Is image everything?! About perceived images of science, engineering and technology. J. Dahmen and A. Thaler. 1. 2. Department of Educational and Social ...
Image is everything! Is image everything?! About perceived images of science, engineering and technology
J. Dahmen1 and A. Thaler2 1
Department of Educational and Social Sciences, Wuppertal University, Wuppertal, Germany, (jdahmen@uni-w uppertal.de), 2 IFZ - Inter-University Research Centre for Technology, Work and Culture, Klagenfurt University, Graz, Austria Abs tract Images of engineering majors and jobs go along with enduring negative s tereotypes of s cience, engineering and technology (SET) often connected to images of hegemonic mas culinity or gender s tereotypes . Some of thes e s tereotypical attitudes are s till active and have great impact on s tudy decis ion making proces s es and s tudents ' expectations . W ithin the former European Commis s ion (EC) project W omEng dis crepancies between the perceived image of engineers , depending on the s tudy s ubject were revealed. A ccording to this the image of engineering is overs hadowed by the picture of the “lonely, machine oriented nerd”. A bove this young people often have obs olete and unattractive job images in their minds and combine thes e with outdated clichés , whereas their ideas and wis hes of profes s ions are not far away from s tudies in SET and related jobs . Thes e findings build the s tarting point of the currently running EC project M OTIVA TION. The project is looking for factors influencing young people's perception development on SET related degree cours es and profes s ions . The paper pres ents firs t res ults from interviews with pupils in A us tria and Germany on their perception of s cience, engineering and technology. A dditionally the impact of gendered SET repres entations in print media will be s hown, exemplified by popular A us trian and German youth magazines , as thes e build a daily companion for youngs ters and therefore having an important role in their life. Keywords: youth, image of SET, media impact, gender, s cience education
1. INTRODUCTION A lthough the European Council s tated in the year 2000 in its Lis bon s trategy that by 2010 Europe s hou ld b e t he mos t competitive knowledge-bas ed economy in the world (http://ec.europa.eu/inves t-in-res earch), the number of s tudents in s cience, engineering and techno lo gy (SET) degree cours es is declining in many European countries . For ins tance A us tria, Denmark, Italy, Germany, Hungary and Finland experienced a drop in the s hare of 1
univers it y graduates with s cience and engineering degrees between 1998 and 2004, as did Korea and the United States [1;2;3]. A nother field of action is the unde r-re p re s entation of women in SET fields . In the EU-27member s tates , in engineering, manufacturing and cons truction degree cours es 75.7 % male s tudents face only 24.3 % female s tudents in 2005 [4]. A nd although the current students ’ as s es s ment s tudy PISA [5] found no s ignificant performance differences of female and male pupils in s cienc e ; degree cours es in the category ‘mathematics , s cience and computing’ have a huge gender imbala n c e as well (63.1 male vs . 36.9 female s tudents in the European Union [4]). The Council of the European Union publis hed a pres s releas e in February 2008, where the minis ters for education of all 27 EU member s tates emphas is ed the importance of “the knowledge t ria n g le (education – res earch – innovation), emphas is ing in particular the crucia l ro le of education and training in promoting creativity and innovation” [6, p. 11]. A nd in an EU-wide s urvey 82% of all interviewed p e rs ons agreed that “young people’s interes t is es s ential for the future pros perit y o f Europe” [7, p.100]. A lready in 2001 a “young people and the s cientific vocation cris is “ has been proclaimed in Europe [8; 9]. One rea s o n fo r t h a t s ituation is ans wered by two thirds of as ked s enior s chool pupils and s tudents who s tated that “s cientific les s ons are not appealing enough” [8]. European s cience education recognized a need of a “renewed pe d a g ogy” in s chools [10], which does not incline to is olate s cience clas s es from remaining s ubjects creating s ome kind of s ubculture [11]. The PISA s tudy from 2006 as tonis hingly revealed that 93% of all pupils agreed that s cience is important for unders tanding the natural world and 92% uttered their cons ent on the item that “advances in s cience and technology us ually improve people’s living conditions ” [5]. But although girls and boys are aware of the importance of s cience and technology in future times , only a minority of s tudents s aw thems elves doing s cience in the future like focus s ing a career in s cience (ibd.). This is underlined b y t he res ults of the Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) s tudy: the ans wers of female and male pupils from about 40 countries on the s tatements "I would like to become a s cientis t" and "I would like to get a job in technology" s h o w ed that es pecially girls in wealthier OECD countries were more likely to reject this pos s ibilit y [12; 13]. But above that the res earch team obs erved a gap between developing countries , where SET is perceived as attractive job field compared to richer and more developed countries [14]. A dditionally to formal educational arenas , out-of-s chool s cience e xperiences and implicit SET-learning through media, es pecially b e caus e of the popularity of information and communication technologies , get more and more imp o rt a n ce. Thes e media receptions can be s een as informal learning experiences , which form young people’s images of s cience and s cientis ts enhance SET-interes ts and young people’s s elf-beliefs as well [15].
2. BACKGROUND A s background for the following deliberations s erves one res ult of the W omEng s tudy [for further information s ee: 16; 17; 18]. The project with the full name “Creating Cultures of Succes s for W omen Engineers ” (www.womeng.net) was funded in t he 5th Framework Programme of the European Commis s ion. W omEng la s t e d fro m 2002 until 2005, in total 2
s even European c o u n t ries were involved (A us tria, Finland, France, Greece, Slovakia, United Kingdom and Germany). In t h e frame of the project totally 699 female and male s tudents out of different engineering majors w e re as ked about their s tudy background, experiences , perceptions etc in all participating countries . A s control group 637 s tudents of different non-engineering majors like s ocial s ciences , humanities a nd economics were als o as ked about their individual s tudy opinions and experiences .
% of agreem ent
The diagram above s hows that actually dis c re p ancies in the perceived image of engineers , depending on the pers ons ’ s tudy s ubject have been found. W hile engineering s tudents and non-engineering s tudents both attribute more technical competence than team orientation to engineers , non-engineering s t u d ents as cribe more machine orientation and les s s ocial competence to engineers than engineering s tudents do. Tha t me a ns that the image of engineering – and we as s ume generally the image of SET – becomes mo re re a lis tic and clearer in SET degree cours es when s tudents learn SET and experience SET ro le models ins tead of s tereotyped SET images of various media. The s econd important res ult of this s urvey was that s o called “ s o ft e r” q u a lities like team orientation and s ocial competence were more as cribed to female engineers . The gender gap within the q u a lities of technical competence, team orientation and machine orientation is nearly the s ame in both s amples . However, non-engineering s tudents have generally a more ma c h ine-oriented and les s s ocially competent image of engineers than the engineerin g s tudents . That interes ting res ult led to our current res earch project “M OTIVA TION”, where we wanted to find o u t , w h ic h images of SET teenagers actually have and which image of SET and es pecially technology is s hown in popular youth media.
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3. MOTIVATION – A European project on changing the image of SET The aim of the European project M OTIVA TION is to learn more about fa c t o rs , which influence the image of s cience, engineering and technology (SET) to a t t ract more young people [for an overview s ee 19]. The project is built around four content related work packages (W P) which inves tigate influencing factors of image building from different angles , bes ides thos e W P’s focus s ing on coordination and dis s emination. W P two analys es if and how youth media impacts the manifes tation of s tereotypical perception of s cience and technology. The s ituation at s chool and beyond, which includes parents , family and peers is s ubject of the third W P. Ques tioned is here how teachers and teaching at s chool s upport can contribute towards more pos it ive attitudes of pupils towards the more or les s dis liked s cience s ubjects . Furthermore, teachers are bes ides family and friends of great importance for job and s tudy orientation proces s es of young people [20], the impact of all three s oc ia lis a t io n agents will be inves tigated in M OTIVA TION. W P four concentrates on the young people thems elves , what s elf-concepts do they have and how do thes e influence their perceptions of s uitable future job and s tudy fields ? The theoretical approach of this part of the s tudy builds the ‘s elf-to-p ro t o t yping matching t heory’ [21], which compris es that an individual imagines for his /her decis ion a prototypical pers on who would als o choos e this option. The individual proves how his /her s elf-image correlates with the corres ponding prototype. The higher the s imilarities , the more likely it is that the individual turns to the fields of interes ts of the prototypical repres entative [21; 22]. The las t content work package of M OTIVA TION expos es s o called good practice examples of inclus ion measure s w h ic h try to weaken the stereotypical image of SET by d iffe re n t approaches . Dream jobs of boys and girls are s till in line with cultural embedded gender s tereotypes , thus the ris k of making jo b a nd s tudy decis ions on bas is of gender s tereotypes and not on pers onal potential and performance is always pres ent [23]. 3.1 MOTIVATION methodology The firs t part of M OTIVA TION ha s been completed. That contains an exploratory analys is of SET s chool education in Europe, and collecting and evaluation of good practice of formal and informal SET learning. The s tudy us ed and us es different methodological meas ures , like content analys is for mas s media res earch (print and non-print), es pecially how vis ua l repres e ntations contribute to a s tereotyped image of SET. Focus group dis cus s ions with young people to get ins ights in peer group proces s es and s elf-perceived media influences on job decis ions . Interviews and focus group dis cus s ions with SET education s takeholders (like teachers and job cons ultants ) add information on their perceptions of influencing factors on SET attitudes of teenagers . Special media and educa tion s takeholder works hops and expert meetings s upport the project-internal knowledge exchange a nd the dis s emination of res ults externally as well. For this contribution we concentrate on partial res ults of A us trian and German inves tigations in the firs t project phas e, which include biographical interviews with female and male pupils at s econdary s chools and the analys is of youth magazines in both countries .
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3.2 Partial res ults of qualitative interviews with s econdary s chool pupils A ltogether 14 young people in A us t ria a n d Germany have been interviewed about their experiences and opinions about SET in different s ettings like at the parent’s home, at s chool, among peers and in media. During the time of the interviews the interviewees were between 14 and 16 years old and attended to s econdary s chools . Interviews were realized in autumn 2008, thus the firs t res ults we are going to pres ent here are very recent. 3.2.1 Interest in SET and contradictions Overall interes t in SET seems to be a complex concept. It is d e fin it e ly influenced by practical experiences and pers onal connections . It does matter if parents tell about their SET profes s ion at home, if children play with cons truction or other SET toys , if pupils experience hands on s cience clas s e s w it h e xperiments and if they get to know SET profes s ions in pra ctice (interns hips , etc.). A ll thos e pos itive influencing factors were mentioned by pupils who des cribed thems elves as (quite) interes ted in SET. A bout the role of SET teachers : the popularit y o f a s ubject s tands and falls with the (un-) popularity of the teachers indifferent of the s ubject th e y teach, this was als o confirmed by the interviewed teachers in Germany. Good teaching for the pupils means having fun during the les s o n s . P u p ils like if they can do hands -on work at s chool, may it be experiments in chemis try or cons tructing robots , it is important for them to experience s cience by thems elves and not only in frontal les s o n s . Education res earch has s hown that learning is mos t effective in s ettings where learners can act as teachers as well. To think about how to explain s omething and how to teach others is a very effective learning s trategy. Therefore it can be deduced that es pecia lly SET learning s hould be connected up to contexts where pupils can become a w a re of their implicit technical knowledge and their tacit des ign and engineering s kills , and can p ro fit from their formal and informal acquired knowledge; for ins tance by connecting technology with s pare time topics like inte rnet games or mus ic technology [s ee als o 24; 25; 26]. Not being interes ted in SET als o can be a res ult of identity proces s es and the conclus ion that SET has definitely not the image fitting to a ideal s elf, like for ins tance for one A us trian girl. This girl is very upfronted with the topic interes ts in SET and s ays that s he even hates maths and chemis try becaus e s he “doesn´t see the point ” (A FI_2). In biology, for example, s he s aid about cell divis ion: “I don´t t h i n k t h a t ´s necessary for my life”. That s eems to be an as tonis hing s tatement. Firs t, one might think that e s pecially life s ciences could be eas ily explained as relevant for all pupils in s chool. It s eems s a d that even biology, knowledge of the human body that is , can not be explained in a relevant and interes ting way. But another interpretation of this quote works , if the whole interview of this pupil is cons idered. M aybe s he does not s how any SET interes t a t a ll, becaus e s he actually thinks that being good at s chool and es pecially being good at SET s ubjects (being “clever” as s he ironically called it) – and even more s us picious being interes ted in them – can conflict t h e id e n t ity of a cool teenager. This pos s ible conflict between the s elf-image and the public image of pers ons who like SET is underlin e d b y t h e s tatements of a German girl, who s ees hers elf as competent and really interes ted in s cience and es pecially technology a n d therefore s ees hers elf confronted with s tereotypes and prejudices als o fro m t h e s id e of her clas s mates ; on the other hand s he is cons tantly engaged in belonging to the ‘cool’ girls group of the clas s , who are not the ones who are in SET. But actually s he does not conceal her preferences in front 5
of her friends and clas s mates , although s he made the experience of not be taken s erious ly as a girl who likes technology: “If I tell in the break s that I reassembled a mp3-player and it functions – I am totally proud – and the others say a g ain ‘you are k idding, you can’t do that’.” (GF2_2). Interes t in SET s eems to be connected to the perceived value of SET, but it can not be s aid which of the two is firs t. Fact is that pupils who s eem to have at leas t bas ic interes ts in SET are the s ame who s ee the meaning of SET, that SET makes s ens e for them pers onally but for s ociety as well, SET can s ave the planet or help people. Dis interes t in SET on the other hand is connected – in our interviews – with denial of any us e or pers onal relevance of SET. 3.2.3 Draw-a-scientist test The firs t part of the interviews wit h p u p ils c o ns is ted of an adaptation of the ‘Draw-A Scientis t Tes t - DA ST’ [27]. Introductory the girls and bo y s w e re as ked to draw a pers on working in the area of s cience, engineering and technology, who has pas s ed the s ame educational training like the interviewees . Thes e drawings brought s o me a d d itional information on images of SET. Only four of fourteen interviewees , three boys and a girl, who all s tated to be SET interes ted drew pers ons who are handling actively a technical tool or a computer in their pictures (s ee left example of interviewee A M I_1, 14 years old), while all other participants have drawn (s tick) figures bes ides vials or other equipment s ymbolizing s cience, engineering or technology. Only three of the pictured pers ons - not s tick fig u re s c o u ld b e clearly identified as female, all drawn by girls . But bes id e that it is interes ting what images of SET the pupils have and w h a t t h e y as s ociate with s cience, engineering and technology: vials , micros copes , a car, formulas , computers . This is es pecially good repres ented b y t he drawing of one German boy (interviewee GM 2_2, 14 years old, s ee right ), which s hows a variety of SET related objects including a calcula t o r, a Buns en burner, a computer, a biology book, a mathematical function and a tes t tube. A nd additiona lly he confirms the s tereotype of pe o p le w ho are in SET and their nerdy tou c h as he drew a male pers on, a s tick-figure wearing glas s es becaus e “… many teachers in science wear glasses an d thus I connect this always with such subjects.” (GM 2_2). A nd a fourteen year old A us tria n b oy, who is actually interes ted in engineering, draws a car cons tructor with a tool bes ide a car (like a car mechanic) that can be interpreted as a lack of realis tic SET job informat io n in s chool education. W hat is further interes ting is the fa c t that two of the German interviewees drew more or les s thems elves in their dream jobs , which was revealed through the later part of the interview guidelines whe n t h e p u p ils have been concrete as ked about their realis tic job options for their future. The 16 year old girl dreams of becoming a family doctor, while the boy s ees hims elf as chemis t working in a lab at a big chemical company which is located in his home town. 6
Nevertheles s the overall profes s ional images about pers ons in s cience, eng in e e rin g and technology are influenced by pers onally known people or people who achieved a high reputation in s cience, like the example of a female pupil in Germany whos e drawing s hould repres ent A lbert Eins tein in his famo us pos e s ticking his tongue out. But as ked about concrete job examples in SET, teachers in s cie n c e s ubjects have been the mos t mentioned e xa mp les as thes e are the jobs which the pupils perceive every day in their d ire c t e n vironment, this was als o reflected by three German girls who drew teachers a s e xa mp le for people working in SET. This res ult is not s urpris ing at all but demons trates the need for more divers e occupational information about career pos s ibilities in the res pective fields . 3.3 Res ults of media analys is of youth magazines F o r the quantitative content analys is a quantitative data s heet was developed by A n it a Thaler, including criteria and precis e guidelines for all national team members on h o w to identify and des cribe relevant SET repres entations in the youth magazines . Supplementary a qualitative content analys is of the detected g e n der repres entations in SET images was prepared. The analys es include 22 is s ues of the German “BRA VO” magazine, which corres ponds to a complete analys is from July to December 2008. For ins tance in A us tria and Germany “BRA VO” is one very popular youth magazine for more than 1.6 million female and male readers weekly. Of the A us trian youth magazin e “ X p re s s ”, which is publis hed monthly, 6 is s ues were clos er examined from July 2008 to Ja n uary 2009. Technology is hereby defined in a laypers on’s view: technological artefacts (machines , h a rd ware, and s oftware) and SET profes s ionals (s cientis t, engineers , etc.), in order to analy s e t e c h nology repres entations , which would be recognis ed as technology by teenagers .
3.3.1 Quantitative results A ltogether 601 repres e n t a tions of SET were analys ed in the A us trian and German youth magazines . A s “BRA VO” is weekly p u b lis h ed the majority of images is connected to this ma g a zine with totally 491 cas es , that are averagely 22.3 images per is s ue. In the A us t ria n “Xpres s ” 111 images related to SET were found in the s ample, that corres pon ds to an average of 18.5 per is s ue. In both magazines the majority of SET ima g es is embedded in journalis t contents means in articles or reports and not as part of advertis ements . In the cas e of the “Xpres s ” magazine this means 63.3% and for the “BRA VO” magazin e mo re t han three-quarters (76.2%) of all images were connected to journalis t parts . Half of the analys ed 7
ima g e s in the “BRA VO” magazine s how s cience, engineering and technology as the ma in topic, the number for the “Xpres s ” is even s lightly higher with 58,9%. The genderednes s of cert a in fields of technology in SET images can be s een in quantitative data and qualitative data as well. “BRA VO” connected cell phones mos tly with females and vehicles (cars , motorbikes , boats ) mos tly with male s . In the qualitative analys is of mixed gender relations portrayed in SET images , we could s ee that for ins tance males are more often pres ented as drivers of vehicles .
3.3.2 Qualitative results - Gender and technology representations in youth magazines Bo t h youth magazines have gender s tereotypical and gender equal SET repres entatio n s . Gender equal SET repres entations contain mos tly unrealis tic SET repres entations , us ing technological artefacts as props of a s cene . T h e d e g ree of gender equality of SET repres entations differs betw e e n t h e two magazines . W hile “Xpres s ” has les s overt gender s tereotypical SET repres entations but additionally s ome s ubtle forms as well, “BRA VO” has mos tly overt gender s tereotypical SET images . The SET fields differ; the A us trian magazine “Xpres s ” s hows bes ide cell phones mos tly mu s ic t e chnology; the German magazine “BRA VO” s hows c ell phones and mus ic technology, but additionally more vehicles , which are explicitly repres ented as male domains .
3.3.3 Summary – youth magazines “BRA VO” is more gender and SET s tereotypical than “Xpres s ”, f.i. connecting cell phones more with females and v e hicles with males . But the gender equal SET repres entations of both magazines s how predominantly unrealis tic SET s it u a t ions , either us ing technical artefacts as props or in the s tage s et of a picture to pres ent a certain motive. Good practices – s howing SET profes s ions gender equally and realis tically – are s eldom, but a little more often pres ented in “BRA VO”, placed in their job s pecials . A lthough thos e good practice examples are repres enting SET in a realis tic way and connecting SET to pers ons in a non-gender-dis criminatory s tyle, overall males are much mo re often connected with electronic and machine related technology, while ch e mis try and lab s ituations are only repres ented with females . That means although the s ingle pictures are not s tereotypical and s howing realis tic s ituations , the mes s age of the whole job s pecial s ections is , that chemis try is female and electronics and mechanics are mos tly male. A ll in all both youth magazines do not often us e their influence for a valuable informal vocational couns elling for SET. 8
4. CONCLUSIONS The European Union wants to s trengthen its economy by a c c e lerating s cientific and technological innovations and res earch. Oppos ed this aim s tands the las t years ’ development with a declining number of s tudents in SET degree cours es and a s till huge gender imb a la n c e in many European countries . W e could s how that s everal s tudies revealed that although s tudents agreed on the importance of s cience and technology [5; 7], only a minority of them can envis age a career in SET. A dditionally s chool education, out-of-s chool s cience experiences and implicit SET-learning through media are very influencing. Therefore we s tarted the European res earch project M OTIVA TION to learn more about s chool and out-ofs chool factors , which influence the image of SET and how to us e that knowledge to attract more young people for a SET career. A nd at this s tate of our project we can indeed s tate that both, perceived SET-images o f p u p ils and pres ented SET images of youth magazines , can explain decreas ing numbers of SET s tudents in general an d g e nder imbalances in SET d e g ree cours es in particular. W e will dis cus s our findings with s everal group s o f s takeholders (s chools , media, etc.) in order to get further ins ights how to us e our findings in a cons tructive way. Ack nowledgement M OTIVA TION is fu n d e d a s Coordination A ction within the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commis s ion. Involved are the follo w ing pers ons : Felizitas Sagebiel (coordination) and Jennife r D a h me n in Germany, A nita Thaler and Chris tine W ächter in A us tria, A nne-Sophie Godfroy-Genin and Cloé Pinault in France, Els Ro mme s in the Netherlands , Carme A lemany in Spain, Bulle Davids s on in Sweden and Natas a Urbancíková and Gabriela Kolvekova in S lovakia. For further information s ee www.motivationproject.com. The magazine data in A us t ria was collected and analys ed by A nita Thaler and M agdalena W icher, in Germany by Jennifer Dahmen. In t e rviews with pupils in A us tria were conducted by Sabine Stockinger, in Germa n y b y Jennifer Dahmen, Felizitas Sagebiel and Chris tina Schultes .
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