globalization, international finance companies, cultural activities, mega projects .... projects, high office and residence towers, mixed-use complexes and foreign ...
ISTANBUL: READING THE TRANSFORMATION OF HOUSING WITHIN THE FRAME OF HIGH-RISES AND GLOBALIZATION TUBA SARI Tuba Sarı, Research Assistant, Istanbul Technical University. Abstract One of the major transformations caused by the industrial revolution, technological developments and globalization is undoubtedly acceleration of urbanization process. Globalization in particular is one of the major factors that trigger this transformation. In this context, as a result of the global metropolitan city system, multifunctional rising structure forms are becoming undeniable fact of the world’s leading metropolises as the manifestation of prestige and power with different life choices, easy accessibility to services related to the era of technology. The scope of research deals with five different urban centers in İstanbul where high rise housing is increasing dramatically after 2000’s. Therefore, the research regards multicentered urban residential pattern being created by high rise housing structures in the city. The methodology of research is based on two main issue, one of them is related with sampling method of high rise housing projects in İstanbul, while the other method of the research is based on the model of Semantics. In the framework of research hypothesis, it is aimed to prove that the character of vertical intensive structuring in Istanbul is based on seeking of different forms and images in the expressive quality, considering the production of existing high rise buildings in residential areas in recent years. In respect to rising discourse of “World City” in the globalizing world, it is very important to state the place of Istanbul in other developing world metropolises. In the perspective of “World City” discourse, Istanbul has different projects concerning with globalization, international finance companies, cultural activities, mega projects and etc. In brief, the aim of this research is examining transformation forms of high rise housing development in Istanbul within the frame of developing world cities, searching and analyzing discourse and image related to these projects. How the city of Istanbul is globalized? Concepts and Projects Towards the end of the 20th century, it is understood that cities are deeply affected by world system and cannot be perceived as a product of the national culture. As a result of this change, to think the city as part of a wider system and to perceive the city as a complement of the process of globalization, has prevailed rather than to define the city as only large population groups. In the last century, although not all on the relationship between globalization and cities, several studies had been on cities having large and distinct qualifications and many concepts are brought to the literature that seeks to identify which of cities. Imperial cities, the primary cities, large industrial cities, millionaire city, international financial centers, the global capitalist
cities, mega cities, world cities or global cities are best known of these concepts (Beaverstock et al., 1999). Global City is one of these concepts that trigger the development of high-rise housing in many developing countries which determine the targets of development and structuring in this direction. The global urban discourse is based on the World City hypothesis, which was developed by Friedmann and Wolff (1982) and later by Sassen (2001)and a number of other scholars. In many countries of the world, the arguments of this hypothesis have become an effective policy instrument. Many central and local governments have produced similar policies for the past twenty years to make their cities a global city (Öktem, 2005). According to Friedmann, the world city is a place where the international capital concentrates and accumulates. Regional, national and international economies are articulated in these cities. World cities where global transportation, communication, news, information and culture are produced and spread, carry out important ideological and control functions (Friedmann, 1995). Sassen (2001) defined the cities of the world not only as centers of control and management but also as the cities where the production of trade and service sector and financial innovations took place and gave a new dimension to the concept of world city. The world city rhetoric explains the emergence of global cities with the emergence of a new global economy. The new global economy in the world causes a new urban hierarchy and spatial competition among countries. “Global City”
“Polycentricism” , “Concentrated Decentralization”
-urban hierarchy
-multi-centered urban foci
-spatial competition
-multiple global relations
Table 1. The main concepts referring theoretical background of the research. In the process of globalization, due to the lack of a center in the metropolises, secondary centers, new structures outside the city, new settlements areas called neo-city have appeared in the periphery of metropolis. On the one hand, new constructions that are seen in the metropolitan area are changing the concepts of urban density, scale and function, on the other hand, metropolitan boundaries are merging with the walls and the periphery, clear boundaries disappear. Based on Peter Marcuse’s Polycentrism, Concentrated Decentralization theory, the forms of cities are constantly changing, physical and spatial changes are explained by the concepts of polycentrism and urban fragmentation (Marcuse, 2008). As the city continues to grow towards the border settlements and rural areas, a multi-centered structure emerges in the form. The evolutionary process leading to the creation of multi centered city from the single centered city seen in recent years in Istanbul overlaps with the theory of Marcuse. While highrise buildings are concentrated only on the Büyükdere-Maslak axis, where the business centers are located, different urban foci such as Maltepe-Kartal, Kozyatağı-Ataşehir and BaşakşehirBeylikdüzü have been appeared as sub-centers with the increase of high-rise housing in Istanbul. Developments in the world and in Turkey have led Istanbul to a new structuring process since 1980s. Istanbul feels the impacts of globalization as a place where global money, capital, people, ideas, indicators and information flows are concentrated. The development processes that determine the urban form have also changed with the beginning of globalization. Until this period, investments in the city have been of interest to local entrepreneurs, but have since become of interest to global capital. Between 1980 and 1998, in particular foreign companies
serving worldwide took place in Istanbul with the banking and finance sectors. While the ratio of foreign banks to the national banks in Istanbul in 1979 was 4%, it was determined as 20% in 1986: This rate is even higher today. The first examples of high-rise structuring in Turkey have been built in Istanbul and Ankara since 1985. A rapid increase has been observed in the highrise initiatives in Istanbul since the 1990s (Baba, 2012). Considering the boom of high-rise housing constructions in Istanbul on the theory of global city, these structures can be regarded as a few spatial results in the process of reaching the hierarchical structure created by the global economy on the macro scale. As a result of the global capital has become widespread since 2000s, international capital groups and local governments that support these groups have entered a competition to build edifices and ambitious structures. With the increase of mega projects, high office and residence towers, mixed-use complexes and foreign investments developed in this context, Istanbul has become prominent as a world city in the global economy. Within the framework the encouraging socio-economic urban development policies of central and local government, developing world metropolises have become almost demonstration stage of growth, development, and image of the global city. In this respect, countries have changed the existing government programs and articulated the network of economic, social, cultural and technological globalization with mega projects and discourses. Douglass (2000) has been systematized the process of becoming World City and revealed, with the help of a chart, how the spatial size under the city’s control is expanding up to a global scale due to the gained presence of various functions. The function of finance (banking, insurance, capital, real estate), the function of being management centre to international companies, global services (education, advanced technology etc.), the function of transport (active worldwide airport and ports, high-speed train), information function (creativity/ innovation, publishing, film), political and ideological function (the perfection of the state-economy and society relations), cultural function (Cultural production and propagation), to host exceptional events (Olympics, world fair, music concerts, congresses) are the main functions that world cities should have. Istanbul: As Global Capital of the World The spatial transformation process in Istanbul is developing as dependent on economic policies as it is in many metropolitan areas of the world. Large-scale urban projects have begun to be produced rapidly in order to attract international capital within the competitive environment determined by the free market economy on a global scale. For the last thirty years, the opening of Istanbul, the economic capital of Turkey, to the world markets with the slogan of world city has been tried to be achieved by the neoliberalist policies of the country's administrators and by the large capital groups (Birsel, 2006). These policies, which have been dominant since the 1980s, have caused some fundamental changes in the physical structure of cities. International financial capitals, big banks, construction companies, real estate developers, international investors, units in the construction market are among the actors of this change. In respect to Douglass’s theory based on some principles to become “World City”, the function of finance (banking, insurance, capital, real estate) and the function of being management centre to international companies are significant parameters in the global framework. To the research network of GaWC (Globalization and World Cities), Istanbul was rated as alpha-cities in 2010. The position of the cities in global economic network was determined by the indicators of further service sector in studies conducted by GaWC. Alpha cities that integrate large regional and national economies into the world economy were described as significant world cities. (Akın et al., 2010). Especially after the liberalisation of the
Turkish economy, it was understood that the city served as the gateway to the country and perhaps to the greater region.
Figure 1. Mapping the level of integration of cities into the world's global network – 2010. (GaWC, 2016). Istanbul is transformed a city where the industry is moving out of the city and where creative industries, producer services, finance and real estate sectors are strengthened due to new economic structure. Considering the function of transport, a large number of megaprojects that are entrepreneurial for Istanbul since the 1980s are related to mobility. FSM bridge, Sabiha Gökçen Airport, Marmaray and metro constructions, the third Bosporus bridge, the third airport, tunnel of wheeled vehicles under the Bosporus, high speed train line for connection of Istanbul to Ankara, İzmit gulf bridge and highway for facilitation and acceleration of Istanbul Bursa connection, a sea channel which is required to be opened to the west of the Bosporus, a hotel in Haydarpaşa area and a desire to transform the harbour to a passenger (cruise) port are some of the mega projects related to mobility. Accordingly, today, cities are seen as potential areas of investment for mega projects mobility-based as part of a great competition of global scale. In this respect, projecting the third airport with a target of 100 million passengers indicates that Istanbul is desired to be a global hub of a much bigger city today (Özbay, 2014). Therefore, the direction of development the city and land value change depending on the transportation networks. Official initiatives, such as a series of high-profile international meetings and conferences, were an important dimension of the globalization project. More crucial, however, was the government’s desire to attract global flows to the city since Istanbul’s economic success would endorse claims for their liberal vision. Willing partners, the city’s bourgeoisie benefited from business initiatives and land development. Ongoing series of art exhibitions, festivals of film, theatre, jazz, and classical music, on a scale that rivals that of any large European city, have been initiated by non-profit private foundations. Such endeavours have secured the willing cooperation of both the central and city governments: the most recent instance is the selection
of Istanbul as 2010 Cultural Capital of Europe, the achievement of yet another public/private partnership. Central and local authorities of the government have investigated a number of key initiatives – for example, the Istanbul 2010 European Cultural Capital project – explicitly aimed at using Istanbul’s cultural assets and resources to improve the global image of the city (and thereby the country). The Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality’s recently completed masterplan makes a great deal of its competitiveness by investing in culture to project a contemporary image of the city. Concepts about city branding and image marketing have thus entered into the city’s political vocabulary. Neo-liberal strategists use cultural function as a tool for revenue Central government has committed an investment equivalent to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism’s annual budget towards the restoration and regeneration of the city’s rich cultural heritage as part of the Istanbul 2010 programme. Istanbul’s desire to become a global ‘open city’ involves transforming its image, creating what Mayor Kadir Topbaş refers to as ‘a city with a different attitude towards the world (Esen, 2005). In addition, it is a fact that the urban development accepting the superiority of economy and supporting investment in the central business area is quite changed with the development of the service sector. With unplanned population growth observed in urban scale, different life styles and forms have emerged within the same city. Entrepreneur plans and projects produced in the housing sector is an important phenomenon encountered in developing countries, especially in Istanbul. At first urban rents at the hands of small entrepreneurs has been replaced by the interest of large capital in recent years. After the period apartment living seen as a symbol of life of luxury, especially for some rising living standards, proposing to impose an ideal home conception, homogeneous and elite life in sites far from the city close to nature seem to gain importance. Istanbul: As the Capital of Mega Projects and Investors Today’s great metropolises constitute the main ring of power that is re-formed on global and local axis. With the rise of neo-liberalism, large-scale urban projects have become a powerful mechanism of urban policy. Creating spaces of neo-liberal urbanization such as central business districts, tourism centers, gated residences and shopping malls, large-scale urban projects play an important role in the shift of urban political priorities towards the construction of neo-liberal hegemony. Developmental social values (investment, competitiveness, and entrepreneurship) emphasize the exchange value commoditizing spaces while alienating urban residents. According to Harvey (2005), large-scale urban projects are entrepreneur urban policy mechanisms that serve the interests of market forces due to intercity competition conditions deepening with the rise of neo-liberalism. Has the commoditizing, alienating, degrading, and standardizing effects on everyday life, these projects are practices of capitalist urbanization that produces designed space. With large-scale urban projects neoliberal discourse such as investment, entrepreneurship and competitiveness symbolizes developmental social values and addresses sensitivities of different sections of society. Ayşe Öncü, refers to the various projects that will be applied to create a global metropolis representing Turkey's window, with the Turkish government's policy of opening to foreign markets since 1980s. It is undeniable fact that monumental architecture defining the skyline of the city has shaped with dominant power structures. In respect to globalization, this intricate and multifaceted network of power relations re-produces itself in metropolitans as deepening re-emitted structure. The distribution of glass sky towers cutting the urban pattern to world geography reflects the idealization of the process in all over the world (Öncü and Weyland, 2005). In addition, Marcuse claims that the residential is no longer focused on city center and it creates multi-centered urban foci as a result of the globalization process based on service
sector instead of based economy (Marcuse, 2008). The transformation from one focused city center to multi-focused urban residential areas coincides with this theory, seen in recent years in the city of Istanbul. Therefore, high buildings are placed not only in the axis of BüyükdereMaslak only business centers rising but also in different centre locations such as Kartal, Maltepe, Ataşehir, Başakşehir, Şişli-Bomonti, particularly with the growing interest to dense vertical construction in housing. There is no doubt that the will and the need for decentralisation in Turkey accelerated with urbanisation. In last ten years, the urbanization process of Istanbul is outstanding due to the relationships between power and the city. With the process of creation of cloned cities similar to each other, Automobile-centered campusstyle urbanization model is experienced in the city, which named “Dubaization” process of Istanbul by some authorities. They mention the big challenge results from that the city is seen as an opportunity and a potential area for power performances of directors and investors. Each empty space, green space or any public space in the city is a profitable land for the actors of this idea. Each structure, it is an area of investment to construct more efficient and flashy one instead of it. A lot of information about these projects and images are shared and all the various opinions are suggested on the project in the media. There are appeared some “World City” rhetoric related to Istanbul and its mega projects on the media. Trump Towers, Brigitte Weber Architects, 2012, Mecidiyeköy By its advantages of being located between the Bosphorus bridges and the surrounding road connections, having large parcels of old industrial facilities, and having the highest floor area ratio of Istanbul, along with being close to other sub-centres such as Beşiktaş, Mecidiyeköy and Zincirlikuyu, this area where high-rise office buildings have been developed is preferred by multinational companies and holdings. In addition, the Şişli-Maslak region has shown a building tendency to the needs of high-quality residential structures according to the changing user type. Trump Towers is a mixed-use high-rise project, consisting of one residential tower, one office tower, and a linear shopping area developed in this direction. Designed by Brigitte Weber Architecture, Trump Towers sing a reference point with its height, a viewpoint in Istanbul’s cityscape as well as being a project that brings recognisability around the building. The two masses, which seem to be independent, have a delicate structure with their movement in opposite directions around a more transparent mass in the center. Someone who takes the road on E5 perceives the tower as moving around its own core. The towers were placed asymmetrically on the columns rising on the podium, withdrawing the front so as not to cover each other as far as possible. The transparency of the mass in the middle also allows natural light to be extracted into the core.
Figure 2. Trump Towers, site plan and perspective view.
Mall of Istanbul, DDG/Ömerler Architects, 2013, Başakşehir Başakşehir-Beylikdüzü area is one of the sub-centers in Istanbul with new developing projects, such as high-rise offices, residential buildings as well as gated communities. Bağcılar, Güneşli, Basın-Ekpress line, Basaksehir and Beylikdüzü are the main points in this sub-center vertical residential development is seen. Mall of Istanbul is a mixed-use project that takes an important role in developing a new center for the city, analyzed in the scope of research. In recent years, Turkey has returned to the construction site. There have been substantial improvements in the infrastructure and systems of the city. This economic boom partially led by the construction industry almost necessitated an improvement of earlier squatter areas of all periods as well as in city slum areas. The country is being renewed with urban transformation projects. Instead of demolished slums and unplanned areas, modern residential structures have been built with the support of foreign investors being interested in the real estate sector of Turkey. Additionally, new urban transformation projects and residential developments all come with a cultural approach to urban living. The marketing concept of Mall of Istanbul refers a new urban culture which is informed by a dream of a world perfectly and completely thought through: here ‘you will find the life you are looking for’. Residents live happily within their own self-contained environments, with their own kind of people in accordance with the desired life idealized with such high standard buildings and areas. Designed by Development Design Group (DDG) in New York, the project is consisting of shopping center, residential complex, office blocks, high standard city hotel. The project developed as mega structure with the biggest shopping center in the Istanbul and signs a landmark in the city with its investment potential and luxury life style.
Figure 3. Mall of Istanbul, site plan and perspective view. Metropol Istanbul, RMJM/Dome Partners, 2015, Ataşehir Kozyatağı-Ataşehir is defined as a high-level service center with an international financial center in line with the potential and current trends of the region. Metropol Istanbul located near-by the Istanbul Financial Centre is a mixed-use high-rise project that causes an urban transformation in the centre. The development comprises three towers; one residential, one office and one mixed use super-tall tower. Designed by RMJM and Dome Partners, Metropol Istanbul signs the iconic image of the structure in the urban area displaying an expressionist formalist lines. Considering its 250meter height, the tower is described as the highest building in the Kozyatağı-Ataşehir residential development area. The developers of the project mentions that many projects in Dubai, London, Hong Kong, Milan and Singapore are examined before the design process of Metropol Istanbul. In this respect, the idea behind of the project aims to create a global landmark for the metropolis of Istanbul.
Figure 4. Metropol Istanbul, site plan and perspective view. Vase Tower, Barbaros Sağdıç, 2016, Maltepe In the Anatolian side of Istanbul, a new center is needed for trade, tourism, finance, housing, culture, management and recreation areas and uses, which revitalizes of central business area and provides both workforce and transport link between two sides of the city. In this context, Maltepe-Kartal and Kozyatağı-Ataşehir are defined as primary centers. It is foreseen that the center of Maltepe-Kartal will develop as a center with a high level of service sector due to the reasons such as the proximity to Sabiha Gökçen Airport, the industrial areas in the transformation period, the existence of transport projects supporting this region, and so on. In this context, Vase Tower is examined as a mixed-use high-rise project that contribute to development of this new center, with its office and residential functions. Designed by Barbaros Sağdıç, the tower is inspired by Inandık vase, one of the most important objects of Hittite Heritage, being modernized with an emphasis on monumental architecture. In respect to design, the structure makes symbolic reference with an art object belongs to history. Also, the use of color and figurative decoration on the façade signs a postmodern attitude as a critique of rationalist and egalitarian design of modernism. Developing real estate projects in different architectural styles in Maltepe, DAP Yapı, the developer company of the Vase Tower, chose Maltepe – Dragos district for its new property project. Considering the potential of urban transformation in the area, Vase tower is designed with the ideas based on creating a new silhouette, a new lifestyle, and a different identity to the metropolis of Istanbul.
Figure 5. Dap Vazo Towers site plan and perspective view.
Onaltıdokuz Towers, Alpar Architects, 2011, Zeytinburnu Historical peninsula and walls area represents the old town and its periphery in Istanbul. The high-rises are built with residence, hotel and office buildings in recent years due to the need of luxury living in the city center. Onaltıdokuz Towers is a residential high-rise project in Zeytinburnu, which transforms the silhouette of the city. In recent years, major housing investments are developed to support coming back to the city center. Height and speed have been the basic life amenities in today's Istanbul. The image of the transition from horizontal to vertical life is able to read clearly via the change in the city’s skyline. Another important criterion for these mega-projects is physical and social impact of the project on the city and user. As one of the controversial mega projects in Istanbul, Onaltıdokuz towers consisting of 27-32 and 36 storey residence blocks, was highly debated in the media related to its location at the historical peninsula (Figure 6). Although the owners of project had been warned several times by the government and experts about the skyline, any improvement was not made in the architecture. Many of apartments in the residence towers are sold to foreign investors, due to its view advantage of Istanbul silhouette. Designed by Alpar Architects, Onaltıdokuz Istanbul is a late modern structure that reflects the final stages of rationalization as an architectural expression. Onaltıdokuz Istanbul project is reflected by Astay Real Estate, the developer of the project, especially by the value given by the view of Istanbul. In addition, with the understanding of contemporary space and a different life philosophy, the emphasis is placed on the class status of owning such a housing type.
Figure 6. Onaltıdokuz Towers site plan and perspective view. Conclusion In the framework of a global world, the restructuring process that the developing world economies enter have found reflection in the practice of urban and architectural development. Within the framework of the encouraging socio-economic urban development policies of central and local government, developing world metropolises have become almost demonstration stage of growth, development, and imagery. The changes observed in residential architecture after 2000, the urban development accepting the superiority of economy and supporting investment in the central business area is quite changed with the development of the service sector. As one of the developing metropolitan areas, the city of Istanbul is being globalized by the help of some effective discourses and mega-projects which aim to reach World City criteria’s such as the function of finance, being management center to international companies, the function of transport, political and ideological function, to host exceptional global events. With unplanned population growth observed in urban scale, different life styles and forms have emerged within the same city. Entrepreneur plans and projects produced in the housing sector is an important phenomenon encountered in developing countries. In this respect, countries have changed the existing government
programs and articulated the network of economic, social, cultural and technological globalization with mega projects and discourses produced. In conclusion, with the rise of mega projects, high-rise office and residence towers, mixed-use complexes and foreign investments developed in this context, Istanbul has become prominent as a world city in the global economy. While high-rise buildings are concentrated only on the Büyükdere-Maslak axis in Istanbul, where the business centres are located, it is seen that different urban foci such as Maltepe-Kartal, Kozyatağı-Ataşehir and Başakşehir-Beylikdüzü have been created with increasing frequency especially in the high-rise housing realm. As the city continues to grow towards the border settlements and rural areas, a multi-centered structure emerges in the form. The evolutionary process leading to the creation of multi centered city from the single centered city seen in recent years in Istanbul overlaps with the theory of polycentrism. References Akın, G., Boysan, B., Bilgin, İ., Bozdoğan, S., Güvenç, M., Korkmaz, T. & Yücesoy, E. Ü. 2010. İstanbul 1910–2010: City, Built Environment and Architectural Culture Exhibition, İstanbul, İstanbul Bilgi University. Baba, E., C. 2012. Tasarım Demokrasisi ve İstanbul: Küreselleşme Sürecinde Yüksek Yapılaşma, İstanbul, Sosyal Yayınlar. Beaverstock, J. V., Smith, R. G. & Taylor, P. J. 1999. A roster of world cities. cities, 16, 445-458. Birsel, C. 2006. Kentsel Dönüşüm, Çözülen Kentler ve Parçalanan Kamusal Alan. Mimarlık 327, 21-25. Douglass, M. 2000. Mega-urban regions and world city formation: Globalisation, the economic crisis and urban policy issues in Pacific Asia. Urban Studies, 37, 2315-2335. Esen, O. 2005. Self Service City: Istanbul, Berlin b_books. Friedmann, J. 1995. Where we stand: a decade of world city research. In: Knox, P. L. & Taylor, P. J. (eds.) World Cities in a World System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Friedmann, J. & Wolff, G. 1982. World City Information an Agenda for Research and Action. International Journal of Urban and Regional, 6, 309-344. Harvey, D. 2005. A brief history of neoliberalism, New York, Oxford University Press. Marcuse, P. 2008. Globalization and the forms of cities. In: Jenks, M., Kozak, D. & Takkanon, P. (eds.) World cities and urban form. Fragmented, polycentric, sustainable. New York: Routledge. Öktem, B. 2005. Küresel Kent Söyleminin Kentsel Mekanı Dönüştürmedeki Rolü. In: Kurtuluş, H. (ed.) İstanbul’da kentsel ayrışma: mekansal dönüşümde farklı boyutlar Istanbul: Bağlam Yayınları. Öncü, A. & Weyland, P. (eds.) 2005. Mekan kültür iktidar: küreselleşen kentlerde yeni kimlikler, İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Özbay, C. 2014. Yirmi Milyonluk Turizm Başkenti: İstanbul’da Hareketliliklerin Politik Ekonomisi. In: Candan, A. B. & Özbay, C. (eds.) Yeni İstanbul Çalışmaları, Sınırlar, Mücadeleler, Açılımlar. İstanbul Metis Kitap. Sassen, S. 2001. The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo, New Jersey, Princeton University Press.
