Jazz improvisation and performance arrangements of

Jazz improvisation and performance arrangements of craftsmanship for civil servants Martijn Hartog Researcher Research Group Public Governance Faculty Public Management, Law & Safety The Hague University of Applied Sciences Johanna Westerdijkplein 75, 2521 EN The Hague The Netherlands [email protected] Abstract The dynamics within governance networks increase with shifting structures and concepts, fragmentation leadership and control. Since governmental bodies are one of the main actors in these dynamic networks, subjectivity to these fundamental shifts in responsibilities in a more 'liquid' environment rather than a stabile structure leads to a complex environment for civil servants. It is this complexity that requires a new role for civil servants which creates a number of challenges. The tension of vertical responsibility and horizontal participation within networks means a reoccurring (re-)assessment of considerations, reviewing the importance and interest of procedures as well as power and control by civil servants. Equipping civil servants for fragmented responsibilities and power in this complexity is deemed necessary as more and more services and policies are formed and developed in networks. This paper explores jazz improvisation as a possible coping mechanism for this complexity using its definition in five cohesive preconditions: 1) knowledge, expertise and skills, 2) group dynamics, 3) rehearsal, 4) leadership, 5) composition and arrangements to reflect on possible adaptive form in which craftsmanship can be arrangement for an optimal performance in policy making. As in jazz improvisation highly trained professionals operate in dynamic environments and encounter a continuous demand of constant and swift assessments on public responsibility, leadership, control and in the end, achieving a qualitative performance. The individual qualities, interrelationships, repetitive nature and strong leadership found in jazz improvisation are of added value, generating the flexibility to anticipate and react on current and changing conditions that these complex governance networks demand. It also showed the possible interpretation of options to express creativity through the medium of established works and rules in compositions and arrangements. The lessons drawn from jazz improvisation create opportunities and challenges on the possibilities and effectiveness of renewed skills for civil servants. This, to the extent of the base of ‘rhythm, melody and harmony’ till the strategic flexibility and adaptability of a professional assessing a policy situation with qualitative expertise and knowhow in different circumstances. In accordance with active managerial and decisive leadership, high end relationships in the performing group with extensive rehearsal / dialogue. Keywords: jazz improvisation, civil servants, competences, craftsmanship, preconditions, performance, arrangements 1. Introduction Significant amounts of power has shifted from national governments to lower tiers of government and other public organizations through privatization, incorporation and decentralization. One of the consequences of this shift is the emergence of complex networks in which various actors share public responsibilities (Theisens, 2012; 2015). A lot of research has been done into the influence of networks and relations of actors as a form of governance (eg. Howlett et al., 2009, Klijn & Koppenjan, 2012, Provan & Kenis, 2007, Teisman, 2000), but it remains a challenge to understand how priorities are chosen and managed within the complexity of these networks. The complexity that these networks entail requires a new role for the national government, which poses a number of challenges. There is a fundamental tension between the highly hierarchical, vertical organizations of, for example, ministries and the much less regulated, horizontal networks. Officials and other public professionals work within hierarchical organizations. The way in which civil servants are directed, assessed, trained and promoted is strongly determined by this organizational form. As more and more policy is developed and realised in networks, equipping civil servants

for fragmented responsibilities and power in complex networks is necessary (The Netherlands Scientific Council for Government Policy, 2002). Officials must have the ability to make policies in complex networks with others. The hierarchical organization that characterizes traditional policy-making within ministries is missing in these networks. Just as in jazz, where improvisation of musicians leads to new music, it is suggested that improvisation by public actors can lead to new and effective ways of making policy and producing public services. Up to now, jazz improvisation in public administration has mainly been used as a metaphor (see Boutellier, 2011). In this chapter we investigate whether a better and thorough understanding of jazz improvisation, particularly the conditions for successful jazz improvisation, can lead to a better understanding of improvisation in administrative networks. In the social sciences similar research has been done, but more focused on organizations and for example on the question to what extent improvisation enables an organization to strategically develop solutions based on the core values of the organization instead of a certain procedure or by a firm plan (Dennis & Macaulay, 2007). To explain how jazz improvisation can contribute to the ability of civil servants to operate in networks, the next chapter shortly describes the jazz improvisation and the preconditions. Chapter three explores how insights from jazz improvisation can deepen the understanding of network governance in public administration. The next chapter focusses on the opportunities for performance arrangements in public administratie. 2. Jazz improvisation Jazz improvisation can be described from two orientations. On the one hand, it is music without a script in which music is simultaneously composed and performed without rehearsal or opportunity to elaborate the ideas in advance (Barrett, 1998). The association with simultaneous composition (planned act) and the performance of spontaneous actions without arrangement, sketching or rehearsal, inspired many authors, but this definition is quite restrictive because it does not deal with the conditions under which making music in this way can take place successfully. This is where the other orientation towards jazz improvisation can be of more significance. Jazz improvisation is regarded as something that is structured and that requires a lot of attention and study (Berliner, 1994, Edberg, 2008, Sabatella, 1992, Whitmer, 1953). Within this orientation several authors have described improvisation as a process with consistent steps and characteristics for achieving creativity within established rules (Dennis & Macaulay, 2007; Hill, 2005) or in more or less standardized forms (Barrett in Wright et al., 2012). Spontaneity is then embedded in the larger set of instruments, space and furnishing, in which the soloists base themselves on experiences, memories and aesthetic preferences (Cobussen in Boutellier, 2011). The spontaneity is therefore embedded in a bigger picture in which the core of improvisation shifts from spontaneity to alignment (2011). A detailed analysis of the literature that studies and analyses this last orientation on jazz improvisation (see Hartog, 2014) has led to five preconditional elements: knowledge, expertise and skills; group dynamics; rehearsal; leadership; composition and arrangement. Knowledge, expertise and skills focuses on the importance of technical skills of the professional translated into the accessible and applicable knowledge. Berliner (like Whitmer, 1953) explicitly attributes the main principle of easy and fluent improvisation to an extensive study of melodic, harmonic, rhythmic and structural aspects (Berliner, 1994). Jazz musicians start learning to improvise by listening and copying recordings or live performances of music from other players or even entire solos (Barrett, 1998; Pressing, 1994). Group dynamics entails the interaction and configuration of experts (Berliner, 1994), whereas rehearsal concentrates on the study of the instrument as well as the collaboration as a team (Barrett, 2012). Personal growth is realized by considering and practicing routines, solos and all possible sentences of a particular theme or arrangement. Rehearsing can be seen as the ultimate preparation for musicians in every possible context and situation (Bash, 1991, Newton, 2004). Musicians must know the arrangement, the chord structure, the melody and the style of a piece in advance. In addition, the musician has a plan on how he or she can build a meaningful and effective solo within those parameters (Bash, 1991). One of the most important reasons why leadership is needed is to put together a group with the right configuration of musical personalities and talents. According to Berliner (1994), the success of an artistic performance is determined by the precise musical vision of the leader, knowledge of performances and styles of potential players and the assessment of their interactive potential as jazz musicians. Jazz improvisation is mainly structured and is practiced on the basis of a predetermined design (Whitmer, 1953). Such a design, an arrangement, can be described as a written free form,

a temporary arrangement based on a compelling melody (Boutellier 2011). Despite the fact that a composition or arrangement occurs in a written form, the musical feeling and the possibilities to act freely in the prepared framework (rehearsals) are not excluded (Ferand, 1939). As the successful composer and bandleader Duke Ellington said: "You must have certain men in mind, you write for their abilities and natural inclinations and give them place where they do their best ... My band is my instrument" (Berliner, 1994). The control over what is being composed and what has to be left open is a core value (Kernfield, 1995). Performing a composition thousands of times in a career ensures that people look at the possibilities and discover new ways of doing things in more depth (Berliner, 1994). 3. Jazz improvisation and network control 3.1 Professional craftsmanship in networks Networks create new forms of power that create a shift in relationships and accountability relationships outside the state (Boutellier, 2008). This shift means a fundamental change, where responsibility is fragmented over a large number of actors with their own competences and power, connected in a network of relations (Theisens, 2012; 2015). Klijn & Koppenjan (2016) characterize the attempts of governments to solve complex problems with longterm processes of policy-making, implementation and public service that are difficult to manage. Governments, companies and society are often unable to solve these issues themselves due to a lack of resolution capability. According to Klijn & Koppenjan, governance networks arise because of the complexity of the issues, the dependencies and intensive interactions between the actors. As a consequence, traditional methods, policy-making and public service are no longer sufficient. This calls for a shift from more traditional top-down approaches to a more horizontal cooperative approach, such as the earlier mentioned shift from government to governance (Klijn & Koppenjan, 2016). Theisens also indicates that this shift from 'government to governance' refers to the administrative situation in which priorities, direction and accountability occur in complex networks (2012:5). Van der Steen et al. (2015) describes that governments increasingly manifest themselves in these networks as partners. The value of jazz improvisation cannot be attributed solely to creating an overview in complexity without direction (Boutellier, 2011). In a postmodernist organization, according to Hatch (1997), there is interaction between people and professionals (Goedee & Entken, 2013). It is this professional who from jazz improvisation can easily be described as someone who has mastered the relevant instrument at a high level of detail. This is in line with the definition of official craftsmanship as described by 'T Hart (2014). The craftsmanship is characterized by recognizing turbulences and complexity and responding quickly and clearly to this. Complexity can often be typified by having multiple dimensions. Examples are a well-defined structure that may be dynamic or static in a collaboration with several actors (Enserink et al., 2010), but also the cooperative capacity and the proactive capacity of the 21st-century government manager (Van der Wal in Karré et al., 2017, Van der Wal, 2017). Network management has tried to get a grip on this. According to 't Hart (2014), however, networks are more about what you can add and which competencies are important in this. It is important that there is room for personal development, focus on quality and investing in core competencies, so that substantive knowledge does not lose out on process knowledge in policy making (Council for Public Administration, 2015). In an administrative and policy setting, the development of policy is not with a party, but depends on the cooperation of many actors. Complexity is the characteristic factor here and human interaction replaces the top-down approach (see also Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004). Policy making therefore becomes a dynamic and interactive process in which there is no structural separation between policy-making and implementation (Tummers & Bekkers, 2012). 3.2 Network control and policy making From a policy perspective, two 'traditions' are distinguished in order to see better policy as a renewal strategy: the structure and the network approach (Snellen, Frissen and Van de Donk in Depla, 1995). The structural approach sees policy as an intellectual product on the basis of (almost) complete information. In the network approach, however, policy is seen as a result of an interactive process of actors involved in the policy process (Depla, 1995). The decisionmaking process surrounding public policy is a process in which actors try to bring different goals together in a situation where problems have to be solved (Howlett et al., 2009). In the network approach, as in a jazz formation, mutual dependencies and strategic interactions are regarded as two essential characteristics of the policy process

(Depla, 1995). In complex and fluid situations, improvisation is just as important as judgment, discretion and rules. Improvisation does not mean that practitioners can do what they want, if it seems to be right in the moment; far from that. Skills do not mean that you have to copy the best practices of others, but must respond to what is distinctive in productive, perceptive and technically responsible ways in accordance with those involved (Laws & Forester, 2015). Through extensive network formation, structure and unity gradually disappear as a basis for policy-making. A hierarchical, vertical, top-down approach to policy development is being replaced by an interactive, horizontal, bottom-up approach. Space is created for activities and initiatives in society (Klijn & Snellen, 2009). Implementation in non-linear policy developments are subject to actions and interactions (Pollitt, 2009, Boons et al, 2009). Management strategies associated with this are characterized by: § being flexible and being able to withstand countless interactions, actors and unexpected consequences and effects; § adaptability, innovative features of complex systems require adaptive strategies that can adapt to changing circumstances. The emphasis is on learning abilities of systems and managers (Edelenbos et al., 2009). Network control requires procedures to be replaced by continuous interaction and making professional assessments again and again (Van Twist and Van der Steen, 2012). In decision-making it is wrongly assumed that there is control over a complex system, but it is rather influenced by the other actors and systems. They have to make sure that routines and projects are simplified by uncertainty while complexity persists (Boons et al, 2009). In policy implementation, the following strategic characteristics are therefore always phased (Heijnsdijk, 2009): § Identification: impulse and diagnosis opportunities, problems. § Development: alternatives (convergent and diverging) and drawing up criteria. § Selection: evaluation (screening, evaluation) and choice (authorization execution). § Evaluation: execution and verification. This is directly in line with the lessons from jazz improvisation, in which the focus is on their own expertise in combination with creativity and coordination in rehearsals, which leads to arrangements for a specific performance. 4. Opportunities performance arrangements in Public Administration In jazz improvisation, the main basic components are expertise and individual technical skills of the instrument, learning and re-creating music from and with others, and knowledge of musical theory. Civil servants are highly educated and involved in various courses and other learning moments during their careers. Just like a jazz musician, a civil servant with already acquired knowledge and skills is fully prepared for every situation. In practice, many musicians still go back to the teaching materials that keep their expertise up to standard. This requires insight into the material that can serve as a stable basis for civil servants to keep their knowledge and expertise up to standard. Many study materials with case studies is subject to change over time. In addition, jazz musicians consume this material repetitively on a regular basis and thereby learn from how others present themselves during a performance (Barrett, 1998; Pressing, 1984). This suggests that civil servants practice certain situations and actions, which can occur frequently in a particular field of activity where a certain methodical approach is necessary, and thereby learn from others. This could mean practicing a certain solo or general exercises (eg. routines, chords, melody), taking into account all possible phasing of a theme, arrangement and ideas in group rehearsals. Allowing jam sessions is essential to explore the possibilities (Barrett, 2012) and to realize cooperation between the actors involved (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004). Group dynamics is the key to a stable and qualitative performance in a network with other professionals. Dynamics refer to the configuration of professional personalities and listening to each other (Berliner, 1994). Repeating with each other over and over again proves to be an effective way to tailor individual skills to the intentions and dynamics of the group. Giving an opportunity to everyone to perform solos also creates a connection in the group (Barrett, 2012). To challenge each other according to Barrett also stimulates the responsiveness and dynamism of the group. From a single case / implementation, for example, lessons can be drawn that will be evaluated in openness during a rehearsal. From this, something new can emerge (Kernfield, 1995).

In creating equilibrium in a group and its activities, in which an achievement is converged, leadership is considered necessary and important. Leadership is considered to be 'quasi-autonomous' from jazz improvisation, because in a highly professional environment space is given to the liberties and expressiveness of individuals. The success of the artistic performance, however, is determined by the precise musical vision, knowledge of performance and the recognition of styles of potential players by a leader (Berliner, 1994). The precise judgment of the initial selection of band members is directly related to the influence of the collective palette of sounds and thus influence on the performance. When configuring the right qualitative balance among group members, the possibilities for soloists, the framework of melody and harmony, as well as the responsibility for regulating interaction should be taken into account. One of the leadership tasks is therefore to ensure room for experimentation, stimulating provocation against the existing and ultimately fostering openness and 'surprise' (Barrett, 2012). Drucker (2014) compares the relationship between management and employees with that of a conductor of an orchestra and the instrumentalist. Civil servants must be able to assess the composition of actors and to appreciate / validate each input with regard to the established mutual objectives for a particular implementation / performance. This is a skill that is similar to that of program leaders and team leaders in government agencies. Each team member must also recognize this ability and understand the main reason for the group composition in order to optimally work towards a specific goal. By being critical of each individual performance and as a group, a qualitative reflection on the execution is achieved. The last condition implies that the structure for improvisation is thought up beforehand as a processed plan or predefined design. Composition, arrangements and the musical score are the key to capture the main framework of the performance and the possibilities for soloists. The success, the quality of a group and the performance depends on rehearsal, evaluation ('learning from mistakes', see Barrett, 2012) and formal agreements in the pursuit of mutual consent of the arrangement. Prior to the creation of arrangements, as we saw earlier, leadership quality is important to assess the skills of band members and the social structure. Given the amount of time that is invested in the collaboration process of a composition or reorganization by jazz musicians, officials could be challenged to think (carefully) whether a solution, initiative or project is fully supported by all team members. As a result, civil servants should translate internalized experience and practical experience into a plan or design that can be tested in a practical situation. Just as with jazz improvisation, these designs can change over time by gaining experience to continue the quality and possible success. Only the organization can provide the basic continuity that knowledge workers need to be effective and that can translate the specialized knowledge of the knowledge worker into 'performance' (Drucker, 2014). 4. Conclusion and discussion The fundamental shift in a 'fluid', flexible network requires a different set of skills and a new mechanism. Jazz improvisation describes the ability to adapt and the resilience to come up with high-quality performances in consultation and with great professionalism. Jazz improvisation provided insights into the need for continuous learning, substantive knowledge, the need for (group) rehearsal, routines, functionality of decisive leadership and the importance of high-quality relationships in groups. With an increasingly horizontal set-up of organizations in chains and networks, the chance is high on the changing stability of external environments. Also, in society, where an appeal to expertise and experience play an important role in acting, this risk exists. The speed in which connections arise within networks therefore require capacities to be able to go along with this and quickly achieve a qualitative performance with multiple actors. The responsiveness needed to steer a more connecting way of working and the dialogue that is in line with this fits in with the way in which jazz musicians in (group) rehearsals get used to interacting and organizing enough space in dialogue in an arrangement to achieve a good and qualitative performance. From a professional point of view, the viewpoint of civilian craftsmanship helps to achieve a cooperative attitude when it comes to shifts in relationships and accountability relationships in networks. The network approach is an instrument to arrive at policy and decision making through an interactive process. In this approach, as in jazz formations, mutual dependencies and interactions are regarded as essential characteristics of the policy process. To this end, it is about reaching agreement with the parties involved in productive, perceptive and technically sound ways. As a leader you can influence a group or actor composition, but the dialogue is then organized in (group) rehearsals and worked out in arrangements for a qualitative performance. This corresponds to

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