journal of psychological and educational research

Volume 21, Issue 1 May, 2013 J.P.E.R.

JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

University of Oradea Publishing House

The Journal of Psychological and Educational Research (JPER) continues Analele Universităţii din Oradea – Fascicula Psihologie / The Annals of University of Oradea, Psychology Installment (ISSN: 1583–2910), integrating educational issues into the body of psychological research. Editor Mihai Marian, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Psychology Department, Romania

Executive editor Simona Trip, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Psychology Department, Romania

Advisory board Daniel David, Ph.D. Babeş-Bolyai University, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Ellen Lavelle, Ph.D. University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, A.R., U.S.A.

James McMahon, Ph.D. Albert Ellis Institute of REBT, U.S.A. Zsuzsanna Szabo, Ph.D. Marist College, N.Y., U.S.A.

Editorial board Viorica Andriţchi, Ph.D. Institute of Educational Sciences, Republic of Moldova Elena Bonchiş, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Psychology Department, Romania Sarah M. Bonner, Ph.D. Hunter College, Department of Educational Foundations & Counseling Programs, U.S.A. Marius Cioară, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Psychology Department, Romania Letiţia Filimon, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Teacher Training Department, Romania Ioana Jurcău, Ph.D. Cluj-Napoca Urgency Clinical Children Hospital, Romania Ramona Jurcău, Ph.D. Cluj-Napoca University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania Ruxandra Răşcanu, Ph.D. University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Studies, Romania Jonathan Schwartz, Ph.D. University of Hawaii at West O'ahu, Division of Elementary Education, U.S.A Monica Secui, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Psychology Department, Romania

ISSN: 2247–1537

Alina Slapac, Ed.D. University of Missouri-St. Louis, Division of Teaching and Learning, U.S.A. Cristian Tileagă, Ph.D. Department of Social Sciences, Loughborough University, UK Iulia Timofti, Ph.D. "Vasile Alecsandri" University of Bacau, Romania Gheorghe Florin Trif, Ph.D. Technical University, Department of Teacher Tutoring, Romania

Journal’s website administrator Dan Pătroc, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Philosophy Department, Romania

Technical editor Marius Drugaş, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Psychology Department, Romania Gabriel Roşeanu, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Psychology Department, Romania

English consultant Lioara Coturbaş, Ph.D. University of Oradea, Department of Sociology and Social Work, Romania

Aims and scope of the Journal of Psychological and Educational Research The Journal of Psychological and Educational Research (JPER) (ISSN: 22471537 ISSN-L = 2247-1537) continues Analele Universităţii din Oradea – Fascicula Psihologie / The Annals of University of Oradea, Psychology Installment (ISSN: 1583-2910), integrating educational issues into the body of psychological research. The Journal of Psychological and Educational Research (JPER) is a biannual peer reviewed journal that publishes scientific articles corresponding to one of the following categories:  Studies that are based upon empirical data obtained from research designs and methodology that strictly follow the scientific principles (experimental, correlational, metaanalitical, case studies etc.) in order to identify recurring patterns of interactions between certain aspects of psychological and educational variables and explain the relationship between them;  Theoretical synthesis which emphasize the cumulative character and the current status of the scientific knowledge in a certain domain;  Thematic interviews with prestigious personalities which are active in the domain of psychology and education, and also comments regarding important scientific manifestations;  Reviews of books and articles that had a major impact at a paradigmatic level in the field of psychology and education. Publication frequency: Published biannually in May (Issue 1) and November (Issue 2). The acceptance rate of the articles sent for publication in the Journal of Psychological and Educational Research (JPER), volume 21 in 2013 is 29%. Some of the articles that have been rejected in the first phase will be published in later volumes provided that the authors will respect the indications and suggestions of the reviewers. An important criterion of selection is reporting the size of effect and/or the statistical power of the research.

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The Journal of Psychological and Educational Research (JPER) (http://www.socioumane.ro/index.php/periodice/399-journal-of-psychological-andeducational-research) is accredited by the CNCSIS (www.cncsis.ro) from 01.05.2006 and is a type B+ journal, code 648. Manuscript submission Manuscripts will be submitted in electronic format (as an attached document) via e-mail at the following address: [email protected] or in printed form in two copies at the following address: Mihai Marian, Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Socio-Umane, Departamentul Psihologie, st. Universităţii, no. 3, Campus 2, 410087 Oradea, Bihor, Romania; on the envelope please mention „for Journal of Psychological and Educational Research (JPER)”. Upon its arrival, the first author of the article will be notified via e-mail.

Address Universitatea din Oradea; Facultatea de Ştiinţe Socio–Umane, Catedra de Psihologie St. Universităţii, no. 3, Campus 2, Oradea, Bihor, cod 410087 Romania, U.E. Tel.: (040)0259432830 fax: (040)0259432789 http://www.socioumane.ro/index.php/periodice/399-journal-of-psychological-andeducational-research E-mail: [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________ Print in May 31, 2013

Journal of Psychological and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 1, May, 2013 CONTENTS _____________________ School psychological counselors’ perceptions about child abuse and negligence: A case study in Turkey Gündoğdu, R. & Yavuzer, Y.

7-27

Families’ perception on play in the early childhood setting Huisman, S., Catapano, S., Moody, A. K., & Gates, L. K.

28-48

Psychometric properties of the revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale on a sample of married adults Turliuc, M. N. & Muraru, A. A.

49-76

New psychometrical data on the efficiency of Satisfaction With Life Scale in Romania Marcu, R.

77-90

The evolution of a psychodrama training group from the perspective of the group process Enikő, A. L. & Barna, K.

91-104

Short psychotherapeutic eclectic intervention for ambivalence: 105-121 A case study Rotaru, T. Ş.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

[email protected] http://www.socioumane.ro/index.php/periodice/399-journal-of-psychological-andeducational-research

Journal of Psychological and Educational Research JPER - 2013, 21 (1), May, 7-27

_____________________________________________________________

SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELORS’ PERCEPTIONS ABOUT CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLIGENCE: A CASE STUDY IN TURKEY1 Rezzan Gündoğdu  University, Aksaray, Turkey

Yasemin Yavuzer  Nigde University, Nigde, Turkey

Abstract The purpose of this study is to evaluate opinions expressed by school psychological counselors that work in primary and secondary educational institutions about child abuse and neglect. 78 school psychological counselors among the ones that work three middle sized provinces located in Central Anatolia Region participated in this study. Data have been gathered via a questionnaire consisting of three sections and prepared by the researchers. The psychological counselors did not receive sufficient level of education in preventing child abuse. The most challenging issue is to communicate with the relevant agencies/legal process. Among the precautions that can be taken at a society level, they propose the training of parents. They think that their duties fall within the scope of preventive services. New elective courses can be added in Psychological Counseling and Guidance undergraduate program and effective in-service training programs can be prepared for the counselors in service with the participation of lecturers from the Psychological Counseling and Guidance departments of universities. Besides, school based preventive actions should be planned, implemented and evaluated. Keywords: child abuse, neglect, prevention, psychological counselor

1

This study was presented as an oral presentation at the “20.National Educational Sciences Congress” on 8-10 September 2011 in Turkey. Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to: 

Aksaray University, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and Counseling. Aksaray, Turkey. Corresponding author: Rezzan Gundogdu, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and Counseling, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey. E-mail: [email protected]  Nigde University, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and Counseling. Nigde, Turkey.

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Introduction Those who are responsible for satisfying the needs of the child and raise him/her are first of all the family in which he/she is born. Besides the family, relatives, neighbors, friends of the child present in his/her environment as well as his/her teachers with the start of the educational life are individuals who are together with the child as he/she grows up. Child abuse, which influences the growth and development of the child negatively, has been encountered in every culture throughout human history. While some children are abused by adults in terms of sex, some are made working in heavy duties at young ages, and some others do lose their lives since their essential needs such as food, shelter and education are not met (Bahcecik & Kavaklı, 1996; Bilir, Arı, Donmez, Atik, & San, 1991; Poole et al., 1991; Zeytinoglu & Kozcu, 1991). The World Health Organization defines child abuse as “the behaviors that are made by an adult advertently or inadvertently and influence the health as well as the physical and psycho-social development of the child negatively” (Kara, Bicer, & Gokalp, 2004). Child abuse is observed as physical, sexual, emotional, economic abuse and negligence. In the most general sense, physical abuse is described as the injury of the child other than due to accidents. It is the emergence of fractures, burns and cuts leading to physical harm. UNICEF defined emotional abuse as dispraising consistently the qualities, capacities and desires of the child, depriving the child from social relations and relations with sources, threatening the child continuously by giving socially heavy damages or abandoning the child by using superhuman forces, making demands that are not consistent with the age or power of the child and raising the child with methods that are incongruous with society. Sexual abuse is the use of a child who has not completed his/her psycho-social development, by an adult or an older child for sexual stimulation or satisfaction purposes. Child negligence is defined as not satisfying the requirements necessary for the health and physical or psychological development of the child (UNICEF, 2003). It is estimated that each year 1.6 million children are victims of physical, sexual or emotional abuse; that more than 1000 children die due to this reason (Yolga Tahiroğlu, Avcı, & Çekin, 2008). In a study conducted in the U.S.A. in 1993, it is indicated that approximately 1% of children are victims of abuse while 1.5% are neglected. One third are between six months and three years and one third are older than three years (Jain, 1999; Tercier, 1998). In a 8

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study conducted in Israel with 5742 primary school students, it had been determined that 22.2% of children had suffered from physical abuse while 29.1% had suffered from emotional abuse (Bebenishty, Zeira, Astor, & Khoury, 2002). Vandeven and Newberger (1994) pointed out that 4 children per week were dying in England due to child abuse and negligence and that one child under the age of 4 out of 1000 was dying by being subject to physical abuse. According to statistics in England, emotional abuse had been determined as 18% (Cetin, 2008). Since the 1980’s, many studies have been conducted about child abuse in Turkey. In most of these studies, the ratio concerning the physical abuse of children had been founded high (Aral, 1997; Ayan & Kocacık, 2009; Bilir, Arı, Donmez, Atik, & San, 1991; Oral, Yavuz, & Can, 1997). The fact that these ratios are high derives from the behaviors that parents display in disciplining the child. In her study, Akduman (2010) determined that the most frequently used methods by mothers with the aim of disciplining their children were being angry with the child, shouting at the child, reprimanding and threatening the child while some mothers were using the methods of cursing, insulting or humiliating the child, giving tasks more than the child could afford and giving physical punishment. On the other hand, in a research where social experts as well as experts working in the field of health and education studied which situations and behaviors were evaluated as child abuse by children, emotional abuse was found to have the highest ratio with 78.33% (Zeytinoglu & Kozcu, 1991). Also in cases which apply to health institutions, sexual abuse takes the first rank (Ballı, 2010; Cengel-Kültür, Cuhadaroglu-Cetin, & Gokler, 2007). Erdogan et al. (2011) have determined that in child sexual abuse all the abusers were men, that most of them were family members, relatives or acquaintance of the victim child or adolescent, that their education levels were low, that the ratio of those who were single and had a history of substance and/or alcohol use was high and that girls were more subject to abuse. In recent years, the fact that deaths of children victims of abuse became a current issue in the media increased the sensitivity about this phenomenon. Abuse has negative effects on the physical and psychological health of the child. Especially abuse cases happening within the family are more harming. The reason of this is that the misuse of power and authority as well as the abuse are long lasting. In the long run, abuse causes important psychiatric disturbance, psycho-sexual disturbance and disturbance in interpersonal 9

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relations (Ozturk-Kılıc, 1993, p. 455). Regardless of the fact that it is encountered very frequently and that it is an important social problem, the lack of proofs, wrong information, secrecy, cultural and traditional values may lead to the ignorance of abuse. According to the report of the First Special Education Council (1991) organized by the Ministry of National Education (MNE), the prevention and intervention regarding child abuse are examined at three levels: (1) The primary prevention is to provide an environment where all children could pursue their developments in a healthy manner, (2) The secondary prevention is to determine the high risk groups, (3) The tertiary prevention is to prevent the repetition of the abuse and to intervene to abused children and their families (as cited in Yenibas & Sirin, 2007). Especially in the context of the primary level prevention works, school-based prevention works are organized in schools and are oriented to students, parents and the school personnel with whom the child is in interaction in the school environment (Çeçen, 2007). Furthermore, the steps to be taken by the school in abuse events are classified in three groups as “definition”, “evaluation” and “orientation” (Yalın, Temuroglu, Erden et al., 2002, p. 18). In this context, psychological counselors working on children and adolescents and holding office in schools have important tasks. Especially the school psychological counselors have a legal (Turkish Penal Code Articles 103, 104, 278, 279, 280) as well as an ethical obligation to report the physical, sexual and emotional abuse and negligence cases oriented to students in their schools and to notify the related institutions (Muro & Kottman, 1995, p. 381; as cited in Tasdan & Yalcın, 2007). In the scope of school-based prevention works, school psychological counselors are the personnel who can be effective especially in providing an environment where children could pursue their development in a healthy manner and in determining families and children who constitute the risk group. Besides, they have important tasks in enabling that children under risk and their families do benefit effectively from existing services by conducting prevention works such as home visits, education of parents, anger control, sexual education, education concerning substance-use as well as in orienting abusing families and their children to the related institutions with the aim of healing the consequences of the abuse. However, when the undergraduate programs of psychological counselors are examined, it is observed that they do not receive any special education about this topic.

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Objective The objective of this study is to evaluate the opinions of psychological counselors who work in primary and secondary education institutions as well as in counseling and research centers on child abuse and negligence. In line with this objective, the answers of the following questions have been searched: 1. How do school psychological counselors define the concepts of child abuse and negligence? 2. Did they receive education on services aimed at preventing child abuse and negligence during their Psychological Counseling and Guidance (PCG) undergraduate studies and service? Do they find the education they received enough? 3. Have they encountered any child abuse and negligence event during their service? a) If they have, have they made any notification? If they have not, what are the reasons? b) If they have, in which subjects have they encountered challenges? 4. What is the type of abuse they observe the most frequently in society? 5. What are their opinions regarding the prevention of child abuse and negligence? a) About measures on society level b) About the tasks of the school psychological counselor. Method The research has been conducted on a descriptive model and is a qualitative research. Participants 78 psychological counselors working in three medium-sized cities situated in the Central Anatolian Region and selected with the easy-accessible sampling method participated in the research. 24 of the counselors (31%) are working in primary education, 46 (59%) in high schools and 8 (10%) in Counseling and Research Centers (CRC). 32 of them (41%) are women while 46 (59%) are men.16 of them (20.5%) have a professional seniority of 2-5 11

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years while this value is 6-15 years for 51 (65.4%) of them and 16 years and more for 11(14.1%) of them; they are all graduated from PCG undergraduate programs; 59 of them (75.6%) are married and 19 (24.4%) are single. The average age of counselors is 33.47. Instrument Data belonging to this study which aims to evaluate the opinions of school psychological counselors about child abuse and negligence have been collected through a questionnaire prepared by researchers and consisting of three sections. The questionnaire consists of (1) Personal information sheet, (2) A classification scale of 9 items regarding child abuse and negligence, (3) 4 open-ended questions where psychological counselors can indicate their opinions on how they define child abuse and negligence, the measures that might be taken and their own roles. Open ended questions are established as follows: 1. In your opinion, what does child abuse mean? 2. In your opinion, what does child negligence mean? 3. In your opinion, what are the measures that might be taken at society level in order to prevent child abuse and negligence? 4. In your opinion, what are the tasks of the school psychological counselor in preventing child abuse and negligence? Procedure This study has been conducted during the spring term of the school year 2010-2011. The questionnaires have been conducted individually by researchers on counselors at the service of psychological counseling and guidance in the schools where they work. The process has lasted 10-15 minutes. Data analysis The answers given to the 9 articles taking place in the questionnaire have been analyzed by taking the frequencies and percentages while the answers given to the open-ended questions have been analyzed with the content analysis. In the content analysis, the main objective is to reach the concepts and relations which can explain the collected data. The basic process is to bring together similar data in the framework of certain concepts and themes and to 12

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organize and interpret them in an understandable manner (Yıldırım & Simsek, 2006, p. 227). Answers given to open-ended questions have been examined by two researchers independently from each other and data have been coded according to the code list prepared previously by scanning the literature and examining the answers. The themes and the concepts which might take place under the themes have been determined. The researchers have determined the frequency of the related concepts and have brought the results together. In order to test the reliability between coders, the formula Reliability = Number of Compromise / (Number of Compromise + Non-Compromise) has been used (Miles & Huberman, as cited in Tavsancıl & Aslan 2001) and the result has been calculated as .91. A certain part of the answers given by psychological counselors to the questions of the questionnaire have been presented through statements (Table 8). In direct statements, information concerning psychological counselors has only been given with the participant number. Results The results are presented in the order of sub-problems. Results concerning how school psychological counselors define child abuse and negligence The frequencies and percentages of concepts used by psychological counselors in the answers they gave to the questions “According to you, what does child abuse mean?” and “According to you, what does child negligence mean?” are shown in Table 1 and 2. Table 1. Frequency and percentage values of concepts used by psychological counselors as they define child abuse Definition of the abuse f % Pattern of behavior Harming 16 Exploiting 12 Affecting the development negatively 7 Outraging 3 Acting authoritatively 2

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R. Gündoğdu and Y. Yavuzer / JPER, 2013, 21(1), May, 7-27 ___________________________________________________________________ Table 1. Frequency and percentage values of concepts used by psychological counselors as they define child abuse - continued Definition of the abuse f % Taking advantage from 2 Not meeting the requirements 2 Acting insensitively 1 Advertently or inadvertently 1 Total 46 24 Type Physical 58 Emotional 29 Sexual 28 Psychological 18 Social 2 Economic 2 Total 137 73 Abuser By adult 4 By relative 1 Total 5 3 General Total 188 100

As seen in Table 1, the concepts used by psychological counselors in the definitions of child abuse are gathered in three sections. These are coded as the pattern behavior, type and abuser. The psychological counselors have mostly defined child abuse by using the concepts related to the types of abuse (f=137, 73%). The most used concept in this section has been the concept “physical” (f=58). As to concepts concerning the pattern of behavior (f=46, 24%), the most frequently used concept is “harming” (f=16). Also, the expression “by adult” has been used 4 times. When questionnaires are examined, it is observed that child abuse has been defined 28 times as “harming/exploiting the child physically, emotionally and sexually”. Based on the results, it is possible to affirm that psychological counselors define child abuse as “harming the child physically”. Some examples of the statements used by psychological counselors are given in Table 8.

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R. Gündoğdu and Y. Yavuzer / JPER, 2013, 21(1), May, 7-27 ___________________________________________________________________ Table 2. Frequency and percentage values of concepts used by psychological counselors as they define child negligence Definition of the negligence As pattern of behavior Not meeting his/her basic requirements Not showing love and interest Not providing his/her maintenance Keeping him/her under pressure Not providing his/her security Preventing his/her development Not fulfilling the responsibilities of parents Inadvertent behaviors Total

f

%

39 19 4 3 3 2 1 1 73

55 26 6 4 4 3 1 1 100

According to Table 2, it is possible to affirm that school psychological counselors define child negligence as “not meeting the basic requirements of the child” (f=39, 55%). Results concerning the education aimed at preventing child abuse received by school psychological counselors during their PCG undergraduate studies and their service Findings concerning whether psychological counselors received an education aimed at preventing child abuse during their undergraduate studies and their service as well as their opinions as to whether this education is enough or not, if they have received any, are presented in Table 3. Table 3. The opinions of psychological counselors as to the education they received about the prevention of child abuse and negligence Those Who Received Education Those Who Did Total Not Receive Sufficient Insufficient Total Education f % f % f % f % f % Undergraduate In-service

7 19

23 42

23 26

77 58

30 45

38 58

48 33

62 42

78 78

100 100

When Table 3 is examined, it is observed that 38% of psychological counselors indicated that they have received education aimed at preventing child abuse and negligence during their undergraduate studies while this ratio is 58% for in-service trainings. As 23% of those having received education during 15

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their undergraduate studies find the education sufficient, 77% find it insufficient. While 42% of those having received education during their inservice trainings find the education sufficient, 58% indicate that the education is insufficient. Results concerning whether school psychological counselors faced any child abuse and negligence event during their service The opinions of psychological counselors as to whether they faced any child abuse and negligence event during their service are given in Table 4. Table 4. The opinions of psychological counselors as to whether they faced any child abuse and negligence event during their service Did he/she face? Institution where he/she Yes No Total works f % f % f % Primary Education 9 12 15 19 24 31 Secondary Education 22 29 24 30 46 59 CRC 8 10 0 0 8 10 Total 39 51 39 49 78 100 Encountered challenge f % History-Anamnesis 2 5 Record keeping 7 17 Getting into contact with the related institutions/the legal process 31 78 Total 40 100 Do you make any notification when you face an event or doubt of f % child abuse? Yes 76 97 No 2 3 Total 78 100

According to Table 3.4, 12% out of 39 (51%) psychological counselors indicating to have faced a child abuse event during their service are working in primary education, 29% in secondary education and 10% in CRCs. The biggest challenge encountered by psychological counselors who faced the event of child abuse is to get into contact with the related institutions/the legal process (f=31, 78%). The question “Do you make any notification when you face an event or doubt of child abuse?” has been asked to all the psychological counselors. 76 (97%) psychological counselors answered “yes” while 2 (3%) psychological 16

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counselors indicated that they do not make any notification based on the pretext that the child “would be harmed”. Results concerning what are the most frequently encountered type of abuse according to psychological counselors Findings related to the most frequently encountered type of abuse according to psychological counselors are presented in Table 5. Table 5. The most frequently encountered type of abuse according to psychological counselors The most frequently encountered type of abuse f % Physical abuse 26 33 Emotional abuse 20 26 Sexual abuse 7 9 Negligence 25 32 Total 78 100

According to Table 5, psychological counselors evaluate physical abuse (f=26, 33%) and negligence (f=25, 32%) as the most frequently encountered types of abuse. The less encountered type of abuse has been chosen as sexual abuse by 7 (9%) psychological counselors. Results concerning the opinions of school psychological counselors on the prevention of child abuse and negligence The opinions of school psychological counselors in what concerns the measures that might be taken on society level for preventing child abuse and negligence are given in Table 6. Table 6. The opinions of school psychological counselors in what concerns the measures that might be taken on society level on the prevention of child abuse and negligence f % About laws and practices Making legal arrangements 14 Giving heavy penalties to abusers 13 Providing life safety for those making notification 5 Providing cooperation among institutions (SSCPA-Security- 4 Health Directorate- School) Security units working more efficiently 2 An expert accompanying the child during the legal process 2

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R. Gündoğdu and Y. Yavuzer / JPER, 2013, 21(1), May, 7-27 ___________________________________________________________________ Table 6. The opinions of school psychological counselors in what concerns the measures that might be taken on society level on the prevention of child abuse and negligence - continued f % Forming a unit in local administrations 1 Total 41 26 About Children Giving education on abuse 12 Raising their awareness on their rights 6 Monitoring children under risk 4 Skilling them to say no 3 Developing self-trust and self-esteem 2 Giving sexual education 2 Skilling them in problem-solving 1 Total 30 19 About families Giving education to mothers-fathers 38 Strengthening them socio-economically 11 Family planning 4 Total 53 34 About SSCPA Accelerating the process of taking children under protection 8 Educating the personnel of the Agency 4 Tasking expert personnel in institutions 2 Inspecting institutions 1 Total 15 10 In general Educating all the segments of society 11 Media sensitivity 6 Making radical changes in the education system 1 Total 18 11 General total 157 100

As seen in Table 6, the opinions of school psychological counselors regarding the measures that might be taken at society level for preventing child abuse and negligence are classified in 5 titles: About laws and practices, about children, about families, about the Social Services and Child Protection Agency (SSCPA) and in general. Psychological counselors have mostly pointed out the measures that might be taken about families (f=53, 34%). The most mentioned measure concerning families is “Giving education to mothers-fathers” (f=38). This is followed respectively by measures that might be taken about laws and practices (f=41, 26%), about children (f=30, 19%) and about the SSCPA (f=15, 18

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10%). Furthermore, educating all segments of society (f=11) and providing media sensitivity (f=6) have been indicated as general measures that might be taken. The opinions of school psychological counselors on the role of the psychological counselor in preventing child abuse and negligence are given in Table 7. Table 7. The opinions of psychological counselors on their tasks aimed at preventing child abuse and negligence f % Preventive services Education of mothers-fathers 43 Education of teachers 31 Monitoring children under risk 17 Education of students 13 Self-development of the psychological counselor on the 7 subject Seminars about substance use 2 Home visits 1 Increasing social activities 1 Total 115 68 Intervention services Cooperation with related institutions (Security- SSCPA- 19 Health Directorate) Psycho-social support 13 Establishing a secure environment for the child 9 Referring 7 Having clear job definitions for the psychological 3 counselor on this issue Establishing a Supreme Board 1 Total 52 30 Secrecy Name of the psychological counselor 2 Name of the child 2 Total 4 2 General Total 171 100

As seen in Table 7, the opinions of school psychological counselors on their task regarding the prevention of child abuse and negligence are classified in three titles: Preventive services, intervention services and secrecy. 19

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Psychological counselors think that most of their tasks consist of preventive services (f=115, 68%). These tasks are centered on the education of parents (f=43) and the education of teachers (f=31). These are followed up respectively by the monitoring of children under risk (f=17) and the education of students (f=13). In this study, psychological counselors have been asked their tasks regarding the prevention of child abuse and negligence. However, the answers given by psychological counselors do not only include the tasks aimed at preventing abuse, but also their intervention tasks (f=52, 30%). Psychological counselors also indicated that in the scope of intervention services, they had tasks concerning cooperation with other institutions (Security, SSCPA, Health Directorate) (f=19) and psycho-social support (f=13). Table 8. Examples of Psychological Counselors’ Statements Definition of child abuse Measures that might be taken at society level in order to prevent child abuse and negligence

Tasks of the psychological counselor aimed at preventing child abuse and negligence

“The fact that the child faces a situation under coercion that would harm him/her in the emotional, physical senses.” (49) “All the physical conducts and behaviors applied to the child” (52) “The strict implementation of laws by the State (against parents or other individuals making the abuse), giving heavier penalties, rapidly taking the child under protection by the State” (10) “Family education shall be given, legal arrangements shall be made, works shall be carried out for social awareness raising, children shall be educated by considering the characteristics of their age, teachers shall be educated during their undergraduate study and their service” (32) “Raising the awareness of children, teachers, and other school personnel and making them more sensitive on this subject. Reminding that as enjoy their lives to the full, they shall also live it by feeling. In such cases, the name of the guidance counselor shall be used under no circumstances when abuse, negligence happens. We get in a difficult situation (in notification)” (71). “They might give information seminars devoted to families and describe the development periods of children and the characteristics of these periods and provide that the institutions and organizations around draw attention to the subject. They might give information on the subject by frequently organizing parents meetings at school, make full works such as organizing home visits to the determined families” (4)

Discussion The objective of this study is to evaluate the opinions of psychological counselors who work in primary and secondary education institutions as well as in counseling and research centers in what concerns child abuse and negligence. Inevitably, the bad traces of abuse facts or events are reflected at 20

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school. Yalın et al. (2002: 18) classify the steps to be taken by schools in abuse events in three groups as “definition”, “evaluation” and “orientation”. More importantly, schools are also tasked with providing an environment where all children could pursue their developments in a healthy manner. Psychological counselors play an important role in the prevention of child abuse and negligence at school. On the other hand, the adequate offering of preventive services by psychological counselors is closely related with the information and skills they possess on the topic. The first question asked to psychological counselors in the context of the research is how to define child abuse and negligence. According to the results of the research, the most common definition of child abuse used by psychological counselors is to “give physical harm to the child”. In fact, the World Health Organization accepts “the behaviors of an adult which are made advertently or inadvertently and influence the health as well as the physical and psycho-social development of the child negatively” as child abuse (Kara et al., 2004). Child abuse has been defined only 28 times as “harming/exploiting the child physically, emotionally and sexually” by psychological counselors. On the other hand, the school psychological counselors defined child negligence as “not meeting the basic requirements of the child”. The definition in the literature and the definition made by psychological counselors are in parallel. Most psychological counselors indicated that they had received education on the services aimed at preventing child abuse and negligence not during their undergraduate studies, but during their in-service trainings and that this training was not enough. Yolcu (2008-2009) indicates that restricting the approach concerning abuse events experienced in the school environment to only the intervention dimension of the psychological counselor is wrong, but that the intervention and psychological support process to be pursued by the psychological counselor in order to provide that the child comes through such a situation with minimum disturbance is more decisive. It is not possible to expect that psychological counselors who did not receive enough education about this issue know exactly what and how they would do in the context of preventive services as well as intervention services. From this point of view, we think that psychological counselors shall receive a serious education about this topic in order to accomplish their tasks more realistically and efficiently. Psychological counselors stated that they came across child abuse events during their service and that their biggest problem was about getting into 21

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contact with the related institutions/the legal process. In the study conducted with school psychological counselors, Ata (2007) points out that when counselors determined an abuse and negligence applied to the student, they only could inform the necessary institutions, talk to the person who realized the related behavior and inform the families. However, it is underlined that psychological counselors mostly came across the threats and constraints of the school administration and that for that reason the authorities of counselors tasked in guidance services had to be increased (Ata, 2007). On the other hand, in the study she has conducted Erginer (2007) draws the attention to the importance of inter institutional cooperation. In certain studies, it has been seen that as teachers came across abuse events, they were not making the necessary relief works for children and that they did not report the abuse case since they were concerned that the child would be more harmed (Tugay, 2008). In this study, most psychological counselors gave the answer “yes” to the question “Do you make any notification when you came across an event or doubt of child abuse?” On the other hand, two psychological counselors indicated that they would make no notification with the pretext that the child “would get harmed”, which shows the presence of psychological counselors who do not know that making notification, is compulsory in child abuse and negligence. In fact, a standard notification process, functioning and schema on cooperation with related institutions do not exist in the regulation concerning Guidance and Psychological Counseling Services. Thus, psychological counselors do not know their legal boundaries and cannot perceive the institutions they have to work with. School psychological counselors have to be informed about the interventions they have to make as they face negligence and abuse cases, the institutions they might cooperate with and the legal provisions. Psychological counselors think that the most commonly encountered type of abuse is physical abuse. Study results do support this opinion of psychological counselors (Aral, 1997; Ayan & Kocacık, 2009; Bilir et al., 1991; Oral et al., 2001). As to the measures that could be taken at society level, the one that was the most commonly expressed by psychological counselors has been “Giving education to mothers-fathers”. Most researchers share similar opinions (Adalı, 2007; Akduman, 2010; Donmez, 2009; Ozturk, 2009; Unal, 2008; Yıldız, 2007; Yolcuoglu, 2010). Also Celik (2007, p. 135) indicated that abuse events should be evaluated as a “crisis” and that a detailed “Crisis

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Response Plan” showing what would be done by whom in such cases should be prepared. In this study, psychological counselors have been asked the tasks of the psychological counselor in preventing child abuse and negligence. However, the answers given by psychological counselors did not only include the tasks aimed at preventing the abuse, but also those concerning the intervention to the abused child. In this framework, they considered cooperating with the related institutions and providing psycho-social support among their tasks. Many researchers share the same opinions (Cecen, 2007; Yolcu, 2008, 2009). Psychological counselors center on the opinion that they have tasks in the education of mothers-fathers and the education of teachers in the scope of preventive services. These are followed respectively by monitoring children under risk and educating students. Conclusion Results obtained from the research show that the education (undergraduate and in-service) received by school psychological counselors for being able to prevent child abuse and negligence and intervene is not enough. No course about this subject exists among the compulsory lessons of PCG undergraduate programs. However, courses related to the subject exist under different names in the PCG undergraduate programs of some universities as elective course. New elective courses might be added to programs by considering the problems encountered by psychological counselors during their service and their requirements. Furthermore, psychological counselors require efficient in-service training programs. In-service training programs shall include subjects such as the clues related to the existence of abuse, the legal responsibilities, taking history, approaching the abused child, social support, orientating to an adequate health institution when deemed necessary and more practice examples shall take place in these programs. We think that instructors tasked in the departments of guidance and psychological counseling of universities have important responsibilities in the preparation and implementation of the related training programs. As they come across a child abuse event, the biggest challenge of psychological counselors is to contact the related institutions/the legal process. In such situations, the legal process should be accelerated and the sensitivity 23

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and cooperation of all the related institutions should be provided. Furthermore, we think that in addition to detective measures, laws or the therapy of abused children; the planning and evaluation of school-based prevention works aimed at providing the self-security of children before they be subject to abuse are required in the prevention of child abuse. A structuring in the abuse and negligence events is required at school. Abuse events might be evaluated as a “crisis” and a detailed “Crisis Response Plan” might be prepared. During the implementation process of this plan, it might be adequate to act with the necessary importance and speed under the presidency of the school director and the coordination of the school psychological counselors. Furthermore, it is possible to clearly indicate in the plan the persons from whom help can be taken and how, according to the type of the events. References Adalı, N. (2007). Information study for parents and children on 10-12 age group child abuse. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara. Akduman, G. G. (2010). Evaluation of the discipline methods applied by mothers having a pre-school child in terms of child abuse. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 27, 38-49. Aral, N. (1997). Physical abuse and the child. Tek Işık Veb Offset. Ata, F. (2007). Abuse and negligence of students by teachers and managers according to the opinions of the primary schools guidance counselors of the province of Ankara. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara. Ayan, S., & Kocacık, F. (2009). Child abuse: Sivas (Turkey) example. International Human Sciences Journal, 6(1), 953-968. Bahcecik, N., & Kavaklı, A. (1996). Reasons preparing child abuse and negligence. Nursery Bulletin, 7(28), 33-38. Ballı, Ö. (2010). Evaluation of child abuse and negligence cases having applied to Çukurova University Faculty of Medicine. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Institute of Health Sciences, Cukurova University, Adana.

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Bebenishty, R., Zeira, A., Astor, R. A., & Khoury, K. M. (2002). Maltreatment of primary school students by educational staff in Israel. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26(12), 1291-1309. Bilir, S., Arı, M., Donmez, N., Atik, B., & San, P. (1991). Examination of the frequencies of physical punishments given to 50.473 children aged between 4-12 in 16 provinces of turkey and the related problem situations. Family and Society Journal, 1(1), 53-66. Cecen, A. R. (2007). Child sexual abuse: Its frequency, consequences and school-based prevention methods. International Human Sciences Journal, 4(1), 1-17. Celik, K. (2007). Emergency Management in Schools. Ankara: Anı Publishing. Cengel-Kultur, E., Cuhadaroglu-Cetin, F., & Gokler, B. (2007). Demographic and clinical features of child abuse and neglect cases. The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics, 49, 256-262. Cetin, F. (2008). Basic book of child and adolescent psychiatry. First Edition. Ankara: Doctors Broadcasting Union. Donmez, E. (2009). Opinions of Pre-School Teachers and Parents on Child Abuse and Negligence. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Institute of Social Sciences, Selcuk University, Konya. Erdogan, A., Tufan, E., Karaman, M. G. et al. (2011). Characteristic features of persons making sexual abuse to children and adolescents in four different regions of Turkey. Anatolian Psychiatry Journal, 12, 55-61. Erginer, F. (2007). Opinions of primary school managers of the province of Ankara on the abuse and negligence of students by their families. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara. Jain, A. M. (1999). Emergency department evaluation of child abuse. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America, 17(3), 575-593. Kara, B., Bicer, U., & Gokalp, A. S. (2004). Child abuse. Child Health and Diseases Journal, 47, 140-151. Oral, R., Yavuz, S., & Can, D. (1997). Child abuse frequency in a child psychiatry polyclinic. Çukurova University Journal of the Faculty of Medicine, 22(2), 137-144. Ozturk, A. B. (2009). Child abuse and working with family. Society and Social Service, 20(2), 89-98.

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Yolcu, H. (2008-2009). Approach to the abused child in the education environment: roe of the guidance counselor. Journal of Education Sciences Society, 7(25), 62-92. Yolcuoglu, İ. G. (2010). Risk factors concerning families and children in the abuse-negligence of children and social service intervention. Society and Social Service, 21(1), 73-83. Yolga-Tahiroglu, A., Avcı, A., & Cekin, N. (2008). Child abuse, mental health and obligation of judicial notification. Anatolian Psychiatry Journal, 9, 17. Zeytinoglu, S., & Kozcu, S. (1991). A research on physical child abuse. B. Dikecligil and A. Cigdem (Ed.), Family Articles 3, Individual Personality and Society (2nd Edition, Science Serial, 5(3), 391-398. Ankara: T.C. Prime Ministry Institution of Family Research.

Received April 19, 2013 Revision received April 24, 2013 Accepted May 09, 2013 27

NOTES FOR AUTHORS

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