 outside the classroom
Table four shows that more than one third of the sample used resources during their free time and about the same percentage mentioned that whenever possible they used the internet, watched TV, read the newspaper or attended workshops. Around 20% did not use English daily and 10% of the females (6) said they had no free time to use available sources due to work overload. Only 21.7% used English daily beyond the classroom. 57
Question five asked participants to name a few examples of personal language gain. They answered as follows: Table 5: Examples of personal language gain after graduation Language gain/ Medium
Percentage Female Percentage Male respondent respondents
No language gain
7
38.8%
26
42%
Language gain 6 through workshops, conferences, reading etc.
33.3%
16
26.6%
This table shows that not all respondents answered this question. Thirtythree respondents (42%) indicated no language gain at all, while 22 (28%) indicated some language gain through workshops, conferences and reading. Thus, significantly more respondents reported no language gain at all. That fewer females than males reported no language gain is not surprising given the peculiarity of the social context described earlier. The sixth question asked participants if they suffered any English attrition after graduation. Their responses were as follows: Table 6: Perceptions of personal language attrition L2 attrition after graduation?
Male respondents
Percentage Female respondents
Percentage
No attrition
7
38.8%
4
6.6%
Suffered attrition
11
61.1 %
56
93.3%
Limited use of 58
language- only for teaching
7
38.8%
23
38.3%
Loss of skills in 3 writing, reading and speaking
16.6%
22
36.6%
Vocabulary loss
22.2%
26
43.3%
4
As the table above shows, a mere 14% of respondents suffered no language loss after graduation, while 86% experienced at least some language loss. Attrition was due to limited language use (used only for teaching purposes) resulting in diminished skill in writing, reading and speaking and a narrowing of vocabulary, possibly direct results of a constraining environment, where English is not the medium of everyday communication. The language loss felt by the majority of respondents underscores the seriousness of the problem, which calls for urgent attention. The last question asked respondents to mention what helped them to retain at least a level of language proficiency. Their responses were as follows: Table 7: Factors that ensured personal language retention Retention factors
Male Percentage Female percentage respondents respondents
Books, the Internet, TV (movies) and other multi-media sources
7
38.8%
18
30%
Teaching, higher 4 studies, workshops & conferences
22.2%
12
20%
59
Travel abroad & everyday use
2
11.1%
2
3.3%
No response
7
38.8%
42
70%
Table seven shows that what helped respondents most in retaining a measure of English language proficiency were books, the Internet, TV (especially movies), and other multi-media sources. Teaching, higher studies, workshops and conferences were also mentioned as contributing factors to language maintenance. These were also mentioned as helping some respondents to gain new language after graduation; hence, further proving their importance from the respondents’ point of view. C o n c l u si o n and Implication s This study reveals that English language retention is rather lower than attrition among Omani English teachers. Urgent steps are needed to redress the situation. Areas of future research on this matter need to be identified so thet we get a clearer understanding of the phenomenon of attrition in general. Future research may also allow us to understand more clearly a wider range of particular factors involved. These might be sociolinguistic factors such as the social context, socio psychological framework, societal views affecting language attitude, motivational variables, learner variables (e.g. why some teachers appear to lose the productive skills of speaking and writing and others the receptive skills of reading or understanding spoken language). Nor will this research exclude factors which have implications for the teaching of English and thus relate second language attrition to pedagogical concerns around the three most powerful sets of pedagogical tools- curriculum, testing and resource materials. Insights gleaned may lead to revitalizing language pedagogy and designing tailor-made refresher courses that might reduce, slow down or remedy the effects of attrition. Based on the findings of this study, the Ministry of Education has to take steps 60
to address English language loss among its English teachers. The findings have revealed an acute lack of resources in schools and in the community which in itself is sometimes an obstacle to English retention due to its discouragement of English language use. In order to encourage language retention, resources have to be equally provided in all schools. The Ministry and school administrations need to encourage teachers to use the available resources and to pursue professional development.
Since the Internet and
other types of technology have appeared as important means of English language retention, they have to be made available in schools. Computer labs have to be functional, and the Internet needs to have high speed connectivity. The teachers’ heavy teaching load should be reconsidered so as to allow them some free time to engage in activities that would help them to gain new language and retain previously acquired skills. To keep up with the times, evaluations of resource-adequacy need to be conducted annually, and teachers’ feedback has to be taken into consideration. In addition, schools and senior teachers have to play a more active role in supporting junior teachers by giving workshops and presentations to motivate them and to help them to sustain interest in their field and in continued professional development. If English teachers’ proficiency is maintained, better teaching is more likely to be ensured. A teachers’ language proficiency affects the quality of her lessons and hence the quality of student learning. English teachers play a key role in motivating students to learn and pursue learning beyond the classroom. They should be role models for their students. Unfortunately, if they lack proficiency in the language they teach, they will neither be effective role models nor will they be able to deliver instruction that achieves the objectives set by the Ministry of Education. Omani Public school students’ weak level of English (Al-Mahrooqi & Asante, 2010) can be attributed in part to teachers’ lack of proficiency. This has grave ramifications on how these students perform in higher education institutions, where most need English foundation courses before enrolling in their colleges (Al-Mahrooqi, 2012; Al-Issa, 2011). To prepare school students for the demands of higher education, it is vital to 61
provide them with proficient English teachers to help them attain the required skills before leaving school. This will not only help them to succeed in their majors but will allow them to join their colleges upon entry, hence, binding them to their majors from the beginning, which will increase their sense of belonging to the colleges, motivate them to study hard, and reduce the time they spend in college. In addition, it will cut down on spending on English foundation programs, allowing for investment in other areas of crucial importance to Oman. English is Oman’s second official language and is very important for the Omani economy and education (Al-Mahrooqi & Tuzlukova, 2010). Therefore, the government, especially the Ministry of Education, has to ensure that it is taught properly in schools, a goal that cannot be achieved without proficient language teachers.
62
References Abbasian, R. & Khajavi, Y. (2010). Lexical Attrition of General and Special English Words after Years of Non-Exposure: The Case of Iranian Teachers. English Language Teaching, 3 (3), 47-53. www. ccsenet.org/elt Al-Issa, A. (2011). Advancing English language teaching research in Gulf Cooperation Council states Universities. MJAL, 3 (2), pp. 60-77. Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2012). English Communication skills: How are they taught at schools and universities in Oman. English Language Teaching, 4 (5), 124-130. Al-Mahrooqi, R. & Asante, C. (2010). Promoting autonomy by fostering a reading culture. In R. Al-Mahrooqi & V. Tuzlukova (Eds.). The Omani ELT Symphony: Maintaining Linguistic and Socio-cultural Equilibrium (pp. 477-494). Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University Academic Publication Board. Al-Mahrooqi, R. and Tuzlukova, V. (2010). Introduction: Cultural perspectives and ELT in Oman. In R. Al-Mahrooqi & V. Tuzlukova (Eds.). The Omani ELT Symphony: Maintaining Linguistic and Socio-cultural Equilibrium (pp. 13-29). Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University Academic Publication Board. Berko-Gleason, J. (1982). Insights from child language acquisition for second language loss. In R.D. Lambert & B.F. Freed (Eds.), The Loss of Language Skills (pp. 13-23). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Bogaerts, T., Summeren, C., Planken, B. & Schils, E. (1997). Age and ultimate attainment in the pronunciation of a foreign language. Studies on Second Language Acquisition, 19, 444-465. De Bot, K., & Clyne, M. (1994). A 16-year old longitudinal study of language 63
attrition in Dutch immigrants in Australia. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 15 (1), 17-28. De Bot, K., Lowrie, W. & Verspoor, M. (2007): A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10 (1), 7-21. Flege, J., Yeni-Komshian, G. & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 78-104. Kopke, B., Schmid, M., Keijzer, M. & Dostert, S. ( Eds.) (2007). Language Attrition: Theoretical Perspectives. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kouritzin, S. G. (1999). Face(t)s of first language loss. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kravin, H. (1992). Erosion of a language in bilingual development. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 13, 307-324. Kuhberg, H. (1992). Longitudinal L2 attrition versus L2 acquisition in three Turkish children- empirical findings. Second Language Research, 8, 138-154. Marefat, H & Rouhshad, A. (2007). Second language attrition: Are different nouns equally likely to be lost? Porta Linguarum, 8, 85-98 Murtagh, L. & Van der Silk, F. (2004). Retention of Irish skills: A longitudinal study of a school-acquired second language. International Journal of Bilingualism, 8 (3), 279-302. Oxford, R. (1982). Research on language loss: a review with implications for foreign language teaching. The Modern Language Journal, 66 (2), 160-167. Schmid, M. S., Kopke, B., Keijzer, M. & Weilemar, L. (2004). 64
First
Language Attrition: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Methodological Issues. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamin. Yashitomi, A. (1992). Towards a model of language attrition: neurobiological and psychological contribution. Issues in Applied Linguistics 3, 293-318. Yazzie, E.(1996). Perceptions of selected Navajo elders regarding Navajo language attrition. Journal of Navajo Education, 2, 51-57.
65
CHAPTER 3 Cultural Universalities and Particularities: A Case Study of Omani EFL SQU Students Jamila Abdullah Al-Siyabi
ABSTRACT
C
ulture is an everlasting element of life and language learning. This study investigates some cultural aspects that concern teachers’ and
students’ classroom contexts; students’ assertiveness, greeting, perception of time, politeness, oral traditions, face saving strategies and rapport versus grades. It provides insights into the cultural universalities and particularities of the cultural aspects in the Omani EFL setting. Appreciating such cultural dimensions can make a difference in how teachers perceive teaching and learning in a culture. This study presents classroom observational data, and self reported data and anecdotes of various EFL practitioners coming from different cultural backgrounds working in the Omani EFL classrooms at Sultan Qaboos University. It also discusses interesting cultural dimensions of Omani EFL students who may differ from or resemble students from other cultures in the world. This discussion can help to better understand Omani students’ attitudes, students’ and teachers’ expectations and student-teacher relationships in the Omani EFL context. It can also help improve teachers’ 67
teaching and learning practices as teachers increase their awareness about students’ related cultural aspects. Introduction Culture has been defined in broad terms as anything to do with people’s ways of living (Hammerly, 1982), but classified to a more specific concept as “a system of symbols, meanings, and norms passed from one generation to the next, which differentiates groups of people united by certain characteristics such as origin, race, ethnicity, gender, religion, socioeconomic class, or political views” (Savignon & Sysoyev, 2002, p.513). Spradley (1980) proposes that culture is about three basic components of people’s experience, cultural behaviour, cultural knowledge and cultural artifacts. Acquisition of knowledge of these takes place through the person’s interaction with other individuals. S/he starts to comprehend meanings for the experiences they face, and alter the meanings they formulate as they encounter more experiences and deal with more people (Spradley, 1980). Culture, then, is about concepts of beliefs, customs, thoughts, and life style. These concepts are conveyed and expressed through language (Brown, 1986). In attempting to define culture, there is also the element of change. Particularly in the modern age of globalization, culture should not be viewed as a discrete constituent that is not subject to change (McKay, 2002). Culture should also not be viewed as “geographically distinct entities, as relatively unchanging and homogenous” (Atkinson, 1999, p. 626). This study looks into the significance of learning culture, levels of cultural awareness, concepts of cultural particularity and universality and an overview on the Omani EFL context. It mainly investigates the culturally varied EFL teachers’ perceptions of Omani EFL students’ attitudes with reference to students’ assertiveness, greeting each other and/or the teacher, perception of time, politeness, oral traditions, face saving strategies and rapport versus grades. The study also attempts to examine the teachers’ responses and find out whether they categorize their students’ attitudes as culturally particular or universal. There are also thoughts and pedagogical implications relevant to 68
the cultural particularity and universality of Omani EFL students’ practices and perceptions. Significance of culture learning The importance of culture is vividly manifested in internationally common EFL beliefs. Based on these beliefs, language study is a crucial part of curriculum, and language and culture are inevitably inseparable which should eventually lead to greater cultural understanding (Brown, 1986; Peck, 1998). Besides, there is still the reality of the world nowadays which calls for more cross-cultural understanding and acceptance of others who are culturally different (McKay, 2002; Peck, 1998). Teaching of culture can impact students’ positive attitudes towards other cultures (Fleet, 2006). In a more global sense, appreciating cultural diversity must be a priority as the world is becoming more interdependent. Cultural teaching can contribute to the world knowledge, security and economy development. Culture is fundamental in any language classroom because it is an inseparable constituent in the relation between language and thought (Brown, 1986). Culture and language are interconnected (Brown, 1986; Peck, 1998; McKay, 2002; Savignon & Sysoyev, 2002). Even a purely academic or scientific discourse, for example, does not lack the crucial elements of culture since issues like the significance of objectivity and truthfulness in the process of writing a scientific report are still considered (McKay, 2002). Learning about a certain culture does not have to mean embracing it (McKay, 2002). It does not entail any obligation to abide by the norms, rules and behaviour of that culture (Kramsch, 1993). This brings to attention the difference between two common concepts in this regard which are biculturalism and interculturalism. The former term is not only about acknowledging another culture, but fully embracing it, while the latter is mainly about obtaining knowledge about others’ culture without necessarily identifying with it (McKay, 2002). A more detailed demonstration of one’s cultural understating is offered by (Hanvey, 1987). 69
Levels of Cultural Awareness People’s cultural awareness (i.e. perceptions and beliefs related to a foreign culture) vary. Variations come due to one’s exposure, experience, knowledge and/or personal traits. According to Hanvey (1987) people can be categorized into four levels in terms of their cultural awareness. The levels vary from merely relying on stereotypes to empathizing with a particular cultural group. A brief account on the various degrees of people’s cultural awareness follows: 1. Level 1: Facts, stereotypes and deficiencies: Individuals who are categorized into this group are those who hold pre-assumed perceptions about other cultural groups. Their knowledge is composed of facts, stereotypes about others, and what they view as deficiencies in the other culture. Some teachers, for instance, have prejudices about their students’ cultural backgrounds. They come to class with facts and stereotypes that help them classify their students into certain moulds. For them, a particular group of students are hardworking, troublemakers, violent or passive. What teachers say and do with their students during their regular interaction with them is based on predetermined assumptions they have of the cultural groups that students come from. 2. Level 2: Shallow comprehension: The individual is aware of the intricate characteristics and processes of others’ culture and may occasionally become frustrated by subtleties that exist in it. 3. Level 3: In-Depth comprehension: The person starts to grasp the cultural phenomena from the others’ sets of beliefs. S/he has a profound understanding of the other culture and has a certain level of acceptance for the particular culture. Acculturation seems to be closer in terms of definition to the third level of Hanvey’s categorization of cultural awareness 4. Level 4: Empathy: When the person is so engrossed with the other culture to the extent that s/he accepts it fully, the distance between the two cultures 70
becomes minimum. In the area of culture and communication, the term ‘biculturation’ seems to have the same principle and degree of what can be called as absolute cultural awareness empathy. Teachers deal with students on a daily basis. Understanding their students’ culture(s) is essential if teachers attempt to pursue a successful teaching experience and want their students to maintain a successful learning endeavor. According to the principles of English as an International Language (EIL) teaching, for instance, the culture of the Inner Circle (e.g. USA, UK, New Zealand and Australia) should not by any means be the foundation for the context when culture is introduced to teaching (McKay, 2002). Therefore, the culture of the target culture does not necessarily have to be the focus of the cultural elements in teaching. EFL Students’ culture should receive no less attention. Particularity v. Universality One has to let go of what he calls “naïve realism”, the concept that all humans are alike in the way they perceive their world (Spardley, 1980). Diversity is always there within any culture. This notion is particularly true at the current time with migration, travel, communication, business and all other types of interaction that take place between one culture and another. Culture cannot help but be affected by these current trends. Family, entertainment, responsibility and worship are concepts that are viewed differently by the owners of different cultures. It does not seem wise for teachers to assume that their students hold similar values to classroom practices, relations with each other or the teacher inside and outside classroom, speech acts, language appropriateness, students’ and teacher’s expectations and so forth. In other words, teachers should realize that while they should acknowledge that their students may share the same culture, and therefore have various communities that connect them to be a particular cultural division, they at the same time should bear in mind that no two students have exactly the same culture. Within each culture variations are expected. 71
Cultural particularity in the context of this study is a term which denotes that cultural views and practices are context specific; particular to the Omani EFL setting while universality is a concept that represents a more international notion that can apply to various contexts in the world, and therefore expands in different world cultures. Unlike particular cultures, universal cultures are about people’s perceptions and practices that are universally common, and therefore similar to other cultural perceptions and practices in other parts of the world. Particular and universal cultural aspects share some common grounds with, but also differ from the division offered by Tomlinson (2000, cited in Tuzlukova & Al Mahrooqi, 2010), which is composed of three distinct types of culture; universal, regional and common cultures of communities. According to Tomlinson’s categorization, universality is about people’s emotions, feelings and innate traits; regional culture has similar traits like other cultures and the cultures of communities have shared aims and interests. Universal practices and perceptions in this chapter overlap with Tomlinson’s term, universal cultures, while particular practices and perceptions seem to share some of the characteristics of the other two terms; regional or ethnic cultures and cultures that mirror their communities. Prior to the discussion of the cultural particularities and universalities of some classroom practices and perceptions in the Omani EFL context, some light is shed on the EFL context in Oman. EFL Context in Oman The Omani EFL context will be highlighted below in terms of the setting, teachers and cultural content. Setting National identity is obviously an essential part of people’s perception of their identity (Barbour, 1996). The concept of culturally and racially homogeneous class is basically demonstrated by the use of the same language (Barbour, 1996) which is the case to a great extent in the Omani EFL context. Arabic is 72
the first language for the majority of Omani students. Even though there are students who belong to families of cultural backgrounds other than Arabic, they probably still learn Arabic in their homes with varying degrees of emphasis on their original languages. Examples of these languages are Swahili, Baluchi and Persian. The current generation has students from families that speak non-Arabic languages. According to Burns (2010), Omani students are not totally homogeneous; they have distinct cultural and lingual backgrounds. Teachers in Omani EFL context Teachers in the Language Centre, Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) usually live on the university campus with other expatriate colleagues. Even if they opt to live off campus, they will most probably end up living in neighborhoods where other expatriate colleagues live. The media they are exposed to are usually not the local ones. The local English media dedicate most of their pages to a variety of external affairs and the functions usually organized and attended by expatriates in the country. The language used in most of the local events and ceremonies is Arabic which does not help most of the expatriates who are non-Arabic speakers. Foreign teachers who do not know the language may not be involved. They still read the news, watch programs and movies and read books and magazines in English or their own native language which is certainly not Arabic. Obviously, incorporating culture into the EFL curriculum requires training teachers to adopt culture elements when they plan their classroom lessons (Fleet, 2006; Swetnam, 2010). Swetnam (2010) recommends that expatriate teachers who are not familiar with the culture of the Gulf countries be offered training in culture to reduce the probability of misunderstanding, embarrassing or offending students. Cultural content Culture can be incorporated in the syllabi of EFL curriculum where syllabi are to clarify the importance of culture in the context of EFL, (Brown, 1986; Peck, 1998; McKay, 2002; Savignon & Sysoyev, 2002; Fleet, 2006). In terms of content, teaching materials can be of three types; “source culture material”, or 73
“the target culture materials” or “the international culture materials” (McKay, 2002. p. 88). It is obvious from the term that the source culture materials make use of the learners’ own culture as a main source of content while the target culture materials are about the native culture of the language taught. The international culture materials, on the other hand, highlight aspects of various cultures around the world. In the Omani EFL context, materials are mainly two types; materials imported from the target culture and materials produced in the source culture. Omani EFL SQU students’ cultural universalities and particularities This study investigates EFL teachers’ perceptions of Omani EFL students at the Language Centre (SQU). It was intended to see whether culturally varied EFL teachers view Omani students’ behaviors and attitudes as universal or particular. The teachers’ views were examined vis-à-vis the following seven aspects: students’ assertiveness, greeting, perception of time, politeness, oral traditions, face saving strategies and rapport versus grades. The study looked into the Omani EFL students’ attitudes and behaviour with regard to these cultural aspects. Are their attitudes and attitudes universal or particular from the point of view of the expatriate EFL teachers? The study focuses on students’ assertiveness, greeting, perception of time, politeness, oral traditions, face saving strategies and rapport versus grades because they seem to be the most prominent aspects that prevail in the teacher’s daily interactions with students. Teachers discuss them in teachers’ meetings and in their informal chats with each other. Cultural notions involved in classroom perceptions and practices are also an essential concern tackled in professional circles. These cultural notions apparently affect the classroom atmosphere. Teaching and learning can take place in the classroom environment without having unpleasant distracters caused by cultural misunderstandings or unintentional incidents of intolerance from students or teachers. In the following tables, teachers’ responses do not represent frequency. They are listed once irrespective of the number of 74
teachers repeating the same response. Priority is given to the nature of the response rather than to its frequency of occurrence. Methodology An open ended questionnaire was sent to teachers by e-mail. Teachers were invited to respond to the questionnaire on a voluntary basis. After filling out the questionnaire, teachers were requested to e-mail the questionnaire back to the researcher or hand in a hard copy of it. The participants were asked to share their experiences while teaching Omani EFL students; their opinions and anecdotes in view of the specified cultural aspects of the study. No guidelines or examples were given to the participants in order to allow as much freedom and variation in their input as possible. It was left to them what reflections, views and/or stories they chose to share that touch on their experiences with regard to the seven cultural aspects highlighted in the study. The responses served as self-explanatory data based on the participants’ experiences and observations. Twenty three male and females LC EFL instructors from various cultural backgrounds participated in the study: Western (UK, USA and Canada), Indian, Sri Lankan and non-Omani Arabs. Students’ attitudes and behaviours are largely demonstrated in a variety of linguistic forms and social practices as shown in the teachers’ statements in Tables (1-7). Whether students’ attitudes and behaviours are illustrated in linguistic forms or social practices, they are classified as universal or particular. The teachers’ statements (i.e. views and/or stories) were analyzed and divided into seven categories: students’ assertiveness, greeting, perception of time, politeness, oral traditions, face saving strategies and rapport versus grades. The data gives a fairly comprehensive scope of the teachers’ perceptions about Omani students’ behaviour in light of the cultural aspects exhibited by the study. Results and Discussion This section displays the results according to the following themes: 75
1. Omani students’ assertiveness Table 1 Teachers’ Perceptions of Omani EFL Students in Terms of Assertiveness. Cultural background
Western (USA and UK)
Teachers’ Statements
Universal or Particular Practices
This seems to be very individual. Some girls can be very assertive. Students will be assertive when it is important to them. Some students will pressure the teacher if they want Universal something very much While some Omani students are assertive, most are not, at least at the lower level Assertiveness disappears in mixed company. All male groups are more relaxed and boisterous. All female Particular groups are positively noisy. Together they sit in watchful semi-silence Boys tend to be very assertive even arrogant whereas girls very shy When it comes to discussing a topic they have read, they do not have strong thinking skills to analyze and synthesize a concept
Indian
If they can relate to the topic, they are assertive. Students have a mind of their own and do not necessarily agree with everything the teacher says Omani students assert the need for quality instruction and Universal often ensures that the teacher’s instruction is accounted for They tend to want to know how and why the grades are assigned to them They can be assertive at first, but later they accept the Particular teacher’s statements They are pretty passive in most cases in asserting anything as language is the biggest barrier to them
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Sri Lankan
When talking about planets I remember a student who got up and said “Ms, the Moon is not a planet” and went on and on to prove it Universal When I was trying to introduce the concept of the three states of matter, a student insisted that water vapour is not a “gas” and gave examples of gases I was surprised to find extremely bold and confident females in my classes at the SQU I noted that this boldness must spring from their training received in schools In their academic endeavor’ s girls show boldness and still are able to keep their restrains within their limits
Particular Arabs
I think they are proud of their culture and embrace new Universal culture They are attached to their roots and have strong attitudes about their backgrounds and villages They are very bold and like to stand and argue for their opinions
Particular
In general, EFL teachers do not seem to view Omani EFL students as predominantly particular in terms of assertiveness. For instance, 50% of the Western participants state that Omani students are universal in their assertive behaviour. Sevety five percent of the Indian teachers view Omani students as assertive while all Sri Lankan teachers regard them as assertive. Sixty six percent of the non-Omani Arab teachers think of Omani students as assertive. Teachers across cultures attributed students’ varying degree of assertiveness to external variables other than students’ culture like gender, students’ interest in themes or topics introduced in class, language proficiency, national identity, co-educational setting and individual characteristics. These factors contribute to students’ assertive or unassertive attitudes that can fluctuate from one setting to another. External factors most probably play a role in determining teachers’ perspectives on students’ assertiveness. Consequently, students’ assertive attitudes are seen as universal like any other students of 77
another culture. Some of the participants also contend that Omani students are assertive among themselves (females with females), but feel constrained by the opinions of the other gender in a co-educational setting. Some pointed out that the same is true with male students, but to a lesser degree, and they, therefore, show less assertive practices which can probably influence the teachers’ judgments on their students’ level of assertiveness. 2. Omani EFL students’ greeting Table 2 Teachers’ Perceptions of Omani EFL Students Regarding Greeting Cultural background
Western (USA and UK)
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Teachers’ Statements
Universal or Particular Practices
Greetings vary from one group to another; not Universal consistent Occasionally, late comers will first greet friends and not teachers. Male students may give each other a ‘nose kiss’ Both boys and girls shake hands when they greet (boys with boys and girls with girls) They greet the teacher, but not the way they greet each other I am amazed at the extent to which my students strive to greet me and their peers. Particular Greeting is just what you do from age two I usually get mumbled responses to my own cheery greeting Quite a lot of greetings go on which is a shock to the English who do not want to react or interact with total strangers or b quizzed about their family One has to exert considerable control to go through the ritual greetings They need to interrupt everyone in Arabic whatever they are interrupting
Indian
Universal Particular They do their utmost in being cordial Even if a student comes late into class, he will either greet the class aloud or walk around shaking hand with his classmates They spend a lot of time in greeting one another when they enter a class. This can delay the commencement of teaching in class. They also greet the teacher saying “Salamalaikum”. They are happy when the teacher responds appropriately and does not have them say “good morning” or “good afternoon” much.
Sri Lankan
Universal I’m fascinated by students greeting each other and Particular not the teacher sometimes Despite the class situations, whether it is in the middle of a test, or a scientific experiment they would stop to exchange greetings
Arabs
Universal They are always friendly in their greetings with each Particular other and with their teachers The only thing that surprises/annoys me is the way they could stop traffic just to greet each other from inside cars while crossing the street They greet each other freely as they are used to in their different towns/cities. They feel proud practising their traditional way of greeting.( e.g. kissing nose)
The sweeping majority of the participants of the various cultural backgrounds view Omani EFL students as particular in terms of their greeting. According to them, Omani students’ greeting behaviour is unique. 85 % of the Western participants think of Omani students’ greeting practices as particular while all the participants from the other cultural backgrounds regard Omani students’ greetings as particular. One of the participants pointed out that according to the Western standards, students are “punctiliously” polite and enjoy each others’ company. Students shake hands with their classmates of the same gender only. Hand shaking practices do not cease even if students come late to class. They do not seem to see a problem in interrupting the rhythm of the class that has already started by their 79
short verbal greetings and hand-shaking. It is so crucial for them to acknowledge their classmates through their prompt greeting rituals irrespective of the fact that it disturbs the class. Teachers who are unaware of this practice may find it outrageous, and probably consider it as a sign of disrespect and recklessness. In addition, teachers from the different cultures point out that students tend to greet their fellow classmates, but not the teacher. Some of the Westerners bring up the notion that Omani students may vary in their greeting practices from one class to another based on the nature of the relationships with classmates, their awareness and exposure to universal classroom practices and maturity level. Some point out that phrases like “good morning” or “good afternoon” are still alien to students. They are more keen to use “Assalamu Alairum” which is a vivid element of their phatic communication formula. Short phrases are used naturally in regular daily interactions among Omanis. The data show that that teachers have a relatively deep understanding of the greeting practices among Omani students. 3. Omani EFL students’ perceptions of time Table 3 Teachers’ Perceptions of How Omani EFL Students View Time Cultural Teachers’ Statements background
Universal or Particular
Students are as aware of time as any other nationality. Universal Western They may need a little reminding to be on time, but they (USA and do make the effort My students are on time in the majority
UK)
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They are patient with delays, but I think credit students Particular value their time and do not like to have it wasted Sometimes, students arrive late to class (boys and girls) and even though they are told not to arrive late, they still do it Omani time is usually about 30 minutes late except in the military Their time perception is pretty lax. They come early but only because they get into trouble if not They vary. low level students do not take it seriously at al, but higher level students seem fairly ‘Western’ in their punctuality Students like to be late and often expect a ‘no problem’ response. Many students don’t wear a watch
Indian
Universal Students are quite laid back. Few students take deadlines Particular seriously They are often not aware of the need to submit assignments on time The majority of students do not value the importance of time
Universal
Sri Lankan
There has been a positive change towards punctuality
Arabs
They have a good perception of time and time-keeping Universal is important to them, except for a few who are careless about that and come to class late or hand in their assignments later than expected
Particular
Coming to class/appointments or showing up to offices Particular without an appointment is common Time is not that valuable. Keeping time is not that serious. For them being 10 minutes late for class is not a big deal
Different cultures in the world perceive time differently; there are cultures that are more rigid with time and others that show more tolerance. The Language Centre teachers vary in the way they view Omani students’ perception of time. The majority of the participants across cultures consider Omani students as laid back. Eighty nine percent of the Western teachers, 66% of the Arab participants and all the Indian and Sri Lankan participants think that Omani students are laid back and do not consider arriving late to class a big problem. Even the teachers who sens some positive change toward punctuality and more awareness of time from the students’ side, imply that arriving late to class is not uncommon. Some teachers view this as a problem that hinders classroom teaching. One participant points out another area relevant to time perception and time management which is sticking to tasks’ assigned time. Students would always say ‘teacher, I’m ready/finished’ regardless of the time limit set to them beforehand by the teacher. Teachers from various cultural backgrounds mention that students sometimes do not abide by the time limits determined by the teacher and often ask for extension or modification of deadlines. Some propose that training and raising awareness 81
about classroom regulations in terms of punctuality be introduced to students to help them develop better punctuality and time management patterns. 4. Omani students’ politeness Table 4 Teachers’ Perceptions of Omani EFL Students’ Politeness Cultural background
Teachers’ Statements
Universal or Particular
Nearly always impeccable
Universal
Western (USA and Students are polite, friendly and very respectful towards the teacher UK) For the most part, Omani students are unfailingly polite They are generally polite, and their impoliteness is often accidental
Children are taught to be polite and it stays with Particular them through life Some of them are quite rude behind the wheel of a car All want to be polite. But lack of language makes them seem rude or abrupt
Indian
Omani students are generally polite and courteous Universal Most of the students are polite if they know that I am their teacher They are just too good at it although in doing so Particular they at times feel displeased with themselves
Sri Lankan
Students carry out being polite towards the issues/ Universal things/people they are trained to in behaviour They need to learn politeness embedded in Particular language and language use
Arabs
Very polite especially with teachers
Universal
Omani students are the most polite ones I have Particular taught They are so polite and friendly. An example of this is the way they greet their teachers « teacher, teacher> as an indication of politeness I have sensed a change [in students’ politeness] since 2003; not a positive change The boys are also polite with their female classmates They may lack certain aspects of etiquette, but in general are very well behaved
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This practice is examined based on the notion that people regardless of their cultural backgrounds generally tend to be polite and courteous. EFL teachers from the different cultural groups regard Omani students as universal in their politeness. Only 28% of the Western participants think of Omani students’ politeness as particular. Twenty five percent of the Indian teachers consider Omani students’ politeness particular and all Sri Lankan teachers regard their politeness as particular. Thirty three percent of the Arab teachers regard Omani students’ politeness as particular. Some teachers are amazed at the degree to which Omani students’ practice politeness. Omani students tend to apologize for ‘wasting/taking’ their teacher’s time despite the fact that they turn up when there is an appointment or drop by their teacher’s office during office hours. They also have a tendency to thank the teacher at the end of each class. Incidents of impoliteness are accidental and may rise from not knowing the polite forms used in English. Students may unintentionally sound rude owing to their language proficiency when they abruptly say, “Teacher, give me the book”, “Let us go early today” or “I want to leave the class for a minute.” More teaching and training in this area have been suggested by the teachers. Some suggest that teachers need to address language forms used in English to express different speech acts and other communicative purposes in a more polite manner. A participant also recommended that students should be taught not to call their teacher ‘teacher’ since this is not the polite form of calling a teacher in English-speaking countries.
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5. Omani students’ oral traditions Table 5 Teachers’ Perceptions of Omani EFL Students’ Oral Traditions Cultural Teachers’ Statements background Western and UK)
Universal or Particular
There is a generation relying on mobiles and DVD Universal (USA and old oral traditions will almost certainly die out unless kept alive by artificial means Students love to talk (in Arabic) Particular They are always on the phone talking Their grandparents depend on oral transmission and this is reflected in students As it is expected, Omani students have a high oral tradition They prefer to talk than to write Omanis like to talk. All they need is a good interesting topic There are certain areas things students do not talk about (e.g. giving names of the their sisters)
Universal
Indian
Students understand better when things/information Particular are told to them Students understand better when things are told to them better than when asked to read by themselves They speak a lot. It is a part of their ‘oral culture’ Sri Lankan
Girls, being world famous for [talking] is understandable
Universal
Hard to believe that even the male students like to sit Particular and chat up their teachers! But they do
Arabs
Universal Particular
Omani students were categorized by most of the teachers irrespective of their cultures as having a particularly high oral culture (75% of the Western teachers, 100% of the Indian and Sri Lankan teachers). A participant said that Omani students are only second generation literates, and therefore it is no wonder they have a culture that values oral traditions. Students are 84
keen to initiate oral communication with their classmates and/or the teacher. Some believe that students tend to respond better to information delivered to them orally than in writing. Some teachers point out that male students are no exception, and would get involved in prolonged oral conversations with their classmates or the teacher. One participant also observed the emerging significance of technology which has made an impact on Omani students’ oral practices which is represented in a change to more reliance on modern technological media such as the internet, DVDs and cell phones. This will certainly reshape the kind of oral traditions students nowadays practice. The Arab participants decided not to comment and some had questions about the questionnaire item on oral traditions which reflected their uncertainty about the meaning of the term. 6. Students’ face saving strategies Table 6 Teachers’ Perceptions of Omani EFL Students’ Face Saving Strategies Cultural background
Western (USA and UK)
Teachers’ Statements
Universal or Particular
Students apologize at the end of the class for Universal arriving late or because they have forgotten their homework Silence expresses disapproval or dissent. Few Particular students will challenge a person who is socially superior, older, more important etc. They will remain silent. Many of the weak students will not speak Sometimes, when the semester finishes a group will come to apologize for anything they did wrong Absence
Indian
They have a thousand ways of doing so
Universal
Being silent and absent
Particular 85
Sri Lankan
They give justifications (e.g. traffic jam, having so Universal much work to do, emergency call) Students tend to have reasons for why they want to do something. Noticeably the universal strategies; not having time ranking the top
Particular Arabs
Apologizing Universal They use white lies (e.g. excuse for not doing their homework and not wanting to lose face in front of their classmates will be ‘I forgot the homework in my flat. I have done it but forgot it’ If they don’t know how to pronounce a word, they Particular avoid using it When they mispronounce [a word] and the teacher corrects it, they start reading the part of sentence after that word. In the presence of the opposite sex, they tend to be shy and keep away from answering questions in detail or taking the initiative of giving a presentation in front of the class Smiling blankly
Teachers from the various cultures stated that some of the Omani students’ face-saving strategies are universal and others are particular. Sixty six percent of the Western EFL teachers, 50% of the Indian teachers, 100% of the Sri Lankan teachers and 66% of the Arab teachers view Omani students’ facesaving strategies as particular. They mention practices that are normally used by students in other cultures such as apologizing, giving justifications and lying. Some also resort to silence, absence or avoidance of uttering words they are not confident pronouncing or they just maintain a smile. One of the Western participants pointed out that silence can indicate disapproval. Students’ silence is another strategy which can be attributed to differences in status between them and the teacher. Some are afraid of making mistakes in front of their peers. Furthermore, some participants brought up the notion of gender in their face saving strategies. It is crucial not to criticize students in front of others, especially males in the presence of females, and vise versa. 86
7. Students-teacher rapport versus grades Table 7 Teachers’ Perceptions of Student- Teacher Rapport Versus Grades Cultural background Western (USA and UK)
Teachers’ Statements
Universal or Particular
Rarely do grades come between myself and my Universal students. I do my best to be fair and they see that and respond accordingly Omani students will tolerate even failure if they believe that a teacher has really tried to help them I have a few students who have not yet come to terms with the grade/s they received from me Some students argue. Some accept that learning is more important Encouragement and praise go a very long way to Particular establish that you are on their side In most cases, students do tend to base their opinion of a teacher on grades received, especially if they feel the grade is low. They do change their attitude as they advance, though. They let me know that they still hold a grudge by the way they glare or ignore me Bad grades lead to rather a bad atmosphere in class, but it usually does not last Students are quite grade-oriented
Indian
If the criteria/objectives are laid to them in Arabic Universal well in advance then I think this tussle would not arise. They always try to get the teacher to increase Particular their marks Sometimes, some students try to flatter the teacher in order to get high grades Students believe that if they are ‘good’ to the teacher that might give them more grades. Many students are willing to study better if they have a good rapport with the teacher and feel that the teacher wants to genuinely help them to improve language use.
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Sri Lankan
I have found students to be extremely understanding Universal when the criterion vs. their behaviour/presentation is explained (well, despite the girls’ pouting).
Particular Arabs
Universal Arguing for grades and asking for justification for Particular missing some points They like their teacher till he/she informs them of their marks. Then if they are not satisfactory, they get unhappy and start asking questions and requesting help from the teacher to improve the mark. This might affect that Student-Teacher negatively. They expect great grades for little work; as they participate in class, they feel they should be awarded regardless of test results.
Teachers vary in their perceptions on students’ attitudes pertaining to their rapport with the teacher versus grades. According to 60% of the Western teachers, 75% of the Indians, 100% of Sri Lankans and Arabs, Omani students have a particular attitude when they appreciate supportive compliments that can eventually push them to do better. According to some participants, Omani students express their annoyance if the teacher gives them low grades which can temporarily create a negative atmosphere in the classroom. Indian teachers think that students try to build a positive relation with the teacher, thinking that this will help them achieve better grades through flattery and being good to their teacher. Participants from different cultures stated that students expect the teacher to ‘help them’. They think that asking for help is actually asking for extra marks. The limited experiences of the world and lack of exposure to different approaches to language teaching and education in general can be factors behind students mixing help with asking the teacher to raise their grades. Pedagogical Implications Culture obviously does not only impact language, but also beliefs, attitudes, behaviors and life styles. The integration of the teaching of culture into language 88
teaching has received a great deal of attention in the literature for so long, but despite the continuous attention, the impact is not significant. It seems that integrating culture into the language syllabi still suffers and is still superficial. Giroux (1999) argues that cultural studies are very popular and have received attention from scholars, yet not many academics have made attempts to include the existing cultural studies in reforms in language teaching. There are a number of pedagogical implications that can be considered when pondering over cultural particularities and universalities in the Omani EFL context. Teachers’ cultural awareness Interacting with students can promote teachers’ cultural awareness when they mingle with students in their authentic environments, hometowns, villages and of course in class. Seeking information from students on cultural aspects and behaviour also helps. Looking for common interests and getting closer to the students’ world can also increase teachers’ awareness of the students’ culture. For example, there are still some Omani students who generally hold a sense of pride and belonging to their particular identity. They identify themselves as Omanis who have dual or multi-cultural backgrounds and introduce themselves to the world as such. Therefore, Omani EFL classrooms are not actually as homogenous as they seem to be. They bring to class their experiences, beliefs and cultural backgrounds. Teachers at the Language Centre (SQU) will have to interact with the culturally and linguistically diverse EFL Omani students to experience and live this variation and become reasonably aware of it. EFL teachers can enrich their cultural experiences when they learn from the students’ culture which contains artifacts, musical activities, songs, plays and shows, signs, posters and advertisements that demonstrate various aspects of students’ culture. Teachers can observe how their students act in various situations and inquire about whatever they cannot fathom of what they notice among their students. Culture also contains social customs and organizations in the students’ country as well as norms which impact the 89
language appropriateness in different contexts. Becoming aware of them helps the teacher get closer to the local culture, be in a better position to interact with students and minimize possibilities of cultural misunderstandings that can impede smooth classroom interaction. Teachers can join training programs that orient them to the culture of the host country (Fleet, 2006; Swetnam, 2010). The Language Centre has recently adopted some programs where expatriate teachers are invited to attend cultural events in which aspects about the local culture are introduced in an attractive and a friendly manner. International nights and gatherings can also establish cultural dialogues where cultural aspects are discussed in a friendly environment. One of the programs that the Language Centre abides by is arranging buddies for the expatriate new comers to escort them for a period of time to help them adjust to the new culture. Teachers may also want to orient themselves to the media and probably apply a compare and contrast mechanism to look for commonalities and investigate differences. Students’ cultural awareness Introducing culture to students in classroom is definitely crucial to pursue better learning opportunities and a better teaching environment for students. First, teaching culture can function as a motivator for students since it can arouse their interest in what they do in class (Hemmerly, 1982). It can help to refute myths and stereotypes through posters, realia, letters, post cards, emails, pictures, photos, diaries, short stories, poems, ads and movies. It is the teacher who holds the responsibility to create a sort of a sphere of interculturality where s/he not only works on transmitting information between his/her culture and the culture of his/her students, but regards his/her own culture in relation to the students’ culture (Kramsch, 1993). This probably entails not only reflecting on the students’ culture, but one’s own. This atmosphere will probably create a reasonable level of cultural awareness among students and teachers at the same time. Second, students tend to be explicit in the way they express themselves, especially when they know that they do not have 90
to watch their grammar and that they will not be marked down because of their language mistakes. The teacher can react to them personally verbally or in writing. If content and cohesion only matter and privacy is respected, the quality, transparency and authenticity of expression are promoted. Classroom practices Students most likely express what is commonly said or practiced in a certain culture. Therefore, negotiating what practices are expected from both sides will help to eliminate future incidents of frustration or misunderstanding. In the Omani context, greeting people, whether one’s acquaintances or not is considered to be an indication of a good upbringing and a sign of courtesy. Allowing brief greetings and the exchange of quick acknowledgments when entering class among students themselves and/or teacher can help the teacher establish a good bonding that can set a positive atmosphere in class which will probably pave the way for a more productive learning experience. On the other hand, in the age of modernity, globalization and more assimilation of practices in academic settings around the world, regardless of the cultural context of a classroom, aculturalization or biculturation could affect practices that can hinder the learning and teaching processes in a certain classroom. This way, teachers can help their students develop better behavioural patterns toward aspects that can be sometimes culturally based such as - punctuality, - teacher-student relationships inside and outside the classroom, - the learner-centered classroom, - voicing one’s opinions, - policies on late arrivals and other practices related to greetings when a class is already on, - initiating polite requests, - discussing assessments, - suggesting change - and rules related to missing deadlines. 91
Culture teaching and teaching materials Teaching materials are usually commercial textbooks for global use. Students’ cultural backgrounds are more likely not addressed, and therefore negotiating cultural meanings, exploring students’ understanding of the culture/s represented in commercial textbooks and examining their own cultural context is crucial. The teacher has a role in making adjustments to and supplementing commercial texts adopted by the educational institution in order to suit his/her students’ culture. When adopting this approach, students’ needs, their cultural experiences and exposure to other cultures as well as cultural limitations of the textbooks should be taken into account. There is a continuum which lexical words that carry a culture can be located on. As far as culture is concerned, there are words that are more frequent, and are limited to a certain cultural locality, which should be learned by EFL teachers. This will then enable them to read, interact and react to the learners in their cultural contexts more effectively. In the EFL context-specific, for instance, there are particularities that relate to one local cultural group, but not to another. McKay (2002) brings up an interesting example about a couple of lexical words that indicate a meaning in their local contexts, but obviously have no meaning in contexts like the USA, UK or Australia. “Minor wife” and “clansmen” are two innovated terms to denote a particular meaning that exists in Thailand and Hong Kong respectively (McKay, 2002). Yet, these meanings may not trigger any related meanings among other users of English elsewhere. Thus, there is no actual need that urges other English users to acquire these terms. Similarly, particular terms to a particular context are crucial for those context local users, and therefore it makes sense to introduce them to students. In the Omani EFL context ‘vitamin W’ or “vitamin waw” which basically means ‘mediation, nepotism and/or preference to a particular group/person which is most likely not based on objective criteria’, commonly referred to as ‘wasta’ is particular to the Omani context, but may be meaningless in another context. There are also cultural aspects that relate to the culture of the EFL Omani students that an 92
expatriate teacher has to be familiar with, such as social and religious ceremonies, national events and other regular occasions that are significant and particular to the Omani cultural setting. Lexical items that express values and behaviours relevant to these cultural functions can obviously receive more priority to be learned by the expatriate teacher who interacts with Omani students in their culture. Tasks for EFL culture teaching Many researchers argue that culture should be taught in a language class as long as there are students to be taught and that language teaching should constantly continue through the language teaching journey (Peck, 1998). The notion that some teachers are not sufficiently exposed to the students’ culture does not have to be considered as a drawback. If the teacher is not familiar with some aspects in the students’ culture, this could actually create an ideal setting in class (McKay, 2002). In the field of culture and classroom teaching there is the notion of “teaching culture as a difference” (McKay, 2002, p.83). Among students’ national identities which are not monolithic, there are diverse national features linked to variables such as age, gender and social class. The teacher’s different culture is also a factor that can support making use of cultural differences to enrich the experience of culture teaching in class. The interest is provoked by the students’ collaborations on aspects of their culture that are discussed in class. An atmosphere of interculturality can be established when the teacher raises genuine questions and the students are keen to provide their teacher with their own cultural perceptions in an authentic manner. The teacher can then in return express his/her personal reactions to their inputs which s/he has received from the students about their culture. Through designing tasks that require students to put themselves in a variety of contexts can help the teachers acquaint themselves with the students’ culture. Examples of these tasks are role plays, teachers providing pictures from the students’ culture for the students to reflect on and students bringing their own experiences and thoughts related to the pictures. Not only personalization tasks can address students’ language development, but can also help the teacher grasp 93
notions in his/her students’ culture. Asking students to write their anecdotes, experiences and reflections in their journal diaries can also expose the teachers to a rich data about the students’ daily lives, the issues they encounter, their worldviews, social customs and other various details relevant to the students’ lives. Informal discussions of cultural aspects and asking about certain behaviours, speech acts, ceremonies and views on the world can be helpful for the teacher to obtain a genuine and satisfactory level of exposure of their students’ culture. Students can reflect on their own culture in comparison with the target culture. Then, if they show interest in knowing more about the target culture, the teacher can help them with this. However, others still argue that drawing a comparison between one’s culture and others’ does not seem to be adequate in attempting to understand one’s culture (Spardley, 1980). The teacher has to go beyond this level to further explore, negotiate, question and challenge current perceptions and practices and suggest alternatives. Negotiating stereotypes and overgeneralizations Stereotypes occur when people are incapable or unwilling to gain knowledge and understanding in order to make fair and logical judgments about other groups. Regardless of the motives and resources behind creating stereotypes, stereotyping can lead to an outrageous racism and discrimination in the society (Samovar, 2004). Stereotypes can be easily put together from personal experiences interacting with individuals who belong to a particular group as well as information from books, movies, television, magazines, colleagues or classmates, family members and friends. Teachers can help students eliminate stereotypes through EFL classes while interacting with language and working on developing language skills and sub-skills. The teacher, for example, can help the students in the process of eradicating their cultural stereotypes and overgeneralizations about different cultures in the world by implementing examples of the following: The teacher brings some stones to class from one place like a valley, mountain or a plot of land and puts them in a box. S/he asks each student to pick one stone and remember all its details. The teacher has them put their stones back in the box. 94
After they mix the stones well, s/he asks them to pick the same stone that they picked before. The teacher can ask them how they managed to get the same stone. In other words, what criteria/characteristics they have to identify their stones. S/ he can ask them to reflect in groups how this task is related to real people in real life in real cultures. The teacher can also bring the following thought-provoking activities on stereotypes to class depending on the skill being addressed: • Are stereotypes becoming stronger because of technology and globalization? Why? Why not? • Do you think that you could be in a position where you will be categorized into stereotypical groups by others? Clarify your view. • Discuss your knowledge and /or experience of some cultures with regard some details related to their lives such as greeting and perception of time. • What do you think people from other cultures are stereotyped on? Think of a particular culture and discuss what stereotypes people have about them. • Do you think that there is a particular age when a person starts to form stereotypes about other cultures? Explain your response. Conclusion The study attempted to examine Omani EFL students’ particular and universal attitudes as perceived by culturally diverse EFL teachers. Students’ assertiveness, greeting, perception of time, politeness, oral traditions, face saving strategies and rapport versus grades were the seven notions that were highlighted in order to examine cultural particularities and universalities in the practices and perceptions of Omani EFL students as viewed by their culturally varied teachers at the Language Centre (SQU). The study focused on the definition of culture and the importance of culture learning, and demonstrated the concept of cultural particularities and universalities in culture. The study also shed some light on levels of cultural awareness, outlined the Omani EFL context and offered some pedagogical implications related to students’ culture. 95
References Atkinson, D. (1999). ‘TESOL and culture.’ TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), 625-54. Barbour., S. (1996). Language and national identity in Europe; theoretical and practical problems. In C. Hoffmann (Ed.). Language, Culture and Communication in Contemporary Europe. (pp-28-45). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Burling, R. (1970). Man’s Many Voices; Language in its Cultural Context. New York: Rinehart and Winston. Fleet, M. (2006). The Role of Culture in Second or Foreign Language Teaching. Retrieved from http://scholar. googleusercontent.com/ scholar?q=cache:1-A5FCdEJdqJ:scholar. google.com/ +fleet. Moving Beyond the Classroom Experience. Retrieved January 3, 2011, from http://www.flingue.unict.it/docenti/ihalliday/0607/SISSIS0607/fleet.pdf. Giroux, H., A. (1999). Doing cultural studies: Youth and the challenge of pedagogy. In Peters, M, (Ed.). After the disciplines; the emergence of cultural studies. (pp. 229-265). London: Bergin & Garvey. Hammerly, H. (1982). Synthesis in Second Language Teaching: An Introduction to Languistics. Washington: Second Language Publications. Hanvey, R. G. (1987). Cross-cultural awareness. In L. F. Luce & E. C. Smith, (Eds.), Towards internationalism: Readings in Cross-cultural Communication (2nd ed.). (pp. 103-116). New York: Newbury House. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Peck, D. (1998). Teaching Culture: Beyond Language. Retrieved 96
February
27,
2011
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http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/
units/1984/3/84.03.06.x.html. Burns, S.J. (2010). Culture-Based curriculum dilemmas. In R. Al Mahrooqi & V. Tuzlukova (Eds.). The Omani ELT Symphony: Maintaining linguistics and Socio-cultural Equilibrium. (pp. 91-110). Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University Academic Publication Board. Samovar, L.A & Porter, R.E. (2004).Communication Between Cultures (5th ed). Canada: Wadsworth. Savignon, S. & Sysoyev, P. V. (2002). Sociocultural strategies for a dialogue of cultures. The Modern Language Journal, 86 (4), 510-524. Spradley, J., P. (1980). Participant Observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Swetnam, W., B. (2010). Culture-Based curriculum Dilemmas. In R. Al Mahrooqi & V. Tuzlukova (Eds.). The Omani ELT Symphony: Maintaining Linguistics and Socio-culturaEequilibrium. (pp. 33-64). Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University Academic Publication Board. Tuzlukova, V., & Al Mahrooqi, R. (2010).Culture-Based curriculum Dilemmas. In R. Al Mahrooqi & V. Tuzlukova (Eds.). The Omani ELT Symphony: Maintaining Linguistics and Socio-culturaEequilibrium. (pp. 111-120). Muscat: Sultan Qaboos University Academic Publication Board.
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CHAPTER 4 Perceptions of ‘Foreigness’ : Students’ Assessment of Arab-American Poetry in Bahrain and Oman Mary L. Tabakow,
ABSTRACT
G
eneral assumptions of easy cultural connections between native Arabic speakers in Middle Eastern countries, such as those of the
Arabian Gulf, and Arab-American writers of poetry are open to question in this small, two-part study of student respondents from the Kingdom of Bahrain and the Sultanate of Oman.
As sometimes perceived by
those readers, gaps appear between expected versus seemingly intended meaning. When the poems by Arab-Americans were analyzed—as poems without clues of title or authorship—relative to similarly presented poems by native Arab nationals of Middle Eastern countries that were translated into English, students showed uneasiness about the poetry’s relevance to their own experience in their studies of English-language literature, along the predictive lines of reader-response theory. The results reveal the desirability for more contextualization before introducing some ethnic American literature in the region. 99
Introduction When preparing to teach more specialized courses in English-language literature—Advanced Poetry at the University of Bahrain (UoB) and 20th Century Literature at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in Oman—I sometimes found, as a new instructor, that the polite but reticent students would navigate the readings carrying preconceived ideas about cultural contexts of both British and American literature. In developing syllabi, I needed to understand what information students could apply from their previous studies as well as what prejudgments they might be bringing with them toward specific material. At the beginning of the courses, students verbally acknowledged that they knew Blake, Wordsworth, and Shakespeare as important English-language writers, given a pervasive British literary influence in the region. When asked about important American writers, students sometimes recalled Mark Twain and Emily Dickinson. Therefore, it seemed particularly necessary to provide a cultural/historical context for American works and to learn the predisposition and receptivity of these two populations of Arabic-speaking Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) students to newly introduced material. Important, too, was an awareness of reader-response theory and Louise Rosenblatt’s acute observation that, for a student’s full comprehension of a work, it must be presented in the framework of “the student’s past experience as well as the historical, social, and ethical context into which he [sic] must fit the particular work” (107). Providing contexts became crucial when works by Arab-Americans were added, despite assumptions that these might be a readily accessible cultural bridge. English-Language Education and the Gulf Context This small-sample study of two student populations of similar size, designed primarily to elicit students’ attitudes toward and presuppositions about American/Arab-American literature, was carried out against what many 100
observers see as an ongoing re-evaluation of English Language Teaching (ELT) and literature teaching within the region and GCC countries. In fact, as noted by Charise (2007), even though the overall attitude towards English is positive, “the aftermath of 9/11 has provoked renewed consideration of ideological issues associated with English language teaching (ELT)” (para.1). Al-Issa (2006) wrote critically of ELT being seen as “a global activity and to a large extent a business and industry” in the “world arena in the postcolonial/ neocolonial age dominated by the USA” (p. 194). Furthermore, Karmani (2005) discussed impediments to positive attitudes that interfere with “facility with the English language” (p. 94) and questioned the hasty adoption of textbooks and “textbook systems” without sufficiently assessing local needs and interests (p. 93). Earlier, Syed (2003) referred to poor test performance in English and usage problems in the workplace that slighted “English language ability and communicative requirements” (p.338). As a particular problem with ELT, he mentioned students’ limited use of the language outside the classroom— and that, plus lack of recreational reading, are general observations that colleagues and I have also made. In addition, Moody (2009) pointed out that Bahrain and Oman, as age-old commercial crossroads, have a particularly complicated English language mix, representing “a variety of first language, second-language, and foreign-language speakers of English with differing abilities” (para. 1). In the case of Oman, he noted that Arabic itself is not always the first language that a child would learn before going to school since “Balochi, Mehdi, Shehri, Farsi and Swahili” are also minority first languages of the Sultanate (“Languages of Oman” 2009, para. 22). English-language Literature and Muslim Culture In regard to literature itself, Al-Khanji (2007) expressed a high level of discomfort with negative representations “as well as a prejudiced spirit against Moslems in some literary works” (p. 465); furthermore, he concluded that these issues place a real responsibility on the teacher “to deal with the unfamiliar…literature” and not ignore its many difficulties (p. 466). Among 101
those difficulties, Alkire and Alkire (2002) noted that “exploration of some Western literary themes…is viewed negatively by authority figures, as well as…some professors and students” (para. 2). In addition, one has to consider the cautionary note by al-Maleh (2009) that “anglophone Arab writers are perhaps the furthest away from paradigmatic Arabs, themselves being the progeny of cultural espousal, hybridity, and diasporic experience” (p. 1); therefore, Arab-American writers might be categorized as further estranged from their regional heritage. Because of cultural distance, al-Maleh (2005) suggested that, if students are uncomfortable with aspects of readings in literature, they should read “with a certain degree of detachment” (para. 26) in order to “understand a work’s merit regardless whether he/she is morally at odds with it” (para. 29). Furthermore, one is reminded of Rosenblatt’s cautionary note that works of literature, far from being culturally neutral, figure in “the process through which the individual becomes assimilated into the cultural pattern” that is represented (179). Altogether, these statements pose the question of how much interactive cultural awareness can be created in any literature class in the region, and they pinpoint some of the challenges that both ELT and literature in English are facing. Rationale and Methodology for Questionnaire In the early weeks of third-year courses at UoB and SQU, the same questionnaire was given out to 20 volunteer student participants, and all information was self-reported. In both groups, students had finished at least six (6) semesters of university study and more than four (4) courses in English-language literature that had included some poetry. The SQU sample of 19 included 7 males and 12 females (one could not finish), whereas the UoB sample of 20 included 6 males and 14 females. Both groups of students were told that the object of this questionnaire was their assumptions and expectations. The questionnaire was designed with Part I (Questions 1-8) focused on students’ educational level and (Questions 9 -14) on general questions. It 102
included several open-answer options to allow students to explain what they saw as indications of the writer’s identity, point-of-view, purpose or the poem’s theme and meaning in their own words. Inviting commentary was meant to elicit thoughtful, less programmatic responses and to avoid giving prompts. The kinds of questions beginning with Question 9 of Part I through Part II (sample poems) were to focus attention on whether knowledge of Arabic poetry might be transferred to students’ reading of poetry by Arab Americans, or vice-versa—or if previous experience with American poetry or suppositions about American culture might influence judgments about the poetry selections. Four poems or excerpts of poems had been taken from a text ordered by the researcher but that students had not had prior access to, The Poetry of Arab Women edited by N. Handal (2001). Thus, all poems were by women. The names of the poets and their translators were deleted from re-typed versions in order to remove clues to nationality, ethnicity, and gender. Questionnaire Results: Expected and Unexpected As stated above, the UoB and SQU students’ self-reported information on past literature courses with poetry, semesters completed, and gender representation was generally comparable (with slight differences in reported GPA and number of English courses completed). A majority of each group thought “Love” was the most appropriate subject for poetry, and both groups chose “War” as one of the four most important subjects. Both groups chose a similar listing of wellknown American poets, including Emily Dickinson as the only female poet. Furthermore, regarding American poetry, a majority of each group was looking for “use of metaphor, simile, or metonymy”; a large number were expecting “challenging word choice/vocabulary”; in addition, exactly one half of each group was looking for “use of musical devices, i.e. alliteration.” Quite a few expected Arab American poetry to be “somewhat different” from mainstream American poetry with the greatest differences expected to be in the theme of 103
poems. However, there were some points of divergence. All but one of the UoB students said poetry should not avoid certain subjects or themes, though only about half of SQU students agreed with them. Nine of 19 SQU students said poetry should avoid some subjects and themes. More differences surfaced in responses to other poems. Responses to Specific Poems For the purposes of this paper, it seemed best to concentrate on only two of the poems that were given to the students anonymously: (Poem C)“The First Thing” by M. Kahf (2001) and the translated excerpt (Poem D) from “Five Hymns to Pain” by N. Al-Malaika (2001). Two relevant tables, Table 1 for UoB students and Table 2 for SQU students, are shown below. Table 1 University of Bahrain Student Responses: Surmised Tone, Poet’s Gender/Cultural ID
A
B 104
Surmised Cultural/Language Identity
Surmised Gender of Poet
Poem Poem’s Emotional Tone Positive
0
Male
0
Neutral
0
Female 20
Negative 20
L1 Arabic speaker from Arab Country (English translation) Arab American (L1 English)
Positive
8
Male
11
Neutral
5
Female
9
Negative
7
4 16
L1 Arabic speaker from Arab Country (English translation) Arab American (L1 English)
7 13
C
D
Positive
1
Male
4
Neutral
17
Female
16
L1 Arabic speaker from Arab Country (English translation)
8
Arab American (L1 English)
12
Negative
2
Positive
4
Male
11 L1 Arabic speaker from Arab Country
Neutral
3
Female
7
(English translation)
9
Not Sure
2
Arab American (L1 English)
11
Negative 13
Table 2 Sultan Qaboos University Student Responses Surmised Tone, Poet’s Gender /Cultural Identity Surmised Identity
Surmised Gender of Poet
Poem
Poem’s Emotional Tone
A
Positive
1
Male
Neutral
0
Female
Cultural/Language
10 L1 Arabic speaker from Arab 8
country (English translation) 15
Negative 18 No Answer 1 Arab American (L1 English) B
C
Positive
11
Neutral
5
Negative
3
Positive
3
Neutral
10
Negative
Male Female
12 L1 Arabic speaker from Arab 7
Female
6
1 L1 Arabic speaker from Arab 18
country (English translation) 13
5
No Answer 1 D
country (English translation) 13 Arab American (L1 English)
Male
4
Arab American (L1 English)
Positive
3
Male
Neutral
4
Female
6
15 L1 Arabic speaker from Arab 2
country (English translation) 13
Negative 12 Don’t Know 1 No Answer 1
Arab American (L1 English)
6
Some Interpretations of Findings 105
Though it is always a risk to suggest interpretations or extract meaning from limited data from a non-representative sample, it seems necessary to attempt it to better understand poems’ and teachers’ audiences in the GCC/ region— the students. First, quite surprising to the researcher was the students’ neutral to negative view of Poem C by Kahf (2001), “The First Thing,” with its heroic figure of Hajar at the center, reflecting a situation of exile with the implication of eventually having to integrate with an unidentified group to protect her descendants. Certainly this representation of Hajar as being the poem’s speaker confused some students, and there was a decidedly ambivalent attitude regarding the poem’s word choices, such as “immigrant,” “left the world of Abraham,” and “stand alone,” as noted in comments from both groups of students. Some also questioned Hajar’s role as a survivor, cast out and alone in this way—a culturally extreme state of being that may account for the neutral to negative response. One student at UoB suggested the poet/author must be an Arab American metaphorically relating to “migrating to the US or New World,” while another from SQU said the writer was “praising Hajar as a first immigrant,” while noting that “Arab Americans are immigrants.” In the poem, Hajar sees that “the only water is buried deep/ under hard ground and I must find it” (p. 141, li. 17-18), putting the emphasis on her immediate need but alluding to her responsibility for future generations. Students might thus have been quite uncomfortable with this non-traditional depiction of the Hajar of the Holy Quran. Several students of both groups referred to the names Hajar, Abraham, and Sarah as showing a “religious context”; one UoB student thought the poet was not an Arab American because “Hajar is the mother, and she is appreciated in our pilgrimages.” It is also possible that students’ neutral/ negative reading of the emotional tone reflects a problematic idea of leaving home and family. Anecdotally, many students in the region have reported that going abroad for study/work is not always seen as positive by the community. Therefore, it might be difficult for a teacher to convey an appropriate cultural 106
context. As a UoB student said, “if you don’t know everything that an Arab American could be thinking, you can’t appreciate [it].” Second, relative to all the poetry examples, it may be significant that, though all the actual poets were female, there was a strong tendency among students to think they were male. This might be related to the fact that in earlier responses to Question 8 asking students to name well-known Arab and American poets, the only female name to emerge in both groups was Emily Dickinson. Possibly these particular students may lack exposure to other famous female poets in either Arabic or English language poetry, or they did not expect to find many important female published poets at all. Third, another issue that is raised within one of these poems is highlighted by a SQU student’s singling out a reference to “wine,” as well as other images “that sound Christian” [or at least foreign] in the excerpt from Poem D of Al-Malaika (2001), “Five Hymns to Pain.” Another noted word choice, by several students, was the “we” in “we built a temple” (p.182, li. 91) possibly revealing uneasiness among students in the region when the poem’s speaker is using the pronoun inclusively—a challenge to them as native speakers of Arabic and Muslims—which may seem too culturally close. In a related example, one SQU student pointed to the line “sang verses to Babylonian tunes” (li. 90), saying this action was “strange to our ears” and raising the idea of music’s problematic status. The word “Babylonian” was stressed cryptically by several, possibly referring to the time before Islam, and this possibility was brought up in later informal interviews. This reference, in the poem’s context, seems to refer to a continuity of regional experience but clearly needs thorough discussion. Fourth, another issue seemingly intertwined with those above is a view of America as an uncomfortable place for people of ethnic Arab descent. One UoB student wrote that the theme in Poem C was “immigrant struggle,” and this was “because usually Arab-Americans suffered a lot in their lives.” 107
Commenting on Poem B, “Morning” by Khaldas (2001), the same student said the speaker had dropped the “Good” from the English greeting because of the “too-fast pace of an American life.” Seven other students stressed a sense of “loss” in this poem with one, who had identified the poet as Arab American, specifying “nostalgia and loss of homeland.” Fifth, in regard to learning what students’ expectations were for poetry, one UoB student praised Poem D, saying, “The whole poem has this Arabic style of writing where readers perceive a massive number of images with metaphors and ideas interrelated to each other.” Another noted, “I think a native speaker wrote this because it’s very descriptive as Arabic poems usually are. I think American poets are more curt in their poetry.” This notion may be widely held since a majority of UoB students also expected American poems to be short, with eight of 19 at SQU concurring. A SQU student also said, “The style of dividing the poem into stanzas [like these] containing different ideas about the subject is not widely used by Arabic poets.” Suggestions and Recommendations Beyond syllabus design, choice of texts, and background handouts, a strategy change seems needed after the feedback from this study. Better anticipation about how truly foreign a given text can be to the students and preparing for that might be the key. Al-Khanji (2005) suggested an “empathy strategy,” which can be enhanced by students’ dramatic readings or acting, to emphasize the commonality of human experience (p. 471). Another useful tool can be requiring an interactive journal in which students write a fictionalized addition to a lyrical, narrative, or dramatic poem, such as dialogue where there are two speakers (even if one is silent), or different last lines—or titles—of poems. Though these may not be improvements on the original work, they greatly improve the students’ interactions with it, often allowing them to fully grasp the cultural underpinnings and prompting useful discussion. In addition, 108
this tactic might further the process of Rosenblatt’s “transformation” of a foreign work of literature from basic “inkspots on paper…into a set of meaningful symbols” so that the “literary work exists in the live circuit set up between reader and text” (24). Conclusion With ongoing changes to English Departments throughout the region, it is necessary as never before to become sensitized to the dual climate of interest mixed with apprehension that surrounds English-language literature and, especially, American literature in the region. Thus there is all the more reason to teach innovatively, remembering these students are the future. If they develop a taste for reading challenging literature, we will have done our jobs. But with the growth of global “Englishes” and the countries of the Arabian Gulf increasingly drawn to a wider English-speaking world, American literature with its many ethnicities may be hard-pressed to reassert itself.
109
References Al-Khanji, R. R. (2007). How three moral problems in Anglo-American literature enter into teaching American studies to Arab students. In P. McGreevy and N. Batakji (Eds.), Liberty and justice: America and the Middle East: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference (pp. 466-475). Beirut: AUB Press & Kingdom Foundation Alkire, A. and Alkire, S. (2007). Teaching literature in the Muslim World: A bicultural approach. TESL-EJ: The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 10(4), 1-13. Retrieved from http://tesl-ej.org/ej40/a3.pdf Al-Issa, A. S. M. (2006). The cultural and economic politics of English language teaching in the Sultanate of Oman. Asian EFL Journal, 8(1), 194218. Retrieved from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/March_06_asi.php Al-Malaika, N. (2001). Five hymns to pain. Translator H. Haddawy. In N. Handal (Ed.), The poetry of Arab women (pp. 177-182). New York: Interlink Books Al-Maleh, L. (2005). English literature and Arab students. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 9(1), 269-275. Retrieved online from
http://rapidintellect.com/
AEQweb/6sep2948w5.htm Al-Maleh, L. (2009). Arab voices in diaspora: critical perspectives on anglophone Arab literature (pp. 1-2). Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi B.V. Charise, A. (2007). More English, less Islam? An overview of English language functions in the Arabian/Persian Gulf [Graduate report, Diasporic Englishes, U. of Toronto, 2007]. Retrieved from http://homes.chass.utoronto. ca/~cpercy/courses/eng6365 Jayyusi, S. K. (2001). In the casbah. Translator C. Doria. and N. Handal. 110
In N. Handal (Ed.), The poetry of Arab women (pp. 131-132). New York: Interlink Books. Kahf, M. (2001). The first thing. In N. Handal (Ed.), The poetry of Arab women (pp. 140-141). New York: Interlink Books. Karmani, S.K. (2005). Petro-linguistics: The emerging nexus between oil, English, and Islam. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(2), 87102. Khaldas, P. (2001). Morning. In N. Handal (Ed.), The poetry of Arab women (pp. 145). New York: Interlink Books. Languages of Oman (n.d.). Ethnologue. Retrieved March 25, 2009, from http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=OM Moody, J. (2009). A neglected aspect of ELT in the Arabian Gulf: Who is communication between? In L.J. Zhang, R. Ruddy and L. Alsagoff (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13th international conference on English in Southeast Asia (pp. 86-106). Singapore: National Institute of Education and Nanyang Technological University. Rosenblatt, L. (1995). Literature as exploration (5th ed.) (pp. 24, 170-179). New York: Modern Language Association. (Original work published 1938). Syed, Z. (2003). TESOL in the Gulf: The socio-cultural context of English language teaching in the Gulf. TESOL Quarterly, 37(2), 337-341.
111
Appendix 1: Table 1: Questionnaire Comparison of UoB and SQU Students’ Responses (Self-Reported) Questionnaire Section Subjects numbers averaged of 1-9 below )
(*Data
U. of * Bahrain
Sultan* Qaboos U.
7.6
8.03
2. Overall GPA as self-reported
3.02
2.67
3. TOEFL if applicable
5.84
N/A
4. English-language literature courses that 4.80 included poetry 1.20 5. Arabic-language literature courses that 3.80 included poetry 3.75 6. Students’ appreciation of Arabic poetry --7.Students appreciation of English--language poetry
6.58
Part I: 1. Number of semesters at this university
8a. Names of well-known Arabic poets (See Tables 2 and 3) Love 14 b.Names of well-known American Death 8 English-language poets Politics 6 9. Appropriate subject or themes for War 4 poetry Y-1, N-19 10.Should poetry avoid certain subjects/ themes? Yes, No, Not Sure
112
1.58 3.94 3.26 ----Love 14 Nature 7 War 6 Loneliness 5 Y-9, N-5, Not Sure 5
Appendix 2: (Poem C) “The First Thing” by Mohja Kahf I am Hajar the immigrant There came to me the revelation of the water I left the world of Abraham, jugs sealed with cork, cooking-grease jars, Sarah’s careful kitchen fires The horizon is a razor I moved over, severing slates of earth, sediment of ancient seas, to stand alone, migrant, here, where the shape of the cup of morning is strange, where dome of sky, mat of earth have shifted where God does not have a house yet and the times for prayer have not been appointed, where the only water is buried deep under hard ground and I must find it or my unborn people die within me. The first thing the founder does is look for water 113
I am Hajar, mother of a people I stand here straddling the end and the beginning, Each rock cuts into the heel like God Each step is blood, is risk: Is prayer. Appendix 3: (Poem D) Excerpt from: “Five Hymns to Pain” by Nazik Al-Malaika Beloved pain, we deified you in the drowsiness of dawn bowed our heads at your silvery altar burned the seeds of sesame and flax offered sacrifices sang verses to Babylonian tunes. We built for you a temple with strange walls and anointed the ground with oil, pure wine, and burning tears. We burned for you fires with leaves of palm And stalks of wheat and our grief, With closed lips, on a long night. We sang and called and made our offerings: dates from intoxicated Babylon and bread and wine and cheerful roses. Then we prayed to your eyes and offered a sacrifice, 114
and we gathered the bitter teardrops and made a rosary. O you who bestow on us our music and our songs, O tears that lead to wisdom, O fountain of all thought, fertile abundance, O cruel tenderness, merciful punishment, we have hidden you in our dreams, in every note of our sad songs. Translated by Husain Haddawy
115
CHAPTER 5 Reading Comprehension Problems and Strategies of Omani University EFL Students Badria A. Al Barashdi
ABSTRACT
T
his study examines the reading comprehension problems reported by first year English Specialists (ES) in the Language Centre at Sultan
Qaboos University and the strategies they use in processing reading texts and solving their comprehension problems. Two methods of data collection were used: questionnaires and think aloud interviews. The analysis of the questionnaire showed that vocabulary was perceived as the chief difficulty in comprehension while syntactic elements of the text were not thought to cause a major difficulty. The think aloud data revealed 10 strategies employed in processing the reading texts presented. A number of solving strategies were reported, too. After identifying such strategies, the influence of texttype (a story vs. a comprehension passage taken from a teaching textbook) and the L2 proficiency level on the use of such strategies was examined. It was concluded that text-type affected the use of both processing and solving strategies employed by both proficient and less proficient readers. Students used more processing strategies with the story than with the comprehension 117
passage while with the solving strategies the opposite was true. The effect of text-type was also related to the problems reported. Although it had an effect, students still viewed lexical problems as being salient to any other genrerelated ones. Proficient readers used more processing strategies than the less proficient ones who used more solving strategies. Introduction The study was designed to yield data that would contribute to our understanding of the nature of problems our students encounter in comprehending English texts and the way they process such texts. The reading literature, which represents a shift from product-focused approaches to a more process-focused view, has attracted our interest. Through investigating the reading process, we can learn a great deal about how our students approach reading and the kind of strategies they use. Anderson (1999) discusses the growing interest in metacognition in reading research where teaching comprehension, according to his view, requires students to discuss the type of strategies they use to comprehend a text. A similar view is discussed by Nuttall (1996. p.33) who claims that students need to monitor their own comprehension “to recognize that they do not understand a text, find out why and adopt a strategy that will improve matters”. With the growing interest in the investigation of the reading process, as opposed to the product, researchers have been seeking tools for tapping such processes to reveal all thoughts which are generated in the readers’ minds when performing a reading task .The investigation of these strategies is carried out using the ‘think aloud’ method, also referred to as ‘verbal protocols’. This term is borrowed from cognitive psychology, and has been defined by Nunan (1992) as a technique “in which subjects complete a task or solve a problem and verbalise their thought processes as they do so” (p.117). One of the pioneering studies in reading strategy research which used the 118
think-aloud method was that of Olshavsky (1976-77) where reading was viewed as a problem-solving process. She investigated strategies used by 24 tenth grade students to comprehend a short story and related the use of such strategies to three factors: interest, high and low; reader proficiency, good and poor; and writing style, concrete and abstract. Her study revealed an interesting quantitative correlation between the use of strategies and the three factors considered. In other words, good readers did not differ from poor ones in terms of the kind of strategies adopted, but rather in terms of frequency in the use of such strategies. That led Olshavsky to conclude that the readers use strategies more frequently when: (a) they wanted to comprehend (are interested), (b) they can (are proficient readers), and (c) they need to (are faced with abstract material) (ibid., p.670). Although Olshavsky’s study was done on L1 readers, its contribution to L2 strategy research has to be acknowledged. Her work on reading strategies can be viewed as establishing ground for further studies on foreign languages’ reading strategies. Dealing with L2 readers’ strategies, Hosenfeld’s (1977) work is influential and represents one of the pioneering studies in L2 strategy research, too. Using the think-aloud method, she investigated the strategies of successful and less successful second-language readers in an attempt to compare the two. The analysis of her data highlighted a number of differences in strategies adopted by the two groups. Unlike Olshavsky’s quantitative findings, Hosenfeld presented a qualitative comparison between successful and less successful readers in terms of strategy use. She reported that the successful reader keeps the meaning (context) of the passage in mind as he reads, reads (translates) in broad phrases and often skips unknown words and uses the remaining words in the sentence as clues to their meaning (ibid., p. 121). On the other hand, the unsuccessful reader tends to lose the meaning of the sentences as soon as he decodes them, reads (translates) in short phrases and seldom skips words as unimportant (ibid., p. 120). The present study is similar to the work done by Hosenfeld (1977, 1984), 119
which is viewed as ‘‘part of a growing emphasis on process rather than product’’ (Alderson & Urquhart, 1984, p. 245). The aim is to see reading as a problem-solving process as viewed by Olshavsky (1976-77). It is hoped that this study will establish the ground for EFL program designers where, as Block (1986) puts it “knowledge about the process, not just the product of reading, is needed if we are to move from head-scratching to designing programs which truly meet the needs of our students” (pp. 463- 464). English Specialists (ES) were selected because the variety of reading texts which those EES students have to read creates an interesting area for investigation. The aim was to find out whether the type of text affects the problems encountered and the strategies those students adopt. The language proficiency level which influences the reading strategies, as discussed by a number of researchers such as Olshavsky (1976-77), was a focus point of interest too. Research Questions This study aims to answer two main questions: 1. What are the main reading comprehension problems encountered by first year English Specialists in the Language Center (LC, SQU)? 2. What are the strategies students use in processing a text and solving their comprehension problems? Materials and Methods A questionnaire and think-aloud interviews were used to collect the relevant data. The questionnaire was thought to be an adequate method for collecting data to investigate the comprehension problems students encounter. The distribution of the questionnaire to a wider group of English specialists (ES) than only to the small number of students who participated in the interviews would give better insight into the major reading comprehension difficulties encountered. 120
A five-point scale was designed for the purpose of the study where students were presented with stated comprehension difficulties (e.g. unknown words, absence of background knowledge) and asked to grade their difficulty according to the agreement scale (strongly agree-strongly disagree). The questionnaire was written in Arabic, the students’ L1, and distributed to 50 students (see appendix 1). Forty eight responses were collected. The questionnaire was intended to provide answers to only the first research question. The problems highlighted were only reported ones or, in other words, they were the ones that students thought they encounter when reading. To investigate the actual reading comprehension problems with the strategies used to overcome them, a number of think aloud interviews were conducted with eight students from the target group. Definition & theoretical background The term ‘think-aloud methods’ refers to ‘verbal protocols’, as defined by Nunan (1992) where he states “Think-aloud techniques, as the name suggests, are those in which subjects complete a task or solve a problem and verbalise their thought processes as they do so”. (p. 117). Rankin (1988), on the other hand, provides more explanation of the process: “When asked to think aloud, subjects are generally asked to say aloud the thoughts running through their heads while composing a text on a given topic or while reading a text provided by the researcher. They are told to say whatever they think of, whether related to the task or not” (p.120). The underpinning of the think-aloud method lies in the assumptions made about the human memory and the mental processes that take place when tackling a reading task. Ericsson and Simon (1987, 1993) formulated a model explaining both short time (STM) and long time (LTM) memory and related those to the verbalization of thoughts using the think-aloud technique. The whole assumption is that when a reader performs a reading 121
task, all information and thoughts are stored in (LTM). To get access to such thoughts, he/she is asked to think-aloud either immediately while performing the task (providing concurrent report) or sometime after the completion of the given task (providing retrospective report). With the former case, the thoughts verbalized by the subject under investigation are thought to be more accessible or closer to the ones generated when performing the actual task since information is still kept in the (STM). (a discussion of the model can be found in Feldmann and Stemmer, 1987; Matsumoto, 1993 and Pressley and Afflerbach 1995). Because reading is seen as a problem-solving task where readers need to process a text and use various strategies to understand it, think-aloud method is used widely in reading research to tap on these cognitive strategies that readers deploy. Through asking readers to verbalize their thoughts one can get access to how readers process a text. This is in fact the greatest advantage of using think aloud as a research tool. It helps, as stated by Olson, Duffy and Mack (1984, p. 256) ‘collecting “systematic observations about the thinking that occurs during reading”. Hence, it actually gives researchers insight as to what is going on in the readers’ minds when processing a reading text. In this study, a think aloud method is thought to be the suitable tool to report on the strategies readers deploy when processing the reading texts provided. It also yields information about the different strategies that proficient readers and less proficient ones use while reading. Hence, it helps answer the research questions about whether these groups of readers deploy different strategies. More importantly, it taps on where less proficient readers fail to comprehend a text due to lack in deploying successful strategies such as activating background knowledge and inferencing. However, there are a number of drawbacks to the introspective techniques of which think aloud constitutes a group. For one thing, verbal reports are criticized for the fact that “much of cognitive processing is inaccessible because it is unconscious”, (Seliger, 1983 cited in Cohen 1998, p. 36). Hence, 122
such processes have to be brought to the conscious level in order to be reported. Secondly, the tasks involved in introspective techniques are criticized for the possibility to change the actual reading process under investigation. Simply put, when researchers ask subjects to think aloud, two additional tasks are involved besides the reading one where subjects have to read, think and talk simultaneously (Horibe, 1995). Hence, another burden is added to the reading process where there is the possibility that such process can be altered. This will result in less complete verbalization (Matsumoto, 1993). Researchers are also skeptical about the accuracy of subjects’ reports on their reading processes (e.g. Baker and Brown cited in Rankin, 1988). Such reports are thought to be incomplete for a number of reasons. One point made by Rankin (ibid.) is that subjects might be influenced by their own perception about what the researcher wants them to perform. Consequently, they may produce reports which are not actual representation of their reading processes, but altered to satisfy the researcher. In other words, they may report what they think the researcher wants to hear (Davies, 1995). Another related criticism to verbal reports is that they depend on the subjects’ ability to verbalize their thoughts and hence “verbalization may be influenced by the relationship between the participant and the researcher, cultural differences in reporting and using language….” (Belenky and others cited in Afflerbach, 2002, p. 97). Cohen (1998) points out that one of the problems with verbalization is the language used for reporting. When subjects read in the target language and verbalize their thought there is the question of accuracy in translating thoughts related to memory capacity. Block (1992) stresses that one should be cautious when using the think-aloud technique with L2 readers since such reports may be incomplete “due to lack of language proficiency or additional processing demands”, (p.323). To conclude, despite the previously discussed shortcomings of think-aloud methods specifically and verbal reports in general, the think-aloud protocols, as Block (1986) states, “provide a direct view of a reader’s mental activity, 123
a kind of window into those processes which are usually hidden” (p.464). The information that we can obtain through such protocols “are not available through traditional comprehension checks, suggesting the eclectic synergy methods of reading research” (Connor, 1987, p.15). Finally, I would like to conclude by a frequently quoted statement made by Ericsson and Simon (1980, cited in Cohen 1984, p.109) where they state that:… “verbal reports, elicited with care and interpreted with full understanding of the circumstances under which they were obtained, are a valuable and thoroughly reliable source of information about cognitive processes … They describe human behavior that is as readily interpreted as any other human behavior”. Having considered the above limitations” of introspective methods, this study takes the following direction: 1.
Both concurrent and immediate retrospective reports were collected. Subjects were asked to think aloud while performing the task (instructed to say whatever comes to their minds while reading). Retrospective reports were gathered immediately after subjects completed the think-aloud task. The purpose of such post-reading interviews, as Haastrup set it for his (1987) study, was mainly to clarify unclear points made by subjects during the think-aloud task.
2.
Red dots, which were initially thought to be placed after each paragraph of the reading texts that were presented to the subjects, were omitted. Presenting unprompted text might yield a more realistic reflection of the subjects’ reading process since subjects could be influenced by the dots and report thoughts which are not generated while reading simply because they are instructed to talk when meeting one.
3.
The subjects received a number of training sessions to familiarize them with the method, depending on how well they could verbalize.
124
4.
The subjects were instructed to verbalize their thoughts in their mother tongue (Arabic) to avoid incomplete data due to the influence of L2 proficiency.
The subjects The subjects who participated in the think-aloud interviews were eight adult first year English Specialists (ES) from the College of Education (seven females and one male), aged between 18-20 years. All of them spoke Arabic as their first language and had the same learning experience of EFL which they were learning from grade four. In order to select the eight subjects (four proficient readers and four less proficient ones), the students’ results in the last reading course they took in the Intensive Program at the LC was considered as a more accurate way to distinguish between the students’ reading ability than the placement test, where reading constitutes only one part of the tested skills. The reading texts The reading texts used in this study were taken from the syllabus of the EES program. The aim was to present the subjects first with reading texts that they were reading in their specialization and secondly, texts they would be reading in the following years of their study. Selecting reading texts from the actual syllabus of the subjects would highlight the problems students encountered with special reference to the reading materials used (i.e. the current curriculum in this program). Consequently, the reported problems may provide a kind of evaluation for the materials used and may help in suggesting some implications regarding the materials used in that program. Two texts of around 300 words in length were selected: a story (as an example of literary texts) and a reading comprehension passage taken from an EFL textbook, which is referred to as ‘the comprehension passage’ in the discussion. 125
The story was taken from a syllabus of a reading and vocabulary course. None of the subjects had read the story before. The second reading text was taken from an educational course called ‘Educational aims and instructional objectives’. The course was the first of a number of education courses this group had to take to prepare them for their teaching career as English teachers. Students usually take this course in the second year of their study which means that they had not been exposed to such reading texts by the time the experiment took place (both texts are attached in appendix 2). Readability of the two texts Having made sure that both reading texts were new to the subjects, both texts were judged in terms of readability. The Flesch formula was used assisted by the word processor and showed a readability score of about (61.4) for the story and (26.3) for the comprehension passage. It was clear that the comprehension passage appeared to be more difficult than the story. Consequently, pooled teachers’ judgments were sought to check on the readability of both texts since such judgments were found to be reliable, as opposed to individual opinions (see Lunzer and Gardner, 1979; Klare, 1976 and Harrison, 1977). Consequently, eleven teachers from the Language Center at SQU were asked to read the two reading texts and give each text a mark out of five according to its difficulty level for my target subjects. The selection of texts was then finalized. Demonstration materials A number of exercises were prepared to familiarize subjects with the think-aloud task. The first exercise was a dictionary search of an unknown word. Subjects were asked to think aloud while looking up the word ‘endeavour’ in the dictionary. Three examples of think-aloud responses were taken from Olshavsky’s (197677) study and translated into the subjects’ mother tongue. The third exercise included two extracts (a story and a comprehension passage) taken from similar 126
reading texts used in the actual study but are not the ones used in the experiment. These served as demonstration materials for the participants. Training sessions Four training sessions were conducted prior to the real experiment. In the first, students were introduced to the think-aloud task and given a copy of the demonstration materials prepared to practice with the experimenter. Each session lasted between 30-40 minutes. Piloting the study The whole procedure for carrying out the think-aloud interviews was trialed on two female students belonging to the same target group, but they were excluded from the real study. Two students were selected; one classified as a proficient reader and the other as less proficient. The aim of piloting the experiment was twofold: first to check the reaction of the subjects to the idea of thinking aloud while reading and secondly to ensure the clarity of the instructions given for verbalization. Subjects showed no hesitation to verbalize their thoughts and reported clarity of the instructions given. Based on the pilot study, the following modifications of the experiment were carried out: 1.
More reading texts were selected for the training sessions (extracts from other stories of the same level to the ones used in the actual study).
2.
The subjects were told that it was not the aim of the experimenter to test their comprehension; hence translation was not to be reported unless they were used to do so as a strategy they adopted to comprehend the texts.
3.
Post-reading interviews were essential not only to check some vague 127
points made by the subjects while thinking aloud, but also to elaborate more on the subjects’ reading problems and strategies. 4.
The length of the reading texts was reduced from 300 words each to 200-250.
The procedure Before recording the actual interviews, subjects were given instructions for performing the task. These instructions were taken from Ericsson and Simon (1993) and translated into Arabic. The subjects were interviewed individually and instructed to verbalize in Arabic in order to help them express their thoughts easily. They were told to read the text and give an oral summary. They were not given any prompts, but were instructed to say aloud all thoughts which came to their mind while reading .The second reading text was given immediately after the post-reading interview of the first reading text. During the think-aloud interviews, subjects did not get access to dictionaries and the reading time was kept open. At the end of the verbalization task, introspective interviews, or what we can refer to as post reading interviews, were carried out. The subjects were asked to summarize the text orally. After the summary, the experimenter asked for clarification of some points that subjects made during the think-aloud interview. They were also asked at the end of the interview to fill in a short questionnaire to reflect on their reaction to the texts they read (for both questionnaires see appendix 3). Results and Discussion Results of the Questionnaire The results of the questionnaire were analyzed quantitatively (to measure the extent to which the students agree/disagree with the stated sources of comprehension difficulties) and qualitatively (to reveal other sources of reading difficulties reported by the students). The following table shows the degree of difficulty of all eight problems presented in the questionnaire as 128
rated by the students. Table (1) Students’ Responses to the Eight Problems Presented in the questionnaire
It is clear from the above table that vocabulary was perceived as the greatest difficulty. This is consistent with Yorio’s (1971) findings with Spanish readers and Trevor-Roper’s (19903) with Omani adult readers. Now the question that is worth discussing, in light of these results, is the following: Why did most students (90%) rate vocabulary as their greatest difficulty while they disagree that syntactic features (e.g. tenses, pronouns and linking words) constitute a difficulty in comprehension? Prior to the discussion of the above question, it is worth pointing out that such a high percentage awarded to vocabulary problem is not a surprise. In fact, many scholars stressed the robust connection between vocabulary 129
knowledge and comprehension (c.f Hunchinson, Whiteley, Smith, & Conners, 2003 cited in Wolley, 2010). Others (c.f. Droop & Verhoeven, 2003; Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2005; cited in Wolley, 2010) even assert that understanding a text “is significantly related to the breadth and depth of the ESL learner’s vocabulary knowledge in English” (ibid., p.85). As an English teacher of the target group, I believe that most students are not aware of the importance of the syntactic elements in the reading texts where their focus is often on trying to understand every single word. This is similar to what Iwai (2008) reports on Japanese students who heavily rely on understanding every single word in a text in order to comprehend it. Hence, they attribute comprehension difficulties to unknown words even though the syntactic features might appear as a major source of difficulty. Since lexis is perceived as the key to comprehension, students often refer to dictionaries to find the meaning of words. As Al-Alawi (1994, p. 323) comments, this is “derived from the students’ desire to know each and every word in the text”. Dealing with Omani students, he found that the majority of them tried to refer to their dictionaries. As we shall see later, this finding is supported by the results of the thinkaloud interviews where lexis was also reported as being a great difficulty. Finally, I agree with Yorio’s (1971, p. 113) who says “right or wrong, it is a fact that the learner of a foreign language ‘holds on’ to words”. Results of think-aloud interviews It is not always easy to assign subjects’ responses to the different categories developed. This is due to the nature of think-aloud data where there is always the chance that the researcher cannot be sure if a certain response clearly represents an example of a specific category. However, a number of strategies can be reported. The analysis was done by means of paper and pen where students’ responses were coded into numbers and then transferred 130
to the assigned categories. The categories were formulated by adapting the system developed by Block (1986) and Al-Alawi (1994) with some additional strategies created for the purpose of the analysis. Students’ statements were translated into Arabic where one can admit that “some of the spontaneity of the exercise has been lost in translation” (Al-Alawi, op.cit, p. 319). The analysis and the discussion of the problems and strategies will be handled by considering two major factors: 1. The subjects’ level of proficiency (proficient readers vs. less proficient). 2. The type of the reading text (text (A) the story vs. text (B) the comprehension passage). Comprehension strategies used in processing the story, text (A) Proficient readers Ten strategies were deployed by proficient readers: 1. Elaboration Proficient readers used this strategy to elaborate on what they read by bringing new information to the text using their background knowledge. Proficient readers used this strategy by (a) bringing related background knowledge and (b) interacting with the text. 2. Integrating Here students try to link what they are reading with previous information. It is a kind of combining ideas to make sense of what they are reading. Proficient readers employed this strategy by reasoning sometimes (i.e. justifying the occurrence of a certain event with what happened before) or questioning unexpected events by integrating what was said earlier in the story and what they were reading at that point. 131
3. Using linguistic clues Here students utilized the grammar used in the text in order to facilitate their comprehension. Such use of strategy reflected their awareness of the importance of linguistic clues in comprehension. With proficient readers, the use of pronouns was apparent. 4. Questioning Here, subjects questioned the occurrence of some events while they were reading the story. This was sometimes done because they expected something to happen, and when their expectations failed they started to question it. Such questions added to their comprehension in a kind of monitoring when a reader pauses to clarify a point by questioning. 5. Monitor comprehension Proficient subjects used this strategy to assess their degree of understanding from time to time while reading the text. This was performed in two ways: (a) by creating a title describing the main idea of a paragraph or (b) by pausing for a while and summarizing orally what they read to check understanding. 6. Prediction Here, the reader predicts what content will occur in succeeding portions of the text. 7. Guessing Not to be confused with prediction, here the reader makes a guess about a certain event in the story which might help him/her to understand the event or find an explanation to what happened in the story. In other words, readers guess to draw inferences and try to connect ideas based on their explanation to make sense of what they read. 8. Ignoring Whether it is an effective strategy or not, it was the one which students deployed. The reader here decides that some portions of the text are not essential for overall comprehension, so he/she ignores such details. 132
9. Correcting or reaffirming behaviour With correction, the reader notices that he/she has understood some events incorrectly and becomes able to correct such misunderstandings. It is a kind of monitoring comprehension. With reaffirming behaviour, the reader actually finds confirmation to his/her guessing. 10. Getting the main idea This is a strategy that was created for the purpose of the present analysis. By such strategy, readers try to get the main idea of the text they are reading without paying enough attention to the details given. This happens when the reader decides that he/she has got the main idea, so does not need to bother about the specific details. Less proficient readers Less proficient readers employed similar strategies to the ones reported by the proficient readers except the following: 1. Integrating 2. Using linguistic clues 3. Prediction 4. Getting the main idea. Comprehension strategies used in processing the comprehension passage, text (B) Proficient readers With text (B), eight strategies can be reported: 1. Using linguistic clues This category covers the use of grammar (i.e. tenses) and using linking words. 2. Monitor comprehension The subjects here employed similar ways to the ones they used with text (A) (i.e. the story) to monitor their comprehension. Pausing to summarize and self questioning were used with text (B). 133
3. Elaboration Here, elaboration does not include any use of background knowledge by the subjects. It is mainly where the subjects elaborate on the text to interact with it and express their own point of view regarding what they read in the text. 4. Ignoring 5. Getting the main idea 6. Using the title 7. Correcting behaviour 8. Questioning Less proficient readers With less proficient readers, three strategies were employed which are: questioning, using linguistic clues and ignoring. The following table summarizes the strategies used in processing both texts by proficient and less proficient readers with the frequency of each strategy deployed in both texts. Table (2) Strategies Deployed by Proficient Readers Type of strategies
Frequency (Text A)
Frequency (Text B)
1. Elaboration
15
2
2. Questioning
11
2
3.Monitor comprehension
7
9
4. Guessing
6
0
5.Correct/reaffirm behaviour
4
1
6. Integrating
3
0
7. Using linguistic clues
2
10
8. Getting the main idea
2
3
9. Ignoring
1
1
10. Prediction
1
0
134
Table (3) Strategies Deployed by Less Proficient Readers
Type of strategies
Frequency (Text A)
Frequency (Text B)
1. Elaboration
6
0
2. Questioning
4
2
3.Correct/reaffirm behavior
4
0
4.Monitor comprehension
3
0
5. Ignoring
2
1
6. Guessing
2
0
7. Using linguistic clues
0
3
8. Guessing
2
0
Problems encountered in reading Both proficient and less proficient readers focused on lexical problems they encountered in the story. Long sentences seemed to be a problem, too. Although less proficient readers did not report this problem in the think-aloud task, they mentioned it in the post-reading interviews. The rest of the problems reported (e.g. difficult introduction and names of characters) were not as salient as the lexical ones where only two students mentioned them. Similar to the story, both groups of readers encountered lexical problems with the comprehension passage, yet proficient readers applied more word solving strategies than the less proficient. The problem of long sentences was also encountered in text (B) as in (A). Both groups of readers reported some ‘genre-related’ problems in the postreading interviews (e.g. lack of background knowledge about the topic of the text, difficult style of writing). However, 6 out of 8 viewed lexical problems as being more salient than such ‘genre-related’ ones. 135
Word solving strategies Both proficient and less proficient readers deployed a number of solving strategies to overcome the comprehension problems they encountered in reading. The following tables illustrate these word solving strategies and the frequency of their use. Table (4) Word Solving Strategies Deployed by Both Readers with Text (A) and their Frequency Type of strategies
Frequency (Proficient)
Frequency (Less proficient)
1. Using the grammar
1
1
2. Guessing from context
6
1
3. Finding an Arabic word with similar 1 pronunciation of the difficult word
1
4. Using Morphology
5
5
5. Questioning the meaning of the unknown 4 word (without solving it).
9
Table (5) Word Solving Strategies Deployed by Both Readers with Text (B) and their Frequency Type of strategies
Frequency (Proficient)
Frequency (Less proficient)
1. Identification of word class
3
2
2. Associate the difficult word with 2 another one with similar pronunciation
2
3. Resourcing
1
0
4. Guessing from context
1
0
136
Other solving strategies Like word solving strategies, text type seems to affect the use of other solving strategies (mainly read-ahead, repetition and translation) where such strategies were used more frequently with text B (the comprehension passage) than with A (the story). The tables below illustrate that: Table (6) Other Solving Strategies Used by Both Readers with Text (A) Type of strategy
Frequency (proficient readers)
Frequency (Less proficient readers)
1. Read ahead
4
2
2. Repetition
12
16
3. Translation
11
20
Table (7) Other Solving Strategies Used by Both Readers with Text (B) Type of strategy
Frequency (proficient readers)
Frequency (Less proficient readers)
1. Read ahead
6
6
2. Repetition
27
35
3. Translation
26
27
Discussion The analysis of the problems encountered in both texts does not account for an observable effect of text type on the problems reported. While performing the think-aloud task, students with both texts reported lexical problems and other problems related to long sentences. It is true that with the comprehension passage both groups of readers reported some ‘genre-related’ difficulties. However, as noted earlier, only a small number of them indicated such problems in the post-reading interviews and not while tackling the task. Since the thinkaloud interviews were considered as a major means for data collection, the reported problems in the post-reading interviews should be treated with some caution. We cannot rule out the possibility that some subjects might have 137
reported problems merely because they were asked if there were any other problems found with the text. This speculation can be supported with the results of the post-reading questionnaire where most subjects (6/8) viewed lexical problems as more salient than other problems they reported in the interview. Text type affected the kind of problems encountered by both groups of readers to some extent. Students reported some difficulties related to the ‘genre’ of the comprehension passage that were not indicated with the story. For instance, they reported problems like lack of background knowledge and difficult style of writing. Because it was their first encounter with an educational text ( i.e. the comprehension passage), all of them agreed that it was more difficult than the story. However, we need to stress that although students reported different problems with different texts, they still viewed lexical problems as being more salient than any other ‘genre’ related ones where (7/8) reported that with text A and (6/2) with text B. This is consistent with the results of the questionnaire where vocabulary was perceived as the greatest difficulty in comprehension. Summing up, the question of the effect of text type on the encountered problems remains partially unanswered since the present findings do not highlight the extent to which such problems affected students’ comprehension of both passages. The influence of text type on the strategies deployed Unfortunately, most studies on L2 strategy use focused on the influence of L2 proficiency level in the strategies employed by foreign language readers while the effect of the text type on such use of strategies has not been investigated widely. The only study which highlights such an effect, at least the ones I am aware of, is that of Olshavsky (1976-77). Even though her study was done on L1 readers, it is applicable to my own as far as the effect of the text type is concerned. Although she focused on the effect of the writing style of the reading materials [see the introduction section] we can still make use of her 138
discussion of such an effect to explain the present finding by referring to the role of interest in the strategy use. Olshavsky (op.cit) concluded that one of the cases where readers used strategies more frequently was when they wanted to comprehend (were interested). The present findings seem to support such contention where most subjects reported in the post-reading interviews that they found the story interesting. This explains why they engaged more with it by employing various strategies more frequently than with the comprehension passage [see tables 2 & 3]. It is also apparent that such an interest was reflected in some of the interactive strategies employed with the story (e.g. ‘integration’, ‘elaboration’, and ‘questioning the content’) where these strategies were not used with the other text and even when used they were less frequent. However, the present findings are not consistent with Olshavsky’s (197677) where she proved her hypothesis that “an abstract writing style would be more difficult to comprehend and would, therefore, cause the reader to employ more strategies than would a more direct or concrete style” (ibid., p. 659). Although her abstract-vs-concrete distinction might not be applicable to be compared with my own (story vs. comprehension passage), we can still compare the two studies in terms of material difficulty. All the subjects in the present one indicated that the comprehension passage was difficult. Half of them graded it as very difficult while most of them (6/8) reported that the story was appropriate to their level. Unlike Olshavsky’s, the present findings show that it was with the easier text (the story) that the readers employed more strategies in terms of kind and frequency and not when they were struggling with the difficult text, the comprehension passage, [see tables 2 & 3]. I speculate that such results were due to the nature of the comprehension passage being very difficult for the subjects; hence they were disappointed with it feeling reluctant to employ strategies. Moreover, students did not deploy more strategies with that difficult text because they did not feel the need to understand it since the whole task was an experiment and did not contribute to their grade. That was reflected in the short time they spent on the think-aloud 139
task where their goal was to finish the task. In the end they reported the text as being difficult. However, such inconsistency in the findings of the present study and that of Olshavsky (op.cit) should be treated with caution for “it is difficult to compare results across studies, since the age and grade level of participants, the tasks, and the reading material vary from one study to study” (Kleiman, 1982, cited in Block, 1986, p. 466). With regard to the use of these strategies, again text type seems to have influenced the strategies deployed by both groups of readers where more word solving strategies were used with the story than with text B, [see table 4 & 5]. In short, the type of text affects the use of processing strategies in terms of kind and frequency with the latter having greater influence. The influence of L2 proficiency level on the strategies deployed Regarding the influence of the L2 proficiency level, the analysis of strategies used in processing the texts indicates that students’ proficiency level did affect the strategies used, too. With both texts, proficient readers seem to employ more strategies in processing both texts than less proficient readers in terms of kind and frequency, [see tables 2 & 3]. This finding supports the view of some researchers that “good readers have superior strategies and might use them more frequently” (Golinkoff, 1975-1976 & Smith, 1967, cited in Olshavsky, 1976-77, p. 658). It is also consistent with the findings of Ikeda & Takeuchi, 2006; Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson,1996; Oxford, Cho, Leung, & Kim, 2004; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001, cited in McNeil (2010). Here it was found that more proficient L2 readers were found to differ from less proficient L2 readers in the ways they use strategies. Proficient readers seemed to be superior to less proficient ones in employing various strategies that were not used by less proficient readers (e.g. integration, using linguistic clues, getting the main idea and prediction). With both texts, proficient readers employed more strategies to monitor their comprehension 140
than the less proficient who did not use such strategies with text B. This is in line with the finding that more proficient readers “have more control over their monitoring processes than less proficient readers” (Baker, 1985 cited in Block 1992, p. 321). Furthermore, proficient readers can be referred to as ‘Integrators’, according to Block’s (1986) classification, where those readers integrate newly obtained information with previous one and “monitored their understanding consistently and effectively” (Block, op.cit, p. 482). Overall, the L2 proficiency level of the subjects in this study did have a great influence on the strategies deployed by proficient and less proficient readers in terms of kind and frequency with greater effect on the latter. Regarding the use of word solving strategies, no big difference was found in the use of such strategies by proficient and less proficient readers with text B, [see table 7]. This might be due to the difficulty of the text and also being new for both groups of readers (see earlier discussion of problems encountered). However, with the story, which was from a familiar genre to both groups, a noticeable difference was found in terms of the frequency in the use of such strategies, [see table 6]. To illustrate, proficient readers guessed the meaning from contexts (6 times vs. 1 with less proficient) while less proficient readers spent time questioning the meaning of the difficult words without solving them (9 times vs. 4 with proficient readers). This supports Hosenfeld’s (1977) conclusion that the successful reader guessed the meaning from context while less proficient readers “had recognition but not resources” (Block, 1992, p. 334; further supported by Jimenez et al., 1996). Regarding other solving strategies, less proficient readers employ more strategies with both texts except with ‘read ahead’ strategy [see tables 6 & 7]. It is apparent from both tables that proficient readers were superior in the use of ‘read-ahead’ strategy with text A. Block (1986, p. 483) reported that reading ahead was one of the strategies which distinguished ‘Integrators’ from the ‘Non-integrators’ where the former ‘frequently read on, looking for clues’ when they did not understand. On the other hand, the present findings show that less proficient readers use the other two strategies (i.e. repetition 141
and translation) more frequently in both texts than proficient readers. Since those readers had less strategies in processing the texts (unlike the proficient readers), they tended to rely more on translating large chunks of texts and repeating sentences many times while trying to understand. On the other hand, since proficient readers had many strategies in processing both texts, they did not feel the need to translate as much as less proficient. However, with text (B) they did use translation often when struggling with the difficulty level of the text. In general, we can say that translation is found to be a popular strategy among all subjects with less proficient readers deploying it more frequently than the other group. Summing up, L2 proficiency level seemed to affect the type and frequency of strategies employed by proficient and less proficient readers. That was reflected in the superiority of the former in using processing strategies with both texts. It also had its influence in the use of word solving strategies among proficient readers with text (A) but not with (B). Finally, proficient readers did not rely on translation as much as the less proficient did. Conclusion This study attempted to highlight the main reading comprehension problems encountered by first year university students in the Language Centre at Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. The focus was twofold: first, to identify the reading comprehension problems and secondly to examine the major strategies students use in processing reading texts and solving their comprehension problems. Two methods of data collection were considered: (a) questionnaires and (b) think-aloud interviews. The results of the questionnaire showed that vocabulary was perceived as constituting the greatest difficulty for comprehension. Difficulty in keeping the meaning in mind, background knowledge and organizational structure were also identified as causing considerable difficulties. On the other hand, most students disagree on whether syntactic elements in texts (e.g. tenses, pronouns) can cause great difficulty in comprehension. 142
The think-aloud data revealed a number of strategies students deployed in processing the two presented texts. They also highlighted the main problems students encountered in both texts. The use of such strategies was discussed considering two factors: (a) the type of text (story vs. the comprehension passage) and (b) the reading ability of the subjects (proficient vs. less proficient readers). The influence of text type was apparent where students employed more processing strategies with the story than with the other text. However, more solving strategies were used with the comprehension passage. In addition, proficient readers appeared to be superior to less proficient in terms of the strategies used while the latter deployed more solving strategies. Finally, text type appeared to influence the type of problems reported in both texts where some genre-related difficulties were reported. Yet, students still attributed the chief difficulty to lexis which was perceived as the salient difficulty. The findings of the present study highlight a number of pedagogical implications concerning problems encountered by EFL Omani readers and strategies they adopted. Perhaps it ought to be pointed out that since these recommendations are based on what has been found with this specific group of readers, they could apply more to EFL teachers in Oman than to any other EFL teachers. However, a major concern for all EFL teachers is how to help our students become better readers. Hence, it is hoped that the following recommendations will be of some use to fulfill this goal. 1. Raising students’ awareness of the importance of the syntactic elements as an important contributor to comprehension of a text. The results of the questionnaire, supported by think-aloud findings, demonstrated that students place a great emphasis on vocabulary being perceived as the most essential key to comprehension while text syntax has been reported as causing no difficulty. Since syntax does play a crucial role in the overall comprehension of reading texts (cf. Berman, 1984; Nilagupta, 1976), teachers can raise their students’ awareness of such elements in the 143
text. This can be achieved by a number of exercises either in the pre-reading stage or while reading. For instance, teachers can discuss with their students the different cohesive ties presented in the reading text and how they connect the different parts of the texts. Cloze tests dealing with conjunctions can be a good exercise, too. Of course, this does not mean that reading classes can be turned into grammar lessons, but the goal is to make students aware of the syntactic elements they need to grasp and, by so doing, make the text more meaningful. 2. Teaching reading as problem identification; students need help at the reading stage. The present study showed that students encountered a number of problems where in some cases they had strategies to deal with while they failed with others. Hence, teachers can help their students identify such reading problems and train them on useful solving strategies. It is then the shift in focus from teaching the skills to teaching reading as problem-solving identification and strategies which “deal with the total reading environments rather than teaching hierarchies of reading subskills” (Olshavsky, 1976-77, p. 673). 3. Helping students become strategic readers; think-aloud method is a useful tool to start with. Wilhelm (2001; cited in Kymes, 2005) noted that “think-aloud will benefit students by showing them that reading is a meaning-making process, involves the use of strategy, and is a skill that can be developed through sharing with others and individuals self-reflection”, (p.496). This study revealed a number of strategies students deployed in processing the reading texts and solving their problems where the think-aloud method appeared to be a useful technique for examining such strategies. By deploying strategies, students become more interactive with the reading text where constructing meaning requires identifying obstacles and finding ways to surmount them. Hence, teachers can help their students to become strategic 144
readers and to monitor their own comprehension (a useful guide for achieving this goal can be found in Grabe & Stoller, 2002, ch.8) where they discuss nine action research projects that teachers can make use of in class to teach strategies). Research indicates that reading comprehension strategies can be taught and that teaching them enhances comprehension (Carrell, Pharis, & Liberto, 1989; Fung, Wilkinson, & Moore, 2003; Harris, 2007; Ikeda & Takeuchi, 2003; Macaro & Elrer,2008; Salataci & Akyel, 2002; Zhang, 2008, Cited in McNeil (2010). To conclude, this study can be added to the small number of studies which investigated the reading strategies used by EFL students in the Arab world, specifically in Oman. It can be considered a starting point for further investigations of reading strategies employed by university students at Sultan Qaboos University. Further strategy research is needed to support the reported strategies and identify others by which we can add more to our knowledge, as researchers and EFL teachers, about the nature of the reading process and how it is handled by EFL students in terms of problems and strategy use. Although some questions remained partially unanswered, some insights have been gained about the nature of the reading process as handled by Omani university students.
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References Aebersold, J.A. & Field, M.L. (1997). From Reader to Reading Teacher: Issues and strategies for second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Afflerbach, P. (2002). Verbal reports and protocol analysis. In Pearson, P., Barr, R., Kamil, M.L. & Mosenthal, P. (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research: Methods of literacy research. Volume III. (pp. 87-102). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Al-Alawi, K. (1994). The teaching and learning of English as a foreign language in 3rd year secondary education in Oman with reference to reading. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Bath. Alderson, J.C., & Urquhart, A. H. (Ed.). (1984). Reading in a Foreign Language. London: Longman. Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring Second Language Reading: Issues and strategies. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Barnett, M.A. (1989). More than Meets the Eye: Foreign Language Reading: Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Prentice –Hall, Inc. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Barnett, M.A. (1989). More than Meets the Eye: Foreign Language Reading: Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Prentice –Hall.. Berman, R. (1984). Syntactic components of the foreign language reading process. In Alderson, J.C., & Urquhart, A.H. (Ed.) , Reading in a Foreign Language (pp. 139-159). London: Longman. Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. 146
TESOL Quarterly, 20 (3), 463-494. Block, E.L. (1992). See how they read: comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26 (2), 319-343. Cohen, A. (1984). Studying second-language learning strategies: how do we get the information? Applied Linguistics, 5 (2), 101-112. Cohen, A. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Longman. Connor, U. (1987). The eclectic synergy of methods of reading research. In Devine, Carrell, P. and Eskey, D.E. (Ed.), Research in Reading in English as a Second Language (pp. 9-20). Washington: TESOL. Davies, F. (1995). Introducing Reading. Harmondsworth: penguin. Ericsson, K.A. & H.A. Simon (1987). Verbal reports on thinking. In Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (Ed.), Introspection in Second Language Research (pp. 2453). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Ericsson, K.A. & H.A. Simon (1984/1993). Protocol Analysis: Verbal reports as data (revised version). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Feldmann, U. & Stemmer, B. (1987). Thin____aloud a ____ retrospective da______in C-te______taking: diffe__________languages- diff________ learners sa_________approaches? In Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (Eds.), Introspection in Second Language Research (pp 251-267). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.. Grabe, W. & Stoller, F.L. (2002). Teaching and Researching Reading. Harlow: Longman. 147
Haastrup, K. (1987). Using thinking aloud and retrospection to uncover learners’ lexical inferencing procedures. In Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (Ed.), Introspection in Second Language Research (pp. 197-212). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.. Harrison, C. (1977). Assessing the readability of school texts. In Gilliland, J. (Ed.), Reading: Research and Classroom Practice (pp. 65-80). London: United Kingdom Reading Association Ward Lock Horibe, H. (1995). An inquiry into reading comprehension strategies through think-aloud protocols. JALT Journal 17 (2), 180-196. Hosenfeld, C. (1977). A preliminary investigation of the reading strategies of successful and nonsuccessful second language learners. System, 5 (2), 110123. Iwai, Y. (2008). The Perception of Japanese Students toward Academic English Reading: Implications for Effective ESL Reading Strategies. Multicultural Education, 15 (4), 46 – 50. Jimenez, R.T., Garcia, G.E. & Pearson, P.D. (1996). The reading strategies of bilingual Latino / a student who are successful English readers: opportunities and obstacles. Reading Research Quarterly, 31 (1), 90-112. Klare, G. (1976). Judging readability. Instructional Science 5, 55-61. Kymes, A. (2005). Teaching online comprehension strategies using thinkalouds. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 48 (6), 492-500. Lunzer, E. and Gardner, K. (1979). The Effective Use of Reading. London: Heinemann. McNeil, L. (2010). Investigating the contributions of background knowledge 148
and reading comprehension strategies to L2 reading comprehension: an exploratory study. Reading and Writing Journal, DOI 10.1007/s11145-0109230-6. Available from www.springerlink.com/index/461m86v94rp615v3. Accessed 16th February, 2011. Matsumoto, K. (1993). Verbal-report data and introspective methods in second language research: state of the art. RELC Journal 24 (1), 32-60. Nilagupta, S. (1976). The relationship of syntax to readability for ESL students in Thailand. In Feitelson, D. (Ed.), Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Reading Research (pp. 89-102). Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. Oxford: Heinemann. Olshavsky, J.E. (1976-77). Reading as problem solving: an investigation of strategies. Reading Research Quarterly 12 (4), 654-674. Olson, G., Duffy, S., & Mack, R. (1984). Thinking-out-loud as a method for studying real-time comprehension processes. In: D. E. Kieras & M. A. Just (Eds.), New methods in reading comprehension research (pp. 253286). Hillsdale, NY: Erlbaum. Pressley, M. & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal Protocols of Reading: The Nature of Constructively Responsive Reading. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.. Rankin, J. M. (1988). Designing think-aloud studies in ESL reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 4 (2), 119-132. 149
Trevor-Roper, S. (1993). What makes reading English difficult for Arab learners? Unpublished MA Thesis, Centre for Applied Language Studies, University of Reading. Williams, E. & Moran, C. (1989). Reading in a foreign language at intermediate and advanced levels with particular reference to English. Language Teaching, 22, 271-228. Woolley, G. (2010). Issues in the identification and ongoing assessment of ESL students with reading difficulties for reading intervention. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 15(1), 81-98. Yorio, C.A. (1971). Some sources of reading problems for foreign – language learners. Language Learning, 21 (1), 107-115.
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Appendix 1 Reading Comprehension Problems (An investigation of reading comprehension problems reported by English Specialist Students in the Language Centre, Sultan Qaboos University)
Gender: (
) Male
(
)
Female
The aim of this questionnaire is to identify the main reading comprehension problems encountered by first year English Specialist Students in the language Centre at Sultan Qaboos University. Your answers will be confidential and will only be used for the purpose of this study, so please answer the following questions honestly. Here are some of the comprehension problems that you might encounter when reading in English. We would like to see the extent to which these problems constitutes difficulties in your reading comprehension. To show this, circle one number in each item according to the degree of agreement with the phrase. Strongly agree Agree Neutral / don’t know Disagree Strongly disagree (Please CIRCLE only ONE number)
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* Question (1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Unknown words in the text. 1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Difficulty in understanding the tenses used in the text (e.g. present continuous, 1 perfect, passive…etc.
2
3
4
5
Difficulty in understanding the linking between the sentences (e.g. but, as, 1 thus….etc.
2
3
4
5
Difficulty in referring the pronouns (e.g they, them) to their reference in 1 the text.
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Absence of illustrations with the text you read such as (pictures, diagrams.. 1 etc).
2
3
4
5
Difficulty in keeping the meaning in mind while reading, so you need to go back and reread the previous sentences. 1
2
3
4
5
Lack of background knowledge about the topic you are reading.
Not understanding the organizational structure of the text you are reading.
* Question (2)
(Optional)
1. What are the other difficulties you encounter in understanding what you read in English? Please rate the difficulties as you did in question (1). 152
1.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
2.
3. Please answer the following question:
* In general, how do you find reading in your specialization (according to comprehension)? (Please circle only ONE) Very difficult. Difficult Appropriate Easy Very easy * Any other comments on reading in English. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________
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Appendix 2 Text A A TRIFLING OCCURRENCE By Anton Chekhov Nickolay Ilyich Bieliayev, a Petersburg landlord, very fond of the racecourse, a well fed, pink young man of about thirty-two, once called towards evening on Madame Irnin—Olga Ivanovna –with whom he had a liaison, or to use his own phrase, spun out a long and tedious romance. And indeed the first pages of his romance, pages of interest and inspiration, had been read long ago; now they dragged on and on , and presented neither novelty nor interest. Finding that Olga Ivanovna was not at home, my hero lay down a moment on the drawing-room sofa and began to wait. “Good evening, Nikolay Ilyich,” he suddenly heard a child’s voice say. “Mother will be in a moment. She’s gone to the dressmaker’s with Sonya.” In the same drawing-room on the sofa lay Olga Ivanovna’s son, Aliosha, a boy about eight years old, well built, well looked after, dressed up like a picture in a velvet jacket and long black stockings. He lay on a satin pillow, and apparently imitating an acrobat whom he had lately seen in the circus, lifting up first one leg, then the other. When his elegant legs began to be tired, he moved his hands, or he jumped up impetuously and then went on all fours; trying to stand with his legs in the air. All this he did with a most serious face, breathing heavily, as if he himself found no happiness in God’s gift of such a restless body. Text B What are instructional objectives? In the past, instructional objectives have been stated in many different ways 154
and have focused on various aspects of instruction (e.g. teaching procedures, learning process, instructional content, student performance). Here we shall describe instructional objectives as intended learning outcomes, that is, in terms of the types of performance students are able to demonstrate at the end of instruction to show that they have learned what was expected of them. Well-stated objectives clarify these expectations in terms of measurable or observable student performance. In addition to focusing on the intended outcomes of instruction, instructional objectives must be at an appropriate level of generality for the type of instruction to be used. For classroom instruction they should not be stated so narrowly and detailed that instruction is reduces to a lockstep type of training program. Neither should they be in such generalized form that they provide inadequate guidance for instruction. Ideally, statements of instructional objectives should fall in the middle position on the generality continuum, that is, the statements should be specific enough to provide focus for both teaching and the assessment of learning without limiting the teacher’s flexibility in selecting instructional methods and materials.
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Appendix 3 The post-reading questionnaires Text (A) Name: ----------------------------------------------Please answer the following questions: How did you find the story you read? (1) Very difficult (2) Difficult (3) Appropriate (4) Easy (5) Very easy 2. What was the main comprehension problem you encountered in the text? (Please circle only ONE). Unknown words. Lack of background knowledge about the topic. Difficult in understanding the linking between sentences. (d) If not from the above, please specify_______________________ 3.What would have made the text easier for you to comprehend? Please answer according to your opinion.
Text (B) Name: ----------------------------------------------Please answer the following questions: How did you find the text you read? 156
(1) Very difficult (2) Difficult (3) Appropriate (4) Easy (5) Very easy 2. What was the main comprehension problem you encountered in the text? (Please circle only ONE) Unknown words. Lack of background knowledge about the topic. Difficult in understanding the linking between sentences. (d) If not from the above, please specify_______________________ 3. What would have made the text easier for you to comprehend? Please answer according to your opinion. 4.Which text was more difficult? ( ) Text A ( The story)
( ) Text B ( The teaching one)
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CHAPTER 6 The Role of L1 in EFL Vocabulary Learning and Teaching Abdulmoneim Mahmoud
ABSTRACT
T
his study was motivated by the magnitude of the interlingual errors (38%) in the data collected for a more comprehensive investigation into
the vocabulary problems of Arabic-speaking EFL learners. Such a percentage is significant in light of the fact that the students were second-year university English majors who had been studying EFL for at least 12 years. The vast majority of the errors were cases of substitution where Arabic uses one word for two or more EFL words with different meanings. The errors detected included word choice, word form, word coinage, and foreignization. They could be attributed to transfer from MSA as well as NSA. Some of them were due to confusion within L1, that is, problems in Arabic were carried over to English. In light of the learner-centered approach to language teaching, we advocate the use of L1 in teaching FL vocabulary, a bilingual technique in line with the learners’ natural hypothesis formation process. The use of L1 should be guided by the analysis of the interlingual errors. EFL teachers can also make use of the error analyses done by other EFL teachers with similar 159
groups of learners. Such an error-based use of L1 can, hopefully, make for an effective learner-centered technique of teaching EFL vocabulary. Introduction Gone are the days when the influence of the first language (L1) in foreign language (FL) learning was despotically seen as interference of bad linguistic habits hindering the learning of the new language, (Lado, 1957). Since the advent of the cognitive theory of learning in the 1970s and the dissemination of the findings of research on learning and communication strategies in the 1980s and 1990s (e.g. Atkinson, 1987; Kellerman, 1991; Oxford and Crookall, 1989; Poulisse. 1993), transfer from L1 has come to be viewed as one of the cognitive strategies of learning the FL. It is an additional source of linguistic knowledge available to the FL learner for hypothesis formation. (see e.g. Odlin, 1989; Rutherford. 1987). The influence of L1 (i.e. interlingual transfer) is triggered not only by purely linguistic factors (i.e. similarities and differences between L1 and FL) but also by other factors such as age, learning experience, the language task and the perceived distance between L1 and FL, (see Gabrys-Baker, 2006). James (1998) agrees with Nickel (1992) that interlingual transfer “is enjoying a renewed acceptance as a crucial component in modern L2 learning theories.”, (James, 1998, p. 181). Thus, interlingual transfer is now viewed as a psycho-cognitive process employed by the learners in the hope of facilitating the task of learning and communicating in FL. It is no longer seen as a matter of linguistic similarity or difference as the traditional Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis used to claim, (Wardhaugh, 1970). According to Dailey-O’Cain and Liebscher (2009, p. 131), “many scholars are now arguing that the first language can be beneficial as a cognitive toll that aids in second language learning,” (see also Macaro, 2009; Turnbull and Dailey-O’Cain, 2009). It is axiomatic that interlingual transfer – like intralingual transfer – can lead to error as well as correct production. Needless to say, correct production in FL due to interlingual or intralingual transfer (i.e. positive transfer) is not 160
easy to detect. Hence, we rely on errors, among other things, to inform us about the cognitive strategies that the learners fall back on when learning and communicating in FL. Evidence for the pervasiveness of interlingual transfer is indisputable especially in FL learning contexts where the learners’ exposure to the language is confined to a few hours per week of formal classroom instruction. As we stated in a previous study (Mahmoud, 2000), interlingual transfer is a compensatory strategy used to fill in gaps in FL knowledge. Negative interlingual transfer is manifested in three main types of error: (1) translation (or ‘calquing’ according to Ringbom, 2001), (2) foreignization (i.e. phonological or morphological modification of an L1 form to sound like a FL form), (3) code mixing/switching. Of the three types, translation is the most frequently used strategy, as can be seen from written English of the Arab students. Translation errors constitute at least one third of the total number of errors committed by FL learners, (Mahmoud, 1992). Mahmoud (2005) reviewed 21 studies on error analysis; in 11 of them the interlingual errors were 50% or more. In only three studies were such errors less than 30%. In view of such sizeable portions of interlingual errors, the present study aims to quantify, classify and analyze the interlingual vocabulary errors made by Arabic-speaking learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). It is a part of a more comprehensive investigation into the vocabulary problems of university students. The present study focuses on the interlingual errors in the production of EFL vocabulary. In previous studies, we analyzed errors in the production of some EFL multi-word units: idioms (Mahmoud, 2002), binomials (Mahmoud, 2003), collocations (Mahmoud, 2005). Hence, in this study we focus on single-word units of meaning. As Schmitt and McCarthy (1997, p.2) say, “a learner’s L1 is one of the most important factors in learning L2 vocabulary.” Interlingual Transfer in EFL Vocabulary: The vocabulary errors were collected from 60 essays written by Arabicspeaking, second-year, third-semester, male and female university students majoring in EFL. The essays were written as homework assignments in partial 161
fulfillment of the requirements of a writing course. The students compiled a list of topics of their own choice at the beginning of the semester (e.g. intermarriage, polygamy, mobile phones, parking problems, co-education, globalization). The essays were two and half to three pages in length. They were photocopied for the purpose of this study. The originals were assessed for the purpose of the writing course and returned to the students. Two university EFL teachers, one of whom was a native speaker of English, indicated the vocabulary errors. Two Arabic-speaking EFL teachers who had experience in error analysis were asked to indicate the ones that could possibly be due to negative interlingual transfer. A third Arabic-speaking error-analysis expert was consulted for confirmation and verification in case of disagreement. Some students were available for consultation in cases of ambiguity. A total of 1009 vocabulary errors were detected. The ones which were judged to be due to negative interlingual transfer amounted to 385 (i.e. 38%). Six errors were classified as ambiguous and hence ignored. The following are examples of ambiguous errors: * We are capable to use the internet anywhere. (grammar: capable of using
or
vocabulary: able to)
* The waves effected his brain and killed him. (spelling or vocabulary?) * Some people abuse academic societies. (interlingual: يسئ
or
intralingual: misuse / abuse ?)
For the purpose of this study, only the interlingual errors were classified and analyzed. A repeated error was counted as one. Collocation errors were not included as they were multi-word units we covered in a previous study, (Mahmoud, 2005). Of the 385 errors, 380 (i.e. 99%) were cases of substitution where a wrong word was used. Such errors are referred to as ‘diction’, ‘wrong word’ and ‘word choice’ (see, e.g. Pharr and Buscemi, 2009). The few remaining errors were cases of insertion of a word that was not required 162
(3 errors, 0.8%) and omission of a required one (2 errors, 0.5%), (see Table 1 below): Table (1) Types of Interlingual Errors
Type
Number
%
Substitution
380
98.7
Insertion
3
0.8
Omission
2
0.5
Total
385
100
Examples of insertion and omission: * Before many years ago we did not think that … Insertion of ‘Before’ is most probably due to transfer of the two time adverbs ( قبلand )مضتused in Arabic. * People receive calls from anonymous ^ who some of them annoy people. Omission of the noun could be attributed to the adjective ( )مجهولfunctioning as a noun in Arabic. The substitution errors (380) were classified as follows: Table (2) Types of Substitution Errors Type
Number
%
Wrong word
369
97
Wrong form
7
2
Foreignization
2
0.5
Word coinage
2
0.5
Total
380
100 163
As we see in Table (2), most of the substitution errors were instances where the students used incorrect EFL words due to the influence of Arabic. It is not easy to tell whether the students transferred from modern standard Arabic (MSA) or non-standard Arabic (NSA), (see also Mahmoud, 2000). However, six out of 363 the word-choice errors were believed to be due to transfer from NSA. These errors might not have been committed had the students transferred from MSA. Examples: * That is attributable to the light that ascends from phone. In NSA, the verb ( )يطلعhas two meanings: to go out and to go up. In MSA ( =( )يخرجto go out) is used in this context. Transfer from MSA might have led to the use of the correct verb. * If she followed Islam rules from the first, she would not …. In this example, the word ‘first’ is equivalent to the NSA word ()أول. The correct English word ‘beginning’ is equivalent to the MSA word ()بداية. On the other hand, the error in *Technology has come by considerable changes in today’s life, is most probably due to transfer from MSA where the verb ( )جاءتis has come. Transfer from NSA might have led to the use of the verb ‘brought’ because of ()جابت. This, of course, does not mean that only six errors were due to transfer from NSA. As we stated earlier, transfer from both MSA and NSA can lead to the production of the same EFL word due to the similarity of the two varieties of Arabic. Some substitution errors (24, i.e. 6%) were judged to be due to confusion within Arabic; cases where the students failed to differentiate between pairs of formally similar Arabic words such as ( = يجنبto safeguard) and ( = يتجنبto avoid), (خطأ = mistake) and ( = خطيئةsin), ( = يكسبto gain / win) and ( = يكتسبto acquire), ( = يعرفto know) and ( = يتعرفto recognize), ( = يعاملto treat) and (= يتعامل to deal with). These are cases of ‘problem transfer’; problems in Arabic were 164
carried over to EFL. The following examples illustrate this process: * Intermarriage avoids quarrels . * We can know the male student when he wears a dishdasha. * They will not visit people or treat them face to face. * He sometimes lends money to get the latest telephone. ( = يستلفborrow
vs
= يسلفlend)
* The universities have a united system. ( = متحدunited vs = موحدunified) * Today technology interferes in all matters of life. ( = تدخلenters vs = تتدخلinterferes) Word Form: Kharma and Hajjaj (1997, p. 37) who analyzed the errors made by Kuwaiti learners of EFL believe that Arabic does not influence the formation of English words. They state that “the English system itself is the source of any mistakes committed in this area.” However, the three Arabicspeaking error-analysts who participated in this study attributed seven errors of word form to interlingual transfer (2% of the interlingual errors). Consultation with the students who committed the errors confirmed the analysts’ belief. Examples: * There are economic and healthy problems. * The mobile phones cause a lot of healthy and social problems. In Arabic the adjective ( )صحيis equivalent to both modifiers ‘health’ and ‘healthy’ in English, ( = مشاكل صحيةhealth problems). One of the common word-formation errors was the use of ‘economic’ instead of ‘economical’ and vice versa. As Kharma and Hajjaj (ibid) say, this could be due to the English derivational system itself. However, when we asked the students to explain their errors, they immediately referred to the Arabic adjective ()إقتصادي. They thought the two English words were interchangeable since they had one 165
equivalent in Arabic. Needless to say, classification of errors into interlingual and intralingual is a complicated process. An EFL learner may commit an error due to transfer from L1 while another learner speaking the same L1 may commit the same error for an intralingual reason. * I think there is an economical problem only for those who use…. * Breaking all types of limits: age, sex, economical situation, … * Consider the economical aspect of co-education * The third reason is that the student becomes more economic. Similar interlingual explanations were given in the following cases: * It reduces the time and helps people in their works. ()أعمال * The Arabians who want to deal with the Westerners … ()العرب * In the Arabic world, English is commonly used. ()العربى * Some students in the Arabic countries are influenced by English. ()العربية Word Coinage and Foreignization Two cases of word coinage were believed to be due to interlingual transfer: * Cars that have no permission in the parkings belong to students. The Arabic equivalent of ‘parking lots’ is one plural noun ()مواقف, hence the student coined a plural noun ‘parkings’. * They have quarrels with the building owner. Here, the student translated the Arabic equivalent of ‘land lord’ ()مالك البناية. In two cases the students resorted to the strategy of foreignization. They transliterated Arabic words; they wrote Arabic words using English letters either because there was a linguistic gap (i.e. they did not know the required EFL word or thought it was the same word in EFL) as in * He has sukkari (= diabetes) or because they believed that the Arabic word was culture-specific as in * Music in public is haram in Islam (= forbidden). 166
Word Choice Apart from the types of errors discussed above (word formation, word coinage, foreignization, and confusion with Arabic), a large number of interlingual errors of word choice were detected (333 errors, 92% of the total number of substitution errors). These were cases where Arabic uses one word for two or more English words having different meanings as we saw earlier in the examples of transfer from NSA. Students believed that ‘sound’ and ‘voice’ were interchangeable since there is one word for both of them in Arabic ()صوت. Because the Arabic verb ( )يختصرcan be used in cases where English uses ‘abbreviate’ and ‘abridge’, the students wrote: * Mobile phones shorten the distances and abbreviate the time. * The mobile abridges distance and time. The errors in this category could be due to transfer from MSA or NSA since the two varieties of Arabic are similar as we said earlier. Here are some more examples of this common type of error: * Our society is an eastern society. ( = شرقيeastern & oriental) * She is one meter and 64 centimeters long. ( = طويلlong & tall) * In the end, he fired his father. ( = طردdrove away & sacked) * It [The mobile] is dangerous if small babies use it. ( = أطفالchildren & babies) * The mobile phone can influence the ears. ( = يؤثرaffect & influence) * They have a system of revelation of radars. ( = يكشفreveal & discover) * They use mobiles to cheat and destroy houses. ( = بيوتhouses & homes) * They use it to play on people’s special lives. ( = خاصةspecial & private) * We should use mobile phones in a temperate way. ( = معتدلةtemperate & moderate) * The mobile phones can perform other jobs. ( = وظائفjobs & functions) * The mobile phone contracts the distance between countries. (= يقلص shorten & contract) * It has a recorder for registering sound with tone. ( = يسجلto record & to register) 167
Interlingual-strategy-based Instruction Aebersold and Field (1997, p. 139) believe that teaching a word and learning it “are different matters and require different strategies in the classroom.” The first part of the statement is true only in the sense that not everything that is taught is learned and vice versa. As for the second part – that teaching and learning require different strategies – it is axiomatic that the effective teaching techniques are those which are based on learning strategies. Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 15) write, “the starting point for all language teaching should be an understanding of how people learn.” In a similar vein, Titone (1987, p. 17) says, “the how of language teaching is prescribed, basically, by the how of language learning.” Thus, one of the pillars of learner-centeredness in language teaching is to let learning inform our techniques. The language teaching methods and techniques will be more effective as we learn more about learning strategies. Analyzing learners’ errors, among other things, helps us to know about the learning process. In this respect, Erdogan (2005, p. 262) says, “if the mistakes and errors … are analyzed carefully, the process of language acquisition shall be understood,” (see also Xie and Jiang, 2007). This study focuses on interlingual transfer as an important learning and communication strategy used by Arabic-speaking learners of EFL. The findings of this study show that reliance on the first language (L1) accounts for 38% of the errors. Hence, the use of L1 in teaching EFL makes for a strategy-based technique. It is a learner-centered technique in line with the natural hypothesis-formation process, (see also Mahmoud, 1996, 1998, 2000). McMillan and Trunbull (2009, p. 15) say, “current thinking leads towards acceptance of judicious and theoretically principled L1 use.” The language teachers and researchers who call for a ban on the use of L1 in teaching a foreign language (FL), (e.g. Mehta, 2009), seem as if they are adopting the out-dated view of the 1950s and 1960s when L1 was deemed to be a source of harmful habits interfering in the learning of the FL. This short-sighted view of the role of L1 deprives the learners and teachers of an effective FL learning and teaching technique. In the concluding chapter of their edited 168
book, Turnbull and Dailey-O’Cain (2009, p. 182) write, “ the volume’s authors have convincingly demonstrated that an inflexible and extreme position that excludes the learner’s first language in … second or foreign language classroom is untenable.” (see also Nagy and Robertson, 2009). Needless to say, negative interlingual transfer presupposes the existence of positive transfer. Therefore, those who oppose the use of L1 in FL teaching throw the baby out with the bathwater. The findings of this study show that EFL students use the cognitive strategy of association in vocabulary learning. Their interlingual errors were due to the association of EFL words with Arabic words. Accordingly, teachers can make use of this natural process in vocabulary instruction. The teacher’s choice of the words that can be taught by using L1 should be guided by the findings of error analysis. They can conduct their own analyses or use the analyses done by others with similar groups of EFL learners in similar contexts. James (1998, p. 181) agrees that the analysis of interlingual errors “can lead to the compilation of compact and practical profiles, not of individual learners’ ILs, but of the shared characteristics of the ILs of a group of learners, a group having the same L1 or L2.” The ‘Keyword Method’ is based on L1-L2 association. The learner thinks of an L1 word (i.e. the key word) that sounds like the FL word to be learned, then the meaning of the L1 word is combined in an image with the FL word, (for more information see e.g. Nation and Meara, 2002). This method is based on the cognitive view that once there are two languages in the same mind, they will interact and influence each other, (Cook, 2003). Macaro (2009, p. 37) refers to this interaction and says that two languages “are not contained in separate conceptual stores and … the mental lexicon is best represented by an increasing number of connections.” As Leech (1994) said, an important component of the teachers’ language awareness is their knowledge of the contrastive relations between the first language and the foreign language, (see also Andrews, 2007). Arabic-speaking teachers of EFL may refer to both varieties of Arabic (MSA and NSA) depending on the possible source of transfer. In cases where one Arabic word is used for two or more English 169
words, a brief contrastive comparison between the two languages may help draw the students’ attention to the dangers of indiscriminate cross-linguistic association. If interlingual comparisons are thought to be as effective as intralingual explanations, the teachers can use the technique that they think will be more economical in terms of time and effort. They can also clear up confusion within Arabic (e.g. = يذكرremind vs = يتذكرremember) since it can lead to error in word choice in English. Errors of foreignization and word coinage clearly indicate gaps in EFL vocabulary that need to be filled. Thus, error analysis reveals not only incorrectly learned words but also words that have not been learned yet. The use of interlingual transfer by EFL learners justifies the use of bilingual techniques of vocabulary instruction reflected in the compilation of bilingual glossaries in some EFL textbooks (e.g. Our World Through English, 1997-1998) and most of the commercial EFL booklets and posters (e.g. Learn English Quickly, 2002). However, some of these commercial materials are dangerous to the linguistic health of EFL learners because they exhibit all sorts of errors, (e.g. Learn English Quickly, 2002). The presence of L1 in the learners’ minds is a fact of life. They rely on it if FL teachers like it or not (see e.g. Storch and Aldosari, 2010). Therefore, we had better use it judiciously as one of the teaching techniques instead of closing our eyes and pretending that it is not there. In Jiang’s (2004, p. 426) words, “L1 involvement cannot be avoided. Thus, there is no reason not to use L1 as a means of semantization or as a tool for checking and validating learners’ understanding of word meaning.” Telling students to think in the FL is nothing but wishful thinking. Thinking in the FL requires a fairly high level of proficiency in the language. The more the students become proficient in the FL, the more they rely on intralingual strategies and think in that language, (see also Kecskes and Papp, 2003). If L1 is not used at the presentation stage, it can be used at the review stage - as Jiang (ibid) says – to clear up any confusion in understanding the meanings of the words taught. The opponents of this bilingual technique believe that it is at the expense of exposure to the FL. On the contrary, it saves time for the other tasks and activities to be conducted in 170
the FL. Another advantage of the analysis of the interlingul errors is to raise students’ transfer awareness; it shows them when to rely on L1 and when not to. As James (1998, p. 181) says, “there are … occasions where learners have L1 patterns that could be advantageously transferred to the L2 but they do not exploit this potential.” Bilingual explanations of errors helps the students see the distance between L1 and the FL and understand the reasons behind their errors. According to Jiang (2004, p. 427), “L2 learners can benefit tremendously from a variety of vocabulary instruction techniques that help draw attention to the semantic differences between a L2 word and its L1 translation.” Thus, the bilingual technique of teaching EFL vocabulary is in keeping with the interlingual transfer learning and communication strategy. What is taught may not be learned for various reasons; one of them is the mismatch between the learning strategies and teaching techniques by ignoring the role of L1. Conclusion: This study was motivated by the magnitude of the interlingual errors (38%) in the data collected for a more comprehensive investigation into the vocabulary problems of Arabic-speaking EFL learners. Such a percentage is significant in light of the fact that the students were second-year university English majors who had been studying EFL for at least 12 years. The vast majority of the errors were cases of substitution where Arabic uses one word for two or more EFL words with different meanings. The errors detected included word choice, word form, word coinage, and foreignization. They could be attributed to transfer from MSA as well as NSA. Some of them were due to confusion within L1, that is, problems in Arabic were carried over to English. In light of the learner-centered approach to language teaching, we advocate the use of L1 in teaching FL vocabulary, a bilingual technique in line with the learners’ natural hypothesis formation process. The use of L1 should be guided by the analysis of the interlingual errors. EFL teachers can also make use of the error analyses done by other EFL teachers with similar groups of learners. Such an error-based use of L1 can, hopefully, make for an effective learner-centered technique of teaching EFL vocabulary. 171
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CHAPTER 7 Arabic English: A Model for Teachers of English in the Arab World T. Balasubramanian
ABSTRACT
I
t is not uncommon to find instances of mispronunciation of words in the English of native speakers of Arabic learning English as a foreign
language. Several such instances of mispronunciation render their English speech unintelligible to non-Arabs, and sometimes, even to other Arabic speakers. Very often, mispronunciation is caused by substituting one English sound for another. Are such instances of mispronunciation and the resultant unintelligibility a matter of grave concern and, therefore, ridicule? This chapter is an attempt at analyzing the sound systems of English and Arabic with a view to finding out the major differences between them. The chapter also examines the possibility of evolving a variety of spoken English which can be termed General Arabic English and using the suggested variety as a prescriptive model for the teaching of spoken English in the Arab World. 177
Introduction Edward Said (1993) remarked almost two decades ago that though direct imperialism has largely ended, it still lingers, as it has always done, in a kind of general cultural sphere. Phillipson (1996) points out that the imperialism Said alludes to is the linguistic legacy that imperialism has bequeathed to us. It is in connection with linguistic imperialism that Skutnabb-Kangas (1988) coined the expression linguicism (hierarchisation on the basis of languages), to draw parallels between racism, ethnicism and sexism. It is Phillipson’s view that linguicism can be both intralingual and interlingual. It is this intralingual linguicism that seems to be at work in the world of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), particularly in the universities of the Arab world. It is this intralingual linguicism that teachers of English, particularly teachers of spoken English in the Arab world, should guard against. Teachers of EFL in the Arab world will have to decide that their aim in teaching English speech to their students is to make them speak English intelligibly. Intelligibility, and not a native or near-native pronunciation, should be their criterion. It is worth quoting what Abercrombie (1963, p.37), a British R.P. speaking phonetician and EFL teacher to Arab learners said on this subject nearly half a century ago. Abercrombie’s relevant question, a question that English teachers all over the Arab world will have to ask themselves, isː “Is it really necessary for most language learners to acquire a perfect pronunciation?” Abercrombie answers his own question and it is something that teachers of EFL will have to remember at all timesː “Intending secret agents and intending language teachers ought to, of course, but most other language learners need no more than a comfortably intelligible pronunciation (and by ‘comfortably intelligible’ I mean a pronunciation which can be understood with little or no conscious effort on the part of the listener.)” With intelligibility as a vital criterion in the EFL situation, this chapter limits itself to an analysis of spoken English in the Arab world and, on the basis of 178
the analysis, suggests a model of spoken English for teachers of EFL in Arab universities to consider. Instances of unintelligibility in Arabic English By ‘Arabic English’ is meant the variety of English spoken by native speakers of Arabic. One, of course, comes across dozens of instances of unintelligibility in the English spoken by students in Arab universities. A few such instances are listed in the following lines. A student in an Arab university once declared confidently and categorically that fish was sheep in Aden. When it was pointed out to him that fish could never be sheep anywhere in the world, he was puzzled and angry (angry because he claimed that he ought to know everything about fish in Aden). He persisted in his claim. After a few minutes, he (inadvertently, of course) used the intensifier very and said, almost in desperation, that fish was very sheep in Aden. The use of the word very threw light on what he was trying to tell his listener – that fish was cheap in Aden. On another occasion, an Arabic speaking student said sadly that many people had lost their lives when a speeding bus hit a stationary fan. A third student became frustrated when he found that his bin wouldn’t write properly. One can cite innumerable examples of unintelligibility that teachers of EFL come across everyday in their lives, whether they are teaching EFL in Bangla Desh, Cambodia, Egypt or Vietnam. Confining our attention to instances of unintelligibility in the Arab world, one does hear countless words mispronounced by learners. But then, a person with even a basic knowledge of the phonetics and phonology of Arabic will realize that all the instances of mispronunciation are the inevitable result of the phonetics and phonology of Arabic, the learners’ mother tongue, superimposing themselves on the same features of the target language – English. This is something natural and universal. We hear a native speaker of English, even after decades of stay in an Arabic-speaking country, pronounce the proper noun /χaːlɪd̪/ (name spelt Khalid) as /khɑːlɪd/ (using the heavily 179
aspirated voiceless velar plosive instead of the voiceless uvular fricative at the beginning of the name and using the voiced alveolar plosive in place of the voiced denti-alveolar plosive at the end of the name). We hear native speakers of English pronouncing Qatar as /kə'thɑːɾ/ or /kə'thɑː/. These are,
undoubtedly, instances of sound-substitution and some of them do result in total unintelligibility. Segmental substitutions are not the only ones which cause unintelligibility. Suprasegmental features such as word-accent, sentence-stress, rhythm and intonation are equally notorious culprits. In Arabic English there are instances of accenting the wrong syllable of a word made up of more than one syllable (e.g., accenting the first syllable of the word forgot and the second syllable of the word orange) which results in unintelligibility. Again, in most Arabic speakers’ English, there is a total absence of weak forms of structural words. For example, they say (I will do it now.) instead of (I’ll do it now.) which sounds more natural and which definitely contributes to the maintenance of the characteristic stress-timed rhythm of English. Structural words such as auxiliary verbs, personal pronouns, possessive adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions and articles are used in their strong forms in Arabic English. The use of /kæn/ instead of /kən/ or /kn/, /ænd/ instead of /ənd/, /nd/ or /n/ certainly makes Arabic English sound unnatural, if not totally unintelligible. Much has been said about such instances of unintelligibility and there are muchpublicised television programmes, in which non-native varieties of English, particularly Asian varieties, are subjected to ridicule. There, undoubtedly, are instances of unintelligibility in European varieties of English. To cite just a few examples, French speakers invariably substitute the alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/ by the dental plosives /t̪/ and /d̪/ in their English speech. German speakers pronounce the two English words sin and thin exactly alike, with an initial /s/. Most Italian speakers the present writer has had occasion to talk to do not make the distinction between pairs of English words like seat and sit, in both of which they use the long vowel /i:/.
180
There are native varieties of English which are totally unintelligible to nonnative speakers. Cockney speakers pronounce letter as /leʔə/ and butter as / bʌʔə/. There are native speakers of English who pronounce bus as /bʊs/ and love as /lʊv/. Australians pronounce the two words day and die exactly alike, with the diphthong /aɪ/ in both the words. Many Americans do not distinguish between the two words guard and God and between the two words cot and caught. One hardly sees television programmes satirizing such varieties of English. A model of spoken English in an EFL context Is such imperialism necessary? Are instances of unfair criticism of Asian varieties of English justified? TEFL professionals all over the Arab world are aware of the phenomenon of negative transfer. Being aware of this, and of the fact that their aim ought to be to make their students’ English intelligible, what variety of spoken English should teachers of English in the Arab world teach their students? To the present writer’s knowledge, many Arab universities have a native variety, either British or American, as a model for their students to listen to and imitate. Is a native variety an absolute must? Can the EFL fraternity in the Arab world evolve their own model that can be termed General Arabic English? What is meant here is that teachers of EFL in the Arab world can study their learners’ spoken English, establish which features of their spoken English render their speech totally unintelligible and therefore have to be remedied and which features, in spite of the differences between the same features in native varieties of English, can be permitted because they do not
cause
unintelligibility. Once the distinction between the deviations from native English which do not cause unintelligibility and those which do is established, a variety of spoken English can be evolved and used in the teaching of spoken English. To cite an example, the use of /ʃ/ for /tʃ/ (and a vast majority of Arabic speakers do use the fricative in place of the affricate) in words like chin, chip, cheap, choose, etc. does cause total unintelligibility because of the existence of minimal pairs such as chin – shin , chip – ship , cheap – sheep , choose – shoes, and so learners 181
of English in the Arab world will have to acquire the affricate /tʃ/. On the other hand, the substitution of the long pure vowel /eː/ which occurs in words such as كيف/keːf/’how’ and بيت/beːt̪/’house’ in Non-standard Arabic for the diphthong /eɪ/ in words such as play and pray does not cause unintelligibility . Again, the use of the pure vowel /oː/ which occurs in words such as
نوم/noːm/’sleep’ and
يوم/joːm/’day’ in non-standard Arabic in place of the diphthong /əʊ/in words such as go and coat does not result in unintelligibility. In the model of spoken English for the Arab world, non-English sounds like /eː/ (a front unrounded long vowel in the half-close region) and /oː/ (a back rounded long vowel in the halfclose region) can be included in place of the two diphthongs listed above. The possibility and desirability of evolving a model of spoken English that can be used in Arab universities is dealt with more elaborately later in this chapter, after an analysis of the sounds of English and Arabic. Segmental phonemes of English and Arabic It is worthwhile, at this juncture, to look at the segmental phonemes of English and Arabic to ascertain the major differences between the two systems. Once the two systems are compared and contrasted and the differences established, one can look at the differences critically from a pedagogic point of view and think of a model of spoken English for the Arab world. A word about the varieties of the two languages will not be out of place here. The dialect of English chosen for this analysis is educated southern British English, called Received Pronunciation and often abbreviated to RP, since this variety is easily understood by non-native speakers of English. The variety of Arabic chosen is Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), with one addition from non-standard Arabic (NSA) as far as consonants are concerned and two additions from NSA as far as vowels are concerned. The consonants of English (R.P.) and Arabic (MSA) The consonants of the two systems are tabulated below, using the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet. In Tables 1 and 2, the symbol /w/ 182
(the voiced labio-velar semi-vowel) has been included in two different boxes (both bilabial and velar), since the two lips and the back of the tongue and the velum are involved in its articulation. In both the charts, following the international convention, if a box has two sounds, the one on the left is the voiceless one and the one on the right is its voiced counterpart. If a box has only one symbol, it represents a voiceless consonant if it is on the left and a voiced sound if it is on the right. Table 1: The consonants of English (R.P.) Place
bilabial
Manner
Labio-
dental
alveolar
dental
Plosive
p
b
t
Post-
Palato-
alveolar
alveolar
palatal
velar k
d
Affricate
glottal
g
tʃ dʒ
Nasal
m
Fricative
ŋ
n f
v
θ
ð s
ʃ
z
Frictionless
ʒ
h
r
continuant Semi-vowel
(w)
j
Lateral
w
l
Table 2: The Consonants of Arabic (MSA) with one addition from NSA Place Manner
BiLabiolabial dental
Plosive
b ب
dental Dentialveolar t̪ ت t̪ ض
alveolar Palato- Pala- velar Uvu- Pha alveolar tal lar ryn geal k q (g) ق ج ك
d̪ د d̪ ط
Affricate Nasal
glottal
? ء
dʒ ج m م
n ن
183
Fricative
f ف
θ ð ذ ث ð̴ ظ
s z ʃ ش ز س s̴ ص
χ
ʁ غخ
Fric tionless continuant Trill/ tap Semivowel
ħ ح
h ﻫ
ʕ ع
r ر (w) , و
Lateral
j ي
w و
l ل
Major differences between the two systems (A) Plosives (a) The voiceless bilabial plosive /p/ has a phonemic status in English, there being minimal pairs like pull and bull, contrasting the voiceless and voiced bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/. On the other hand, [p] occurs as an allophone of the phoneme /b/ in Arabic, occurring only in the middle of words, followed by a voiceless consonant, as in حبس/ħabs/ (phonetically [ħaps]) ‘prison’, ‘imprisonment’. Arabic speakers have no difficulty in pronouncing English words in which /p/ occurs medially, followed by a voiceless consonant, like captain, cups and apt. Initially, intervocalically and finally, they have the tendency to substitute [b] for [p], a tendency that has to be curbed if their English has to be intelligible. (b) /t/ and /d/ are alveolar consonants in most of their occurrences (except when they are followed by the dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/, when they are pronounced as dental plosives [̪t̪] and [d̪] as in eighth, width, hit that and add
them. The Arabic consonant sounds represented by the letters تand دare
denti-alveolar plosives. For example, the initial sounds in the Arabic words تني/t̪iːn/ ‘fig’ and دين/d̪iːn/ ‘religion’ are articulated with the tip and blade of 184
the tongue in firm contact with the upper teeth and teeth-ridge respectively, making them denti-alveolar sounds. Arabic speakers therefore have the tendency to substitute their native denti-alveolar plosives for the English alveolar plosives. This substitution does not, by and large, create problems of unintelligibility. (B) Nasals The velar nasal /ŋ/has phonemic status in English, there being minimal pairs like sin and sing contrasting the alveolar and velar nasals. Arabic speakers have no problem in pronouncing /ŋ/before the velar consonants /k/ and /g/ as in uncle and longer. Word-finally and intervocalically, in words like sing and singer respectively, they have the tendency to insert the plosive /g/ after the nasal /ŋ/. We must hasten to add here that the epenthetic /g/does not, in any way, hinder intelligibility. (C) Affricates The English consonant system has two affricates. They are /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, both of which are palato-alveolar consonants. They do contrast with each other in minimal pairs like choke – joke and cheap – jeep. No variety of Arabic, MSA as well as the different regional varieties of NSA has /tʃ/ and a vast majority of Arabic speakers, particularly learners of English, substitute this sound with the fricative /ʃ/ which is homorganic with the affricate /tʃ/, thus confusing between minimal pairs like cheap – sheep and chin – shin. The voiced affricate /dʒ/ does occur in MSA, but speakers of NSA (like many Omanis, Egyptians, Yemenis) who pronounce the Arabic letter جexactly like the first sound in the word girl (that is, as a voiced velar plosive) do have a problem in distinguishing between minimal pairs likegone – John and goose – juice. (C) Fricatives The two fricative sounds that don’t form part of the sound system of Arabic but do occur in the English sound system are the voiced labio-dental fricative 185
/v/ and the voiced palato-alveolar fricative/ʒ/. The absence of the labiodental fricative /v/ does create problems of unintelligibility, because many native speakers of Arabic use the voiceless fricative /f/ in place of /v/ and so fail to make the distinction between pairs of words like fan – van, leaf – leave, fail – veil, etc. The absence of /ʒ/, on the other hand, does not result in unintelligibility. To begin with, this consonant occurs in very few English words and that too, only word-medially. Arabic learners of English, by and large substitute this sound by /ʃ/. Thus they pronounce vision as /fiʃən/ instead of as /vɪʒn/. Occasionally we do hear /dʒ/ in place of /ʒ/. Neither of these substitutions renders their English unintelligible. (D) Lateral In English the lateral phoneme /l/ has two allophones, a palatalized one and a velarized one. The palatalized allophone (usually referred to as clear /l/) occurs before vowels (as in leave, live and late) and before the palatal semivowel /j/ (as in million /’mɪljən/). The velarized allophone (usually referred to as dark /l/) occurs word-finally (as in peel and pull) and when the lateral sound is followed by a consonant (as in milk and build). Both these allophones occur in Arabic too, both MSA and NSA. The palatalized /l/ occurs in words such as لنب/’laban/’buttermilk’ and the velarized lateral occurs in the word اللة/’ʔallah/ ‘God’ . Strangely, a vast majority of Arabic speakers use the palatalized variety in all the occurrences of /l/, but this does not render their English unintelligible. (E) The /r/ phoneme This phoneme has several allophones in educated southern British English. It is pronounced as a voiced post-alveolar frictionless continuant [ɹ ̞] when
it occurs initially in a word (as in read and red), as a voiceless post-alveolar fricative [ɹ ̞] when it occurs immediately after an aspirated voiceless plosive
(as in pray, try and cry), as a voiced post-alveolar fricative [ɹ] when it is preceded by a voiced plosive (as in brown, dry and grow) and as a voiced alveolar tap [ɾ] when it occurs between two vowels (as in carry and very) and 186
after the voiceless dental fricative /θ/(as in three and thrift).The only allophone of /r/ that occurs in the speech of a vast majority of Arabic speakers is the tap [ɾ] wherever the phoneme occurs in a word. Also, Arabic speakers have the tendency to pronounce the letter < r > when it is the last letter in a word. Thus whereas we hear /kɑː/ and /fɑː/ (for the words car and far respectively in the speech of British English speakers (with the exception of Scottish speakers), we hear /kɑːr/ and /fɑːr/ in Arabic English. Neither the use of the single allophone [ɾ] in all the occurrences of the phoneme /r/ nor the pronunciation of the letter < r > at the end of words causes unintelligibility. (F) Semi-vowels The two semi-vowels that occur in English are the palatal /j/ and the labiovelar /w/. Both form part of the sound system of Arabicː /j/ occurs in words such as/ يدjad̪/ ‘hand’ and /w/ occurs in words such as ولد/’walad̪/ ‘boy’. Arabic speakers pronounce these two semi-vowels with ease in their English speech. Subtle allophonic differences A few of the allophonic differences have already been touched upon in the previous section of this paper. A few more are discussed in this section. All three voiceless plosives in English have heavily aspirated allophones which are used when the voiceless plosives occur initially in accented syllables like apply /ə'plaɪ/ (aspirated /p/), attend /ə'tend/ (aspirated /t/) and account /ə’kaʊnt/ (aspirated /k/). All the voiceless plosives that occur in Arabic are unaspirated, in whatever phonetic environments they occur. Arabic speakers of English thus use unaspirated voiceless plosives even when the plosives occur initially in strong syllables. Also, plosives (voiceless as well as voiced) are released nasally in English when they occur immediately before their homorganic nasals. Thus /p/ and /b/ are nasally released in the words topmost and submit respectively and /t/ and /d/ are nasally released in the words cotton and sudden respectively. One hardly hears this feature of nasal plosion in 187
Arabic English, but neither the total lack of aspiration nor the oral release of plosives followed by their homorganic nasals results in unintelligibility. The Vowels of English and Arabic The vowels of English and Arabic are listed below. In the list which has the Arabic vowels, the six vowels that occur in MSA have been included. In addition, two vowels which occur commonly in the spontaneous day-to-day speech of native speakers of Arabic, a front vowel and a back vowel, both articulated in the half-close region, have been included. After each list, a vowel quadrilateral has been given, with the tongue-positions of the different vowels plotted in it. The pure vowels of English (R.P.) (A)
Front vowels
/iː/
as in
bead
/ɪ/
as in
bid
/e/
as in
bed
/æ/
as in
bad
(B)
Back vowels
/ɑː/
as in
fast
/ɒ/
as in
God
/ɔː/
as in
caught
/ʊ/
as in
pull
/uː/
as in
pool
as in
bud
(C)
Central vowels
188
/ʌ/
/ɜː/
as in
bird
/ə/
as in
about (the first syllable)
The diphthongs of English
/eɪ/
as in
play
/aɪ/
as in
buy
/ɔɪ/
as in
boy
/aʊ/
as in
now
/əʊ/
as in
no
/ɪə/
as in
hear
/ʊə/
as in
tour
/eə/
as in
care
ARABIC ENGLISHː A MODEL FOR TEACHERS
189
The pure vowels of Arabic
/iː/
as in
دين
religion
/i/
as in
بنت
girl
/eː/
as in
كيف
how (NSA)
/aː/
as in
باب
door
/a/
as in
كم
how much/
/oː/
as in
يوم
day (NSA)
/uː/
as in
سوق
market
/u/
as in
فل
Arabian jasmine
190
Summary of Differences There are major differences between the two vowel systems. Four out of the twelve pure vowels of English occur in Arabic as well, even though there are qualitative differences between two of the pure vowels of English and what can be called their counterparts in Arabic. The two vowels that occur in both the languages are /iː/ and /uː/ with almost identical tongue-positions. The two vowels with a qualitative difference are /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ which occur in English which are more open and centralized than /i/ and /u/ which occur in Arabic. Arabic speakers pronounce the two long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ with ease. The use of the more close and non-centralized Arabic vowels /i/ and /u/ in place of the English short centralized vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ does not create any problem of unintelligibility. In fact, the difference between the English vowels and the Arabic vowels will not even be perceived by listeners unless they are trained phoneticians. The long vowel /ɑː/ is pronounced to near-native perfection by Arabic speakers since the Arabic front vowel /aː/ (a front open unrounded long vowel) has [ɑː] as one of its allophones when it occurs in the vicinity of 191
velarized consonants, uvular consonants and the consonant /r/. Words such as Rashid (proper noun), Khalid (proper noun), Ramadhan (name of the Islamic holy month), Ghalib (proper noun), Saleh (proper noun) are pronounced with the back vowel allophone [ɑː]. The vowels which form part of the sound system of English but which are missing in the Arabic system are /e/ as in bed, /ɒ/ as in lost, /ɔː/ as in caught, /ʌ/ as in cup, /ɜː/ as in heard and /ə/ as in the first syllable of account. The absence of /ɒ/ and the consequent substitution, by Arabic speakers of English, by the unrounded vowel /ɑː/ doesn’t cause any problems of unintelligibility. Many words in which the vowel /ɑː/ occurs in English has the letter < r > in them (like part, cart, guard, farm, arm, harm, heart, yard, etc.) and most Arabic speakers use a rhotic accent and so pronounce the orthographic < r > in such words and thus maintain the distinction between pairs of words like cart and cot, heart and hot, part and pot, etc. The absence of the long back rounded vowel /ɔː/ in Arabic and the consequent use of /ɑː/ by Arabic speakers in words such as caught, taught and bought doesn’t cause any unintelligibility either. The absence of the long central vowel /ɜː/ in Arabic and therefore in Arabic English is not a matter of grave concern, either. This is because all the English words in which the vowel /ɜː/ occurs have an orthographic < r > which Arabic speakers pronounced. They use the front half-close unrounded long vowel /eː/ in place of /ɜː/ and pronounce the letter < r >. Thus they pronounce heard and girl as /heːrd/ and /geːrl/ respectively, which is perfectly intelligible even to native speakers of English. The absence of the central vowel /ʌ/ in the Arabic vowel system does not cause unintelligibility since Arabic speakers use a slightly more open vowel /ɑ/ (the way they pronounce the short vowel fathah in the vicinity of velarised and uvular consonants and /r/ in Arabic words). The one pure vowel that many Arabic speakers find difficult to pronounce and therefore make themselves misunderstood is the front short vowel /e/ which is a frequently occurring vowel in English. Most Arabic speakers substitute this vowel by a closer vowel (the vowel /i/) and this substitution does cause problems of unintelligibility. 192
Among the diphthongs, /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ present no problem whatsoever to Arabic speakers since there are Arabic words in which the short vowel /a/ is followed by the semi-vowels /j/ and /w/ (as in
حي/ħaj/ ‘zone’
and فوزي/fawzi/‘proper noun’ respectively). The English diphthong /eɪ/ is replaced in Arabic English by the NSA long pure vowel /eː/ and the English diphthong /əʊ/ is replaced by the NSA long pure vowel /oː/. Thus the words pray and go are pronounced /preː/ and /goː/ respectively in Arabic English and these substitutions in no way render Arabic English unintelligible. We do find the same substitutions in Scottish English. The diphthong /eə/ which occurs in British English is replaced by the sequence /eː/ + /r/ by Arabic speakers. Since every single word in which this diphthong occurs has an orthographic < r > which Arabic speakers of English pronounce, this substitution need not be a matter of concern to the EFL community in the Arab world. The diphthong /ɪə/ is heard in Arabic English as the sequence /i/+ /j/ + /a/ and the diphthong /ʊə/ is heard as the sequence /u/ + /w/ + /ə/. Thus nearly and surely are pronounced /’nijarli/ and /’ʃuwarli/ respectively by Arabic speakers. These, we must hasten to add, do not render Arabic English unintelligible even to native speakers of English. Arabic English: A Proposed Model A comparison of the sound systems of MSA (with three additions from NSA) and English makes us aware of the fact that the following sounds of English are likely to (in fact they do) cause difficulties in pronunciation to native speakers of Arabic. Let us examine here, in greater detail, the sounds that Arabic speakers substitute for the difficult sounds and the result of such substitutions. Let us also discuss whether the substitutions render the English of Arabic speakers unintelligible. On the basis of such a detailed discussion, we shall evolve a model of spoken English that can be used to teach spoken English in the Arab world. 193
Table 3: Sound Substitutions in Arabic English English sound
Difference between the two sounds
Result of the substitution. Can the substitution be allowed or not?
/I/
/i/
The Arabic English sound is more close and not centralized.
No unintelligibility caused. The substitution can be allowed .
/e/
/i/
The Arabic English sound is more close.
Results in unintelligibility. Minimal pair distinctions such as pin – pen , did – dead are lost.
/æ/
/aː/
The Arabic English sound is slightly more open.
No unintelligibility caused. substitution can be allowed.
/ɒ/
/ɑː/
The Arabic English sound is unrounded, whereas the English sound is rounded.
Some minimal pair contrasts like last – lost are lost. It is not a serious problem though, since in minimal pairs such as cart-cot , part – pot, etc., Arabic speakers pronounce the orthographic < r >.
The Arabic English sound is more open or the NSA and unrounded. /oː/
Not a serious problem, since many words in which /ɔː/ occurs have an orthographic < r > (like court, port, cord, board) which Arabic speakers pronounce.
/ɔː/
/ɑː/
The
/u/
The Arabic English sound is more close and not centralized.
No unintelligibility is caused, so the substitution can be allowed.
/ɜː/
NSA /eː/+/r/
The Arabic English sound is a front vowel, while the English sound is a central vowel.
Does not cause unintelligibility since all the words in which the vowel /ɜː/ occurs have an orthographic < r > which Arabic speakers pronounce.
/ʌ/
/ɑ/ (one of the allophones of /a/ in Arabic.
The Arabic English sound is more open and less central.
No unintelligibility caused. The substitution can be allowed.
/ʊ/
194
Substituted by
/eɪ/
NSA /eː/
The Arabic English sound is a pure vowel, while the English sound is a vowel glide.
No unintelligibility is caused, so the substitution can be allowed.
/aɪ/
/a/ + /j/
No difference since /ɪ/ and /j/ are pronounced alike.
No unintelligibility caused, so the substitution can be allowed.
/ɔɪ/
/ɑː/ + /j/
The first element in the Arabic glide is unrounded, whereas it is a rounded vowel in English
The pronunciation of the word boy as /bɑːj/ sounds unnatural, but it does not cause unintelligibility.
/aʊ/
/a/ + /w/
No difference since /ʊ/ and /w/ are pronounced alike.
The substitution can be allowed since the substitution does not cause unintelligibility.
/əʊ/
NSA /oː/
The Arabic English vowel is a pure vowel, while the English vowel is a diphthong.
No unintelligibility caused, so the substitution can be allowed.
/ɪə/
/i/+/j/+/a/
The Arabic English sequence has the semivowel /j/inserted.
No unintelligibility caused, so the substitution can be allowed.
/ʊə/
/u/+ /w/+/a/
The Arabic English sequence has the semivowel /w/ inserted.
No unintelligibility caused, so the substitution can be allowed.
/eə/
NSA /eː/+/r/
Arabic English has a pure vowel and /r/, whereas British English has a diphthong.
No unintelligibility caused, so the substitution can be allowed.
/p/
/b/
Voiceless-voiced
This substitution does cause unintelligibility since in English there are innumerable minimal pairs contrasting the two sounds. This substitution cannot be permitted. Arabic speakers of English will have to acquire [p].
195
/t/
/t̪/
The Arabic English sound is dentialveolar, whereas the native English sound is alveolar.
This substitution does not cause unintelligibility, though it might sound unnatural to English speakers. This substitution can be allowed.
/d/
/d̪/
Same difference as above.
Same comment as above.
/tʃ/
/ʃ/
The English sound is an affricate, whereas the Arabic English sound is a fricative.
This substitution does cause unintelligibility since minimal pair distinctions like cheap – sheep, chip – ship are totally lost. Arabic speakers will have to acquire the affricate.
Speakers of NSA use the velar plosive [g] in place of the palatoalveolar affricate [dʒ]
This substitution obliterates minimal pair contrasts like juicegoose, John – gone, etc and thus causes unintelligibility. NSA speakers will have to acquire the affricate sound [ʒ].
/dʒ/
NSA /g/
English Substituted Difference between Result of the substitution. sound by the two sounds Can the substitution be allowed?
196
/ŋ/
/ŋ/+/g/ intervocalically and finally
Insertion of the homorganic plosive
No unintelligibility caused. The insertion n of /g/ can be allowed.
/v/
/f/ or /w/
Voiceless /f/ in place of the voiced /v/; or, use of the semi-vowel /w/ in place of the fricative /v/.
Either of the substitutions causes unintelligibility. Using /f/ obliterates minimal pair distinctions like fan – van, fail – veil, etc. Using /w/ causes confusion between minimal pairs like vest – west, veil – wail, etc. Arabic speakers will have to acquire /v/.
/ʒ/
/ʃ/ or /dʒ/
Voiceless-voiced if /ʃ/ is used and voiceless fricative-voiced affricate if dʒ/ is used.
Neither substitution causes unintelligibility. /ʒ/ occurs infrequently in English words.
Some of the sound-substitutions that are commonly found in Arabic English, as indicated in the Table above, can be left alone since they do not interfere with intelligibility. Most of the subtle allophonic differences (e.g., using unaspirated voiceless plosives in place of heavily aspirated ones, not using nasally released plosives, the use of the palatalized /l/ in all the occurrences of the phoneme /l/ the use of a single allophone (the voiced alveolar tap [ɾ] in all the occurrences of the phoneme /r/) do not affect the intelligibility of Arabic English. The emphasis of EFL teachers in the Arab world must be on intelligibility and fluency rather than on perfection in pronunciation. It is worth quoting Abercrombie again who remarks “the attainment of fluency should not be sacrificed to perfection of detail. The enthusiast may find himself, if he is not careful, with pupils who have a perfect pronunciation, but nothing to pronounce” (Abercrombie, 1963, p.31). On the basis of the differences between the sound systems of Arabic (the learners’ mother tongue) and English (the target language) and on the basis of the fact that the EFL teachers’ emphasis must be on fluency and intelligibility, a model of spoken English is suggested here that can be used to teach spoken English in the Arab world. (A) Vowels /iː/ /i/ (in place of native English /ɪ/ /eː/ (in place of /eɪ/ and /eə/) /e/ /aː/ ( in place of /æ / /ɑ/ ( in place of /ʌ/) /ɑː/ 197
/oː/ ( in place of /əʊ/ and /ɔː/ in words like port) /u/ (in place of /ʊ/) /uː/ (B)
Consonants
The consonants that can form part of the sound system of Arabic English are tabulated belowː Table 4: Consonants in Arabic and English sound systems Place Manner
BiLabio- Dental DentiAlveolar Palato- Palatal Velar labial dental alveolar alveolar
Plosive
p
b
t̪
k
d̪
Affricate
g
tʃ dʒ
Nasal
m
Fricative
n f
v
θ
ð
Trill/ tap Semivowel
Glottal
s
z
ʃ
h
r (w)
Lateral
j
w
l
Justification for evolving the model The sound system suggested here for Arabic English has ten vowels and twenty-two consonants. From the researcher’s experience of teaching spoken English in the Republic of Yemen and Oman, this model is acceptable since the English of his students was perfectly intelligible to native as well as nonnative speakers of English. Further, Arabic students feel more comfortable if they are allowed to pronounce English words with the sounds listed here. As long as intelligibility is not affected, a slightly different system can be used and hence the suggestion of the model described above. Limitations of the present study 198
The main limitation of the present study is that it concentrates only on the segmental phonemes of the target language, to the exclusion of equally import\ ant features of spoken English such as consonant clusters and suprasegmental features like word-accent, sentence-stress, rhythm and intonation. These features contribute to intelligibility as much as, if not more than, the segmental features. Considering consonant clusters, we find that English permits thirtyfour initial consonant clusters made up of two consonants, seven initial clusters made up of three consonants, fifty-five final clusters made up of two consonants, thirty-two final clusters made up of three consonants and four final clusters made up of four consonants. Arabic, on the other hand, has no initial consonant clusters at all. So any initial cluster is likely to be difficult for an Arabic speaker to pronounce with ease. Arabic does have final clusters, but these are made up of just two consonants. So any final cluster made up of three consonants is likely to be difficult for an Arabic speaker. We do hear words like next and texts pronounced /nikist/ and /tikists/ by many Arabic speakers. Word-accent, though an essential feature of spoken Arabic, is a tricky feature for Arabic speakers as far as English is concerned. In Arabic, word-accent is straightforward (see Balasubramaniamn, 2011) whereas it is quite complicated in English since it is not only unpredictable but also phonemic, as illustrated by the noun and verb forms of words such as permit, record, etc. A misplaced stress can (and does) render one’s English speech unintelligible. The absence of weak-forms in Arabic English is yet another factor contributing to unnatural speech, if not totally unintelligible speech. These features and intonation will have to be taken into account when we consider the teaching of speech to Arab learners. This chapter has dealt with speech sounds only. Further research is necessary, touching upon clusters and suprasegmental features. Conclusion Teachers of EFL in the Arab world do come across instances of unintelligibility in the spoken English of their students. Some of them are undoubtedly caused 199
by negative transfer – the learners substituting an unfamiliar sound with a sound that is familiar to them because of the occurrence in Arabic. Most instances of unintelligibility are caused by substituting /b/ for /p/ in words such as pin and pill, /ʃ/ for /tʃ/ in words such as cheap and choose, substituting /g/ for /dʒ/ in words such as John and juice, /i/ for /e/ in words such as bell and tell. Whereas substitutions such as the ones cited above do render their English totally unintelligible, there are other substitutions like /ʃ/ for /ʒ/, the NSA /oː/ for the diphthong /əʊ/ which do not cause unintelligibility. It is therefore necessary for teachers of EFL in the Arab world to make a distinction between sound substitutions which hinder intelligibility and therefore have to be remedied and those which do not interfere with intelligibility and therefore can be allowed. It is with this in mind that the model for spoken English for the Arab world has been evolved here. Will the sound system suggested here remove all the maladies faced by practicing EFL professionals in the Arab world? Certainly not. But will the model suggested here render the spoken English of native speakers of Arabic intelligible to their listeners as far as the segmental phonemes are concerned? One does not have to be a soothsayer to answer this question.
200
References Abercrombie, David (1963). Teaching pronunciation. In D. Abercrombie (Ed.), Problems and Principles in Language Study (p.28-40). London: Longman. Balasubramanian, T. (2011). Word-accent and syllable-structure in Modern Standard Arabic. Arab World English Journal, 2(2), 167-185. Phillipson, Robert (1996). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Said, Edward (1993). Culture and Imperialism. London: Chatto & Windus. Skutnabb-Kangas,T (1988). Multilingualism and the Education of Minority Children. In Skutnabb-Kangas, T & Cummins,J (Eds.), Minority Children: from Shame to Struggle (pp. 9-44). Clevedonː Multilingual matters..
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CHAPTER 8 Direct and Indirect Metalinguistic Feedback: A Matter of Suitability rather than Superiority Fatema Al-Rubai’ey and Hossein Nassaji
ABSTRACT
T
he questions of how and what type of written corrective feedback (WCF) should be provided to L2 students have received much attention
in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). This study examined and compared the effectiveness of two types of WCF: direct feedback and indirect metalinguistic feedback. Two intact English as a foreign language (EFL) classes participated in the study. Each class wrote four essays and was provided with WCF on their written errors, with one class receiving direct feedback and the other receiving indirect metalinguistic feedback. The grammatical target was accuracy in the use of English articles. The result showed no significant difference between the two groups, overall. However, the analysis of the specific functions of articles revealed an advantage for the direct feedback over the indirect feedback. Thus, this study suggests that direct feedback may be more effective than indirect feedback with respect to certain functions of the English articles. 203
Introduction There is an ongoing debate in the scholarly literature concerning the effectiveness of written corrective feedback (WCF) in improving the grammatical accuracy of students’ writing. WCF refers to any form of written correction of errors in the written work of second-language (L2) students. Truscott (2007) is skeptical of the efficacy of WCF and calls for eliminating it from the L2 writing classroom. Ferris (2004) defends the effectiveness of WCF. Several other authors also argue for the effectiveness of WCF, such as Bitchener (2008), Bitchener, Young, and Cameron (2005), Chandler (2003), Ellis, Sheen, Murakami, and Takashima (2008), Sheen (2005), and Hyland and Hyland (2006a, 2006b). However, although these authors agree that WCF works, there is not yet a conclusive answer to the question of which type of WCF, direct or indirect (metalinguistic) feedback, is more effective for L2 writing. The present study examines the effects of indirect metalinguistic feedback (IMF) versus direct feedback (DF) in improving accuracy in the use of English articles. At this point we need to show the meaning of direct and indirect corrective feedback. Direct feedback refers to feedback that occurs “when the teacher simply provides a target-like form for the student writer …. Indirect feedback, on the other hand, provides students with an indication that an error has been made, but requires the students to self-correct” (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005, p. 269). Indirect feedback can take various forms, such as coding the error, circling it, underlining it, underlining and coding it, underlining and describing it, or providing the learner with meta-linguistic clues without providing the correction. Empirical Studies in Support of CF in the L2 Writing Classroom Chandler (2003) examined the effect of error correction on grammatical accuracy in L2 writing of 31 ESL students in their first and second years. She found that the treatment group improved its writing accuracy, while the control group did not show any significant improvement. Sheen (2007) 204
studied 91 ESL learners’ analytic ability in mediating two types of focused written corrective feedback—direct and indirect metalinguistic. The focus was on the acquisition of English articles. He divided the participants into a control group and two treatment groups (one receiving DF and the other receiving IMF). The treatment groups outperformed the control group and the metalinguistic group outperformed the direct feedback group. She argued that IMF is more effective than DF because it facilitates the students’ understanding of the rules that control the corrected forms. Ellis, Sheen, Murakami, and Takashima (2008) also studied the effectiveness of focused versus unfocused written corrective feedback. They divided 49 EFL students into two treatment groups (one receiving focused and the other unfocused written corrective feedback) and a control group. The unfocused feedback was metalinguistic in nature and covered errors in the use of English articles and other grammatical errors. The focused feedback was also metalinguistic but was largely restricted to the use of articles. The findings revealed that both treatments were effective in promoting accuracy in the use of articles. Ellis et al. (2008) argued that WCF “develop[s] both declarative knowledge and procedural ability” (p. 366), thereby contributing to acquisition. Some argued that indirect metalinguistic feedback may be more effective than direct feedback because the latter promotes noticing and knowing the underlying rules at the same time, whereas direct feedback—correcting the erroneous form by providing the target-like one—facilitates noticing of the problematic forms only (Sheen, 2007). However, it is also possible that when utilizing direct correction students might compare and try to understand the difference between their error and the target-like form (Amrhein & Nassaji, 2010). Therefore, it can also be effective. In fact Bitchener (2008) found that, although his indirect-treatment groups outperformed the direct-feedback group in the delayed post-test, the latter significantly outperformed the control group and retained this advantage over a considerable period of time. Such retention demonstrates that 205
direct feedback was also effective and produced not only awareness but understanding for these learners. Chandler (2003) found similar significant improvement in accuracy with the use of direct correction. Chandler (2003) argued that direct feedback is effective in improving L2 writing accuracy and facilitating SLA. She argues that direct correction helps learners to notice the mismatch between their interlanguage grammar and the targetlike one, thereby facilitating SLA. Ferris (2003a), however, argued for the superiority of indirect corrective feedback. Of course, she also pointed out that some students might be “unfamiliar with the technical jargon related to rhetorical issues (‘thesis,’ ‘transition’) or grammatical points (‘subjectverb agreement,’ ‘sentence fragment’), terms they are likely to find written by teachers on their papers” (p. 126). Accordingly, unfamiliarity with the technical jargon used in indirect correction in the form of metalinguistic feedback might reduce the effectiveness of such feedback for lowproficiency students. In justifying the superiority of indirect feedback and its long-term effect on the accuracy of students’ writing, Ferris (2003b, 2006) emphasized the importance of the instructor’s role in helping students understand the meaning of such feedback. According to Ferris (2003b, 2006) and Ferris and Hedgcock (2005), any possible difficulty students might encounter in handling the metalinguistic cues can be solved by instructing them on the use of such feedback. However, this solution should not go without further examination, especially in light of the argument that processing indirect feedback depends on the learner’s unconscious (i.e., previously internalized) knowledge of the language (Sachs & Polio, 2007; Long, 2007), and also the fact that students may prefer direct to more indirect feedback (Amrhein & Nassaji, 2010). There is, however, some middle ground in the debate over which form of feedback is superior. Bitchener, Young, and Cameron (2005) and Bitchener (2008) argued for a combination of direct and indirect feedback (specifically, metalinguistic feedback). Bitchener (2008) compared three different types 206
of feedback: direct corrective feedback with oral metalinguistic explanation, direct corrective feedback with written metalinguistic explanation, and direct corrective feedback only. The study concerned the acquisition of English articles by 75 lower-intermediate international students. All of the treatment groups outperformed the control group and retained significantly improved levels of performance in the post-test, conducted two months later. However, the two groups that received written or oral metalinguistic feedback in addition to direct correction outperformed the group that received direct feedback only. One conclusion that can be drawn from this is that both types of correction are effective, whether used separately or in combination. Nonetheless, since the debate still persists and since the claims of the antagonists remain mutually exclusive, the question is how to account for their contradictory findings. Why do some learners appear to benefit more from direct correction and others from indirect correction? In the studies conducted so far, an important variable is learners’ proficiency level. Swain and Lapkin (1995) found that the most proficient participants in their study focused on grammatical problems more than the least proficient. This finding underscored the importance of the learner’s proficiency level in L2 writing in affecting learners’ ability to benefit from different types of feedback. Ferris and Hedgcock (2005) also emphasized the importance of considering the proficiency level of the learners, arguing that lower-proficiency students might not be able to self-correct or edit their errors even when they are pointed out. However, in the discussion of the difference between direct and indirect feedback, researchers have rarely invoked the role of language proficiency. For example, in discussing the superiority of indirect feedback, Ferris made no mention of proficiency levels; only later, in her implications section, did she state that her participants were “highly motivated [and] at relatively high levels of L2 proficiency” (Ferris, 2006, p. 99). Ferris’s claim that her 207
findings are applicable to students with lower proficiency levels seems to be based on an optimistic view that simply instructing such students on how to use indirect feedback will enable them to develop self-editing skills and improve their L2 writing accuracy (Ferris, 2003b; Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005; Ferris & Roberts, 2001). Long (2007) argued that self-repair requires a potential unconscious knowledge of the targeted linguistic forms. Therefore, although indirect feedback might facilitate self-repair by means of metalinguistic comments, this opportunity is not always utilized by learners who are not acquainted with the target forms. On this issue, Sachs and Polio (2007) stated that for learners to engage their IL systems in searching for mismatch, they need to evaluate and question their existing knowledge in response to indirect correction. Thus, simple instruction on the meanings of the terms used in indirect feedback might not be sufficient to enable the learners to benefit from it. Therefore, there is a need to take into account learners’ level of language proficiency when implementing indirect correction in L2 writing classrooms. In the following table we present a comparison between the proficiency levels of participants in the studies that have argued for one type of feedback over the other. As can be seen participants’ proficiency levels are quite different. Table 1 Studies Comparing the Effectiveness of Types of WCF Study
Participants’ level of proficiency
Types of WCF
Focused/ Findings unfocused
Chandler First to second 1. Direct Unfocused (2003) year ESL 2. Indirect learners metalinguistic)
208
Direct is more effective
Ferris (2006)
Sheen (2007)
Advanced ESL 1. Direct 2. Indirect (different types)
Unfocused
Indirect (metalinguistic with underlining) is more effective
Intermediate ESL learners
1. Direct Focused: English 2. Indirect metalinguistic) Articles
Indirect (metalinguistic) is more effective
Bitchener Lower(2008) intermediate ESL learners
1. Direct Focused: 2. Direct + oral English metalinguistic Articles 3. Direct + written metalinguistic
Direct + oral metalinguistic feedback is more effective.
From the table above, it is clear that both types of correction are effective in improving L2 writing accuracy. Thus, the argument over the superiority of direct vs. indirect metalinguistic feedback remains an open question that needs further investigation. Purpose of the Study This study investigates the effectiveness of two different types of WCF, direct feedback and indirect metalinguistic feedback, in improving the writing performance of EFL students. The study aims to contribute to the current literature by determining which type of WCF (1) direct feedback or (2) indirect metalinguistic feedback (along with simple instruction on its meaning and use, is more effective in developing L2 writing accuracy with lower-intermediate learners in an educational context. Thus, the study addresses the following question: Which type of feedback, direct or indirect (metalinguistic), is more effective in promoting the accuracy of lower-intermediate EFL learners in the written use of English articles? 209
Methodology Participants This study used two existing classes of students of English as a foreign language (EFL) at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in Oman. The students were majoring in English in their third semester. They were graduates of a foundation program in English and had embarked on their BA program in English. In order to successfully complete the foundation program, these students had to pass an in-house proficiency test. According to SQU, this exit test is highly correlated with the British IELTS test. The proficiency level of the learners who participated in the study ranged between 4.5 and 5. Thus, they were considered to be at a lower-intermediate level of proficiency. The total number of participants was 43. They registered in the same course which had two sections. One section had 21 students (12 male and 9 female) and the other had 22 students (13 male and 9 female). They were all taking an introductory course in reading and writing about literature. After reading two pieces of literature and discussing them in class, the students were required to choose one and reflect on it in writing. Research Design The research design was quasi-experimental, using the two existing classes of students as the treatment groups. The participants were all of the same lower-intermediate level and were similar in age, education, ethnicity, and first language (Arabic). It was impossible to select a control group because the SQU ethical code does not allow a regular class of students to receive no treatment. Efforts to recruit volunteer students to form a control group also failed, because the students did not see the value of sitting for in-class writing without getting feedback. An important variable was the teacher. The two treatment groups were taught by the same teacher and received the same instructions and inclass writing assignments. The teacher was an assistant professor at SQU, 210
Department of English, with a teaching experience of more than 17 years. Controlling of the teacher variable “ensures greater consistency in treatment and thus enables assessment of the effects of feedback” (Ferris, 2006, p. 93). The two groups differed only in the type of feedback they received. The time variable was controlled by giving both treatment groups their writing assignments on the same day. The design was quasi-experimental because the study groups were not constituted specifically for the purpose of the study. A true experimental design requires randomization of the assignment of subjects to different groups. The subject variable could not be controlled because SQU did not allow randomization and this might have affected the investigation. To control for this problem, a pre-test was essential to establish the participants’ levels of language proficiency in writing. By interpreting the results of the investigation in light of these pre-existing levels of proficiency, it is possible to determine whether any observed changes result from the treatment or from differences documented in the pre-test. Despite its quasi-experimental design, some extraneous variables, such as attrition or loss of participants, educational background, age, first language, ethnicity, and period of exposure to English were controlled. The participants were demographically homogeneous. They were Arab EFL learners who hailed from the same public school and completed a foundation program in the Language Center at SQU. They were 18 to 19 years old, and their first language was Omani Arabic. Controlling for such extraneous variables may enhance the external validity of the study. In addition, research using classroom groups is “probably more representative of the conditions found in educational context” and thus “less likely to meet resistance from the ‘consumers’ of research, such as language teachers” (Seliger & Shahomy, 2007, pp. 148-149). This study comprises one pre-test, one post-test, and three treatments in between these two tests. The pre-test, the post-test, and the three treatments 211
will be explained in the following sections. Treatment WCF in the form of error correction was the treatment in this study. The teacher’s method of correction was unfocused as he corrected errors in content as well as in different linguistic forms. The first treatment group received indirect feedback in the form of metalinguistic cues, namely, abbreviations referring to types of errors above the errors which were further identified by means of underlining. This group is called the indirect metalinguistic feedback (IMF) group. The teacher provided the group with IMF in three writing assignments during the semester. The students were familiarized with the metalinguistic cues used in the study prior to the experiment. In addition, they were provided with a list of these codes and their meanings (see Table 2). Table 2 Error Categories and Codes Used in IMF Error Code
Description
Error Code
Sp
Spelling
Awk.
Awkward structure
Dic.
Word choice (Dictionary)
Frag.
Sentence fragment
Gram.
Problem with the verb: verb tense or verb agreement or verb form
Punc.
Punctuation
Subject-verb agreement, article-noun agreement, or pronoun-antecedent agreement
Cap.
Capitalization
Run-on
Run-on sentence
Agr.
Art. Article No art. No article 212
Description
Plur.
Singular-plural
Prep.
Preposition
Struc.
Sentence structure
Sub.
Subject is missing
Verb
Verb is missing
The second treatment group received direct feedback (DF) in the form of target-like forms above the errors that occurred in the text, which were further identified by means of underlining. The teacher provided this group with DF in three writing assignments during the semester. Although the teacher provided feedback on all types of errors, we chose to focus on students’ accuracy in using English articles. The use of English articles was targeted for several reasons. First, several researchers argue that L2 learners experience difficulty in mastering them (Bitchener, 2008; Bitchener et al., 2005; Butler, 2002; Ferris, 2002, 2006; Master, 1987, 1988, 1995; Thomas, 1989). Second, the participants in the study were at a lower-intermediate level and were being taught English articles in the Language Center at SQU as part of their grammar courses. Thus, they were assumed to have acquired the system of English articles—at least partially. Third, Ferris (2006) classified mistakes in the use of articles in the treatable category of errors, in which case providing negative evidence by means of corrective feedback ought to be an effective method of instruction. Finally, the use of English articles has been targeted in a number of studies on the effectiveness of WCF (Bitchener, 2008; Bitchener et al., 2005; Butler, 2002; Ellis et al., 2008; Ferris, 2002, 2006; Sheen, 2007). Thus, targeting articles would facilitate comparison between the findings of the current study and previous ones. Data Collection Procedures and time-line The data used in this research were collected at the end of the semester. The 213
instructor collected the writings of the students, removed any identifiers, and then submitted them to the researcher. The students were given three writing assignments as a course requirement. In addition, the teacher required them to write one paragraph at the beginning of the semester to provide the researcher with data for the pre-test. This writing was required from them before providing correction or explaining the method of correction to the students. Thus, there were four writing assignments in total, discussed herein as Writings 1, 2, 3, and 4. For research purposes, Writing 1 constituted the pre-test, and Writing 4 the post-test. The two treatment groups of students were selected for the investigation in accordance with the procedures the teacher had agreed to follow to facilitate the research. The first procedure was the administration of the pre-test, Writing 1, which was used to assess the learners’ levels of proficiency in writing. This step established a baseline of competency for each student individually and for each of the two treatment groups, so that the students’ levels of accuracy in the post-test could be compared to those recorded in the pre-test. Second, the students were asked to revise each of the first three writing assignments based on the feedback provided. Also, the teacher asked students to submit the revised drafts along with their original work to ensure that they had indeed revised their writing. In each case, these revised drafts were submitted to the teacher prior to the following assignment. Third, direct feedback was used with one treatment group and indirect feedback in the form of metalinguistic cues with the other. Aside from Writing 1, which was the pre-test, the writing assignments were done in class. Writing 1 was a one-paragraph paper on this topic: “Some people believe that education that does not lead to a degree and eventually to a career is useless”. The other three assignments were about stories discussed in class. Writings 1 (pre-test), 2, and 3 were each followed by a treatment. Each corrected assignment was returned the following week and the students were asked to revise and resubmit both the first and the second drafts. The interval between a treatment and the subsequent assignment 214
was two weeks, except for the interval between the first treatment and Writing 2, which was longer because the students had to complete some required reading and write a comprehension examination (not used for research purposes). Scoring and coding Writing 1 was the shortest written assignment, and the shortest submission for that assignment was 150 words. Thus, in order to provide consistent comparisons, only the first 150 words of all four writings for each student were considered when extracting the required data on English articles. The students’ accuracy in the use of English articles was determined by the following method. First, the number of occasions of obligatory context for the use or omission of an article was counted. Nassaji and Swain (2000) define such contexts as those “in which only one of the four instances of the English articles, namely a, an, the or 0 (Zero) (omission of article) was correct” (p. 45). Secondly, the instances of correct use or omission of an article in an obligatory context were calculated for each student for each of the four writings. Finally, the proportion of correct use or omission of articles was calculated by dividing the total of instances of correct usage by the total of obligatory contexts for each student in each of the four writing assignments. Data Analysis Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used. Descriptive statistics in the form of percentages and frequencies (f) were used to find out how often the participants succeeded in using the English articles a, an, the, and zero article in obligatory contexts in the first 150 words of each writing. The means and standard deviations were used to compare the correct use of articles. Also the median and variance were used to provide measures of the distribution of the correct use of articles—that is, the degree of homogeneity or heterogeneity of the students’ performance—within 215
each treatment group and between groups. The inferential statistics used consisted of a t-test, one-way and two-way ANOVA, and Post Hoc analyses. The t-test was used to find any statistically significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test. When a statistically significant value (p < .05, p < 0.01) was detected, a post hoc analysis was conducted to identify where the difference occurred, both within and between the groups. Results The Pre-test: The pre-test was scored out of 10. Table 3 shows the total scores for the pre-test for both groups. Table 3 Pre-test Mean Scores Group 1 (n=13)
Group 2 (n =11)
M
SD
M
SD
7.76
0.10
6.25
2.89
A t-test was conducted to determine whether the students in both groups were performing at the same level of proficiency. There was no significant difference between the two groups (t = 1.79, df = 14.81, p > 0.05). Since the sample size was small, a non-parametric Wilcox test was also used. This test confirmed the results of the t-test (W = 118.5, p > 0.05). These results indicate that the difference in performance between the two groups was not statistically significant. Thus, the two groups represented the same population in terms of level of proficiency and accordingly any possible difference in the accuracy of the use of English articles in both groups can be attributed to the treatment given to each group. The Four Writings 216
Table 4 Correct Usage of Articles Writing 1 (Pre-test)
Writing 2
Writing 3
Writing 4 (Post-test)
n
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
DF
13
91.19
7.82
77.15
11.80
91.70
9.04
84.65
10.88
IMF
11
84.85
12.35
85.90
10.01
90.06
9.25
77.02
10.58
To determine whether there was any significant change in the accuracy of the use of articles across the four different writings for each group a repeated measure ANOVA was conducted. There was a significant difference in accuracy within each group (DF Group: F = 0.00, p < 0.01, and IMF Group: F = 3.48, p < 0.01. A Tukey multiple comparison test was used to locate where the differences occurred. As shown in Table 5, in the DF Group a significant difference occurred between Writings 1 and 2; this difference was a significant decline in accuracy. A second significant difference occurred between Writings 2 and 3; in this case, the difference was a significant improvement in accuracy. Finally, the study determines the overall change in accuracy by comparing the pre-test (Writing 1) and the post-test (Writing 4). This comparison showed a loss in accuracy; however, the loss was not statistically significant. Thus, the DF Group showed no improvement in the post-test. Table 5 The Tukey multiple comparison test for the four writings within the DF Group Writings
Diff.
p value
Significance level
1-2
-0.14
0.00
p < 0.01**
1-3
0.00
0.10
p > 0.05 217
1-4
-0.07
0.35
p > 0.05
2-3
0.15
0.00
p < 0.01**
2-4
0.08
0.23
p > 0.05
3-4
-0.07
0.29
p > 0.05
Table 6 shows the comparison of the four writings within the IMF group. As can be seen, the IMF Group sustained roughly the same level of accuracy in Writings 1, 2, and 3. However, the difference between Writings 3 and 4 was statistically significant. But this difference is negative, indicating a reduction in accuracy. The difference between the pre-test (Writing 1) and the post-test (Writing 4) for this group is a decline in accuracy, but not a significant one. Thus, the IMF Group, like the DF Group, showed no improvement in the post-test. Table 6 Comparison of the Four Writings within the IMF Group Writings
Diff.
P value
Significance level
1-2
0.10
0.10
P > 0.05
1-3
0.05
0.61
P > 0.05
1-4
-0.08
0.23
P > 0.05
2-3
0.04
0.76
P > 0.05
2-4
-0.10
0.15
P > 0.05
3-4
-0.13
0.01
P < 0.05*
To determine whether there was any significant difference among the four writings between the two groups, a two-way ANOVA was administered. The findings showed a significant difference between the four writings within the groups (F = 5.64, p < 0.01). However, there were no significant differences among the four writings across the two groups (F = 0.63, p > 0.05). Thus, the difference within each group is significant, but the 218
difference between the two groups is not. Then, a post hoc analysis using Bonferroni correction test with (p < 0.05*, 0.01**) level of significance was performed to compare the four writings across the two groups. The findings of this test, as shown in Table 7, support those obtained from the two-way ANOVA, showing no significant difference between the two groups. Thus, the students’ performance was similar in both groups in all four writings. Table 7 Correction Test for the Four Writings across the Two groups Writings
df
p value
Significance level
1-1
18.10
0.14
p > 0.05
2-2
22.64
0.05
p > 0.05
3-3
22.92
0.65
p > 0.05
4-4
22.10
0.08
p > 0.05
Figure 1. Means of both Groups
219
Discussion This research examined the relative effectiveness of direct feedback and indirect metalinguistic feedback in improving accuracy in the use of English articles. The findings showed that neither group improved in using English articles in the post-test. Although the decline in accuracy in using the articles was not significant in the IMF Group between Writings 1 (pre-test) and 4 (post-test), it was significant in the DF Group. Thus, in terms of achieving an overall improvement in accuracy as measured by the difference between the post-test and the pre-test, neither indirect metalinguistic feedback nor direct feedback was effective. In the case of the DF Group, the findings show that the accuracy level dropped significantly from Writing 1 to 2, then rose significantly from Writing 2 to 3, and finally dropped significantly again from Writing 3 to 4. Thus, only the direct feedback treatment on Writing 2 was effective in increasing the accuracy of these EFL learners in the use of English articles. For the IMF Group, the students made some gains in accuracy, although not significant ones, from Writing 1 to 2 and from Writing 2 to 3. From Writing 3 to 4, the level of accuracy dropped significantly. Thus, the answer to the research question is that neither DF nor IMF was effective in improving the overall level of accuracy. DF was effective in improving the accuracy level between two writings only, namely, Writings 2 and 3. These findings contradict those of Bitchener (2008), Bitchener et al. (2005), Chandler (2003), Ellis et al. (2008), Ferris (2006), and Sheen (2007) on the effectiveness of general or specific types of WCF—namely, either direct or indirect metalinguistic feedback. When comparing this study with previous studies that demonstrated the effectiveness of both types of WCF in improving accuracy in the use of English articles, one possible explanation emerges as to why WCF did not prove effective in this study. Methodologically, the findings of this study, as reported above, were based on the use or omission of English articles in obligatory contexts. However, the studies of Bitchener (2008), Ellis et al. (2008), and 220
Sheen (2007) examined the effectiveness of WCF on accuracy in the use of articles in specific contexts. They tested the effectiveness of different types of WCF in the case of two specific functions of the English article system (referential indefinite “a” and referential definite “the”) in the contexts of first and second mention of a noun. Ellis et al. justify targeting these two functions of articles on the grounds that they are assumed to be partially acquired by intermediate-level learners, commonly used, and “constitute … a relatively well-defined aspect (of a highly complex sub-system) which can be easily understood by most learners” (p. 357). Bitchener also uses the first two justifications mentioned by Ellis et al. for targeting these specific functions. Moreover, several authors have argued that the use of English articles presents a special challenge to ESL students because of the complexity of the English article system. The English article system is highly complex in that it involves several functions, some of which are relatively more systematic and predictable than others and thus more easily assimilated by ESL learners. Thus, testing the effectiveness of WCF on all functions of English articles simultaneously might not be as successful a research strategy as testing it on specific functions. Accordingly, following the example of Bitchener (2008), Ellis et al. (2008), and Sheen (2007), in this study some further post hoc analysis was conducted on only two specific, related functions of articles, namely the use of the indefinite article a/an as applied to the initial occurrence of a countable noun and of the definite article the as applied to the subsequent occurrences of that noun. A typical instance of correct usage with regard to these functions would be, “Sarah’s parents bought her a dog. She named the dog Rover.” This time, the ANOVA test showed no significant change in accuracy within the DF Group (df = 30.17, p > 0.05), while there was a significant difference between the writings of the IMF Group (df = 30.42, p < 0.01). The multiple comparison test revealed that there were no statistically significant gains in accuracy across the four writings of the DF Group. 221
Thus, there was no overall improvement for this group, as measured by the difference between Writing 1 (post-test) and Writing 4 (post-test). For the IMF Group, the Tukey test showed a significant difference between Writings 1 and 2; this difference was a significant improvement in accuracy (p < 0.05). A second significant difference also occurred between Writings 1 and 3; this difference was also a significant gain in accuracy (p < 0.01). However, there was no overall improvement, because the difference between the pre-test and the post-test was a decline in accuracy, although not a significant one (p > 0.05). To determine whether there was any significant difference between the two treatments across the two groups, a two-way ANOVA was conducted. A significant difference was found between the two groups (F = 3.10, p < 0.05). Thus, a Bonferroni correction test was conducted to locate this significant difference among the four writings between the two groups. The findings of this test supported (see Table 8) those obtained from the twoway ANOVA test. This test indentified a significant difference in Writing 4 between the two groups (p < 0.01). The difference was that the DF Group achieved a higher level of accuracy than the IMF Group. Figure 2 further illustrates the difference between the two groups in the four writings by comparing the means.
Table 8 Bonferroni Correction Test for the Four Writings across the Two Groups Writings
df
p value
Significance level
1-1
21.44
0.19
p > 0.05
2-2
21.39
0.54
p > 0.05
3-3
13.73
0.93
p > 0.05
4-4
19.33
0.01
p < 0.01**
222
Figure 2 Means of both groups
Figure 2 shows that although the two groups have the same pattern of performance in Writings 1, 2, and 3, they differ significantly in Writing 4 (post-test). However, the difference between the pre-tests in both groups proves to be not significant. The big difference shown in the graph is a result of the high SD for both groups in the pre-test (see Table 12). The findings of both sets of analyses may be summarized as follows. Regarding the effectiveness of direct feedback or indirect metalinguistic feedback in improving accuracy in the use of English articles, neither type of feedback proved effective in achieving such an improvement. When the analysis was confined to the two functions of English articles specified above, DF proved more effective than IMF in improving the accuracy of lower-intermediate learners in the post-test. However, when only the two previously mentioned functions were examined, the hypothesis was confirmed. The findings of the present investigation may be compared with those of 223
previous studies on the topic. Since these studies vary considerably in design, each will be discussed in turn. Chandler (2003) argues for the superiority of direct feedback over indirect metalinguistic feedback in improving the learner’s grammatical accuracy. Since this study did not specifically address the effect of these two types of feedback on accuracy in the use of English articles, comparison with the present study is not possible. Bitchener (2008) argues for a combination of direct feedback and indirect metalinguistic (written and oral) feedback in treating errors in the use of English articles for the functions of first and subsequent mention of a countable noun. Our findings differ from those of Bitchener in that this study provides evidence that direct feedback alone in comparison with indirect metalinguistic feedback may be more effective in improving accuracy in the targeted functions of articles with lower-intermediate EFL learners. In the second analysis, the DF Group achieved a significantly higher level of accuracy in the post-test than the IMF Group. Sheen (2007) showed that indirect metalinguistic feedback is superior to direct feedback on the writing task tested. The findings of the present study contradict those of Sheen. In this study, although the participants who received direct feedback improved in the short term- from Writing 1 to 2 and 1 to 3-their performance declined in the long term- from Writing 1 to 4. The performance of the group receiving indirect metalinguistic feedback improved marginally, but not significantly, in the short term, but also declined in the long term. The reason for this drop in performance remains unclear pending further investigation. Limitations and Recommendations The findings of this study are limited in several respects. First, the participants were enrolled in several language courses in the Department of English at SQU during the period of the study, including courses other than the one used for the purpose of the study. Therefore, they may have been exposed 224
to direct and indirect feedback on the use of English articles unrelated to that used in this investigation. Hence, the findings reported here must be viewed as tentative rather than definitive. Such limitations are common to studies undertaken in real educational contexts, which nonetheless have the merit of showing how treatments function in such contexts. A quasiexperimental study, such as the current study, can be viewed as a realworld test of the findings of experimental studies. Second, the absence of a control group is another limitation. Without a control group, it is hard to argue that the improvement shown in the students’ writing resulted entirely from the treatment and not from extraneous factors. Third, this study did not measure the retention of improvements in accuracy over time. A further study with a delayed post-test would be required to attain such a measurement, thereby confirming which type of feedback is more effective in the long term. Fourth, the two treatment groups in this study were at the same lower-intermediate level of proficiency. Thus, further research is necessary to compare the effectiveness of the treatments on learners at different levels of proficiency, for example, lower-intermediate, intermediate, and high proficiency levels. Fifth, although this study was intended to investigate only the two types of feedback, DF and IMF, during the data analysis it emerged that the teacher sometimes underlined an error in the use of articles by the DF Group without providing the target-like form. He used direct feedback with underlining 65% of the time, and underlining only the remaining 35%. Thus, the effects of direct feedback may be somewhat diluted in the results, since about one-third of the feedback provided to the DF Group was indirect. It is possible that the overall improvement registered by the group, as measured by comparing Writings 1 (pre-test) and 4 (post-test), might have been significant had all of their errors been treated with direct feedback. Since there was improvement in the use of articles for specific functions but no improvement in the overall use of articles, it appears that whether errors are treatable or untreatable depends on the functions for which the 225
articles are used. There is also a question as to which type of correction is more effective for which function of articles. Therefore, further studies that examine the differential effects of direct feedback and indirect feedback on the different functions of articles are needed. Conclusion The current study investigated the relative effectiveness of two types of written corrective feedback, direct and indirect metalinguistic, in improving accuracy in the use of English articles by lower-intermediate EFL learners. The results were subjected to two successive analyses, the first of which took account of all uses and omissions of articles in obligatory contexts, while the second considered uses and omissions of articles for two specific functions only, namely, upon the occasions of first and subsequent mention of a countable noun. The first analysis found that both types of feedback were equally ineffective, suggesting that errors in at least some functions of articles are sufficiently resistant to treatment to mask any improvement in errors that are treatable. However, the second analysis showed that DF proved to be more effective than IMF in improving accuracy in the use of articles on first mention and subsequent mention of a countable noun, even though the gains registered by the direct feedback group from one writing to another were not statistically significant. The IMF group did register a significant improvement in accuracy between Writings 1 and 2 and between Writings 1 and 3; however, the accuracy level dropped suddenly and significantly between Writing 3 and Writing 4 (the post-test). There was also an overall drop, although not a significant one, between the pre-test and the post-test. When the overall performance of the two groups was compared in the second analysis, it emerged that the direct feedback group achieved significantly higher levels of improvement than the indirect feedback group. The fact that improvements were registered in new writings shows that acquisition of the targeted forms had taken place. This finding supports several studies on the effectiveness of written corrective feedback (WCF). 226
The findings of the present study suggest that direct feedback may be more effective than indirect when used with lower-intermediate learners. When considered alongside the evidence of previous research, they suggest that the effectiveness of direct versus indirect feedback may depend upon the type of errors targeted and the proficiency levels of the learners. In short, the type of feedback is only one of three variables that may influence the effectiveness of a treatment; the others are the type of error being treated and the learners’ level of proficiency. However, ESL and EFL teachers wishing to make use of the findings should note that although direct feedback is effective in improving accuracy in the use of articles for the two specified functions by lower-intermediate learners, it may not be effective when working with learners of different proficiency levels, or when targeting a different function of articles with lower-intermediate learners.
227
References Amrhein, H. R. & Nassaji, H. (2010). Written corrective feedback: What do students and teachers prefer and why? Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13, 95-127. Bachman, L. F. (2004). Statistical Analysis for Language Assessment. UK: Cambridge University Press. Bates, L., Lane, J., & Lange, E. (1993). Writing Clearly: Responding to ESL Compositions. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Bitchener. J. (2008). Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 102-118. Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). The effect of different types of corrective feedbacks on ESL student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14, 191- 205. Butler, Y. G. (2002). Second language learner’s theories on the use of English articles: An analysis of the metalinguistic knowledge used by Japanese students in acquiring the English article system. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 451- 480. Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12, 267-296. Ellis, R., Sheen, Y., Murakami, M., & Takashima, H. (2008). The effect of focused and unfocused written corrective feedback in English as a foreign language context. System, 36, 353- 371. Ferris, D. (1995). Student reactions to teacher response in multiple-draft composition classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 33-53 Ferris, D. (1997). The influence of the teacher commentary on the student revision. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 39-60. 228
Ferris, D. (1999). The case for grammar correction in L2 writing: A response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 1-11. Ferris, D. (2002). Treatment of error in second language writing classes. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Ferris, D. (2003a). Response to students writing: Implications for second language students. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate Publishers. Ferris, D. (2003b). Responding to writing. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Exploring the dynamics of second language writing (pp.119-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ferris, D. (2004). The “Grammar Correction” debate in L2 writing: Where are we, and where do we go from here? (and what do we do in the meantime...?). Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 49-62. Ferris, D. (2006). Does error feedback help student writer? New evidence on the short-and long-term effects of written error correction. In F. Hyland, & K. Hyland (Eds.), Feedback in second language writing; Context and issues (pp. 81-122). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ferris, D., & Hedgcock, J.( 2005). Teaching ESL composition: Purpose, process, and practice. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates publishers. Ferris, D., & Roberts, B. (2001). Error feedback in L2 writing classes; How explicit does it need to be? Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 161184. Fordesen, J., & Holten, C. (2003). Grammar and the ESL writing class. In B. Kroll, (Eds.), Exploring the dynamics of second language writing (pp.141161). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goldstein, L. (2004). Questions and answers about teacher written commentary and student revision: teachers and students working together. Journal of Second Language Writing,13, 63–80 229
Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006 a). Contexts and issues in feedback on L2 writing: An introduction. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.), Feedback in second language writing: context and issues (pp. 1-19). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hyland, K., & Hyland, F., (2006 b). Interpersonal aspects of response: Constructing and interpreting teacher written feedback. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.), Feedback in second language writing: context and issues (pp. 206-224). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lalande , J. F. (1982). Reducing composition errors: An experiment. Modern Language Journal, 66, 140-149. Liu, D., & Gleason, J. (2002). Acquisition of the article THE by nonnative speakers of English: An analysis of four nongeneric uses. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 1-26. Long, M. H. (2007). Problems in SLA. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Master, P. (1987). A cross-linguistic interlanguage analysis of the acquisition of the English articles system. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angles. Master, P. (1988, March). Acquiring the English article system: A crosslinguistic analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of other Languages, Chicago, IL. Master, P. (1995). Conscious raising and article pedagogy. In D. Belcher & G. Braine (Eds.), Academic writing in a second language: Essays on research and pedagogy (pp. 183- 204). New York: Ablex. Nassaji, H. & Swain, M. (2000). A vygotskian perspective on corrective feedback in L2: The effect of random versus negotiated help on the learning of English articles. Language Awarness, 9, 34-51. Russell, J., & Spada, N. (2006). The effectiveness of corrective feedback 230
for the acquisition of L2 grammar: A meta-analysis of the research. In J. M. Norris & L. Ortega (Eds.), Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching (pp. 133-164). Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing. Sachs, R., & Polio, C. (2007). Learners’ use of two types of written feedback on L2 writing revision. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29, 67-100 Schmidt, R. (1995). Conscious and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp.3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seliger, H. & Shahomy, E. (2007). Second language research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’ acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41 (2), 255-283. Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16, 371- 391. Thomas, M. (1989). The acquisition of articles by first- and second-language learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 10, 335- 355. Truscott, J. (2007). The effect of error correction on learners’ ability to write accurately. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16, 255-272. Young, R. (1996). Form-functions relations in English interlanguage. In R. Bayley & D. R. Person (Eds.), Second language acquisition and linguistic variation (pp. 135- 175). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
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CHAPTER 9 Omani Undergraduates’ Attitudes toward Online Chat and Web-Forums to Improve English Reading and Writing Skills Badr Al-Jahwary
ABSTRACT
T
his study investigates the attitudes of Omani students toward the use of synchronous computer mediated communication (SCMC) and web-
forums to improve their reading and writing skills in English. The study sample consisted of 416 undergraduate English Education students from Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. I used a questionnaire featuring a ninepoint Likert scale, adapted from Mahfouz and Ihmeideh (2009), to elicit student responses. Descriptive analyses revealed respondents’ attitudes toward interacting in SCMC and web-forums. I used a t-test and ANOVA to examine the difference in attitudes attributed to variables such as gender and seniority in university, and correlations to investigate the relationship between students’ attitude and time spent online. The results showed a generally positive attitude toward both modes of communication with no significant difference between genders. First-year students showed a significantly less positive attitude compared to senior students, whereas correlations showed no significant relationship between reported attitudes and number of hours spent 233
online. Results call for more research on the effect of extracurricular CMC on English language development of Omani students. Introduction The Omanization policy is a move toward replacing expatriates with Omani nationals (Al-lamki, 2000), in the Sultanate of Oman in the early 1990s. Full implementation of this policy urged Omani students to become English language teachers and Omanize English language teaching positions previously occupied by expatriates mainly from India, Egypt, and Tunisia. However, despite the fact that many Omani teachers have completed their university education and earned a degree in English language teaching, their level of English is not up to the standards set by the Ministry of Education. To raise the language proficiency of teachers, the Ministry set new criteria, including a minimum TOEFL score of 547 (77 on TOEFL iBT) or an IELTS band 6 before a graduate can work as a teacher in public schools (Beginning 2008). Because the new ministerial directive did not precipitate changes in university English education curricula (which include a mixture of language, linguistics, and pedagogy courses), students began to seek other methods to improve their English while at university. As English is not a medium of instruction except in language courses, students majoring in English started to use the World Wide Web, specifically online chat rooms and web-forums, to communicate with one another and with native speakers and practice English. Some student groups even launched their own web-forums to practice English. The English Group at Sultan Qaboos University launched their website (www.englishsqu.net/vb) in 2002. A year later the Translation Group launched their website (www.transqu.net/vb). In these websites and the various chat modes, students speak to one another and discuss various issues as a way of practicing the language. Students began to establish friendships with native speakers, thus becoming pen pals in cyberspace. Some of these communications moved from the asynchronous mode (email, web-forums) to the synchronous mode (chat rooms) as the students engaged in online conversations with native speakers. 234
Literature Review Gardner and Lambert (1972) argued that an individual’s motivation to learn a target language is determined by his attitude toward the target language, the target language group, and the learning situation. Attitudes toward the learning situation were defined by Masgoret and Gardner (2003) as “the individual’s reaction to anything associated with immediate context in which the language context is taught” (pp. 172-173). In this study, online chat and web-forums are not used in teaching but are certainly associated with the language learning context. Thus, following the argument made by Gardner and Lambert (1972), a learner’s positive attitude toward the learning situation (in this case, online chat and web-forums), can have a positive influence on their motivation to learn the language. In turn, motivation can have a positive impact on language learning (Dörnyei, 1994; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Many attitudinal studies have confirmed the positive attitudes of language learners toward synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated communication (Akbulut, 2008; Almekhlafi, 2006; Hanna & de Nooy, 2003; Holmes, 1998; Klassen & Milton, 1999; Mahfouz & Ihmeidah, 2009; Smith & Sauro, 2009; Son, 2007). Previous studies have also confirmed the positive effects of computer-mediated communication (CMC) on language development. Pellettieri (2000) suggested that SCMC has a major role in the development of grammatical competence and provides learners with opportunities for negotiation of meaning. Kern (2006) argued that, since communication in CMC is primarily written, it gives learners an opportunity to focus on form and content. On the other hand, Akbulut (2008) believed that CMC boosts learners’ self-esteem since they do not have to face their addressees in person. Posting a topic on a web-forum and reading the responses is like giving a public speech, but without the stage fright. Students’ attitudes toward using technology and the World Wide Web as a 235
means for developing target language skills are shaped by many factors. One important factor is identity. Zimmerman (1998) classified identity into three types: situated, discourse, and transportable. Situated identity is explicitly related to the situation and context (e.g. student, teacher). Discourse identity is associated with the role of interlocutors in a speech act (e.g. speaker, listener). Transportable identity is implicit but emerges during an interaction (e.g. movie fan, poet). Ushioda (2011) suggested that “engaging students’ transportable identities … can stimulate a much higher level of personal involvement, effort, and investment from students than traditional teacher-student talk” (p. 205). In cyberspace, a language learner is no longer a student (situated identity) nor a mere receiver of language (discourse identity), but can reveal his transportable identity by writing poems or discussing movies; he uses the target language as a means of practicing it. Parallel to Zimmermann’s (1998) transportable identity is the notion of textual identity, which Lam (2003) referred to as an identity represented and expressed through texts composed in networked computer media. Lam’s (2000) case study investigated the notion of textual identity with three Chinese youths who were able to claim new identities through online discourse. The three Hong Kong immigrant teenagers in the US struggled to use English, and had “a sense of marginalized position in society” (p. 467). However, through designing websites and creating cyberspace networks, they acquired new, textual identities and were able to communicate with native English speakers. Other factors that affect attitude toward CMC include gender, target language proficiency, computer literacy, and time spent online. Despite the numerous studies addressing the impact of CMC on language learning, few of them have discussed gender differences in web-based language learning. In Mahfouz and Ihmeidah’s (2009) study, female participants showed a negative attitude toward audio and video chat, and preferred Instant Messaging (IM). Male participants, however, preferred audio and video chat. These findings were dissimilar to the findings of Akbulut’s (2008) study, which indicated that there were no attitudinal differences toward CMC that can be attributed to gender. 236
Mahfouz and Ihmeidah’s (2009) study was conducted in Jordan, an Arab/ Muslim society, and thus one assumes that cultural, political and religious factors may have had an effect on the findings. Such factors include unequal opportunities of interaction, access to the Internet, and women’s rights and freedom of expression. The current study is also conducted in an Arab/Muslim society, but similar findings are not necessarily expected. As for language proficiency as a factor, Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) argued that language learners find using the target language stressful. Low proficiency language learners have a difficulty discriminating sounds and structures, thus becoming anxious and less willing to communicate in the target language. Warschauer (1996) addressed the issue of computer literacy and suggested that the more confident students are about their computer proficiency, the more motivated they become to engage in CMC. Since this study does not assess either of these two factors, seniority in university will be used instead under the assumption that the more advanced a student is in university, the higher his/her English language and computer proficiency. Another factor that can have an effect on learners attitude toward CMC is the time they spend online. Can one say for sure that if a language learner spends a long time online, he/she will have a more positive attitude toward CMC than a language learner who spends less time online? Or are these two variables (attitude vs time) unrelated? There is a lack of research on this issue, as most studies focused on computer literacy without studying the time learners spend on the Internet on a daily or weekly basis. The literature review reveals that students in general have positive attitudes toward CMC. However, there is a dearth of research on gender differences in these attitudes, and even the few studies that were done reached contradictory conclusions. There is also a lack of research on other variables affecting these attitudes. This study aims to identify Omani undergraduate students’ attitudes toward synchronous and asynchronous CMC. The synchronous element is represented in online chat discourse, bearing in mind that audio and visual chat are not included because of the restrictions imposed by Internet service 237
providers in Oman. The asynchronous element is represented by web-forums. The study attempts to answer the following four research questions: 1. What is the attitude of Omani undergraduates toward the use of synchronous computer-mediated communication (online chat) in order to develop their reading and writing skills in English? 2. What is the attitude of Omani undergraduates toward the use of asynchronous computer-medicated communication (web-forums) in order to develop their reading and writing skills in English? 3. Is there any statistically significant difference between students’ attitude toward using online chat and web-forums to develop their reading and writing skills in English that can be attributed to the variables of gender and seniority in university? 4. Is there a significant relationship between students’ attitudes toward using online chat and web-forums to develop their reading and writing skills in English and time spent online? Method Participants The participants in this study are 416 English Education undergraduates at Sultan Qaboos University. The total population which was initially invited to participate in the study is approximately 1500. The first part of the questionnaire (further discussed in the next section) asked for personal information to determine some specific variables: gender, seniority in university, and time spent on the Internet weekly. Table 1 shows the distribution of participants with regard to the first two variables. The population to which the questionnaire was sent has a 60-70% female majority. A similar distribution was expected in the responses. The students ages vary from 19-25, and they all share Arabic as a native language. 238
Table 1 Distribution of Participants with Regards to Gender and Years of Study Variable
Distribution N
%
Gender
Female Male
255 161
(61.3%) (38.7%)
Years of Study
First-year Second-year Third-year Fourth-year
32 59 99 226
(7.69%) (18.18%) (23.80%) (54.33%)
Instrument and Procedure Dörnyei (2010) stated that attitudes are “evaluative responses to a particular target” (p. 5). Dörnyei added that such attitudes could be elicited through well-constructed questionnaires. Being attitudinal in nature, this study uses a questionnaire to elicit responses (see Appendix A). Since it is a partial replication of Mahfouz and Ihmeideh (2009), it adapts the questionnaire used in their study. Mahfouz and Ihmeideh used a five-point Likert scale questionnaire to investigate student attitudes toward online chat in three different modes (video chat, audio chat and text messaging). The five points in the original Likert scale model were labeled strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree. In this study, however, the questionnaire uses a 9-point Likert scale to elicit a wider variety of responses (Busch, 1993). Moreover, I reduced the labels, and only used the extremes (strongly agree and strongly disagree) to mark the two ends of the scale, so that the participants are not affected by the many labels in the scale. Another benefit of this change is that the scale is no longer categorical, but rather continuous. Following Hatch and Lazarton (1991), the continuity of a Likert scale makes it interval-like, thus allowing it to meet assumptions for statistical analyses. I created the two-page questionnaire using Google Docs, an online utility to design surveys and collect data. The first page asked for specific pieces of 239
information: gender, seniority in university, and time spent on the Internet weekly. The second page had 20 statements, 10 related to online chat and 10 related to web-forums. An example of these statements is “Reading long threads in web-forums helps me practice skimming.” Participants were asked to read each statement and decide on how much they agree or disagree with the statement by selecting a number between 1 and 9 (1= strongly disagree, 9= strongly agree). I reverse-coded six items to make sure that participants were not merely choosing answers randomly. An example of a reverse-coded item is “I do not trust the content of what is written in web-forums.” In addition to the 20 items, I also used one open-ended question to obtain more useful information, because “open-ended questions will more accurately reflect what the respondent wants to say” (Nunan & Bailey, 2009, p. 137). Analysis I analyzed the questionnaire data using both descriptive and inferential statistics. First, I calculated the mean score (I will refer to the figures emerging from student responses as scores) of all respondents and compared it to a hypothesized mean of 5, which represents neutral attitude. I then calculated the mean scores of all respondents on items related to online chat and webforums separately to check whether the students showed overall positive or negative attitudes toward any of the two modes of CMC. I used an independent sample t-test to find out if there was any statistically significant difference in attitudes that could be attributed to gender. A one-way ANOVA was used to find statistically significant differences in attitude related to seniority in university. Finally, I used correlations to investigate any significant relationship between participants’ attitudes and the number of hours they spend on the Internet weekly. Results and Discussion General Attitude Toward SCMC and Web-Forums Research Questions 1 and 2 address the attitudes of Omani undergraduates 240
toward the use of synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) and web-forums in order to develop their reading and writing skills in English. The results of the questionnaire showed an overall positive attitude toward online chat and web-forums. The overall mean score for online chat was 6.27 with a standard deviation of 1.76. As for web-forums, the mean score was 6.36 with a standard deviation of 1.69. The overall scores were slightly above the threshold of neutral attitude (hypothesized mean of 5.0), and thus can be considered positive attitude. The sample percentage that scored a mean below 5.0 was very small (3.8% for SCMC and 2.2% for web-forums). Appendix B includes response frequency graphs of each item in the questionnaire. The negativelyskewed graphs (except in the case of reverse-coded items) provide a visual representation of the learners’ positive attitude toward CMC. These findings confirm the results of other attitudinal studies such as Akbulut (2008) and Almekhlafi (2006), which indicated that language learners generally express a positive attitude toward technology as a means of improving their English, particularly to utilities that allow them to interact with one another, such as CMC. Responses to the open-ended question complemented the quantitative data. Most answers were in favor of using CMC as a learning tool. Below is one example of these responses (reported verbatim). Onlin chating save times and solve our problem,while no times in class to discuss every things. See Appendix C for samples of these responses. There were also a few responses that addressed some negative effects of online chat, such as the use of abbreviations and the tendency to ignore spelling mistakes. Here is an example addressing this issue: I don’t think that using chatting helps much cuz people just use a lot of chat abbreviations (lol, brb..etc) and also shorten a lot of words in order 241
to type faster, so basically the grammar and spelling don’t really have to be correct as long as people understand what u mean that’s enough. In the above example, the respondent touches upon the fluency vs. accuracy debate. Accuracy, according to Nikolov and Krashen (1997) is related to perfection in production. This perfection could be seen in terms of spelling, vocabulary, grammar or pronunciation. Fluency, on the other hand, is the ability to use what is already known (Nation, 1991). The statement provided by the student has some grammatical mistakes, which means that it is not perfectly accurate. However, the student was able to use the language knowledge he already has to produce that utterance, which means that he was relatively fluent. Most of the responses to the open-ended question discuss the ability to use the language without having someone (e.g. teacher) to question accuracy. Being able to use the language without criticism justifies the positive attitude shown by the participants. Another issue that emerged from the open-ended question is the concept of negotiation for meaning, which is a process interlocutors go through to reach mutual understanding. Long’s (1996) interaction hypothesis argues that when a language learner interacts with a native speaker or another language learner of a higher level, a naturalistic language learning environment is created where the learner becomes aware of the gaps in his target language knowledge. Long (1996) stated that “negotiation for meaning, especially negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the native speaker or more competent interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways” (p. 451). In online chat and web-forums, students engage in processes of negotiation for meaning. As explained earlier, accuracy was not the main goal for using CMC, and students would often produce inaccurate structures that require their interlocutors to seek clarification. By identifying gaps in their language, the students’ language develops. In other words, although the initial goal was fluency, accuracy is eventually gained. The response below illustrates this issue. 242
to benefit from the vocabulary used and it made me learn gradually many things which I wasn’t aware of.. My English has improved a lot because of some beneficial forums I joined in the past. Members encourage each other and correct me if there is a mistake somewhere in my posts. It’s such a nice feeling to improve your language by using such a means..It is always there, but many don’t know what benefits such forums have and thus they miss such a chance to develop some aspects of their Second language..Thank you webforums for the help to get better and for the support provided.. Effect of Gender and Seniority on Attitudes Research Question 3 addresses whether there was any statistically significant difference between students’ attitudes toward using online chat and webforums to develop their reading and writing skills in English that could be attributed to the variables of gender and seniority in university. Gender As shown in Table 2, the mean score for male students’ attitudes toward using SCMC was 6.25 compared to a mean score of 6.29 for female students. The t-test indicated that the difference was insignificant (t=1.97, p=0.63). As for web-forums, the mean score for male students’ attitudes was 6.30 compared to a mean score of 6.40 for female students. The t-test showed that the difference was also insignificant (t=1.97, p=0.26). These findings indicate that gender has no significant effect on the attitudes of Omani students toward using SCMC and web-forums to develop their reading and writing skills in English. This result is similar to that in Akbulut’s (2008) study, which suggested that gender does not affect students’ reported attitudes toward CMC. The result, however, is dissimilar to the findings of Mahfouz and Ihmeideh (2009), which suggested that male students express more positive attitudes. 243
Table 2 Differences between Male and Female Students’ Attitudes toward Using SCMC and Web-forums Mode of Communication
Gender
N
M
S
df
t
p
SCMC
M
161
6.25
0.82
414
1.97
0.63
F
255
6.29
0.81
M
161
6.30
0.81
414
1.97
0.26
F
255
6.40
0.86
Web-forums
It is worth mentioning here that computer availability was the same for both males and females in the university campus, and there were separate computer labs for male and female students. Both male and female students were required to submit assignments online and to use the Internet as part of their academic studies. Therefore, an equally positive attitude to such technology was expected, and the only hindrance to such equality was the stereotype that religion and/or culture prevents females from delving into cyberspace. These findings proved that this stereotype did not exist. Seniority in university Comparison of the mean scores of students’ attitudes toward SCMC, as shown in Table 3, showed a noticeable difference between First-year students and students in other years of study (First-year=5.73; Second-year=6.24; Third year=6.30; Fourth-year=6.35). ANOVA indicated that the difference was indeed significant (F=2.63, p
